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MANUFACTURING PROCESS-3 10ME55

UNIT 4: CHAPTER-1 HIGH ENERGY RATE FORMING

CHAPTER-2 POWDER METALLURGY

Introduction:
The forming processes are affected by the rates of strain used.
Effects of strain rates during forming:
 The flow stress increases with strain rates
 The temperature of work is increases due to adiabatic heating.
 Improved lubrication if lubricating film is maintained.
 Many difficult to form materials like Titanium and Tungsten alloys, can be
deformed under high strain rates.

Principle / important features of HERF processes:

 The energy of deformation is delivered at a much higher rate than in
conventional practice.
 Larger energy is applied for a very short interval of time.
 High particle velocities are produced in contrast with conventional forming
process.
 The velocity of deformation is also very large and hence these are also
called High Velocity Forming (HVF) processes.
 Many metals tend to deform more readily under extra fast application of force.
 Large parts can be easily formed by this technique.
 For many metals, the elongation to fracture increases with strain rate beyond
the usual metal working range, until a critical strain rate is achieved, where
the ductility drops sharply.
 The strain rate dependence of strength increases with increasing temperature.

 The yield stress and flow stress at lower plastic strains are more dependent
on strain rate than the tensile strength.

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 High rates of strain cause the yield point to appear in tests on low carbon steel
that do not show a yield point under ordinary rates of strain.
 Advantages of HERF Processes
i) Production rates are higher, as parts are made at a rapid rate.
ii) Die costs are relatively lower.
iii) Tolerances can be easily maintained.
iv) Versatility of the process – it is possible to form most metals including
difficult to form metals.
v) No or minimum spring back effect on the material after the process.
vi) Production cost is low as power hammer (or press) is eliminated in the process.
Hence it is economically justifiable.
vii) Complex shapes / profiles can be made much easily, as compared to
conventional forming.
viii) The required final shape/ dimensions are obtained in one stroke
(or step), thus eliminating intermediate forming steps and pre
forming dies.
ix) Suitable for a range of production volume such as small numbers, batches
or mass production.
Limitations:
i) Highly skilled personnel are required from design to execution.
ii) Transient stresses of high magnitude are applied on the work.
iii) Not suitable to highly brittle materials
iv) Source of energy (chemical explosive or electrical) must be handled carefully.
v) Governmental regulations/ procedures / safety norms must be followed.
vi) Dies need to be much bigger to withstand high energy rates and shocks and to
prevent cracking.
vii) Controlling the application of energy is critical as it may crack the die or work.
viii) It is very essential to know the behavior or established performance of
the work metal initially.

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Applications:
i) In ship building – to form large plates / parts (up to 25 mm thick).
ii) Bending thick tubes/ pipes (up to 25 mm thick).
iii) Crimping of metal strips.
iv) Radar dishes
v) Elliptical domes used in space applications.
vi) Cladding of two large plates of dissimilar metals.

Explosive Forming
Introduction:
A punch in conventional forming is replaced by an explosive charge.
Explosives used can be:
 High energy chemicals like TNT, RDX, and Dynamite.
 Gaseous mixtures
 Propellants.
Factors to be considered while selecting an HERF process:
• Size of work piece
• Geometry of deformation
• Behavior of work material under high strain rates
• Energy requirements/ source
• Cost of tooling / die
• Cycle time
• Overall capital investment
• Safety considerations.

Types of explosive forming:

1) Unconfined type or Stand off technique
2) Confined type or Contact technique
3) Unconfined type (or Stand off technique)

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Principle: The work is firmly supported on the die and the die cavity is evacuated. A
definite quantity of explosive is placed suitably in water medium at a definite stand off
distance from the work. On detonation of the explosive charge, a pressure pulse (or a
shock wave) of very high intensity is produced.

Fig. Unconfined Type Explosive Forming

A gas bubble is also produced which expands spherically and then collapses. When the
pressure pulse impinges against the work (plate or sheet0, the metal is deformed into the
die with a high velocity of around 120 m/s (430km/h).
The vacuum is necessary in the die to prevent adiabatic heating of the work which may
lead to oxidation or melting.

Role of water:
 Acts as energy transfer medium
 Ensures uniform transmission of energy
 Muffles the sound of explosion
 Cushioning/ smooth application of energy on the work without direct contact.

Process Variables
 Type and amount of explosive: wide range of explosive sis available.
 Standoff distance – SOD- (Distance between work piece and explosive):
Optimum SOD must be maintained.

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 The medium used to transmit energy: water is most widely used.

 Work size: Work material properties, Vacuum in the die

Advantages;
 Shock wave is efficiently transmitted through water and energy is transmitted
effectively on the work
 Less noise
 Less probability of damage to work.
 Large and thick parts can be easily formed
 Economical, when compared to a hydraulic press

Limitations:
 Optimum SOD is essential for proper forming operation.
 Vacuum is essential and hence it adds to the cost.
 Dies must be larger and thicker to withstand shocks.
 Not suitable for small and thin works.
 Explosives must be carefully handled according to the regulations of the
government.

Applications:
• Ship building,
• Radar dish,
• Elliptical domes in space applications

2) Confined System (or Contact Technique)

Principle:The pressure pulse or shock wave produced is in direct contact with the work
piece (usually tubular) and hence the energy is directly applied on the work without any
water medium. The tube collapses into the die cavity and is formed. It is used for

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bulging and flaring operations.

Fig. Confined (Contact) type Explosive Forming

Advantages:
 Entire shock wave front is utilized as there is no loss in water.
 More efficient as compared to unconfined type.
Disadvantages:
 More hazard of die failure
 Vacuum is required in the die
 Air present in the work piece (tube) is compressed leading to heating.
 Not suitable for large and thick plates.
Applications; Bulging and flaring of tubes.

(II) Electro hydraulic Forming

Fig. Electro Hydraulic Forming

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Principle: A sudden electrical discharge in the form of sparks is produced between

electrodes and this discharge produces a shock wave in the water medium. This shock
wave deforms the work plate and collapses it into the die. The characteristics of this
process are similar to those of explosive forming. The major difference, however, is that
a chemical explosive is replaced by a capacitor bank, which stores the electrical energy.
The capacitor is charged through a charging circuit. When the switch is closed, a
spark is produced between electrodes and a shock wave or pressure pulse is created. The
energy released is much lesser than that released in explosive forming.
Process Characteristics:
i) Stand off distance: It must be optimum.
ii) Capacitor used: The energy of the pressure pulse depends on the size of
capacitor.
iii) Transfer medium: Usually water is used.
iv) Vacuum: the die cavity must be evacuated to prevent adiabatic heating of the
work due to a sudden compression of air.
v) Material properties with regard to the application of high rates of strain.
Advantages:
i) Better control of the pressure pulse as source of energy is electrical- which can
be easily controlled.
ii) Safer in handling than the explosive materials.
iii) More suitable if the work size is small to medium.
iv) Thin plates can be formed with smaller amounts of energy.
v) The process does not depend on the electrical properties of the work material.
Limitations:
i) Suitable only for smaller works
ii) Need for vacuum makes the equipment more complicated.
iii) Proper SOD is necessary for effective process.
Applications: They include smaller radar dish, cone and other shapes in thinner and
small works.

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Electromagnetic forming
The electrical energy stored in a capacitor bank is used to produce opposing magnetic
fields around a tubular work piece, surrounded by current carrying coils. The coil is
firmly held and hence the work piece collapses into the die cavity due to magnetic
repelling force, thus assuming die shape.

Fig. Electro Magnetic Forming

Process details/ Steps:

i) The electrical energy is stored in the capacitor bank
ii) The tubular work piece is mounted on a mandrel having the die cavity to
produce shape on the tube.
iii) A primary coil is placed around the tube and mandrel assembly.
iv) When the switch is closed, the energy is discharged through the coil
v) The coil produces a varying magnetic field around it.
vi) In the tube a secondary current is induced, which creates its own magnetic field
in the opposite direction.

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vii) The directions of these two magnetic fields oppose one another and hence the
rigidly held coil repels the work into the die cavity.
viii) The work tube collapses into the die, assuming its shape.
Process parameters:
i) Work piece size
ii) Electrical conductivity of the work material.
iii) Size of the capacitor bank
iv) The strength of the current, which decides the strength of the magnetic field and
the force applied.
v) Insulation on the coil.
vi) Rigidity of the coil.
Advantages:
i) Suitable for small tubes
ii) Operations like collapsing, bending and crimping can be easily done.
iii) Electrical energy applied can be precisely controlled and hence the process is
accurately controlled.
iv) The process is safer compared to explosive forming.
v) Wide range of applications.
Limitations:
i) Applicable only for electrically conducting materials.
ii) Not suitable for large work pieces.
iii) Rigid clamping of primary coil is critical.
iv) Shorter life of the coil due to large forces acting on it.
Applications:
i) Crimping of coils, tubes, wires
ii) Bending of tubes into complex shapes
iii) Bulging of thin tubes.

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Powder Metallurgy
Powder Production Reduction,Electrolytic deposition, Pulverization, Mechanical Alloy
and othersBlending of powdersCompaction of Powders Punch and Die,Rolling,
Extrusion, Injection Moulding, Isostatic Pressing SinteringTypical Sintering set up
Powder Rolling
*In powder rolling (powder compaction) the powder is fed into the roll gap in a
two high rolling mill and is compacted into a continuous strip at speeds up to
0.5m/s.*The process can be carried out at room temperature or at elevated
temperatures.
*Sheet metal for electrical and electronic components, coins can be made by
powder rolling.

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Powder Extrusion
*Powders can be compacted by extrusion.*The metal powder is encased in a
container and extruded.
*After sintering, preformed PM parts may be rolled or forged in a closed die to their
shape.

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Powder Injection Moulding

*It is also called metal injection moulding.*Very fine metal powders (<10µm ) are
blended with a polymer or a wax based binder.*The blended mixture undergoes
compaction due to pressure.*The green compacts are heated in a oven at low
temperature to burn off plastic and then sintered in a furnace.

Pressing can be carried out either at room temperature or at elevated temperature.

*The powder must flow easily into the die cavity.*The density of the green compact,
depends on pressure applied during compaction.*By using particles of different shape,
very close packing of the metal powder can be achieved*Higher density results in
higher strength and higher elastic modulus of the components.

The normal compaction pressure ranges from 70Mpa for aluminium to 800Mpa for
iron parts.*Crank or eccentric type mechanical presses are used for small
tonnage.*Toggle or knuckle joint presses are used for higher capacities.
*Hydraulic process (450MN) are employed for large components.
Compaction can also be carried out by a number of other processes such as
isostatic pressing, rolling and forging.*Since the density of the compacted
powders can vary significantly, green compacts are subjected to hydrostatic
pressures in order to achieve more uniform density.

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Isostatic pressing:
*This type of operation is used for compaction of powders. *The process is similar to
pressing using cupped hands for making snow balls.

Cold Isostatic Pressing

*In cold isostatic pressing (CIP) the metal powder is placed in a flexible mould made
of rubber or Urethane or PVC.*The assembly is then pressurize
hydrostatically in a chamber usually using water. *Pressures of 400 to 1000MPa are
used.

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Cold Isostatic Pressing

The powder is enclosed in flexible container around a solid core rod. Pressure is applied
isostatically to the assembly inside a high pressure chamber. The powder gets compacted
and the green compact is taken out and sintered.

Hot Isostatic Pressing

In Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP) a metal powder is stressed using inert gas in a metal
container. *Pressure of 100MPa at 1000oC is used.*Here a container made of very high
melting point metal is used.*An inert gas is used as the pressuring media.The main
advantage of HIP is its ability to produce compacts with essentially 100% density, good

metallurgical bonding among the particles with good mechanical properties*HIP

process is relatively expensive and is used for making super alloy components for
aerospace industry.
*It is regularly used for the densification of WC cutting tools and PM tool steels.

HIP is also used to close the internal porosity and improve properties in superalloy and Ti
alloy castings for the aerospace industry.The main advantage of isostatic pressing is the
absence of wall friction as pressure is being applied from all directions.It produces
compacts of practically uniform grain structure and density irrespective of shape.

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Hot Isostatic Pressing

Figure shows the details of producing PM component.Here a mold is used into which
metal powder is filled.This is then surrounded by a secondary pressing media.Then
vacuum is applied.The entire assembly is kept in an autoclave Chamber and subjected
to HIP.Necessary pressure is applied through the chamber and temperature is
maintained at a known value. As a result the compacted metal powder gets sintered
finally the component is taken out of the system to get the finished.`

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