Grammar

Chapter Six
Second Year
2020 - 2021
Evening Classes
Types of Articles & Nouns

Articles:

We use the definite article ‘the’ with singular and plural nouns.

-- The names of the authors of the books on the top shelf begin
with the letter ‘A’.

We use the indefinite article a/an with singular nouns. Choosing (a

or an) depends on the first sound, not letter, of the next word.

-- She took a banana. -- I saw an apple.

We sometimes use nouns without articles.

-- Girls are quicker than boys. -- I like biryani, but not dolma.

Evening Classes
-- We use common nouns to categorize or label people and things.
They are countable or uncountable.
-- We can use countable common nouns in the singular, with a/an &
each.
Ex: Do you have a pen? Each student should have a book.
-- Also, we can use them in the plural, with numbers & many.
Ex: They do not have cars or trucks. He has six boys.
How many friends do you have?

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Grammar
Chapter Six
Second Year
2020 - 2021
 Evening Classes

Articles: a/an or the

----------------------------

a/an or the
We usually use a/an to classify people or things when we mention them first.
Ex: I met a teacher at the museum. Jasim bought a car last week.

We use ‘the’ to identify people or thing when we think they are already known.
Ex: Do you remember the car which stopped in front of the market last year.
We use a/an to when we classify the kind of thing we are talking
about.
Ex: what is this? It is a mouse.

We use a/an when we want to talk about any example of the kind
of thing we are talking about.
Ex: He is looking for a knife.

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 Evening Classes

-- We use ‘the’ when we assume that people are familiar with the same
ordinary things as we are in our daily lives.
Ex: People do not like the sun in summer.

-- We use ‘the’ when we assume that people are familiar with the same
ordinary things as we are in the physical world outside.
Ex: where is the laptop? It is on the table.

-- We use ‘the’ when we identify people by their jobs.

Ex: I called the plumber. Talk to the receptionist.

-- We use ‘the’ when we identify people by their unique roles in society.

Ex: He joined the police.

-- We can use ‘the’ when we want to talk about something as a general

concept and we are not referring to a specific example.
Ex: The customer is always right. What was life like before the computer?
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Grammar
Chapter Six
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2020 - 2021
-- We can use a/an or one before a noun to talk about single
thing or person.
Ex: I stayed in Turkey for one/a year and one/a month.

-- We use one to emphasize the number.

Ex: We only have room for one passenger.

-- We use one to talk about a particular but unspecified

occasion (narrative).
Ex: One day there was a terrible storm.
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 Evening Classes

-- We use a/an when we are thinking of something as a single

unit.
Ex: Would you like a coffee?

-- We use no article when something is not a single unit or it is

uncountable.
Ex: Do you prefer coffee or tea? They are doing research on fish or shellfish.
-- We use ‘the’ for a specific meaning.
Ex: The dogs next door are friendly.

-- We use ‘no article’ when for a general meaning.

Ex: My brother is afraid of dogs.

-- W use ‘the’ wit nouns such as history or poetry when they are

followed by of-phrases.
Ex: The poetry of Keats was unusual.
Ex: She taught us history. They studied poetry.

Evening Classes
-- We can use ‘the’ with nouns to talk about a specific time.
Ex: That was the Christmas before you were born.

-- We can use ‘the’ with nouns to talk about a specific place.

Ex: The church is across the street.

-- We use ‘no article’ with those same nouns after the preposition
(in) or (at) when we are talking more generally.
Ex: He cannot study at night.

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Grammar
Second Year
2020 - 2021
 Evening Classes

Countable nouns & Uncountable nouns

It's important to distinguish between countable and

uncountable nouns in English because their usage is different
in regards to both determiners and verbs.
Countable nouns:
are for things we can count using numbers. They have a
singular and a plural form. The singular form can use the
determiner "a" or "an". If you want to ask about the quantity of
a countable noun, you ask "How many?" combined with the
plural countable noun.

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Evening Classes

Examples:

-- She has three dogs.

-- I own a house.

-- I would like two books please.

-- How many friends do you have?

Evening Classes

Uncountable Nouns

Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count

with numbers. They may be the names for abstract ideas or
qualities or for physical objects that are too small or too
amorphous to be counted (liquids, powders, gases, etc.).
 Evening Classes

Examples

tea, sugar, water, air, rice, knowledge, beauty,

anger, fear, love, money, research, safety, evidence

We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of

an uncountable noun, use a word or expression like some, a lot
of, much, a bit of, a great deal of , or else use an exact
measurement like a cup of, a bag of, 1kg of, a handful of, an
hour of, a day of.

If you want to ask about the quantity of an uncountable noun,

you ask "How much?"
Examples (sentences):

-- Measure 1 cup of water, 300g of flour, and 1 teaspoon of salt.

-- How much rice do you want?

-- He gave me a great deal of advice before my interview.

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Tricky spots

Some nouns are countable in other languages but uncountable

in English. They must follow the rules for uncountable nouns.
The most common ones are:

accommodation, advice, baggage, behaviour, bread, furniture,

information, luggage, news, progress, traffic, travel, trouble,
weather…..etc.

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Grammar
Second Year
Chapter Six
2020 - 2021
-- We use nouns as generic nouns when we make general statements
about any example.
ex: An orange has lots of vitamin C.

-- We use nouns as generic nouns when we make general statements

about general concept.
ex: The mobile phone controls our times.

-- We use nouns as generic nouns when we make general statements

about most examples of the thing that we are talking about.
ex: Women live longer than men.
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Evening Classes

-- We use pair nouns such as scissors or trousers to refer to things

made of two matching parts that we use or wear. We usually use them
with plural verbs.

ex: These scissors are not very sharp.

White trousers do not go very well with black shoes.

-- When we put pair nouns after the phrase ‘a pair of’, we use a
singular verb and a plural pronoun (them and they).

ex: A good pair of scissors is hard to find.

There is a nice pair of trousers on sale.

You should get them because they are really cheap.

 Evening Classes

-- We can use group nouns to talk about a group of people as a

single unit, with singular verbs and pronouns.

ex: The public is not really interested in what the government is

doing unless it increases taxes.

-- We can use group nouns to talk about a group of people as

several people, with plural verbs and pronouns.

ex: The public are more likely to complain if they have to pay
more taxes.
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Grammar
Second Year
Chapter Six
2020 - 2021
-- We usually use a possessive noun when something belongs to a
particular person or thing.

ex: Each student’s office has a computer.

That red thing on a chicken’s head is called a comb.

-- We use a compound noun to talk about a combination of things, not

possession.

ex: I am looking for the student office.

Do you like chicken soup?

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-- We form possessive nouns by adding an apostrophe S (`s) to
most nouns or only a apostrophe (`) to nouns ending in S.

ex: Lee’s birthday. Children’s books. Girls’ stories.

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-- Possessive nouns can sometimes be used without a following
noun when that noun is treated as known.
Ex: she is a friend of Margarete’s (one of Margarete’s friends)

-- Possessive nouns can sometimes be used without a following

noun when that noun is presented as one of a larger number
rather than a particular one.
Ex: He was at the doctor’s.
We stayed at Rami’s

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Consist of two or more words used to refer to people or things more
specifically in terms of:
-- what they are for – bus driver, history teacher.
-- what they made of – can opener, fire extinguisher.
-- what work they do – detective story, horror movie.
-- what kind they are – chicken soup, feather pillows.
-- when and where they happen or are used –
birthday party , street lights.
-- Hyphens are sometimes used in compound nouns –
a do-it-yourself store, a house-husband.
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Grammar
Chapter Eight
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Ellipsis
Ellipsis means leaving words out.

Instead of repeating a noun phrase (the guard), we can use a

pronoun or we can leave the pronoun out.

- The guard looked over and he smiled.

- The guard looked over and ---- smiled.

Instead of repeating a verb phrase (take), we can use a

substitution form, or leave the substitution form out.

- She could take the money, but she won’t do it .

- She could take the money, but she won’t -----.
Evening Classes

We usually use Ellipsis instead of repeating words before nouns

in phrases joined by (and, but , or).
- You will need a pen or ----- pencil.
- Ashly’s aunt and ---- uncle own a house in France and ---- Italy.
Leaving out subjects & Objects
After (and, but , or) in compound sentences, we usually leave out
a repeated subject.
- We sat and --- talked. He came but --- left early.

After (and, but , or) in compound sentences, we usually leave out

a repeated subject and auxiliary.
- She was shouting and ------ throwing things.

After (and, but , or) in compound sentences, we usually leave out

a repeated subject and main verb.
- I travelled to Istanbul and ---- ------ to Ankara.

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We usually leave out repeated objects or preposition phrases from
the first clause.

- We gave food ----- ----- and water to everyone.

- I lived --- ------- and studied in Rome for a year.
- She makes ----- and sells jewellery.
- We usually boil ------ or fry some eggs for breakfast.

We use an object pronoun rather than leave out the object from
the second or later clauses.
- She makes jewellery and sells it ( She makes jewellery and
sells)

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 Evening Classes

Leaving out verb phrase

After an auxiliary verb in the second or later clause, we usually leave

our a repeated verb phrase.
- I have seen the film but Mike has not ------ .

We can leave out repeated adjectives and prepositional phrases after

‘be’ as a linking verb.
- Tom is late but Sarah is not ------.
- I am afraid he is in love and she is not -------- .
We can leave out repeated words after question words when we
ask.

- I have to leave now. ----- Why?

- It will cost a lot of money to repair the damage. How much?

We can leave out repeated words after report questions.

- Dr Foster has said he is planning to go on holiday, but he has

not told us where -- and when – yet.

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