King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

CE-415
Reinforced Concrete II

Second Semester 2020-2021 (202)

Dr. Muhammad Kalimur Rahman

Center for Engineering Research-Research Institute
REFERENCE
BOOKS
RFEM - FEM Structural Analysis Software
Request or Renew Free Student License
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

LOADS NOMENCLATURE
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
Load Combinations for Ultimate Strength Design
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

Load Combinations for Service load Design

CODES, SPECIFICATIONS AND MANUALS
FOR THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURES
Typical Concrete building – basic structural elements (3D)
Typical Concrete building – basic structural elements (3D)
Typical Concrete building – basic structural elements (3D)
Concrete Frames and Load Resisting System
The gravity load resisting systems used in Concrete structures
are used to support the gravity and the vertical loads
 Beams, slabs, girders, columns

The lateral load resisting systems used in concrete structures

are used for resisting lateral loads including earthquake, wind
 Columns, shear walls

The floor diaphragms systems used in Concrete structures to

transfer the lateral loads to the columns and the shear walls
Concrete Frames and Lateral Load Resisting System
Common lateral load resisting systems used in concrete
structures today are:
 Moment frames
 Shear walls
 Dual systems combining moment frames with either r
shear walls
 Composite (steel and reinforced concrete) systems
Steel Frames and Load Resisting System
Types of Frames in Steel Structure
 Loads on a Structure

Gravity Loads

Lateral Loads
 Dead loads on a Structure
The load associated with the weight of the structure and its permanent
components (floors, ceilings, ducts, and so forth) is called the dead load.
When designing a structure, the member dead loads must first be
estimated since member sizes are initially unknown yet must still be
accounted for in the total load carried by the structure.
After members are sized and architectural details finalized, the dead
load can be computed more accurately.
Dead loads on a Structure
 Live loads on a Structure
The live loads used in the design of a building are the
maximum loads imposed by the occupants using the building.
Live load imposed on a structure for residential use, will differ
to that compared to an office building or school, due to fewer
occupants for a residential use.
The components of buildings, such as the roof, walls and floors
are to be designed to sustain uniformly distributed live loads
or concentrated live loads placed such that they produce the
maximum load effect in the member.
Live loads on a
Structure
Live loads on a Structure
 Load Assignment to Members
Tributary Loadings: There are 2 ways in which the load on surfaces
can transmit to various structural elements
• 1-way system and 2-way system
Load Assignment to Members
Slab supported on Beams and Columns
• Consider the framing used to support a typical floor slab in a building
• The slab is supported by floor joists located at even intervals
• These are in turn supported by 2 side girders AB & CD
• joints are pin and/or roller connected to girders & the girders are pin
and/or roller connected to columns
Load Assignment to Members
Load Assignment to Members
Tributary Areas for Columns
 Reduction in Live Loads

Variation of Live Loads with time

A member supporting a large tributary area is less likely to be loaded at all

points by the maximum value of live load than a member supporting a
smaller floor area
ASCE permits live load reductions for members that have a large tributary
area.
 Reduction in Live Loads
ASCE 7 allows a reduction of the design floor live loads Lo, by the equation
below when the influence area KLLAT is larger than 400 ft2 (37.2 m2).
However, the reduced live load must not be less than
50 percent of Lo for members supporting one floor or a section of a single
floor,
nor less than 40 percent of Lo for members supporting two or more floors:
 Earthquake Loading on the Structure
The large 1999 Chi-Chi earthquake (magnitude 7.7) in Taiwan caused the
upper floors of the apartment buildings shown in the photo to topple over as a
unit.
 1985 Mexico City Earthquake

The Pino Suarez Complex in Mexico City consisted of 5 steel buildings: three 21-story buildings and two 14-
story buildings. One of the 21-story steel buildings completed collapsed on the adjacent 14-story building.
This case illustrates that modern steel buildings are not invulnerable to collapse in earthquakes.
Photo source:
National Geophysical Data Center - Hazard Slides http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/seg/hazard/slideset/
Original photo credit: E.V. Leyendecker, National Bureau of Standards
1994
Northridge
Earthquake

36
1994 Northridge, USA Earthquake

37
1994 Northridge, USA Earthquake

38
1994 Northridge, USA Earthquake

39
1994 Northridge, USA Earthquake

40
 Earthquake Loading on the Structure
Earthquakes occur in many regions of the world. The ground motions created by major earthquake
forces cause buildings to sway back and forth. Assuming the building is fixed at its base, the
displacement of floors will vary from zero at the base to a maximum at the roof

Displacement of floors This Photo by Unknown Author is

licensed under CC BY-SA
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

as building sways Inertia forces produced

by motion of floors.

Equivalent lateral force procedure, as per ASCE 7-16, or IBC 2016 used to compute
the magnitude of the base shear V
 Earthquake Loading on the Structures
Magnitude of the base shear V

W = total dead load of building and its permanent equipment and partitions
T = fundamental natural period of building, which can be computed by the following empirical
equation
The natural period of a building (the time required for a building to go through one complete cycle
of motion) is a function of the lateral stiffness and the mass of the structure
Since the base shear V is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the natural period, it reduces as
the lateral stiffness of the structural bracing system increases.
If the stiffness of the lateral bracing system is too small, lateral displacements may become
excessive, producing damage to windows, exterior walls, and other nonstructural elements.
 Earthquake Loading on the Structure

hn = the building height in feet (meters, above the base)

Ct = 0.028 (or 0.068 in SI units) and x= 0.8 for steel rigid frames (moment
frames),
Ct = 0.016 (0.044 SI) and x = 0.9 for reinforced concrete rigid frames, and
Ct = 0.02 (0.055 SI) and x = 0.75 for most other systems (for example,
systems with braced frames or structural walls).

 SD1 = a factor computed using seismic maps that shows intensity of

design earthquake for structures with T = 1 s.
 SDS = a factor computed using seismic maps that shows intensity of
design earthquake at particular locations for structures with T = 0.2 s.
SBC Table gives the values for several locations in Saudi Arabia
 Earthquake Loading on the Structure

 R = response modification factor, which represents the ability of a

structural system to resist seismic forces. This factor, which varies
from 8 to 1.25, is tabulated in Table for several common structural
systems.
 The highest R-values are assigned to ductile systems; the lowest
values, to brittle systems.
 Since R occurs in the denominator, a structural system with a large
value of R will permit a large reduction in the seismic force the
structural system must be designed to support.
 I = occupancy importance factor. For example, I is 1 for office buildings,
but increases to 1.5 for hospitals, police stations, or other public
facilities vital to the safety and well-being of the community or whose
failure might cause large loss of life.
 Earthquake Loading on the Structure

Values of R for Several Common Lateral Bracing Structural Systems

Description of Structural System R

 Ductile steel or concrete frame with rigid joints 8
 Ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls 4
 Ordinary reinforced masonry shear wall 2
Distribution of Earthquake Load on the Structure
 Earthquake Loading on the Structure Example Building
Determine the design seismic forces acting at each floor of the six-story office building.
The structure of the building consists of steel moment frames (all joints are rigid) that
have an R value of 8. The 75-ft-tall building is located in a high seismic region with SD1 =
0.4g and SDs = 1.0g for a building supported on rock, where g is the gravitational
acceleration. The deadweight of each floor is 700 kips.

Compute the fundamental period

Assuming that the floor deadweight contains an

allowance for the weight of columns, beams,
partitions, ceiling, etc., the total weight W of the
building is

The occupancy importance factor I is 1 for office buildings

Earthquake Loading on the Structure Example Building
Distribution of Seismic Base Shear V to Each Floor Level

236
Computation of Earthquake Loading
Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading
Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading
Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading
Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading
Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake LoadingSaudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading Saudi Building Code
Computation of Earthquake Loading Saudi Building Code
WIND LOAD ON STRUCTURES
THANKS GOD IT’s NOT IN SAUDI ARABIA
WIND LOAD ON BUILDINGS
 Wind Loads on Structures
Variation of wind velocity with Variation of wind pressure specified by
distance above ground surface typical building codes for windward side
of building.
 Wind Loads on Structures
Uplift pressure on a sloping roof

 The wind speed along path 2 is greater than

that along path 1 because of the greater
 Increased velocity creates
length of path.
negative pressure (suction)
on sides and leeward face;
 Increased velocity reduces pressure on top of
direct pressure on windward
roof, creating a pressure differential between
face AA.
inside and outside of building.

 The uplift is a function of the roof angle u.

 Wind Loads on Structures
 The magnitude of wind pressures on a structure depends on the wind velocity, the shape and
stiffness of the structure, the roughness and profile of the surrounding ground, and the influence
of adjacent structures.

 When wind strikes an object in its path, the kinetic energy of the moving air particles is
converted to a pressure qs, which is given by

where m represents the mass density of the air and V equals the wind velocity.
 Wind Loads on Structures
Static wind pressure
Wind pressures using a simplified format based on the provisions of the most recent
edition of the ASCE Standard for Minimum Design Loads on Buildings.
The equation for the static wind pressure qs

where qs = static wind pressure, lb/ft2 (N/m2)

 V = basic wind speed, mph (m/s).

 Basic wind speeds, used to establish the design wind force for particular locations
 In Saudi Arabia they are plotted on the maps.
 These wind velocities are measured by anemometers located 33 ft (10 m) above
grade in open terrain and represent wind speeds that have only a 2 percent
probability of being exceeded in any given year.
 Wind Loads on Structures
Static wind pressure
The static wind pressure qs is next modified in by four empirical factors to establish the
magnitude of the velocity wind pressure qz at various elevations above ground level.

where qz = velocity wind pressure at height z above ground level

 I = importance factor, which represents how essential a given structure is to the

community.
 I = 1 for office buildings,
 Increases to 1.15 for hospitals, police stations, or other public facilities whose failure
might cause large loss of life.
 For structures whose failure produces no serious economic loss or danger to the public, I
reduces to 0.87 or 0.77 if V exceeds 100 mph.
 IMPORTANCE FACTOR, I FOR WIND LOAD

Building category Regions with Regions with V > 100

V = 80-100 mph mph

I (Low hazard) 0.87 0.77

II (all others) 1.0 1.0
III (substantial 1.15 1.15
hazard)
IV (essential facility) 1.15 1.15
 Wind Loads on Structures
Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient Kz
 Kz = velocity exposure coefficient, which accounts for both the influence of height above
grade and exposure conditions. Four exposure categories (A through D) considered are as
follows:
 A: Large city centers where 50 percent of buildings are higher than 70 ft (21.3 m)
 B: Urban and suburban, or wooded areas with low structures
 C: Open terrain with scattered obstructions generally less than 30 ft (9.1 m) high.
 D: Flat, unobstructed areas exposed to wind flowing over open water for a distance of at
least 1 mi (1.61 km).
 Wind Loads on Structures
Wind Directionality Factor Kd and Topographic Factor Kzt
 Kd, the wind direction factor, accounts for the reduced probability of maximum winds
coming from any given direction and for the reduced probability of the maximum
pressure developing for any given wind direction

 Kzt is the topographic factor, which equals 1 if building is located on level ground; for
buildings located on elevated sites (top of hills), Kzt increases to account for greater
wind speed
 Wind Loads on Structures
Gust factor (G) and External pressure coefficient (Cp)

The final step for establishing the design wind pressure p is to modify qz, by two additional
factors, G and Cp:

where p = design wind pressure on a particular face of the building

 G = gust factor, which equals 0.85 for rigid structures; that is, the natural period is less
than 1 second.
 For flexible structures with a natural period  than 1 sec, equations for G are available in
the ASCE standard.
 Wind Loads on Structures
External pressure coefficient (Cp)

 Cp = external pressure coefficient, which establishes how a fraction of the wind

pressure is to be distributed to each of the four sides of the building
 For the wind applied normal to the wall on the windward side of the building Cp = 0.8.

 On the leeward side, Cp = -0.2 to -0.5.

 The minus sign indicates a pressure acting outward from the face of the building.

 The magnitude of Cp is a function of the ratio of length L in the windward direction to

length B in the direction normal to the wind.

 The main wind bracing system must be sized for the sum of the wind forces on the
windward and leeward sides of the building.

 Finally, on the sides of the building perpendicular to the direction of the wind, where
negative pressure also occurs, Cp = -0.7.
 Wind Loads on Structures
External Pressure Coefficient Cp

 Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces,
respectively.

 Notations: B is the horizontal dimension of the building, in feet (meters) measured

normal to wind direction, and L is the horizontal dimension of the building in feet
(meters), measured parallel to wind direction.
 Wind Loads on Structures
Typical wind load distribution on a multistory building.

 The wind pressure increases with height only on the

windward side of a building where wind pressure acts
inward on the walls.
 On the other three sides the magnitude of the
negative wind pressure, acting outward, is constant
with height, and the value of Kz is based on the mean
roof height h.

 Since wind can act in any direction, designers

must also consider additional possibilities of wind
loading a building at various angles.
 Wind Loads on Structures
Determine the wind pressure distribution on the four sides of an eight story hotel located on level
ground along the coast. Consider the case of a strong wind acting directly on face AB of the building.
The building should be designed for a basic wind speed of V = 130 mph blowing off the sea. Assume
the building is classified as stiff because its natural period is less than 1 s; therefore, the gust factor G
equals 0.85. The importance factor I equals 1.15. Since the building is located on level ground, Kzt = 1.
STEP 1 Compute the static wind pressure

STEP 2 Compute the magnitude of wind

pressure on the windward side at the top of the
building, 100 ft above grade.
Since the wind blows off the ocean, exposure D
applies.

To compute wind pressures at other elevations on the windward side, the only factor
that changes in the above equation is Kz, tabulated in Table
For example, at an elevation of 50 ft, Kz = 1.27 and qz = 53.64 lb/ft2.
 Wind Loads on Structures
STEP 3 Determine the design wind pressure on the windward
face AB

Gust factor G = 0.85, and Cp =0.8

STEP 4 Determine the wind pressure on the leeward side:

STEP 5 Compute the wind pressure on the two sides perpendicular to the wind:
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

LOADS NOMENCLATURE
 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS

Load Combinations for LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design

 LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS
Load Combinations for ASD Allowable Strength Design
LOADS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS