Thermal Processing of Food Page 1

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W H I T E PA P E R

Thermal Processing of Food

CONTENTS SUMMARY

1. Introduction

2. Blanching
2.1 Blanching and enzyme inactivation
2.2 Methods of blanching
2.3 Testing of the effectiveness of blanching

3. Pasteurization
3.1 Purpose of pasteurization
3.2 Method for pasteurizing The use of high tempera-
tures to preserve and ensure
4. Sterilization
the safety of food is based
4.1 Canned foods
on the effect of microbial
4.2 Conditions affecting the growth of
destruction. Thermal pro-
micro-organisms
4.3 Micro-organisms in retorted foods cessing is one of the most
4.4 Microbial spoilage of canned foods widely used unit operations
4.5 Sterilisation process and equipment employed in the food indus-
4.6 Containers for thermally treated products try and is frequency deter-
4.7 Cleaning of containers prior to filling mined as a Critical Control
4.8 Seaming of cans
Point (CCP). This whitepaper
4.9 Death rate curve (D value)
4.10 Thermal death time (TDT) curve
covers the main science be-
4.11 Some factors affecting heat resistance hind the unit operation and
4.12 Design of heat sterilization processes should be used to underpin
4.13 The “F0 value” the development and design
4.14 The lethality factor “l” of thermal processing steps.

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1. Introduction 2.1 Blanching and enzyme

inactivation
There are two main temperature
categories employed in thermal Freezing and dehydration are insufficient
processing: Pasteurization and to inactivate enzymes and therefore
Sterilization. The basic purpose for blanching can be employed. Canning
the thermal processing of foods is to conditions may allow sufficient time
reduce or destroy microbial activity, for enzyme activity. Enzymes are
reduce or destroy enzyme activity and proteins which are denatured at high
to produce physical or chemical changes temperatures and lose their activity.
to make the food meet a certain quality Enzymes which cause loss of quality
standard, e.g. gelatinization of starch include Lipoxygenase, Polyphenol
& denaturation of proteins to produce oxidase, Polygalacturonase and
edible food. There are a number of Chlorophyllase. Heat resistant enzymes
types of heat processing employed by include Catalase and Peroxidase
the food industry.
2.2 Methods of Blanching
Mild processes Blanching
Pasteurization Blanching is carried out at up to 100°C
More severe Canning using hot water or steam at or near
processes Baking
Roasting
atmospheric pressure.
Frying
Some use fluidised bed blanchers,
utilising a mixture of air and steam,
2. Blanching has been reported. Advantages include
faster, more uniform heating, good
The primary purpose of blanching is mixing of the product, reduction in
to destroy enzyme activity in fruit and effluent, shorter processing time and
vegetables. It is not intended as a sole hence reduced loss of soluble and heat
method of preservation, but as a pre- sensitive components.
treatment prior to freezing, drying and
canning. Other functions of blanching There is also some use of microwaves
include: for blanching. Advantages include rapid
heating and less loss of water soluble
• Reducing surface microbial components. Disadvantages include high
contamination capital costs and potential difficulties in
uniformity of heating.
• Softening vegetable tissues to
facilitate filling into containers

• Removing air from intercellular

spaces prior to canning

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Steam Blanchers enters a slowly rotating drum, partially

submerged in the hot water. It is carried
This is the preferred method for foods along by internal flights, residence
with large cut surface areas there are time being controlled by the speed of
lower leaching losses. Normally food rotation.
material is carried on a mesh belt or
rotatory cylinder through a steam Pipe blanchers consist of insulated tubes
atmosphere, residence time controlled by through which hot water is circulated.
speed of the conveyor or rotation. Often Food is metered into the stream,
there is poor uniformity of heating in residence time being controlled by the
the multiple layers of food, so attaining length of the pipe and velocity of the
the required time-temperature at the water.
centre results in overheating of outside
layers. The blancher-cooker has three sections,
a preheating stage, a blanching stage, and
Individual Quick Blanching (IQB) a cooling stage. As the food remains on
involves a first stage in which a single a single belt throughout the process, it
layer of the food is heated to a sufficient is less likely to be physically damaged.
temperature to inactivate enzymes and With the heat recovery incorporated
a second stage in which a deep bed of in the system, 16 to 20 kg of product
the product is held for sufficient time to can be blanched for every kg of steam,
allow the temperature at the centre of compared with 0.25 to 0.5kg per kg
each piece to increase to that needed for stream in the conventional hot water
inactivation. blanchers.

The reduced heating time (e.g. for 10 2.3 Testing of the Effectiveness of
mm diced carrot, 25 s heating and 50 Blanching
s holding compared with 3 minutes
conventional blanching) results in higher Over blanching causes quality loss due
energy efficiencies. For small products to overheating while under blanching
(e.g. peas, sliced or diced carrots), mass causes quality loss due to increased
of produce blanched per kg steam enzyme activity because enzymes are
increases from 0.5kg for conventional activated and substrates released by heat.
steam blanchers to 6-7kg for IQB. The Peroxidase test in vegetables is used
detect enzyme inactivation. This enzyme
Hot Water Blanchers is not in itself implicated in degradation,
but is relatively heat resistant and easily
These include various designs which detected. It consists of adding guaiacol
hold the food in hot water (70 to 100°C) solution and hydrogen peroxide solution
for a specified time, and then move and observing the development of a
it to a dewatering/cooling section. brown colour indicating peroxidase
In blancher of this type the food activity.
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Complete inactivation is not always be present. In terms of checking the

essential – green beans, peas and carrots effectiveness of the process, alkaline
with some residual peroxidase activity phosphatase is a naturally occurring
have shown adequate storage quality at enzyme in raw milk with a similar D
-20°C though with other vegetable (e.g. value to heat-resistant pathogens and
Brussels sprouts) zero peroxidase activity so is routinely used as an indicator of
is essential. adequate pasteurization. If phosphatase
activity is found, it is assumed that
pasteurization is inadequate.
3. Pasteurization Pasteurization is normally used for
3.1 Purpose of Pasteurization the destruction of all disease causing
organisms (e.g. pasteurization of milk)
Pasteurization is a relatively mild heat or the destruction or reduction in the
treatment in which food is heated to number of spoilage organisms in certain
<100°C. It is widely used throughout the foods, e.g. vinegar.
food industry and is frequently employed
Temperature Time
as a CCP in various HACCP plans. As
63°C For 30 min (low
a unit operation in food processing it temperature long time LTLT)
can be used to destroys enzymes and 72°C For 15 sec (primary high
relatively heat sensitive micro-organisms temperature short time,
(e.g. non spore forming bacteria, yeast HTST method)
and moulds). In this regard it is used to 89°C For 1.0 sec
extend shelf life by several days, e.g. milk 90°C For 0.5 sec
or months, e.g. bottled fruit. 94°C For 0.1 sec
100°C For 0.01 sec
The severity of treatment and resulting
extension of shelf life is determined
mostly by pH of the food. In low acid Table: Milk Pasteurizing Temperatures
foods (pH<4.5), the main purpose is
destruction of pathogenic bacteria, These temperatures are equivalent
while below pH 4.5 the destruction of and are sufficient to destroy the most
spoilage microorganisms or enzyme heat sensitive of the non-spore-
deactivation is usually more important. forming pathogenic organisms. Milk
The extent of heat treatment required pasteurization temperatures are also
is determined by the D value (Decimal sufficient to destroy all yeasts, moulds,
reduction time or time to reduce gram negative bacteria and many gram
numbers by a factor of 10 or 90% of positive. The two groups of micro-
the initial load) of most heat resistant organisms that survive pasteurization
enzyme or micro-organism which may temperatures used in milk are:

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Thermoduric: organisms that can High-Temperature-Short-Time (HTST)

survive exposure to relatively high
temperatures but do not necessarily This method involves the heating of
grow at these temperatures, e.g. every particle of milk to at least 72°C
Streptococcus and Lactobacillus. and holding it for at least 15 seconds.
It is carried out as a continuous
Thermophilic: organisms that not process. Ultra Heat Treatment (UHT)
only survive relatively high temperatures is a sterilization treatment, can also be
but require high temperatures for their performed using higher temperatures
growth. and shorter times, e.g. 1s at 135°C.

Typical Equipment employed for this

3.2 Method for Pasteurizing method includes:

A number of basic methods of • Plate heat exchanger (PHE)

pasteurization are widely used in the
industry. • Holding tube – sized to ensure the
correct treatment time is achieved
Batch (holding) Method
• Holding tanks – for storage of the
In this method every particle (e.g. milk) raw and pasteurized milk
must be heated to at least 63°C and held
for at least 30 minutes; however, this is • Balance tank – to assist in
not used commercially these days. maintaining full flow, and to take
returned milk if the correct
Fig: Batch Pasteurizer temperature is not achieved

• Control and monitoring system

to record temperature and to
divert flow back to the balance
tank if correct temperature is not
achieved.

Pasteurization of packaged foods

Some liquid foods (e.g. beer and fruit

juices) are pasteurized after filling into
containers. Hot water is normally used
if the food is packaged into glass, to
reduce the risk of breakage due to
thermal shock. Maximum temperatures
between the container and the liquid are
20°C for heating and 10°C for cooling.

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Metal and plastic containers may be exposed to temperatures above 100°C in

pasteurized using steam-air mixtures or pressure cookers. Temperatures above
hot water. Pasteurizers may be batch or 100°C, usually ranging from 110-121°C
continuous. A simple batch type may depending on the type of product, must
be a water bath in which crates of the be reached inside the product. Products
food are heated to a pre-set temperature, are kept for a defined period of time
and then cooled by draining and adding at temperature levels required for the
cold water. A continuous version may sterilization depending on type of
convey containers through a hot water product and size of container.
batch followed by a cold water bath.
Steam tunnels may also be used with the If spores are not completely inactivated,
advantage of faster heating, resulting vegetative microorganisms will grow
in shorter residence time and smaller from the spores as soon as conditions
equipment. Temperatures in the heating are favourable again. Favourable
zones may be controlled depending on conditions will exist when the heat
the amount of air present. Acid products treatment is completed and the products
such as fruit or acidified vegetables like are stored under ambient temperatures.
beetroot can be pasteurized in a retort. The surviving microorganisms can
either spoil preserved food or produce
Fig: Tunnel Pasteurizer (bottom of toxins which cause food poisoning.
page) Amongst the two groups of spore
producing microorganisms Clostridium
is more heat resistant than Bacillus.
4. Sterilization Temperatures of 110°C will kill most
Bacillus spores within a short time. In
Unlike pasteurized products where the case of Clostridium temperatures of
the survival of heat resistant up to 121°C are needed to kill the spores
microorganisms is accepted, the aim within a relatively short time. These
of sterilization is the destruction of sterilization temperatures are needed
all bacteria including their spores. for short-term inactivation (within a
Heat treatment of such products few seconds) of spores of Bacillus or
must be severe enough to inactivate/ Clostridium. These spores can also be
kill the most heat resistant bacterial killed at slightly lower temperatures, but
microorganisms, which are the spores longer heat treatment periods must be
of Bacillus and Clostridium. Food applied.
products filled in sealed containers are

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From the microbial point of view, • UHT or Aseptically processed

it would be ideal to employ very products in which the product and
intensive heat treatment which would the package are sterilized separately
eliminate the risk of any surviving and then the package is filled with the
microorganisms. However, most food sterile product and sealed under specific
products cannot be submitted to such conditions, e.g. long life milk, tetrapack
intensive heat stress without suffering or combibloc fruit juices and soups etc.
degradation of their sensory quality or
loss of nutritional value (destruction of 4.1 Canned Foods
vitamins and protein components). In
order to comply with above aspects, a Canned foods are processed so that
compromise has to be reached in order they are shelf stable. They should be
to keep the heat sterilization intensive ‘commercially sterile’. That means if
enough for the microbiological safety of any microbes survive the processing,
the products and as moderate as possible they should not be capable of growing
for product quality reasons. (and therefore spoilage the contents)
under the normal storage conditions
“Commercial sterility” implies less of the can. Most canned foods are the
than absolute destruction of all micro- sterile (i.e. there are no living organisms
organisms and spores, but any remaining present) but some may contain viable
would be incapable of growth in the organisms which cannot grow because
food under existing conditions. Time- of unsuitable conditions, e.g.
temperature combination is required
to inactivate most heat resistant • Water
pathogens and spoilage organisms. • Temperature
The most heat resistant pathogen is
Clostridium botulinum. The most • pH
heat-resistant (non-pathogenic)
spoilage microorganisms are Bacillus • water activity
stearothermophilis and Clostridium
thermosaccharolytom. Severity of • preservatives
treatment can result in substantial
If a canned food is spoilt by microbial
changes to nutritive and sensory
spoilage, examination of the microbial
characteristics. Two typical forms of
types that caused it can pinpoint the
sterilized product are:
offending errors in processing or
• In package sterilized, in which handling.
product is packed into containers
and the container of product is then
sterilized, e.g. canning, some bottled
products, retort pouches

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4.2 Conditions Affecting the Oxygen Requirements

Growth of Microorganisms
Micro-organisms can be classified into
Water three general groups regarding their
oxygen requirements.
Water content and the availability of
water Aw can affect the growth of • Aerobes – can only grow in the
microbes in food (See whitepaper of presence of oxygen
Water Activity).
• Anaerobes – can only grow in the
Temperature absence of oxygen

Temperature influences the rate • Facultative Anaerobes – adaptable

of growth of microbes as well as Grows best aerobically but can
determining which microbes will grow. grow anaerobically
Microbes grow fastest at their optimum
temperature. For convenience, microbes pH
can be divided into groups which
In regard to pH, microbes have ideal
have similar optimum temperature for
pH ranges within which they grow as
growth.
follows:
Table: Growth Temperatures (°C)
Table: pH ranges for Microbial
for Microbial Growth
Group pH
Low acid >5.0
Group Min. Opt. Max. Medium acid 4.5 - 5.0
Thermophiles 40 55 75 Acid 3.7 - 4.5
Mesophiles 5 37 45 High acid < 3.7
Psychotrophs -3 20 30
Growth

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4.3 Types of Microorganisms Important in Retorted Foods

A number of organisms are important when it comes to the safe processing

of canned foods.

Table: Microorganisms Important for Retorted Foods

Type Species Description

Thermophilic Flat Sours - B.sterothermophilus High heat resistance, produce acid,
Spore Formers don’t produce gas, found in sugar, salt
and spices

Thermophilic Anaerobes – High heat resistance, produce acid

C.thermosaccharolyticum and gas (CO2)

High heat resistance, produce H2S

Sulphide types –
Desutfomotomaculum nigrificans

Mesophilic C.sporogenes, C.botulinium Produce gas (CO2 and sometimes H2,

Spore Formers moderate heat resistance
(The process should be
designed to kill these
microbes) Bacillus spp – Moderate to low heat resistance,
B.polymyxa, B.macerans etc some may grow in acid foods

Non Spore Forming Various Occur only in grossly under processed

Microbes or leaking caps

Can be almost any microbe

depending on acidity of the product

May or may not produce gas

Usually in mixed populations

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4.4 Microbial Spoilage of Canned Foods

There are a number of imports and factors which can cause spoilage of canned
foods.

Table: Factors Affecting Spoilage of Canned Foods

Type Description
Pre-process spoilage Delays between filling and retorting can allow microbes to grow
and produce gas or spoil food. Retorting kills microbes but the can
will be swollen and food spoiled.

Not processed Filled cans missing retort

Under processed Caused by:

• Incorrect calculations

• Faulty retort operation

• Operator error, e.g. inadequate venting

• Poor retort design, e.g. cold spots

• Higher spore load – poor or different raw ingredients.

Under processing usually still kills vegetative cells. Survivors are

usually mesophilic spore formers or moderate heat resistance.

Thermophilic Spoilage Canning operations are sometimes not designed to kill

thermophiles of high heat resistance (e.g. B.stearothermophilus
of D 121.1 = 5 min) as they do not grow below 40oC. If they survive
they will grow if there is either slow cooling or storage at high
temperatures. Thermophilic spore formers will be found in pure
cultures.

Leaker Spoilage If can seams are inadequately formed, microbes may enter can
after processing, particularly when the can is moist, e.g. during
cooling. Usual contamination is a mixed variety of non-heat
resistant microbes.

Cans may leak food or if leakage point is blocked with food, they
can swell.

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4.5 Sterilization Process and Simple small autoclaves

Equipment
These are usually vertical autoclaves with
The sterilization process in the the lid on top. Through the opened lid
canned product can be subdivided the goods to be sterilized are loaded into
into three phases. By means of a the autoclave. The cans are normally
heating medium (water or steam) the placed in metal baskets. The baskets are
product temperature is increased from placed in the autoclave, either singly or
ambient to the required sterilization several stapled on top of each other.
temperature (phase 1 = heating phase). Before starting the sterilization, the lid
This temperature is maintained for must be firmly locked onto the body of
a defined time (phase 2 = holding the autoclave. The autoclave and lid are
phase). In (phase 3 = cooling phase) designed to withstand pressures up to
the temperature in the can is decreased 5.0 bar. These types of autoclaves are
by introduction of cold water into the best suited for smaller operations as they
autoclave. do not require complicated supply lines
and should be available at affordable
Autoclaves or retorts prices.
In order to reach temperatures above Larger autoclaves
100°C (“sterilization”), the thermal
treatment has to be performed under These are usually horizontal and
pressure in pressure cookers, also called loaded through a front lid. Horizontal
autoclaves or retorts. autoclaves can be built as single or
double vessel systems. The double vessel
In autoclaves or retorts, high systems have the advantage that the
temperatures are generated either by water is heated up in the upper vessel to
direct steam injection, by heating water the sterilization temperature and released
up to temperatures over 100°C or by into the lower (processing) vessel, when
combined steam and water heating. it is loaded and hermetically closed.
The autoclave must be fitted with a Using the two–vessel system, the heat
thermometer, pressure gauge, pressure treatment can begin immediately without
relief valve, vent to manually release lengthy heating up of the processing
pressure, safety relief valve where steam vessel and the hot water can be recycled
is released when reaching a certain afterwards for immediate use in the
pressure, water supply valve and a steam following sterilization cycle.
supply valve. The steam supply valve
is applicable when the autoclave is run If steam is used instead of water as
with steam as the sterilization medium the sterilization medium, the injection
or when steam is used for heating up the of steam into a single vessel autoclave
sterilization medium water. will instantly build up the autoclave
temperature desired for the process.
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Rotary Autoclaves

Another technology employed is During this phase, when the outside

rotary autoclaves in which the basket pressure is low but the pressure inside
containing the cans rotates during the containers is still high due to
sterilization. This technique is useful for high temperatures there, the pressure
cans with liquid or semi-liquid content as difference may induce permanent
it achieves a mixing effect of the liquid/ deformation of the containers.
semi-liquid goods resulting in accelerated
heat penetration. The sterilization Fig (bottom of page): Pressure inside
process can be kept shorter and better autoclave (blue) and inside cans (red)
sensory quality of the goods is ensured.

At the final stage of the sterilization

process the products must be cooled
down as quickly as possible. This
operation is done in the autoclave by
introducing cold water. The contact of
cold water with steam causes the latter
to condense with a rapid pressure drop
in the retort. However, the overpressure during heating and cooling phase
built up during thermal treatment within
the cans, jars or pouches remains for a Fig: Producing counter pressure on cans
certain period. (see arrows) inside the autoclave with
compressed air

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Therefore, a high pressure difference between the autoclave and the thermal pressure
in the containers must be avoided. This is generally achieved by a blast of compressed
air into the autoclave at the initial phase of the cooling. Sufficient hydrostatic pressure
of the introduced cooling water can also build up counter pressure so that in specific
cases, in particular where strong resistant metallic cans are used, the water pressure can
be sufficient and compressed air may not be needed. For the stabilization of metallic
cans, stabilization rims (Fig. 368) can be moulded in lids, bottom and bodies.

4.6 Types of Containers for Thermally Treated Products

Containers for heat-preserved food must be hermetically sealed and airtight to avoid
recontamination from environmental microflora. Most of the thermally preserved
products are in metal containers (cans). Others are packed in glass jars or plastic or
aluminium/plastic laminated pouches.
Type Description
Metal containers are cans Produced from tinplate. They are usually cylindrical. However, other
or “tins” shapes such as rectangular or pear-shaped cans also exist. Tinplate
consists of steel plate which is electrolytically coated with tin on both
sides. The steel body is usually 0.22 to 0.28mm in thickness. The tin
layer is very thin (from 0.38 to 3.08 µm). In addition, the interior of
the cans is lined with a synthetic compound to prevent any chemical
reaction of the tinplate with the enclosed food.

Tin cans consist of two or three elements. In the case of three-piece

steel cans, they are composed of the body and two ends (bottom
and lid). The body is made of a thin steel strip, the smaller ends of
which are soldered together to a cylindrical shape. Modern cans are
induction-soldered and the soldering area is covered inside with a
side-strip coating for protection and coverage of the seam. The use of
lead soldered food cans was stopped decades ago. Hence the risk of
poisonous lead entering canned food no longer exists.

Two-piece steel cans have a lid similar to the three-piece cans but
the bottom and body consist of one piece, which is moulded from a
circular flat piece of metal into a cup. These cup-shaped parts may be
shallow-drawn (with short side wall) or deep-drawn (with longer side
walls). However, the length of the side walls is limited through the low
moulding ability of steel (example: tuna tins 42/85mm, i.e. side wall:
diameter =1:2)

Aluminium is frequently used for smaller and easy-to-open cans.

Aluminium cans are usually deep-drawn two-piece cans, i.e. the body
and the bottom end are formed out of one piece and only the top end
is seamed on after the filling operation. The advantages of aluminium
cans compared to tin cans are their better deep-drawing capability, low
weight, resistance to corrosion, good thermal conductivity and easy
recyclability. They are less rigid but more expensive than steel plate
cans.
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Type Description
Glass jars Glass jars are sometimes used for meat products but are not common
due to their fragility. They consist of a glass body and a metal lid. The
seaming panel of the metal lid has a lining of synthetic material. Glass
lids on jars are fitted by means of a rubber ring.

Retortable pouches Retortable pouches, which are containers made either of laminates of
synthetic materials only or laminates of aluminium foil with synthetic
materials, are of growing importance in thermal food preservation.
Thermo-stabilized laminated food pouches, have a seal layer which is
usually PP (polypropylene) or PP-PE (polyethylene) polymer, and the
outside layers are usually made of polyester (PETP) or nylon. They can
be used for frankfurters in brine, ready-to-eat meat dishes etc. From
certain laminated films, for instance, polyester / polyethylene (PETP/
PE) or polyamide/polyethylene (PA/PE), relatively rigid container can be
made, usually by deep drawing.

They are used for pieces of cured ham or other kinds of processed
meat. Small can-shaped round containers are made from aluminium
foil and polyethylene (PE) or polypropylene (PP) laminate (Fig. 373)
and are widely used for small portions, particularly of sausage mix. PE
or PP permits the heat-sealing of the lid made of the same laminate
onto these containers, which can then be subjected to intensive heat
treatment of 125°C or above.

One advantage of the retortable pouches/laminated containers is their

good thermal conductivity which can considerably reduce the required
heat treatment time and hence is beneficial for the sensory product
quality.

4.7 Cleaning of containers 4.8 Seaming of Cans

prior to filling
After the can is filled with the product
Rigid containers (cans, glass jars) are mix the can is sealed with a tight
delivered open to meat processing mechanical structure - the so-called
plants, i.e. with the lids separate. During double seam. The double seam, in its
transport and storage, dust can settle final form and shape, consists of three
inside the cans, which must be removed layers of lid (D, black colour) and two
prior to filling the cans. This can be layers of body material (D, striated). The
done at the small-scale level by manually layers must overlap significantly and all
washing the cans with hot water. curves must be of rounded shape to
Industrial production canning lines are avoid small cracks. Each double seam is
equipped with steam cleaning facilities, achieved in two unit operations referred
where steam is blown into the cans prior to as “first operation” (A, B) and
to filling. “second operation” (C, D).

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The can covered with the lid is placed hooks together (sealing the seam).
on the base plate of the can seaming The different grooves of the first and
machine. The can is moved upwards the second seaming roll are shown in
while the seaming chuck keeps the lid the pictures below. The first action
fixed in position. The pressure applied (first roll) is rolling (interlocking) the
to the can from the base plate can be hooks, the second action (second roll) is
regulated and must be strong enough to compressing (sealing) the seam.
ensure simultaneous movement of the
lid and the can to avoid scratching-off 4.9 Death Rate Curve (D value)
of the sealing compound.
At slightly elevated temperatures most
In the first operation the lid hook and microbes will grow and multiply quickly.
body hook are interlocked by rolling the At relatively high temperatures, microbes
two into each other using the seaming can be destroyed. However, there is a lot
roll with the deep and narrow groove. of variation within any one population
The body hook is now almost parallel of microbes of the same species – most
to the lid hook and the curl of the lid will be killed relatively quickly, others
adjacent to or touching the body wall can survive much longer. If a population
of the can. In the second operation, the of microbes is held at a constant high
interlocked hooks are pressed together temperature, the number of surviving
by a seaming roll with a flat and wide spores or cells plotted against time (on
groove. Wrinkles are ironed out and a logarithmic scale) will look like the
the rubber-based material is equally following graph – which is referred to as
distributed in the seam, filling all existing the ‘death rate curve’.
gaps and thus resulting in a hermetically
sealed container. Fig: Death Rate Curve (D-value)

Design of Seaming Rolls

The seaming rolls for the first and

second operations are designed
differently in order to facilitate
the respective operations. The
seaming roll for the first operation
has a deep but narrow groove
to interlock body and lid hock
(rolling the hocks into each other).
The seaming roll for the second
operation has a flat but wide
groove to press the interlocked

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This graph is a straight line – it is If this food product, with an initial

referred to as the Logarithmic order of count of 1000 spores of Bacillus
death. Logarithms refers to the power to stearothermophillus, was held for 16
which a base must be raised to produce minutes at 121°C, it would result in 4
a given number. For example, if the log reductions, or 0.1 spores surviving in
base is 10, then the logarithm of 1,000 each can. A figure of 0.1 spores per can
(written log 1,000 or log10 1,000) is 3 means that on average there would be
because 103 = 1,000. The “death rate one spore surviving in each group of ten
curve” is a straight line when plotted cans. After holding for 20 minutes there
using a logarithmic scale – this means would be one spore per 100 cans and so
that if in some time period the number on.
was reduced from 1000 to 100 (divided
by ten, sometimes referred to as “1 Based on this:
log reduction”), then if you had held
the microbes at the same temperature • The higher the number of
for twice that time period, the number microbes initially present the longer
would have been reduced to 1 (divided it takes to reduce the numbers to an
by 100, or “2 log reductions”) acceptable level. Therefore, good
quality raw materials and hygienic pre-
The time period for each “log processing is essential if the commercial
reduction” is referred to as the sterility of the processed product is to
decimal reduction time or D value. be assured.
For example, the D-value of Bacillus
stearothermophillus, a common spoilage • It is theoretically impossible to
microorganism at 121°C, is about 4 destroy all cells – therefore we reduce
minutes. This means if you had cans of the probability of spoilage to an
food product each containing 1000 of acceptable small number – perhaps 1 in
these spore and you held the product at 1 million. The probability of a pathogen
a constant temperature of 121°C: surviving must be even less – perhaps on
in one billion or less.
• After 4 minutes (1 D-value) there
would be 100 spores surviving in • The above refers to holding the
each can (1 log reduction) product at a constant temperature.
Remember destruction of microbes is
• After 8 minutes (twice D-value) temperature dependent – they get killed
there would be 10 spores more quickly at the higher temperatures.
surviving in each can (2 log Therefore you would expect that if
reductions) you increase the temperature, decimal
reduction time open bracket D-value)
• After 12 minutes (3 times would decrease.
D-value) there would be 1 spore
surviving in each can (3 log
reductions)
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4.10 Thermal death time (TDT) curve The z-value for Bacillus
stearothermophillus is 10°C. Remember
If D-value versus time is plotted – again the D-value for this microorganism at
on a logarithmic scale, the graph looks 121°C is 4 minutes. Therefore if you
very similar to the one previously. This held this microbe at 111°C (10°C, or one
one is called the Thermal death time z-value, less than 121°C), D-value would
(TDT) curve. This time the straight be 40 minutes.
line graph means that if you change
the temperature by a certain amount, That is, for Bacillus stearothermophillus,
the D-value will change by a factor of 4 minutes at 121°C will have the same
10. If you had changed it by twice that effect (one log reduction in spores) as
amount, D-value will change by a factor 40 minutes at 111oC, which would have
of 100. The change in temperature the same effect as 400 minutes at 101°C.
to cause a factor of the ten change in It is obvious why using high processing
D-value is referred to as that z-value. temperatures is an advantage. The
D-values of different microbes differ
Fig : Thermal Death Rate Curves greatly – for example, the D-value of
Clostridium botulinum at 121°C is about
0.21 minutes. However, the z-value of
microorganisms is close to 10°C.

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4.11 Some Factors that Affect 4.12 Design of Heat Sterilization

the Heat Resistance of Processes
Micro-organisms
The design of heat processes must:
A range of factors affect the heat
resistance of micro-organisms. The • Take account of the type of
most important are: microorganism (determined
largely by food conductions e.g.
Type of micro-organism – species acidity) and its heat resistance.
and strains differ, and spores are more
resistant than vegetative cells. • Result in an acceptably low
probability of survival of spores.
Conditions during cell growth
or spore formation – e.g. spores • Be effective in every part of the
produced at higher temperature are food.
more heat resistant, and stage of growth
and the type of medium in which they In low acid foods (pH<4.5), Clostridium
grow can also affect heat resistance. botulinum is the most dangerous heat
resistant spore forming pathogen
Conditions during heat treatment (D121=0.1 to 0.2 min). It is anaerobic
including pH. Pathogenic and spoilage and so can survive and grow in a sealed
bacteria are less heat resistant at more can. Its destruction is a minimum
acid (low) pH, and yeasts and fungi are requirement of heat sterilization. This
more acid tolerant but less heat resistant is often interpreted as “12D” process –
than bacterial spores. that is, the product must be treated for
12 times the D-value of the microbe.
Aw – moist heat is more effective than For Clostridium botulinum this is a
dry heat. process equivalent to about 2.5 minutes
at 121°C – this is commonly known
Composition – e.g. protein, fats and as a “botulinum cook”. Normally a
high concentration of sucrose increases more severe heat treatment is required
heat resistance to destroy other more heat resistant
spoilage bacteria. For example, Bacillus
D and z-values of enzymes are stearothermophillus (thermophile –
generally in a similar range to those of won’t grow at less than 35°C, so proper
micro-organisms, but some are very heat can cooling is important) can produce
resistant. the “flat sour” defect. Its D-value at
121°C is commonly around 4 min, but it
is not of health significance.

In high acid foods (pH<4.5) the

anaerobic pathogens cannot grow or
produce toxins.
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Spoilage microorganisms are quickly The Fo value is a measure of the

killed at temperatures of about 90°C. “sterilising value” of a process. It can
Therefore the minimum treatment be thought of as the time required
applied to high acid foods often involves at a temperature of 121°C to reduce
ensuring every part of the product microbial numbers by the same amount
reaches a temperature of at least 95°C, as the actual process being considered.
e.g. pasteurization. In acid foods where
the pH is close to 4.5 (e.g. foods such Remember processes are not always
as tomatoes and pears) Clostridium carried out at 121°C and certainly
butyricum can cause spoilage. It is a product temperature is not constant at
common soil borne micro-organism, this temperature throughout the process.
and grows easily on surfaces in the
food plant. It is not killed by processes It therefore provides a basis for
commonly used for acid foods and can comparing different heat sterilization
cause swelling/bursting of the cans in procedures if two processes have the
about 2 weeks. same Fo value, they provide the same
level of sterilization.
4.13 The “Fo value”
The temperature of 121°C is simply an
The amount of heat treatment applied arbitrary reference – there is nothing
to a food product can be measured special about this particular temperature.
using the F-value-concept. This Why choose an off temperature like
concept is practiced in canning plants, 121°C? In the past someone decided
in particular as part of the HACCP- 250°F which is equal to 121°C was
system. The size and format of cans is a good reference temperature. More
of utmost importance for the speed of accurately it is 121.1°C.
heat penetration. Temperatures to be
achieved at the “cold point” of the can, A similar concept to Fo often used
where the heat arrives last, are reached in determining the heat treatment of
faster in small cans due to the shorter beers and other high acid foods is
distance to the heat source than in large “pasteurizing units” (or PU’s) – 1 PU is
cans. equivalent to pasteurizing at 60°C for
one minute.

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The minimum treatment for low acid 4.14 The Lethality Factor “L”
products, the “botulinum cook”,
therefore has a Fo of 2.5 minutes (i.e. Given that the Fo is based on a
12* 0.21 = 2.5 min). constant reference temperature of
121°C, but the product is mostly at a
The required level of heat treatment different temperature, how can the Fo
(Fo of the process) may vary with be calculated? This is the purpose of
factors such as pH and carbohydrate the Lethality Factor or “L-value”. It is
level, and type and expected level of defined as the time at 121.1°C which
contamination with micro-organisms. is equivalent in sterilising value to one
Other chemical additives may also assist minute at some other temperature.
inhibition of micro-organisms, e.g. salt, One minute at some temperature
alcohol, nitrite and misin (these last two will contribute “L” minutes worth of
are both ‘sporostatic’ and stop spores Fo, where “L” is the Lo value for the
germinating and so enable the use of temperature concerned. The L-value is
lesser processing conditions). Also some dependent on the z-value of the micro-
products require additional processing to organism being considered, but for
achieve the required level of cook, e.g. most purposes z=10°C. L-value can be
baked beans must be soft enough. calculated from the formula or can be
read from a table.
Table: F-values (per minute) for the
temperature range of 100°C to 135°C L = 10(T-121.1)/z
°C F-value °C F-value An example – A product is held at a
100 0.0077 118 0.4885
temperature of 118°C for a period of
101 0.0097 119 0.6150
12 minutes. Ignoring other heating and
102 0.0123 120 0.7746
cooling periods, what is the Fo value
103 0.0154 121 1
of this process? From the formula,
104 0.0194 122 1.2270
the L-value for 118°C is 0.490. That is
105 0.0245 123 1.5446
each minute at 118°C contributes 0.490
106 0.0308 124 1.9444
minutes to the Fo value. Therefore the Fo
107 0.0489 125 2.4480
value of this process = 12 x 0.490 = 5.9
108 0.0615 126 3.0817
minutes.
109 0.0775 127 3.8805
110 0.0975 128 4.8852 Calculating the Fo value when
111 0.1227 129 6.1501 temperatures vary
112 0.1545 130 7.459
113 0.1545 131 9.7466 In a real retort process the temperature
114 0.1945 132 12.2699 of the product is not constant – it
115 0.2449 133 15.4560 slowly heats up, will stay at a constant

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Thermal Processing of Food Page 21

temperature for some time, then • Type of container – for example,

cool down again. The period when glass is not a good conductor of heat so
the product is heating and cooling you would expect product in a glass jar
contribute significantly to the severity to heat more slowly than an equivalent
of the process. To calculate the Fo value size/shape metal can.
of such a process, the contribution
of the varying temperatures must be • Size and shape of the container
converted to an equivalent Fo value. – obviously a large container will take
This is achieved based on the L-value, as longer to heat than a small container.
indicated previously.
• Retort temperature – a higher
Graphical Method retort temperature will result in more
rapid heating but also may lead to more
This involves drawing a graph of over processing of product near the
the product temperature vs time, package surface.
then looking up the L-value of each
temperature, and plotting L-value against • Agitation of the containers will
time. The area under this graph is a increase the heating rate by mixing the
measure of the L-value. contents of the container, especially
with viscous or semi-solid foods. End
Trapezoidal Integration or General over end agitation is better than axial
Method agitation.

For this method, determine the L-value • Type of product – obviously

for each temperature measurement, different products conduct heat more
add the L-value together, then multiply or less easily and have different heat
by the time interval in minutes capacities. Some products are more
between temperature measurements (if viscous than others which can have a
temperatures are measured every minute particularly significant effect in agitating
there is no need to multiply). Obviously retorts. Therefore different products will
as the severity of the process is related heat at a different rate.
to the time spent at high temperatures
the faster a product is heated the greater • Headspace – insufficient
will be the severity of the process (for headspace can also affect the rate of
the same process time). heating, especially in an agitating retort.

A number of factors affect the rate at Therefore, if any of these factors

which a product heats inside a container: change, the severity of the process needs
to be re-evaluated.

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