College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

RHIA P. PEREZ, PH.D

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 What this module is about?
This module is intended for the course, ED 101- The Child and Adolescent Learners and
Learning Principles which focuses on child and adolescent learners development with emphasis
on current research and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional
dimensions of development. Further, this includes factors that affect the progress of
development of the learners and shall include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for
each developmental level. The module will help one develop identity as a future teacher and
understand the role of the students’ identities in the classroom.

In this module, you will learn how theories and principles of development, learning and
motivation were given importance as they relate to the educational process. You will
study these ten lessons, namely:

Lesson 1 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts, and Approaches

Lesson 2 - The Stages of Development and Developmental Tasks

Lesson 3 - Issues on Human Development

Lesson 4 - Research in Child and Adolescent Development

Lesson 5 - Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Lesson 6 - Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Lesson 7 - Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Lesson 8 - Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lesson 9 - Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory

Lesson 10 - Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

Lesson 11 - Development of the Learners at Various Sages

Lesson 12 - Learners Centered Learning principles

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
TARGET SCHEDULE:

WEEK 1 - Lesson 1

WEEK 2 - Lesson 2 and Lesson 4

WEEK 3 - Lesson 5 and Lesson 6

WEEK 4 -Lesson 7 and Lesson 8

WEEK 5 - Lesson 9 and Lesson 10

WEEK 6-12 - Lesson 11

Week 13-18 - Lesson 12

What are the intended learning outcomes of this

module?
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Determine and acquire better understanding on child and adolescent development.

2. Understand the role that teachers, school and the family in the crucial development stages of
the individual child and adolescent.

3. Make critical analysis of recurring problems that affect the development of the child
and adolescent.

4. Apply various theories of development relative to the different learning principles.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

LESSON 1
 Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
What are the objectives of this lesson?
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
• define human development in your own words;
• draw some principles of human development; and
• distinguish two approaches to human development.

Overview of the topic

Human development refers to the biological and psychological development of the

human being throughout the lifespan. It consists of the development from infancy,
childhood, and adolescence to adulthood.
It is a pattern of movement that begins at conception and continues through the life span of
a well human being. Also it includes growth and decline. The human development can
be positive or negative. Growth deals with quantitative changes while development deals
with qualitative changes. Development is relatively orderly. Development has proximodistal
pattern that deals with the development from inward to upward. Another pattern is the
cephalocaudal pattern in which the development is from head to toe and from top to bottom.
Development also takes place gradually. The pattern of development is more likely be similar,
the outcome of development process and the rate of development are vary among
individuals. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,
cognitive and socio-emotional process. The biological process is a physical change. The
cognitive process is about knowledge, thoughts, and language. The socio-emotional is a process
that focuses on dealing with people. The human development has five (5) different approaches.
It includes life-long, multi-dimensional, plastic, contextual and involves growth,
maintenance and regulation. The life-span of a human development occurs al throughout the
life-span of an individual. The development never stops until death. The traditional occurs
human development that shows extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no
change in adulthood and decline in the late old age. The life-long development does not
end by adulthood and no development stage dominates the development. The multi-
dimensional consists of biological, cognitive and socio-emotional dimensions. The plastic
development is possible throughout the life-span. The contextual development, are individuals
that can adopt

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

changing beings in a changing world. Development and learning result from a dynamic
and continuous interaction of biological maturation and experience.

Principles of Human Growth and Development:

1. Development is continuous.
2. Development is gradual.
3. Development is sequential.
4. Rate of development varies person to person.
5. Development proceeds from general to specific.
6. Most traits are correlated in development.
7. Growth and development is a product of both heredity and environment. 8.
Development is predictable.
9. Development brings about both structural and functional changes. 10.
There is a constant interaction between all factors of development.

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional

lecture. Test your knowledge

Application No. 1

1. Define development in your own words.

2. Describe your own development. In what ways have you changed over your
lifetime? What characteristics have remained the same?

3. What are the principles of human development and their educational implications?
Principles Educational Implication

a.

b.

c.

d.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

4.
What are the two approaches to human development?

Traditional vs Life-Span Approach

Traditional Lifepspan
Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

LESSON 2

The Stages of Development and Development Tasks

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
• define developmental tasks in your own words ;
• identify developmental stages of learners in different curriculum levels; •
describe the developmental tasks in each stage; and
• state for yourself how these developmental tasks affect your role as a facilitator of
learning.

Overview of the topic

A developmental task is a task that arises at or about a certain period in life, unsuccessful
achievement of which leads to inability to perform tasks associated with the next period
or stage in life.

The Stages of Development and Developmental tasks

Prenatal period
(from conception to birth)
- it involves tremendous growth from a single
cell to an organism complete with brain and
behavioral capabilities.
Infancy
(from birth to 18 – 24 months) - a time extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological
activities are just to beginning – Language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination
capabilities.
Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Early childhood
(end of infancy to 5-6 years (grade 1) -these are the preschool years. Young children learn
to become more self sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness skills
and spend many hours in play with peers.
Concept of developmental tasks
In each stage of development a certain task or tasks are expected of every each individual.
Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that “arises at a certain period in our life,
the successful achievement of which leads to happiness and success with later tasks while
failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks.” (Havighurst,
1972)
The developmental tasks (Santrock, 2002)
(6-11 years of age, the elementary school years) – The fundamental skills of reading, writing
and arithmetic are mastered.

• Prenatal period
• Infancy
• Early childhood
• Middle and late childhood
• Adolescence
• Early adulthood
• Middle adulthood
• Late adulthood

Early adulthood
(from late teens or early 20’s lasting through the 30’s) – It is a time of establishing personal and
economic independence, career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone
in an intimate way, starting a family and rearing children.
Late adulthood
(60’s and above) It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life review,
retirement, and adjustment to new social rules.
Adolescence
Middle adulthood
– (10 – 12 years of age ending up to 18 – 22 years of age) Begins with rapid physical
changes. Middle and late childhood
(40 to 60 years of age ) – it is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and
responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming a competent and mature
individuals.
Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional lecture.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 Test your knowledge
Application No. 2

Assessment Tasks:

Photo Essay and Reflections

Input for the Task:

What is a Photo Essay?

A photographic essay is a form of visual storytelling, a way to present a narrative

through a series of images. A great photo essay is powerful, able to evoke emotion and
understanding without using words. A photo essay delivers a story using a series of
photographs and brings the viewer along your narrative journey.

A photo essay tell a story in pictures, and there are many different ways to style your own
photo essay. With wide range of topics to explore, a photo essay can be thought-provoking,
emotional, funny, unsettling, or all of the above, but mostly, they should be unforgettable.

Task Design:

This activity intends to determine the students' knowledge on child and adolescent
development as well as the factors that affect the progress of development of the
learners and shall include appropriate pedagogical principles applicable for each
developmental level through photo essay and reflection. The students are guided by the given
rubrics below.

Task Objectives:

1. Make a photo essay of Human Stages of Development.

2. Write your reflection.

Materials Needed:

• Laptop and Android phone with internet connection

• Any kind of camera or cellphone with camera
• Reference book: Child and Adolescent Development by: Brenda B. Corpuz et,al

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
Task Procedure:

1. Research about the topic. Conduct online searches, read website or the course reference
book to find out more about the topic about Human Stages of Development .

2. Choose your subject. It could be you or any members of the family.

3. Create an outline. Once you have your subject and permission to shoot, take a few
moments to sketch out an idea of what photos you will need. Most essays need a variety
of images to showcase the various aspects of the topic.

4. Take many shots but only include the key photos necessary.

5. Choose your 8-10 images. Make your final selections.

6. Your final images can be captioned to help enhance your visual narrative, but if you feel
like your images could use some text, add it. However, if you think the images can stand
on their own, then you can present them as they are.

Reflections:

A. If you were given a chance, which developmental stage would you like to be in? Why?

________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

B. Reflect on your stages of development. Were you able to acquire the developmental
tasks expected for each stage. What facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to perform such
tasks? Write your reflections.

________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
Photo Essay: Criteria Set ( Point System)

Visual Text (photographs/images) 20

Typography & Semantics ( the meaning, 10
arrangement and apperance)
Organization (how the various elements 10
are organized)
Theme ( the universal insight that is 5
communicated by the essay)
Overall Impression/Aesthetic Effect 5
( the overall psychological response
to the photo essay as a work of
artistic rhetoric) _______
TOTAL 50

Scoring Rubric for the Reflection

Criteria 4 points 3 points 2 points 1 point 0 point

Content and The answer The answer The answer is not The answer is Did not
Accuracy demonstrates demonstrates a good, very comprehensive. incomplete and answer the
great general understanding Key points are the key ideas are question.
understanding of of the topic. Some key addressed but not not addressed and
the topic by points are supported clearly supported. supported. The
providing and explained. There are some answer
accurate and inaccurate and demonstrates very
relevant irrelevant little or no
supports. All key statements. understanding of
ideas are clearly the topic.
presented and
explained.

Organization and The answer is highly The answer is Improper

Fluency organized and ideas generally organization and
are well-presented comprehensible but structure distracts
using appropriate the ideas are the reader and
sentences. The sometimes makes the answer
response is natural and disorganized. The difficult to
easy to follow. reader needs to comprehend. The
exert some effort to answer uses
understand the flow unusual and
of ideas. confusing word
patterns.

Conventions The answer has very There are a few The errors in
minimal errors in glaring errors in spelling,
spelling, punctuation, spelling, capitalization,
capitalization and punctuation, punctuation and
grammar. These errors capitalization and grammar are
do not disrupt the flow grammar. These frequent and were
of thought and the sometimes interfere a severe
general with the reader’s distraction to the
comprehensibility of ability to understand reader’s ability to
the answer. the answer. comprehend the
answer.

TOTAL – 10 POINTS

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
LESSON 3

Issues on Human Development

What is the objective of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• take an informed stand/position on the three issues on development.

Overview of the topic

There are three theoretical issues in human development; nature versus nurture,
continuity versus stages and stability versus change.

The first issue is nature versus nurture. This controversy goes back to the ancient Greeks. Early
philosophers believed that at birth our minds are a 'blank state' and that one's
environment determines the messages that will be written on the slate. Naturists believe
that human behavior and development are governed by automatic, genetically
predetermined signals in maturation. There is a favorable period after birth called a critical
period when the organism's exposure to stimuli or experiences produce proper
development. Nurturists argue that development occurs by learning through observation
and experience. For example, a child would learn behaviors by watching his or her parents or
other close family members.
The second issue is continuity versus discontinuity. Continuity proposes that development is
continuous, with new abilities, skills and knowledge gradually added at a relatively uniform rate.
It also suggests that adult thinking and intelligence differ from a child's. For example,
adults have more verbal skills than children. Stage theorists suggest that development
occurs at different rates that vary from little change to rapid, abrupt change. Stage
theories include: Piaget's theory of cognitive development, Erikson's psychosocial theory of
development, and Kohlberg's theory of moral development.
The third and final issue is stability versus change. Stability proposes that individuals maintain
their personal characteristics from childhood to adulthood. They emphasize that one can
tell what kind of character an individual will have by the characteristics they display
during childhood. Psychologists who emphasize change disagree entirely. They believe
that a child's personality and characteristics bear little resemblance to the characteristics
present in adulthood.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

 College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional

lecture. Test your knowledge

Application No. 3

Complete the sentence.

With regard to the nurture-nature, continuity-discontinuity and change-stability

controversies, the wiser stand is _____________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________.

LESSON 4

Research in Child and Adolescent Development

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 • demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers and producers of
developmental research; and
• read researches on child and adolescent development.

Overview of the topic

Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and nothing to
lose when they get involved in the research process. Evidence suggest that:

1. teachers who have been involved in research may become more reflective, more critical
and analytical in their teaching, and more open and committed to professional
development.
2. participating in teacher research also helps teachers become more deliberate in
their decision-making and actions in the classroom.
3. teacher research develops the professional dispositions of lifelong learning, reflective,
and mindful teaching, and self-transformation.
4. engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and reconstructing what
it means to be a teacher or teacher educator and consequently, the way teachers relate
to children and students.
5. teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and prospective teachers
that learning to teach is inherently connected to learning to inquire.

Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from

thinking about teacher research as something done to teachers to something done by teachers.

Test your knowledge

Application No. 4

Assessment Task:

Research Proposal

Input for the Task:

In times like this pandemic due to COVID 19, people have different experiences
and strategies on how they answered and responded on the challenges caused as well as its
effects

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
on human development. It is important that people share their best practices to others for the
purpose of helping them respond as well to these problems more than surviving for a day only.
A research work starts with a novel topic focusing on recent events or phenomena. Usually a
research deals with providing answers to problems and queries about life. With your knowledge
in research, you are now on a task to conduct a survey to determine how people addressed the
problems.

Task Design:

This is an individualized activity that requires ability to analyze critically and decide for
suitable concepts and ideas related to the topic given. Students are provided with guide
questions and tip that would help them generate and come up with relevant thoughts needed
to complete the task.

Task Objective:

1. To form a concept of research title and other essential components considering the
basic principles of research.

Materials

Laptop/Smartphone
Online references about research

Task Procedure

1. The students will be required to complete the essential components of the survey to
be conducted related COVID 19 pandemic problems and its effects to human development.

2. Each portion is provided with guide question/ tip that will serve as students guide in
answering. You do not need to answer the guide questions.

3. Do not create the instrument. Just list them down.

Proposed Survey

A. Provide a title for the survey focusing on how selected families cope with or address the
problems, difficulties and its effects on human development in relation to COVID19 pandemic.

Tip: This survey seeks to determine how families provided solutions to the difficulties
and its effects to human development caused by COVID 19 pandemic. This must be reflected in
the title.

Proposed Title: ______________________________________________________________ 1-4

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
B. Complete the set of statements of the problem for the research work.

Tip/Guide Questions:

⮚ Look at SOP No. 1. In what other aspects do you think families can be
described aside from the two given?
⮚ Go back to the aim. Is there any question that would answer already
what you would like to know?

1. How may the families be described in terms of:

1.1. number of members
1.2. head of the family
1.3. _____________________________5-6
1.4. _____________________________7-8

2. To what extent do the families encounter the following problems and difficulties?

3. _________________________________________________________________9-10.

4. Is there a significant difference on the techniques to cope with the problems when
grouped according to profile variable?

C. Cite at least three topics that can be discussed in the Literature Review and provide 1
sentence explanation why you prefer to include that in your Literature Review for Chapter II.
11-16.

Tip: For you to gather more facts and information for your problem statements, you
need to provide discussions lifted from other sources.

1.

2.

3.

D. Cite the instruments/tools that you would use and why? 17-20.

1.

2.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
LESSON 5

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development ; and •
draw implications of Freud’s theory to education.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 Overview of the topic

Sigmund Freud
(1856-1939)
• He is a popular psychologist whose theory of human development.
• Freud's theory remains to be one of the influential in psychology. This theory sparked the
ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and thus became the starting point of many
other theories, notable of which is Erickson's Psychosocial theory.
• According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of these five stages and along way
here are needs to be met. Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether
the person will develop a healthy personality or not.
• The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud identified erogenous zones for each
stage of development. These are specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for the
particular stage.
• If needs are not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult. The person will
now manifest behaviours related to this erogenous zone.

• Human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five
stages;
⮚ Oral
⮚ Anal
⮚ Phallic
⮚ Latent
⮚ Genital
Each stage is characterized by the erogenous zone that is the source of the libidinal drive.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 PERSONALITY STRUCTURE
ID This is known as the biological drives with which the infant is born. It
is said to be the earliest and most primitive personality
structure and refers to the unconscious and usually operates with
the goal of seeking pleasure.

EGO This structure is the rational, logical, problem-solving component

of the personality.

SUPEREGO This is the structure based on the child’s internalization of the

adults attributes, beliefs and standards.

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional

lecture. Test your knowledge

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Application No. 5

A. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision. Narrate the situation
below. Indicate what the decision was about, the factors that were involved and how you
arrived at your decision.

B. What are the implications of Freud’s theory to education?

LESSON 6

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• describe Piaget’s stages in your own words ; and
• match learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage.

Overview of the topic

JEAN PIAGET
• A Swiss psychologist and genetic epistemologist
• First psychologist to make a systematic study of children’s cognitive development •
Interest: Biology + Philosophy = genetic epistemology
• He was 10 years old when he published his FIRST ARTICLE about Albino Sparrow •
21 years old when he got his PhD.

The Adaptation Processes

ASSIMILATION- an adaptation process which uses an existing schema to deal with a new object
or situation.
ACCOMMODATION- happens when existing schema (knowledge) does not work and needs to
be changed to deal with a new object situation.
EQUILIBRATION- a force which drives learning process by mastering the new challenge
(accommodation).
Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional lecture.

Test your knowledge

Application No. 6

A. Read the situations below then answer the questions.

1. It’s Christmas and Uncle Bob is giving “aguinaldo” to the children. Three year-old Karen
did not want to receive the one hundred peso bill and instead preferred to receive four
20 peso bills. Her ten year-old cousins were telling her its better to get the one hundred
bill, but they failed convince her.

Why do you think did Karen prefer the 20-peso bills? ____________________________

________________________________________________________________________

2. Siblings, Tria, 10; Enzo, 8; and Riel, 4 were sorting out their stuff animals. They had
7 bears, 3 dogs, 2 cows and 1 dolphin. Mommy, a psychology teacher, enters and
says, “ Good thing you’re sorting those. Do you have more stuffed animals or more
bears?” Tria and Enzo says, “stuffed animals.” Riel says “Bears.”

Why do you think Riel answered “Bears?” What does this say about how she thought to
 answer the question? ______________________________________________________

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

3. While eating on her high chair, seventh-month old Liza accidentally dropped her spoon
on the floor. She saw mommy pick it up. Liza again her new spoon, and she does this
several times more on purpose. Mommy didn’t like it at all but Liza appeared to enjoy
dropping the spoons the whole time.

Why do you think baby Liza appeared to enjoy dropping the spoons? _______________

________________________________________________________________________

B. Design one Piagetian task along with your area of specialization that is localized and
contextualized for target learner.
C. Answer the following questions.

1. As a future teacher in the elementary or secondary school, how will you apply your
knowledge of the process of equilibration and Piaget's stages of development in your
classroom? How does this knowledge influence your selection of what to teach and how to
teach it?

2. Why does a teacher prefer the use of more concrete instructional methods in teaching to
encourage students to think more formally?

LESSON 7

Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• explain the 8 stages of life to someone you care about ; and
• suggest at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a future teacher.

Overview of the topic

• Erikson’s “psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words namely psychological
(or the root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mind, brain, personality, etc) and social (external
relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson's theory. Occasionally,
you'll see the term extend to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to the life, as in
biological.
• Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory
and incorporated cultural and social aspect intro Freud's biological and sexually
oriented theory
• Its also interesting to see how his ideas developed over time, perhaps aided by his
own journey through the ‘psychosocial crisis’ stages model that underpinned his work • Like
other influential theories, Erikson’s model is simple and well designated . The theory is a basis
for broad complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior , and also for
understanding and facilitating personal development- of self and others. • It can help the
teacher in becoming more knowledgeable at the same time understanding of the various
environmental factors that affect his own and his students’ personality and behavior
• Each stages involves psychosocial crisis of two opposing emotional forces is contrary
dispositions . Each crisis stage relates to a corresponding life stage and its inherent
challenges.
• Erikson used the words ‘syntonic’ for the first listed positive disposition in each crisis (e.g.
Trust) and ‘dystonic’ for the second listed negative disposition (e.g. Mistrust). • If the stage is
manage well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength which help us through
the rest of the stages of our lives. Successfully passing through each crisis involves ‘’achieving”
a healthy ratio or balance between two opposing dispositions that represent crisis.
• On the other hand if don’t do so well, we may develop maladaptations and malignancies, as
well as endanger all future development.
• A malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too little of positive and to much of the
negative aspect of the task, such as a person who cant trust others.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

 College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• A maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive and too little of
the negative such as a person who trusts too much.

Erikson emphasized the significance of ‘mutuality ‘ and generativity in this theory.

The term is linked. Mutuality reflects the effect of generation on each other , especially
among families, and particularly between parents and children and grand children.
Everyone potentially affects everyone else’s experience as they pass through the different
crisis stages . Generativity, actually a named disposition within of the stages ( Generativity vs.
stagnation, stage seven), reflects the significant relationship between adults and the best
interest of children – one’s growth children, and in a way everyone else’s children – the next
generation, and all following generations.

THE PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional

lecture. Test your knowledge

Application No. 7

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
A. Fill out the following table to show the comparison and contrast of Erikson’s and
Freud’s salient features of their theories.

Erickson’s psychosocial Freudian Life stage/ Basic virtue and second

crisis stage (syntonic psychosexu relationshi named strength (potential
and dystonic) al stages p/ issues positive outcomes from
each crisis)

B. Answer the following questions.

1. You heard that some of your students watch adult/pornographic movies. As a
classroom adviser of grade 7 students, how would you react to this and what would be your
advice to your students? Give three concrete ways on how you would deal in that situation.

2. Your grade 8 student is being verbally bullied because he openly admits that he is a
gay. How can you explain the liberty to choose identity to your bully students?

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
LESSON 8

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

What are the objectives of this lesson?

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
• explain the stages of moral development ;
• analyse a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his response to moral dilemmas;
Level Stage Description

and
• cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as teacher later
on.

Overview of the topic

Lawrence Kohlberg
(October 25, 1927 – January 19, 1987)
• He was a Jewish American psychologist born in Bronxville, New York, who served as a
professor at the University of Chicago, as well as Harvard University.
• Having specialized in research on moral education and reasoning, he is best known for
his theory of stages of moral development.
• A close follower of Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, Kohlberg's work
reflected and extended his predecessor's ideas, at the same time creating a new
field within psychology: "moral development".
• Kohlberg was one of the most eminent psychologists of the 20th century.

Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 Preconventional. This is the 1Punishment and Obedience. One is

whether the act itself is

good or bad.
Post-conventional,

Autonomous, or 3
Principled. Conventional.
Moral Moral reasoning is
based on reasoning is
based on the enduring or 6
consistent conventions or
norms of concept of moral
values and society; these
may include principles and
not just approval of
others, law, and following
the law. Moral order, and
expectations from values
and principles are a
person’s family, group, or

nation are perceived as 4

valuable. The attitude is
not only one of
conformity to personal
expectations and social
order, but of loyalty, of
level where moral reasoning Stage actively maintaining,
is supporting, and justifying
Level the order, and of
based on the identifying with the
consequence/result of the persons or group involved
act (reward and in it.
punishment) or the
physical consequences of
the action, not on Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning
Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

clearly defined on this level. through the conscience by self-chosen ethical principles. This
also refers to
the universal principles of justice,
equality, respect for the dignity of
 human beings.

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional

lecture. Test your knowledge

Application No. 8

A. Answer the following questions.

1. Explain why moral education must be a part of the school curriculum even until
tertiary level. What do you think are the probable challenges that the school might face
once moral education is given emphasis in the curriculum?
2. New reports show that there are students who have suicidal tendencies or have committed
suicide. Suggest two concrete activities that would help students to realize the value of life. 3. If
you were to critic the application of Kohlberg’s theory to education, what maybe its
weakness or loopholes? Explain your answer.

B. Using the Exit Ticket graphic organizer, reflect on your learning from this lesson by filling up
the boxes to reflect your metacognitive thinking.
Today, my learning Today, I considered a new Today I’m certain
was disrupted idea or concept that I learned
because

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
LESSON 9

Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to: • explain why
Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory ;

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development; and •

explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.

Overview of the topic

• When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used the Socratic
Method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that allowed
Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of understanding. This
experience, together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led him to
recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive development.
His theory became known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of development
• In Social Interaction Piaget's theory was more on individual while Vygotsky is more social.
Piaget's work is focused heavily on how individual's cognitive development while Vygotsky
gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the cognitive development
of individuals.
• For him, the social environment or the community takes on a major role in one's
development. Vygotsky emphasized that effective learning happens through participation in
social activities that parents, teachers, peers and other adults in the learner's development
contribute to the process.
• Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive development
of children. Piaget believed that child develops as he goes through the universal
stages of cognitive development. While Vygotsky looked into the wide rage of
experiences that a culture would give a child.
• Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. For
Vygotsky, "talking to oneself" is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the
child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private Speech is a form of self-talk that
guides the child's thinking and action.

THREE STAGES OF SPEECH DEVELOPMENT

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
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ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT (ZPD)

• Its goal is to help the child move from the level of current independent performance (the
competence demonstrated to do a task alone) to the level of potential performance (the
competence achieved with the guidance of others).

SCAFFOLDING

• Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the role of teachers and others in supporting
the learners development and providing support structures to get to that next stage or
level.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 • It serves as intervention to reach the zone of proximal development.

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional lecture.

Test your knowledge

Application No. 9

A. Tell whether the statements depict practices supportive of cognitive development according
to the sociocultural theory of Vygotsky. Write S (supportive) if the stated action supports
cognitive development, NS if (not supportive).
1. Father models to his son how to saw wood.
2. Mrs. Reyes permits the learners to use trial and error to solve a difficult task.
3. Mr. Cruz requests Jose’s parents to tutor their son.
4. Kenneth seeks the help of his friend, Mario, the Math wizard, to teach him to divide. 5.
Ann wants to know why Mom has to peel the carrot, her mom has no time to explain. 6.
After one example of adding binomial, Mr. Andres gives board exercises. 7. Instead of
confiscating cell phones, Mr. Cruz uses them to test spelling among learners. 8. Expensive
toys bought by the Mother are just for display, not for her child’s play. 9. Miss Melad
groups the class by two’s, with members critiquing each other’s work. 10. Mr. Rivad
mainly relies on peer tutors in enhancing poor learners' achievement.

B. Answer the following questions:

1. “Playing house” is part of kids' childhood experiences. How beneficial is it in cognitive

development?
2. Research has shown that learners from low-income groups are at a disadvantage because
parents cannot provide educational toys and entertainment media. How important
are these technological tools at an early age?

3. Recall one difficult lesson you were taught in the past. If you were the teacher then, what
scaffolds should you have used to facilitate learning?

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

LESSON 10
 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model ; • identify factors in
one’s own life that exerted influence in one’s development; and • use the bioecological
theory as a framework to describe the factors that affect a child and adolescent
development.

Overview of the topic

• Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian-born American psychologist who is most known for
his ecological systems theory. His work with the United States government helped in
the formation of the Head start program in 1965
• Bronfenbrenner’s also known as the Bioecological systems theory presents child
development within the context of relationship system that comprise the child’s
environment.
• It describes multipart layers of the environment that has an effect on the
development of the child.
• Each layer is further made up of different structures.
• The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as
the key factor in one’s development.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 • Microsystem – is the layer nearest the child. It comprises structures such which the
child directly interacts with. It includes structures such as one’s family, school, and
neighborhood.
• Mesosystem – this layer provides the connection between the structures of the child’s
microsystem.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Examples: The connection between the child’s teacher and his parents, between
his church and his neighborhood, etc.

• Exosystem – this layer defines the larger social system in which the child does not
function directly. The structures in this layer impact the child’s development by
interacting with some structure in her microsystem.
Examples: Parent workplace schedules or community-based family resources are
examples. The child may not be directly involved at this level, but he does feel
 the positive or negative force involved with the interaction with his own system.

• Macrosystem – this layer may be considered the outermost layer in the child’s
environment. While not being a specific framework, this layer is comprised of cultural
values, customs, and laws.
Example: if it is the belief of the culture that parents should be solely responsible for
raising their children, that culture is less likely to provide resources to help parents. This,
in turn, affects the structures in which the parents function. The parents’ ability
or inability to carry out that responsibility toward their child within the context of
the child’s microsystem is likewise affected.

• Chronosystem – this system encompasses the dimension of time as it relates to a child’s

environments. Elements within this system can be either external, such as the timing of
a parent’s death, or internal, such as the physiological changes that occur with the aging
of a child. As children get older, they may react differently to environmental changes
and may be more able to determine more how that change will influence them.

Note: Please see the attached power point presentation for additional lecture.

Test your knowledge

Application No. 10

Answer the sentence completion item.

From the lesson on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory, I learned that …________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

LESSON 11

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Development of the Learners at Various Stages

Pre-Natal Development

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:
• Trace the course of pre- natal developmental process that you went through •
Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-abortion stand;

Overview of the topic

All the developmental theories which we lengthily discussed dwelt on the

developmental process after birth. None of them was concerned with what development went
on birth. To make the description of human development complete, it may good to understand
the beginnings of he child and the adolescent. The development takes place in three (3) stages
proves that the developing embryo in a mother’s womb is truly a human being. It is divided into:
germinal period, embryonic period and fetal period.

1. Germinal period- (first 2 weeks after conception). This includes the creation of the
zygote, continued cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall. The
following are the details of development during this period.
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization the male (sperm) and female (egg) chromosome
unite.
b. 36 hours the fertilized ovum zygote, divides into two (2) cells
c. 48 hours (2days) – 2 cells become 4 cells
d. 72 hours (3 days) 4 cells become a small compact ball of 16 to 32 cells
e. 96 hours (4 days) – hallow ball of 64-128 cells
f. 4 to 5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of the uterus
h. 11 to 15 days – blastocyst invades into uterine wall and becomes implanted in it
(implantation)
2. Embryonic Period (2 -8 weeks after conception) – In this stage, the name of the mass
cells, zygote become embryo. The following developments take place:
a. Cell differentiation intensifies
b. Life support systems for the embryo develop and organ appear

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

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As the zygote gets attached to the wall of the uterus, two layers of cells are formed. The
embryo’s endoderm, the inner layer cells, develops into the digestive and respiratory
systems. The outer layer of cells is divided into two parts the ectoderms and the mesoderm.
The ectoderm is the outermost layer which becomes the nervous system, sensory receptors
(eye skin and nose) and the skin parts such as nails and hair. The mesoderm is the middle
layer which becomes the circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive system
this process during the first two months called organogenesis.
As the three layers of the embryo form, the support systems for the embryo
develop rapidly. These life-support systems are the placenta, the umbilical cord and the
amnion. The placenta is a life-support system that consists of disk-shaped group of tissues in
which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do not join.
 The umbilical cord contains two arteries and one vein that connects the baby to the
placenta. The amnion is a bag or an envelope that contains a clear fluid in which the
developing embryo floats. All these embryo life-support systems develop from the
fertilized egg and not from the mother’s body.

3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – Growth and development

continue dramatically during this period. The delails of the developmental process are as
follows:
a. 3 months after conception- fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 1
ounce; fetus has become active moves it arms and legs, open and closes
its mouth and moves its head, the face, forehead, eyelids, nose, chin can
now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower arms, hands and lower
limbs, the genital areas can now be identified as male or female.
b. 4 months after conception- fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4 to 7 ounces,
growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts, pre-natal reflexes are
stronger, mother feels arm and legs movements for the first time.
c. 5 months after conception – fetus is about 12 inches long, weighs close to a
pound structures of the skin have formed for the first time.
d. 6 months after conception- fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs one and half
pound, eye lids are completely formed, fine layer or head covers the head,
grasping reflex is present and irregular movement occur.
e. 7 months after conception - fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs of 3 pound. f.
8 to 9 months after conception- fetus grows longer and gains substantial weight
about 4 pounds.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Test your knowledge

Application No. 12

Answer the sentence completion item.

1. Give the stages of prenatal development. Make graphic organizer to represent these
stages of a child.

2. Look at yourself. You are perfectly made. The cell of your lips are at your lips Your
mouth is close to your nose. You can breathe normally. Did it ever occur to your that
is could have been otherwise?
Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• Trace the development of the child from infants to toddlers.
• Draw implications of these principles ad processes to parenting and caregiving.

Overview of the topic

We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall continue to trace
the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who just born up to when he
reaches age 2. The period that comes after pre-natal or antenatal stg is infancy which in turn, is
followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and toddlerhood span the first two years of life.

Between birth and age three, children rapidly achieve many important milestones that
create the foundation for later growth and development. Early in life, babies depend on others
to meet their needs for safety and security. When infants receive warm, consistent care
and attention from adults, they are able to establish a sense of trust in the world. They learn
that important caregivers will feed them, change them, bathe them, and play with them. This
trust serves as an important first step for children's development during the toddler
years, a time when children establish independence by exploring their environment. If
toddlers trust their caregivers and use them as a secure base from which to explore, they
are more confident in their efforts to learn about the world. Furthermore, when children
become afraid or encounter danger, they have the confidence to turn away and return to their
secure base for reassurance and protection. Toddlers also experience a new sense of self-
awareness that grows from their increasing desire to do things for themselves. In other
words, toddlers become more independent each and every day. For toddlers, learning to feed
themselves and becoming toilet trained are important and exciting accomplishments. These
markers provide the necessary starting point for growth and learning during the preschool
years.

Helping children feel safe and secure during infancy and later encouraging toddlers'
exploration are important responsibilities for adults. Children who trust their caregivers
are more likely to confidently explore their surroundings and establish a sense of healthy
independence. And, as children begin to establish their independence, a positive sense of self
control and self-esteem emerges. Caring adults have a wonderful opportunity to foster
children's independence and, in turn, their positive sense of self. The following
information provides general knowledge about children's development during infancy and
toddlerhood, including physical development, thinking and learning, expressing feelings,
awareness of self

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

and others, and communication. Specific suggestions for how adults can positively
influence children's development are offered. Special attention is also paid to several
issues that are particularly important during infancy and toddlerhood, particularly:

• Toilet training
• Biting

Development between birth and 30 months

Each child grows and develops at his or her own rate. Children display developmental
landmarks at different times. The table below lists characteristics that children between
the ages of birth and 2-1/2 typically display as they grow and develop. For each type of
development (e.g., physical, communication), characteristics for younger children are listed
first, followed by the characteristics that children display as they get older (i.e., younger
children's characteristics are at the top of each list, older children's are at the bottom).

Development table: Physical

Birth to 8 month
Characteristics

• Reaches towards interesting objects

• Puts hand/objects in mouth
• Repeatedly grasps and releases objects
• Lifts and holds up head
• Sits up alone
• Rolls over
• Crawl

What can adults do?

• Give your baby objects to hold, poke, wave, and grab. Make sure the object is too big to fit
completely in baby's mouth.
• Support baby's neck and head when picking up or laying down.
• Strengthen neck muscles by playing games where baby moves eyes/head from side to
side (e.g., move a toy slowly back and forth in front of baby's face).

8 to 18 months
Characteristics
 • Sits in chairs
• Pulls self to stand
• Walks when led, then alone

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

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• Throws objects
• Climbs stairs
• Walks backwards
• Cooperates during dressing
• Handles finger foods
• Uses spoons and cups
• Scribbles with crayons

What can adults do?

• Make sure your child has a safe environment to explore. Anything that a baby might use to
pull himself/herself up with must be sturdy and fastened down to support his/her
weight.
• Try to avoid using walkers, as they can be dangerous and interfere with normal muscle and
joint development. If you do use a walker, make sure your home is safe (e.g., close
doors, put gates at top of stairways; move all electrical cords out of reach,
provide smooth surfaces, keep children away from water sources such as bathtubs and
toilets).

18 to 36 months
Characteristics

• Walks up/down stairs

• Stands on one foot
• Stands and walks on tiptoes

What can adults do?

• Protect your toddler's feet with shoes when learning to walk outside.

Development table: Thinking and learning

Birth to 8 month
Characteristics

• Uses senses (hearing, sight, smell, taste, touch) and reflexes to learn
• Comforts self by sucking pacifier or thumb
• Looks to others for information about social situations

What can adults do?

 • Read picture books with your baby.
• Sing to your baby (e.g., lullabies).

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• Offer babies brightly-colored toys that vary in shape and texture (e.g., a bumpy ball; a
smooth plastic block).
• Use your face and voice to convey reassurance to your baby.

8 to 18 months
Characteristics

• Becomes anxious when separated from loved ones

• Actionsbecome more intentional (e.g., drops food for dog to eat; rings bell to hear
sound)

What can adults do?

• Play peek-a-boo. This can be good practice for saying good-bye, and helping your baby
learn that you will be back.
• Play hide and seek games to help your child learn that objects still exist, even when they
cannot be seen.

18 to 36 months
Characteristics

• Understands that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen •
Thinks forward about the future and backwards about the past
• Objects can be used to represent other things (bowl is used as a hat)
• Imitates others' actions

What can adults do?

• Read to your child! It's okay if your child wants you to read a favorite story over and
over.
• Provide your toddler with simple musical instruments such as a tambourine. • Let your
toddler help you with easy chores (e.g., matching socks; putting away toys; placing
napkins on the table).
• Encourage pretend play.

Development table: Expressing feeling

Birth to 8 month
Characteristics

• Expresses many emotions, including joy, fear, sadness, anger, pleasure, excitement,
 happiness, disappointment

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• Recognizes primary caregivers and expresses positive emotions towards them

What can adults do?

• Cuddle with your baby often. Share plenty of hugs and kisses.
• Label baby's facial expressions and discuss emotional experiences.

8 to 18 months
Characteristics

• Becomes nervous when primary caregiver is out of sight and strangers are present •
Shows affection (hugs, kisses)
• Expresses intense feelings for parents

What can adults do?

• Give your child a picture of yourself.

• Make a tape of yourself reading a favorite book or singing a favorite song. • Make good-
byes positive. Give your child a hug and a smile. Assure your child that you will see him/her
later.

18 to 36 months
Characteristics

• Demonstrates pride and pleasure when accomplishes something

• Expresses feelings of embarrassment and shame
• Moods rapidly change
• Feelings of fearfulness increase (monsters under the bed)
• Labels feelings
• Begins to understand others' feelings

What can adults do?

• Help your toddler label emotions (e.g., "You're mad at me for taking away that rock!"). •
Create opportunities for your child to experience success (e.g., cleaning up toys, feeding
self) and verbally express your pride in your child's accomplishments.

Development table: Awareness of self and others

Birth to 8 month
Characteristics

• Interested in own body

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
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• Enjoys looking at human faces

• Starts and ends interactions with others by smiling and gazing
• Distinguishes familiar and unfamiliar people

What can adults do?

• Respond to your baby's gazes with your face (e.g., smile) and with words. •
Provide babies board books with pictures of other babies.
• Display photos of important friends and family members.

8 to 18 months
Characteristics

• Responds to own name

• Interested in other children; establishes relationships by playing and sharing objects •
Listens closely to adult talk
• Looks at self in mirrors
• Becomes more assertive
• Explores environment

What can adults do?

• Point out shapes, objects, and colors to your baby and talk about them. •
Make child-safe mirrors available for baby.

18 to 36 months
Characteristics

• Recognizes own power ("No!")

• Enjoys playing and cooperat ing with other children
• Controls emotions and behavior

What can adults do?

• Encourage and praise your child for sharing.

• Create choices and options for children to practice saying "No" (e.g., "Do you want to
wear your red shirt today? Your blue one? Your green one?").

Development table: Communication

Birth to 8 months
Characteristics

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 • Uses coos, grunts, facial expressions, cries, and gurgles to communicate • Body
movements
such as cuddling, eye contact, and arm or leg movements used to communicate
• Babbles and talks to self
• Looks at objects when named

What can adults do?

• Babies love to hear their parents' voices — talk to your baby often, both with words and
smiles.
• Always find out the reason a baby is crying. When he/she needs to be comforted, try
different strategies to soothe him/her such as feeding, burping, changing the
diaper, holding him/her in a different position, singing softly, or taking him/her for a ride
in her stroller.
• Give meaning to your baby's communicative efforts (e.g., when baby smiles and grunts,
say, "Oh, you smiled! You must be happy!").

8 to 18 months
Characteristics

• Uses gestures to communicate needs and wants Learns and uses more words •
Combines words to form simple sentences

What can adults do?

• Verbally interpret your baby's actions (e.g., If baby points to his/her bottle, say "Do you
want your milk? It's in your bottle!").
• Ask your child questions he/she can answer by looking around nearby and pointing (e.g.,
"Are those your shoes?").
• Narrate events that are happening as you interact with your child (e.g., "You bounced the
ball. I caught the ball, now I am rolling the ball to you.")

18 to 36 months
Characteristics

• Sentences used to communicate feelings and needs

• Listens to stories

What can adults do?

• Read lots of books.

• Engage in frequent conversation with your child, emphasizing turn-taking. Be sure to
follow your child's lead during the conversation.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

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Toilet training
Most children successfully master toilet training by the age of 3. This is an important marker
of independence for toddlers, as they gain more control of their own bodies. Parents and other
important caregivers play a critical role in facilitating this transition in their children's
lives. Children need extra attention and affection during this time. With support from
teachers and child care providers, parents can make toilet training a successful learning
experience. Listed below are tips for toilet training your child.

• Look for signs that indicate your child is ready to start toilet training
o Awareness of a wet diaper or bowel movement in diaper
o Uses words to express needs
o Familiarity with toileting (through observation and discussion)
o Girls can usually be toilet trained earlier, at around 18 months or later, than boys,
who usually begin toilet training at around 22 months or later.
• Plan ahead
Pick an easy weekend/weekday when few other activities are going on to start toilet
training. Read books about potty training and talk about it. Be sure to have a lot of
training pants ready.
• Start in the morning
As soon as your child wakes up, suggest that he or she try sitting on the potty. If he or
she refuses, simply skip it and try again later.
• Morning reading
After eating breakfast, gather a few of your child's favorite books. Have him/her sit on
the potty and read. Make sure books have interesting pictures and a good story, as your
goal is to encourage him/her to sit there for a while and relax. Since he/she has just
eaten and drank at breakfast, chances are good that at least some urine will come out.
Praise your child's success. Let him/her flush and wash up.
• Once an hour
Plan for a timer to go off every hour. When it does, tell your child with enthusiasm that
it is "Time to go again!" or "Time to look at more books!" Avoid asking if they want or
need to go potty during the training stage — they really do not know whether they need
to go. When you ask, you give the child a chance to say "No," which is a legitimate
response.
• Accidents
Toilet training is a new skill that children learn through practice and experimentation. It
is okay if your child has an accident. Stay calm and reassure your child that it is okay. Let
the child help clean up and change his or her clothes, which allows him or her to feel
good about the things he or she can do.
• Be consistent
Once your child is ready to begin toilet training, commit to it. Do not switch back and
forth from diapers to underwear — it is confusing and the child loses his or her sense of
control over the process.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

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• Be supportive
You can facilitate toilet training by talking about it with your child, by accompanying
 your child to the bathroom when you drop him or her off at school, and by providing
lots of extra clothes that your child can pull on and off on his or her own.
• Share the plan
When getting ready to begin potty training your child, be sure to share your plan (e.g., a
written summary) with other important adults in your child's life (e.g., child care
providers).

Biting
Whenever a child bites another person, it is upsetting for everyone. Biting is common among
very young children, particularly in group settings such as child care. It is very important
for adults to understand why children bite so that they can help children find more
appropriate ways to express themselves. The chart on page 6 lists reasons children bite,
strategies to help prevent biting, and strategies for responding to biting.

Reasons children bite and strategies to prevent biting

Biting satisfies their strong need for independence and control.

• Give children opportunities to express their independence and self-control by providing

them plenty of choices (e.g., what to wear that day; what game to play; what to eat for
lunch).

Teething makes babies mouths hurt.

• Give babies an object to mouth on, such as a teething toy or a frozen bagel.
They are trying to approach or initiate interaction with another child.
• Make sure children have plenty of opportunities to interact with one another. Point out
and praise their positive interactions.
They are seeking attention.
• Give children lots of attention during the day. Cuddle with them, play with them, read to
them.
They are angry or frustrated.
• Be aware of children's feelings. Watch for signs of potential conflict and increasing
frustration.
They are experimenting and want to know what will happen if they bite.
• Provide children activities and toys that offer a variety of sensory motor experiences
(e.g., water play, playdough, fingerpainting). Help them learn about cause and effect. They are
feeling threatened.
• Assure children that they are safe and that their possessions are safe. Give children lots of
affection.
Strategies for responding to biting
Sometimes prevention efforts do not stop children from biting. When a child bites
another person, the adults in charge should consistently respond to each biting episode;
specific strategies and ideas are listed below:

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• State clearly that it is not okay to bite.

• Be sure that the child who is bitten is cared for. Comfort the child; put on an ice pack to
prevent bruising; clean the wound if the skin is broken.
• If possible, have the child who bit help care for the child who was bitten. • Look for
 patterns of biting (e.g., Does the child bite near mealtime? When the environment
gets too loud?).
• Try to identify changes in the child's life that might trigger the biting (e.g., divorce,
a new sibling).
• Seek help (start with your pediatrician and/or child care provider) if the biting does not
stop or if it becomes more vicious.

Test your knowledge

Application No. 13

Answer the follwing .

1. Reflect on the given quotation title: “A baby is God’s opinion that life should go
on” by Carl Sandurg

Middle Childhood
What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• Describe the different development of early childhood children in your words. •

Enumerate ideas on how you can apply the concepts In teaching learning processe.

Overview of the topic

 Middle childhood is the stage when children undergo so many different changes
physically, emotionally, socially and cognitively. This is the stage between 6 to 12 years
old. Children in this stage receive less attention than children in infancy or early
childhood. The support of the family and friends of the child is very important during
this phase of development.
Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady. During this
stage, physical development involves: (1) having good muscle control and coordination. (2)
developing eye-hand coordination (3) having good personal hygiene and (4) being aware
of good safety habits.

Height Weight
In this development stage, children will have started their elementary grades specifically
their primary years, grade 1-3. This period will give children time to get used to the changes in
their bodies. An average increase in height of a little over two inches a year in both boys and
girls will introduce them to many different activities that they can now do with greater accuracy.
Weight gain averaged about 6.5 pound each year. Most children will have
slimmer appearance compared to their preschool years because of the shifts inn
accumulation and location of their body fats. A child’s legs ae longer and more proportioned to
the body that they were before.
A number of factors could indicate how much a child grows, or how much changes in the
body will take place.
• Genes
• Food
• Climate
• Exercise
• Medical conditions
• Diseases/ illnesses

Bones and Muscles

Childhood years are the peak bone – producing years. This is the best time to
teach children of good dietary and exercise habits to help them having strong healthy
bones throughout their lives. Many lifestyle factors, like nutrition and physical activity,
can substantially influence the increase of bone mass during childhood. Because children
bones have proportionately more water and protein-like materials and fewer minerals
than adult, ensuring adequate calcium intake ill greatly help them in strengthening bones and
muscles.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Motor Development
Young school-aged children and gaining control over the major muscles of their bodies.
Most children have a good sense of balance. They like testing their muscles strength and skills.
They enjoy doing real-life tasks ana activities. They pretend and fantasize less often
because they are more attuned with everything that is happening around them.
Children in this stage love to move a lot- they run, skip, hop, jump, tumble, roll
and dance. Because their motor skills are already developed, they can now perform
activities like catching a ball with one hand, trying their shoelaces, they can manage
zippers and buttons. Performing unimanual (require the use one hand) activities becomes
easier. Children graphic activities such a writing and drawing , are now more controlled but a
re still developing. They can print their names and copy simple designs, letter and shapes.
They hold pencils, crayons, utensils correctly with supervision. Motor development skills
include coordination, balance, speed,agility and power.
The definitions of the different motor skills are the following:
Coordination is a series of movements organized and timed to occur in a particular way to bring
about a particular result. The more complex the movement is the greater coordination
is required. Children develop ey-hand and eye-foot coordination when they play games and
spsts. Balance- is the child’s ability to maintain the equilibrium or stability of his/her body in
different positions. Balance is a basic skill needed especially in this stage, when children have
improved balancing skills.
Static balance - is the ability to maintain equilibrium in a fixed position like balancing on one
foot.
Dynamic balance – is the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving
Speed- is the ability to cover a great distance in the shortest possible time while agility is one’s
ability to quickly change or shift the direction of the body. These skills are extremely important
in most sports.
Power- is the ability to perform a maximum effort in the shortest possible period. All these
motor skills are vital in performing different activities, games and sports. Development of
these skills may spell the difference between success and failure in future endeavors of
the child.

Cognitive Development of Pre schoolers

Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist when it comes to cognitive development. According
to him, intelligence is the basic mechanism of ensuring balance ensuring balance in the relations
between the person and the environment. Everything that a person experiences is a continuous
process of assimilations and accommodations. He described four main periods in
cognitive development. For Paget’s intellectual ability is not the same at different stages.

Concrete Operation
It is san from age 7 to approximately 11 years. In this developmental stage,
children have better understanding of their thinking skills. Children begin to think logically
about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty understanding
abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard time at problem solving.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Logic
Concrete operational thinks, according to Piaget, can already make use of
inductive logic. Inductive logic involves thinking from a specific experiences to a general
principle. But at this stage, children have great difficulty in using deductive logic or using a
general principle to determine the outcome of specific event.

Reversibility
On of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility,
or awareness that actions ca be reversed. An example of this is being able to revise the order of
relationships between mental categories.
Cognitive Milestones
Elementary-aged children encounter developmental smilestones. They develop certain
skills within a particular time frame. The skills they learn are the in a sequential manner,
meaning they need to understand numbers before they can perform a mathematical equation.
Each milestone that develops is dependent upon the previous milestone they achieved. Up until
age of 8 a child learn new skills at a rapid pace. Once they reach that age of 8 the skills they
learn starts to level off and it usually is a ready increase of new skills.
Specifically, young primary school-aged children can tell left from right. They are able to
speak and express themselves and their families. During play, they practice using the words and
language they learn in school. They start to understand time and days of the week. They enjoy
rhymes, riddles and jokes. Their attention span is longer. They can follow more involved stories.
They are learning letters and words. By six, most can read words or combinations of words.

Socio Emotional Development

In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school. School
experience become the priority, with children so busy doing school work. The encouragement
of parents and caring educators help to build a child’s sense of self-esteem, strengthening their
confidence and ability to interact positively in the world.

Understanding the Self

One’s self-concept is the knowledge about self, such as beliefs regarding

personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals and roles. It also involves
a sense of belonging and acceptance, a sense of good and a sense of being capable of doing
good. Having a healthy self-concept does not mean a child thinks he is better that others. It
means that he like himself, feels accepted by his family and friends and believes that he can do
well.
Primary school children’s self-concept is influenced not only by the parents, but also by
the growing number of people they begin to interact with, including teachers and classmates.
Children have a growing understanding of their place in the world. They already know that they
can please their parents and teachers They are comfortable and show confidence in doing thigs
they are good at, but also show frustration in things that they find difficult.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

School Year
In the transition from pre-elementary to primary school, children tend to become
increasingly self-confident and able to cope well with social interactions. They are not focused
on themselves anymore but are also aware of the needs and desires of others. The issues
of fairness and equality become important to them as they learn to care for people who are not
part of their families. Characteristics like loyalty and dependability are being considered as well
as responsibility and kindness.

Building friendship
Making friends is crucial but very important part of children’s social and emotional
growth. As soon as they are able to walk and talk, they will tend to show natural inclination to
be around other children. Children, during this stage most likely belong approximately to
the same age group and same social economic status. It is found along the stages of
childhood through adolescence. But for children until the age of seven or eight, they think of
themselves more that others. They may play well with groups but may need some time
to play alone. Primary school children prefer to belong to peer groups of the same gender.
Many children will use their surroundings to obsrve and mingle with other children. Some
will see this as an opportunity to make friends with other remain a bit of loner.

Self Control
Once children reach school age, they begin to take pride in their ability to do things and
their parents and teachers. This becomes a great opportunity for parents and teachers to
encourage positive emotional responses from children by acknowledging their mature,
compassionate behaviors.

Test your knowledge

Application No. 14
1. Study the situations given below. If you were the teacher, how will you help
these learners cope with their socioemotional difficulties?

Dear Teacher,
I am really heart broken. MY 8 year old daughter is feeling lonely, isolated and
friendless. It seems that she has felt this way for quite a while. She says that he mostly
spends time alone- that she has no friends because no one wants to plays with her. She
tags along, but is usually left out eventually. She can become angry if things don’t always
go her way and also teary. I don’t know where to turn to help her-the tough that
she finds school painful is heartbreaking

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Sincerely,
Worried Mother
 Adolescence
What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

• Define adolescence and explain the concepts of biological changes puberty and
transition into adulthood.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• Analyze the issues related to physical, cognitive and emotional maturation inclusive of
sexuality, thereby formulating positive values on adolescent development.

Overview of the topic

The period of adolescence begins with biological changes of puberty and ends with the
role and work of adult life. The specific ages for this period varies from person to person but
distinct phases have been identified. The advent of puberty may come early for some and late
for some others. But everyone goes these stages. (1) early adolescence characterized by
puberty mostly occurring between age 10 to 13. (2) middle adolescence identity issues with the
age 14 to 16 (3) late adolescence identity which marks the transition into adulthood age of 17 to
20.
Adolescence is often characterized as a period of transformation, primarily, in terms of
physical, cognitive, and social-relational change. Adolescence is a developmental stage that has
been defined as starting with puberty and ending with the transition to adulthood
(approximately ages 10–20). Adolescence has evolved historically, with evidence indicating that
this stage is lengthening as individuals start puberty earlier and transition to adulthood
later than in the past. Puberty today begins, on average, at age 10–11 years for girls and 11–12
years for boys. This average age of onset has decreased gradually over time since the 19th
century by 3–4 months per decade, which has been attributed to a range of factors
including better nutrition, obesity, increased father absence, and other environmental factors
(Steinberg, 2013). Completion of formal education, financial independence from parents,
marriage, and parenthood have all been markers of the end of adolescence and beginning of
adulthood, and all of these transitions happen, on average, later now than in the past. In fact,
the prolonging of adolescence has prompted the introduction of a new developmental
period called emerging adulthood that captures these developmental changes out of
adolescence and into adulthood, occurring from approximately ages 18 to 29 (Arnett, 2000).

Puberty

Adolescence begins with puberty. While the sequence of physical changes in puberty is
predictable, the onset and pace of puberty vary widely. Several physical changes occur during
puberty, such as adrenarche and gonadarche, the maturing of the adrenal glands and sex
glands, respectively. Also during this time, primary and secondary sexual characteristics develop
and mature. Primary sexual characteristics are organs specifically needed for reproduction, like
the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males. Secondary sexual characteristics
are physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as
development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice
in boys. Girls experience menarche, the beginning of menstrual periods, usually around 12–13
years old, and boys experience spermarche, the first ejaculation, around 13–14 years old.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

During puberty, both sexes experience a rapid increase in height (i.e., growth spurt). For
girls this begins between 8 and 13 years old, with adult height reached between 10 and
16 years old. Boys begin their growth spurt slightly later, usually between 10 and 16 years old,
and reach their adult height between 13 and 17 years old. Both nature (i.e., genes) and
nurture (e.g., nutrition, medications, and medical conditions) can influence height.

Because rates of physical development vary so widely among teenagers, puberty can be
a source of pride or embarrassment. Early maturing boys tend to be stronger, taller, and more
athletic than their later maturing peers. They are usually more popular, confident, and
independent, but they are also at a greater risk for substance abuse and early sexual activity.
Early maturing girls may be teased or overtly admired, which can cause them to feel self
conscious about their developing bodies. These girls are at a higher risk for depression,
substance abuse, and eating disorders. Late blooming boys and girls (i.e., they develop more
slowly than their peers) may feel self-conscious about their lack of physical development.
Negative feelings are particularly a problem for late maturing boys, who are at a higher risk for
depression and conflict with parents and more likely to be bullied.

Physical Development during Adolescence

The Brain: Basic Facts

The frontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for rational thinking, is still
developing during adolescence. Adolescents differ from adults in the way they behave,
solve problems, and make decisions. Recent research shows that there is a biological
explanation for this difference; the brain continues to develop during adolescence and
even into early adulthood.

Brain Development: The Amygdala and the Frontal Cortex

The amygdala and the frontal cortex are two key regions of the brain that develop
at different times. The amygdala, which processes stress and other emotions, and is
responsible for instinctual reactions like fear and aggressive behavior, matures early.

On the other hand, the frontal cortex, the area of the brain responsible for
judgment, self-control, emotional regulation, rational thought, goal setting, morality, and
understanding consequences, is not yet fully developed in teenagers. In fact, this area of the
brain develops quite dramatically during adolescence and into the mid-20s.
Because the part of the brain that helps us think before we act isn’t fully developed until
adulthood , in stressful situations or when faced with difficult decisions, teens are more likely
to:

• Think one thing and feel another

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

• Act from impulses that differ from thoughts or feelings

• Misread or misinterpret social cues and emotions

• Engage in risky or inappropriate behavior

How Can Adults Help?

There are several ways adults can help teens make healthy choices. Adolescents’ brains
go through a “use-it-or-lose-it” pruning system: brain cells and neural connections that get
used the least get pruned away and die off, whereas those that get used the most become
stronger.

To help teens make healthy choices, walk them through the decision making process
before they encounter risky situations. This will help them to make life-impacting decisions
with less stress. Teens who undergo learning and positive experiences help build complex,
adaptive brains.

Strategies to Support Healthy Adolescent Brain Development

• Encourage teens to have healthy lifestyles and offer opportunities for positive
experiences.
• Provide meaningful opportunities for teens to exercise logic and apply analytical and
decision making skills to build up those brain functions.
• Encourage teens to take healthy risks. Taking such risks will help to develop a stronger
frontal cortex, effectively giving the teen more valuable life skills.
(48)
• Allow teens to make mistakes so that they can learn from them.

Physical Development during Adolescence

Nutrition and Activity

Adolescents may be ready to make decisions about their body and health. Making
healthy decisions about what to eat and drink, how active they are, and how much sleep to get
are important decisions that can either promote or hinder health. Unfortunately, many teens
do not make healthy decisions, partly due to the frontal cortex still developing and partly due to
the culture in which we live. In the United States, 20% of individuals between the ages of 12
and 19 are obese. If you ever have the opportunity to watch the documentary, “Fed
Up.” It powerfully shows how we are failing our adolescents in terms of healthy eating.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Healthy Eating

Teens need to be taught how to make healthy eating choices. Here are some healthy eating tips
that teens should know:

• Try to limit foods like cookies, candy, frozen desserts, chips, and fries, which often have a lot
of sugar, unhealthy fat, and salt.
• For a quick snack, try recharging with a pear, apple, or banana; a small bag of baby
carrots; or hummus with sliced veggies.
• Don’t add sugar to your food and drinks.

• Drink fat-free or low-fat milk and avoid sugary drinks. Soda, energy drinks, sweet tea, and
some juices have added sugars, a source of extra calories. The 2015-2020 Dietary
Guidelines recommend getting less than 10 percent of your daily calories from
added sugars.

In addition to making smart food choices, it is also important to know that the nutritional needs
of adolescents are unique. Many teens need more of these nutrients:

• Calcium , to build strong bones and teeth. Good sources of calcium include fat-free
or low-fat milk, yogurt, and cheese.
• Vitamin D , to keep bones healthy. Good sources of vitamin D include orange juice,
oranges, tuna, and fat-free or low-fat milk.
• Potassium , to help lower blood pressure. Good sources of potassium include bananas
and baked potatoes with the skin.
• Fiber , to help stay regular and feel full. Good sources of fiber include beans and celery. •
Protein , to give you energy and help you grow strong. Good sources of protein include
peanut butter, eggs, tofu, legumes (lentils and peas), and chicken, fish, and low-fat meats. •
Iron , to help you grow. Red meat contains a form of iron that your body absorbs best.
Other good sources of iron include spinach, beans, peas, and iron-fortified cereals. You can
help your body absorb the iron from these foods better when you combine these
foods with vitamin C, like an orange.

Physical Activity

Physical activity should be part of teenagers’ daily life, whether they play sports,
take physical education (PE) classes in school, do chores, or get around by biking or walking.
Regular physical activity can help teenagers manage their weight, have stronger muscles
and bones, and be more flexible.
Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles
College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Aerobic Versus Lifestyle Activities

People, regardless of age, need to be physically active for at least 60 minutes a day. Most of the
60 minutes or more of activity a day should be either moderate or intense aerobic
physical activity. Everyone should include intense physical activity at least 3 days a week.
Examples of aerobic physical activity or activity that makes you breathe harder and speeds
up your heart rate, include jogging, biking, and dancing.

For a more moderate workout, brisk walking, jogging, or biking on flat streets or paths all work.
To pick up the intensity, individuals can turn a walk into a jog, or jog into a run and including
hills to the walk, jog, or bike ride. We don’t have to do 60 minutes a day all at once to benefit
from the activity. Teens can download fitness applications onto their computer, smartphone, or
other mobile device to help keep track of how active they are each day. (49)

Sleep Needs

Sometimes it’s difficult for teens to get enough sleep, especially if they have jobs, help take care
of younger brothers or sisters, or are busy with other activities after school. Like healthy eating
and getting enough physical activity, getting enough sleep is important for staying healthy.

Everyone needs enough sleep to do well in school, work, drive safely, and fight off
infection. Not getting enough sleep may lead to moodiness and irritability. While more
research is needed, some studies have shown that not getting enough sleep may also
contribute to weight gain. Individuals between 13 and 18 years old should get 8 to 10 hours of
sleep each night.

The amount of sleep you need changes as you age. Children need more sleep than adults. The
American Academy of Sleep Medicine and the Sleep Research Society recommend:

Cognitive Development
Similarly remarkable as the physical changes in the transitional period of
adolescence, are changes in thinking patterns. These changes are marked by the acquisition of
new cognitive skills due to the brain’s increasing in weight and refining synaptic connections
which join and coordinate the two hemisphere of the brain. Another brain development
is the process of continuous concentration of the brain

Piaget’s Formal Operational Thinker

Piaget formulated the theory of Formal Operational Thinking which demonstrates how
the cognitive capacity of the adolescent allows him/her to go beyond the sensible an concrete
to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical, multidimensional and possible. In tis realm of
thought the adolescent begin to attain subtlety in thinking, entering the sphere of
possible and futuribles. Most specifically formal operational thinking consist of:

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

 College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Propositional thinking – making assertions outside visual evidence and stating what may
be possible in thing not seen by the eyes.
Relativistic thinking-

Test your knowledge

Application No. 15

LESSON 12

Learner Centered and Learning Principles

What are the objectives of this lesson?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to be able to:

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
 • Identify and discuss the learning principles use in teaching learning process.

Overview of the topic

Learner centered" is the perspective that couples a focus on individual learners - their
heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities, and needs -
with a focus on leaning - the best available knowledge about learning and how it occurs and
about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation,
learning, and achievement for all learners. This dual focus then informs and drives educational
decision making. Learner-centered is a reflection in practice of the Learner-Centered
Psychological Principles - in the programs, practices, policies, and people that support learning
for all.

This definition of learner-centered is thus based on an understanding of the Learner

Centered Psychological Principles as a representation of the current knowledge base on
learners and learning. The Principles apply to all learners, in and outside of school, young and
old. Learner-centered is also related to the beliefs, characteristics, dispositions, and practices of
teachers - practices primarily created by the teacher. When teachers and their practices
function from an understanding of the knowledge base delineated in the Principles, they
(a) include learners in decisions about how and what they learn and how that learning is
assessed; (b) value each learner's unique perspectives; (c) respect and accommodate
individual differences in learners' backgrounds, interests, abilities, and experiences; and (d)
treat learners as co-creators and partners in the teaching and learning process.

The 14 principles are divided into those referring to:

– Cognitive and metacognitive
– Motivational and affective
– Developmental and social
– Individual difference factors

COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR

1. Nature of Learning Process
the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international process of
constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process
the successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create
meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge
the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new information
and experiences and their existing knowledge base.

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

 College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

4. Strategic Thinking
the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to
achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving, and concept
learning.
5. Thinking about thinking
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable learning or
performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or methods, and monitor
their progress towards these goals.
6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and instructional
practices.

MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR

7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or failure can
enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and information processing. 8.
Intrinsic motivation to learn
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal
interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of complex knowledge
and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy and strategic effort, along
with persistence over time.

DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR

10. Developmental influences on learning
learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across physical,
intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level and is
presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate
with others on instructional tasks.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR

12. Individual differences in learning
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or modify
them, if necessary.
13. Learning and diversity
the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply to all
learners. 14. Standards and assessment

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all stages of the
learning process.

Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them into five
areas: 1. The knowledge base
One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.
2. Strategic processing and control
Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in order to learn
more effectively.
3. Motivation and affect
Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and enjoyment
of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences
Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own unique
combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an

individual. Test your knowledge

Application No. 16

From the module on 14 learner and learning principles use in teaching learning process, I
learnedthat_____________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________.

References:

Bulusan, Ferdinand et.al (2019), Facilittaing learner-centered teaching, Rex Book Store Inc.
Nicanor Sr St., Sampaloc, Manila.

Corpuz, Brenda B. et.al (2015), Child and adolescent development, Lorimar Publishing House Inc.
Aurora Blvd. Boston St. Cubao, Quezon City.

PRC Review Material

Ed 101- Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles

College of Teacher Education- Undergraduate Program

Ed 101- Child and

Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles