USPAS 2019: Knoxville

Transverse and Longitudinal Beam

Dynamics Fundamentals

Christoph Steier
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25
 Lecture Outline
• Motivation
• Transverse Beam Dynamics
– History (cyclotron, synchrotron, …)
– Hill’s Equation, Twiss Functions (Beta-Function, …)
– Tune, Resonances, Emittance
– Matrix Formalism
• Basis for simulation codes
• Longitudinal Dynamics
– Time of Flight, Synchrotron Oscillations
• Radiation
– Damping/Excitation, Equilibrium Emittances

http://www2.als.lbl.gov/als_physics/csteier/uspas19/

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 Motivation (recap from this Morning)
• This course deals in detail with measurements involving many areas of
transverse (and longitudinal) single (and multiple) particle dynamics
• Lecture is reminder of concepts - somewhat consistent starting point
– Will introduce lattice functions in two different ways (including the one
usually used in lattice codes like AT which we use in he computer class).
• Admittedly a packed lecture. Most of our class will be more practical
and example based
– and does not require full understand of this lecture/recap
• Disclaimer: Our class is storage ring biased.
– Basic concepts and measurements are applicable to transfer lines and linacs, but
details are different. If you have questions regarding lines, linacs, protons: You are
welcome to ask at any time.
– We have added some non ring examples and we can set aside more
teaching/discussion time after some of the ring examples.

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 Transverse Beam-dynamics: Terminology
• Linear beam-dynamics determined by:
– Dipoles
– Quadrupoles (lenses)
– Solenoids
– RF-resonators
– Linear approximation of synchrotron radiation
• Nonlinear (Wednesday/Thursday):
– Sextupoles, higher multipoles, errors, insertion devices
(undulators/wigglers), stochastic nature of SR, …
• Trajectory/Orbit – (more on closed orbit tomorrow)
– Closed orbit: closed, periodic trajectory around a ring (closes after
one turn in position and angle).
– Particles that deviate from the closed orbit will oscillate about it
(transverse: Betatron oscillations, longitudinal: Synchrotron
Oscillations)
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 Math Concepts used in this lecture

• Some differential equations

– (Vectorized) Maxwell equations
– Hill’s equation
• Mostly qualitative
• Linear Algebra
– Matrix multiplication, fixed points,
orthogonalization

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 Electromagnetic Fields
Maxwell Equations in vacuum (SI Units – differential form):

r
Ñ×E = Coulomb s or Gauss law for electricity
e0
dB
Ñ´ E = - Faraday s law 1831-1879

dt
Time variable
magnetic fields
Ñ× B = 0 Gauss law for magnetism
are always
associated with
dE electric fields
Ñ ´ B = µ 0 J + µ 0e 0 Ampere s law
(and vice versa)
dt
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 Lorentz Equation

F = q(E + v ´ B )

W = ò F × dl = q ò E × dl + q ò (v ´ B )× dl
B fields can change the trajectory of a particle
But cannot do work and thus change its energy
1853-1928

F = qE W = q ò E × dl

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 Early Accelerators: Cyclotron
• In a cyclotron, charged particles
– circulate in a strong magnetic field
– are accelerated by electric fields in gaps
• away from gaps particles are screened from electric field.
• when particles enter the next gap, phase of time-varying voltage has changed 180
degrees so particles are again accelerated.

• Cyclotron condition:

Lawrence’s cyclotrons
• Only works for non-relativistic particles were foundation of LBNL

C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25 8

The Cyclotron: Different Points of View

From LBNL Image Library

Collection
By Dave Judd and Ronn MacKenzie

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 Higher Energy Reach: Synchrotron (1945)
• Synchrotrons allowed extending beam energies much beyond cyclotrons,
originally for elementary particle physics
• Synchrotron is a circular accelerator with discrete magnets along the beam
path, which has one (or a few) electromagnetic resonant cavity to accelerate
the particles. A constant orbit is maintained during the acceleration.
– First ones were weak focusing (very large vacuum chambers and magnets)
– Later strong focusing.
• Originally ramping/cycling, today often storage rings (many hours lifetime)

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 RF acceleration -> beam is bunched
In particle storage rings, charged particles circulate around the ring in bunches
for a large number of turns.
Optics elements Particle bunches

dipoles
s
ol e
RF

ru p
ca

ad
vity

qu

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 Lorentz Force –> Equation of Motion
The motion of each charged particle is determined by
the electric and magnetic forces that it encounters as
it orbits the ring:

• Lorentz Force
F = ma = e( E + v ´ B ),
m is the relativistic mass of the particle,
e is the charge of the particle,
v is the velocity of the particle,
a is the acceleration of the particle,
E is the electric field and,
B is the magnetic field.
• Typically acceleration with electrical fields, guidance
with magnetic ones
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 Typical Magnet Types
There are several magnet types that are used
in storage rings:
Dipoles à used for guiding
Bx = 0
By = Bo
Quadrupoles à used for focussing
Bx = Ky
By = -Kx
Sextupoles à used for chromatic correction
Bx = 2Sxy
By = S(x2 – y2)

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 Magnet Examples at the ALS in Berkeley

Dipoles

Sextupoles
Quadrupoles

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C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25
 Differential Equation vs. Matrix Formalism
There are two approaches to describe the motion of
particles in a storage ring

1. The traditional way in which one begins with Hill s

equation, defines beta functions and dispersion, and
how they are propagated, …

2. The way that our computer models do the calculations

I will begin with the first way (as a brief recap) but spend
most of the time with the second approach

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 Discussion – Coordinate Systems

• Coordinate system choice for accelerators

– Why would one pick a ’non-standard’
coordinate system
– Options for coordinate systems
– Other examples you might have encountered
…

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 Coordinate System
Change dependent variable from time to longitudinal
position, s

Coordinate system used to describe the motion is usually

locally Cartesian or cylindrical
y x
s

Typically the coordinate system chosen is the one that

allows the easiest field representation

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 Hill’s equation
This approach, using differential equations, provides some insights into
concepts but is limited in usefulness for actual calculations

We begin with on-energy no coupling case. The beam is transversely

focused by quadrupole magnets. The horizontal linear equation of
motion is 2
d x Looks (almost) like harmonic oscillator
2
= - k ( s) x, equation, except for s dependence of
ds restoring force (k(s)
BT
where k = , with
( B r )a
BT being the pole tip field
a the pole-tip radius, and
B r [T-m] » 3.356 p[GeV/c]
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 Solutions of Hill’s equation
The solution can be
parameterized by a pseudo-
harmonic oscillation of the form:
xb ( s ) = e b ( s ) cos(j ( s) + j 0 )
a e Phase Space
xb ( s ) = - e
'
cos(j ( s) + j 0 ) - sin(j ( s) + j 0 )
b ( s) b ( s)
where b ( s) is the beta function, -> Size
a ( s) is the alpha function, -> Divergence
j x , y ( s) is the betatron phase, and b'
a=- ,
e is an action variable -> emittance, 2
j=ò
s
ds conserved 1+ a2
b
g =
0 b
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 Weak Focusing

• Horizontally, homogenous dipole magnetic field ‘focuses’ -

discuss
• Vertically, trajectories simply diverge in homogenous dipole field
• Introducing a field gradient (radially decreasing field) provides
vertical focusing
– but it reduces horizontal focusing
– in cyclotron this causes particles to get out of sync with RF
• Weak focusing also causes large beta functions – i.e. big beams

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 Alternating Gradient Focusing

• Magnetic lenses (quadrupoles)

cannot be focusing in both planes
(Maxwell equations)
• Use alternating gradient / strong
focusing
• Reduces beta functions / beam
sizes compared to weak
focusing
• System of just two quadrupoles can
be focusing in both planes
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Example of Twiss functions and trajectories

• ELSA (Electron Stretcher and

Accelerator) in Bonn, where I did my
PhD thesis, is example of simple
FODO lattice
• Beta Function highly periodic
• Trajectories in real space are
piecewise straight (with deflections at
quadrupoles)
• If one transforms normalizes with beta
functions and phase advance, it looks
like harmonic functions (sine/cosine)

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 Damped and driven harmonic oscillator –
Resonances (will revisit Thursday)
• While Hill’s equation is for a free oscillator, field errors in
real accelerators provide driving term
• General solution for a driven oscillator is sum of
• transient (the solution for damped harmonic oscillator,
homogeneous ODE), depends on initial conditions
• and a steady state (particular solution of the
nonhomogenous ODE), independent of initial
conditions; depends on driving frequency, driving force,
restoring force, damping force
• Damped harmonic oscillator differential equation:

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 Driven Oscillator – time dependent
excitation vs. fixed in space

• Driven harmonic oscillator

– periodic excitations
– frequency of excitation determined by external source
• Betatron oscillations
– Excitation due to field error, fixed in space (and usually not time dependent)
– Excitation frequency is determined by oscillation frequency of beam particles
• Both result in similar driven resonances
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 Resonance effect (more on Wed/Thurs)
U(w) Q>1/2 a(w)
Q>1/2
p/2
Q<1/2
Q<1/2
w
w w0
w0

• Without or with weak damping a

resonance condition occurs for w = w0
• Infamous example:
Tacoma Narrow bridge 1940
Excitation at bridge eigenfrequencies
(resonant modes) by strong wind
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2nd Approach to calculate lattice functions,
used by tracking codes
Begin with equations of motion à Lorentz force

Change dependent variable from time to

longitudinal position

Integrate particle trajectory around the ring and

find the closed orbit

Generate a map around the closed orbit

Analyze and track the map around the ring

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 Same as for Hill’s equation: Coordinate
System Choice
Change dependent variable from time to longitudinal
position, s
Coordinate system used to describe the motion is usually
locally Cartesian or cylindrical

y x
s

Typically the coordinate system chosen is the one that

allows the easiest field representation

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 Key Method: Integrate/Advance
Element by Element
Integrate through the elements
Use the following coordinates*

y x
s

*Note sometimes one uses canonical momentum rather

than x and y
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 Approximation
Everything up to now was general. No discussion of the field
representation or the integrator. In many codes
simplifications are made.

1. The velocity of the particle is the speed of light à v = c

2. The magnetic field is isomagnetic. Piecewise constant in s

3. The angle of the particles with respect to the reference

particle is small and can assume that q = tanq
particle trajectory
q reference trajectory
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 Linear Algebra - Concatenation
• One can write the linear transformation from one point in the accelerator (s0) to another one
(s) as:

• Note that

which is always true for conservative systems

• Note also that

• The accelerator can be modeled by a series of matrix multiplications

S1 S2 S3 …S n-1
from s0 to s1
S0 Sn
from s0 to s2

from s0 to s3
from s0 to sn
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 Examples of transfer matrices
Drift of length L
æ 1 Lö
Rdrift =ç ÷
è 0 1 ø
The matrix for a focusing quadrupole of gradient k = (¶B / ¶x ) /( B r )
and of length l q

æ cos f sinf / k ö
RQuad =ç ÷
ç - k sinf cos f ÷ø
è

The matrix for a zero length thin quadrupole K = k lq

æ 1 0ö
Rthin - lens =ç ÷
è -K 1ø
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 Computer Code Example: AT
…
g = fabs(K)/(1+r [4]);
t = sqrt(g); æ cos f sinf / k ö
lt = L*t; RQuad =ç ÷
ç - k sinf cos f ÷ø
if(K>0) { /* Horizontal */
è
MHD = cos(lt);
M12 = sin(lt)/t;
M21 = -M12*g; QuadLinearPass.c
/* Vertical */
MVD = cosh(lt);
M34 = sinh(lt)/t;
M43 = M34*g; }
else …

C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25 32

 The Closed Orbit
A closed orbit is defined as an orbit on which a particle
circulates around the ring arriving with the same position
and momentum that it began.

Closed orbit

In every working story ring there exists at least one closed

orbit.
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 One-turn Map R - Computation
A one-turn map, R, maps a set of initial coordinates of a
particle to the final coordinates, one-turn later.
dx f dx f
x f = xi +
dxi
( xi - xi ,co ) + dx ' ( x 'i - x 'i ,co ) +...
i
R11 ' R12dx '
dx
x' f = x'i +
dxi
f
( xi - xi ,co ) +
f

dx 'i
( x 'i - x 'i ,co ) +...
R21 R22
The map can be calculated by taking orbits that have a
slight deviation from the closed orbit and tracking them
around the ring.
Closed orbit

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Beta-functions and tunes from 1-turn map

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Recap: Example of Twiss functions and trajectories

• The twiss functions and

trajectories I showed earlier for
ELSA were calculated with a
tracking code
• I.e. trajectories are integrated
piecewise
• Lattice functions are then
calculated from one turn map

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 Beam Emittance
• Consider the decoupled case and use the {w, w}
plane where w can be either x or y:
– The emittance is the phase space area occupied by the
system of particles, divided by p

• x and y are conjugate to x and y when Bz = 0 and

in absence of acceleration. In this case, we can
immediately apply the Liouville theorem:
– For such a system the emittance is an invariant of the
motion.
• This specific case is very common in accelerators:
– For most of the elements in a beam transferline, such as
dipoles, quadrupoles, sextupoles, …, the above conditions
apply and the emittance is conserved.
• Practical emittance example: In the transverse
coordinates it is the product of the size (cross
section) and the divergence of a beam (at beam
waists).
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 Emittance (2)
• Emittance can also be defined as a statistical quantity (beam is
composed of finite number of particles)

e geometric,rms = x¢ - xx¢
2 2 2
x

• Using the twiss functions and the emittance, the beam envelopes
(size, divergence, …) can be calculated at any place around the ring

æ b -a ö
å beam = e x ç -a
x
÷
è g ø

å å
x x T

beam , f
= R x , i - f beam ,i
R R are the linear
x ,i - f transfer maps

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 Off-Energy: Dispersion
• Assume that the energy is fixed à no cavity DE
or damping x = Dx
• Find the closed orbit for a particle with E
slightly different energy than the nominal
particle.
• The Dispersion, D, is the change in closed
orbit normalized by the energy difference.
DE/E = 0

æ xö æ C S Dx ö æ x ö
DE/E > 0 ç ÷ ç ' ÷ç ÷
ç x '÷ = ç C ' S ' D x ÷ç x '÷
çd ÷ ç 0 0 ÷ç d ÷
è øf è 1 ø è øi
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 Off energy: Chromatic Aberration

Focal length of the lens is dependent upon energy

Larger energy particles have longer focal lengths ->

Chromaticity
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 Chromatic Aberration Correction
By including dispersion and sextupoles it is possible to
compensate (to first order) for chromatic aberrations

The sextupole gives a position dependent

Quadrupole
Bx = 2Sxy
By = S(x2 – y2)

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 Recap: Transverse Dynamics Concepts
• Concepts introduced:
• Weak Focusing
• Alternating Gradient Focusing
• Differential equation treatment
(Hill’s equation)
• Resonances (driven harmonic
oscillator)
• Linear Algebra (matrix)
treatment
• Emittance - Liouville

d2x
2
= −k(s)x
ds

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 Longitudinal Dynamics in Storage Rings
• Important case of acceleration:
– RF fields used to accelerate particles
– periodic accelerator (synchrotron or storage ring)
• Similar to transverse dynamics, the motion is (quasi) periodic
– Important difference: Oscillations are slow compared to
revolution period, therefore we do not need beta function
formalism
• In addition to velocity term (1/g2), have to take path length
into account
– In general, higher energy particles tend to take wider
turns, i.e. they need longer, opposite to the situation at
low energies, where higher energy particles are faster

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 Recap: Integrate – this time longitudinally
Integrate through the elements – in energy deviation and time

Use the following coordinates

y x
s

Relevant effects in longitudinal plane: velocity, path

length, energy gain/loss (rf cavities, synchrotron
radiation, …)
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 Examples of 6D Transfer Matrix
Drift thin RF cavity coordinate
vector
æ1 L 0 0 0 0 ö æ1 0 0 0 0 0ö æxö
ç ÷ ç ÷ ç ÷
ç0 1 L 0 0 0 ÷ ç0 1 0 0 0 0÷ ç x' ÷
ç0 0 ÷ ç0
ç
0 1 0 0
÷ 0 1 0 0 0÷ ç y÷
ç ÷ ç ÷
ç0 0 0 1 0 0 ÷ ç0 0 0 1 0 0÷
ç L ÷ ç y' ÷
ç0 0 ÷÷ ç ct ÷
ç0 0 0 0 1 2 2 ÷
b g ç 0 0 0 1
ç ÷ ç0 ç ÷
è0 0 0 0 0 1 ø è 0 0 0 -w eVˆ
cos f 1 ÷ø ç Dp ÷
è pø
pc

Need to add path

length effect in dipole
– However, the exact
one is too complex, so
only explain effects on
next few slides

ALS RF cavity
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 Dependence on revolution time on energy
– momentum compaction
Again, assume that the energy is fixed à no cavity or damping
• Find the closed orbit for a particle with slightly different momentum
• Dispersion is the difference in closed orbit between them normalized by
the relative momentum difference
• Momentum compaction factor relates the change in total closed orbit
length to the momentum difference
• From geometry one can find that it is the integral of the
dispersion over the bending radius

Dp/p = 0

Dp/p > 0 v=c

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 Last Differential Equation of the Day:
Synchrotron Oscillations
With the following definition for the frequency and neglecting damping,

we can write a simple harmonic oscillator like differential equation for

synchrotron oscillations:

Solution are again harmonic functions:

Or with Damping:

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 Synchronicity/Harmonic Number
• The total length of the closed orbit is determined by the RF frequency,
even if the physical circumference of the ring changes:

The harmonic number sets the number of

buckets (or possible bunches)
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 Summary Longitudinal Dynamics

• Velocity variation often negligible

(relativistic)
• Instead Path length difference very
important
• Matrix treatment similar to transverse case
– Can track simultaneously in 6D

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 What is Synchrotron Radiation?
• Synchrotron radiation is electromagnetic Electrons accelerating by
radiation emitted when charged running up and down in a
particles are radially accelerated (move radio antenna emit radio
on a curved path). waves (long wavelength
electromagnetic waves)

Both cases are due to the same fundamental principle:

Charged particles radiate when accelerated.
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 Synchrotron Radiation – Longitudinal + Transverse
• Radiated power increases at higher velocities
• Radiation becomes more focused at higher velocities

At low electron velocity (non- When the electron velocity approaches

relativistic case) the radiation is the velocity of light, the emission pattern
emitted in a non-directional pattern is folded sharply forward. Also the
radiated power goes up dramatically

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 Radiation damping
Energy damping:
Larger energy particles lose more energy
2 g 4
PSR = a !c 2 2
3 r
Transverse damping:

Energy loss is in the direction of motion while the restoration

in the s direction

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 Quantum Excitation - Transversely
• Particle changes its energy in a region of dispersion
• This induces increase in transverse oscillations.
• The balance with radiation damping gives the equilibrium
emittances.

Dispersion can
be minimized in
lattice design

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 Example: Low Emittance Lattices
Achromat Symmetry Point Achromat Symmetry Point

Dispersion Function
Dispersion Function

1/2 Insertion Straight 1/2 Insertion Straight 1/2 Insertion Straight 1/2 Insertion Straight

Achromat Achromat
Insertion Symmetry Point Insertion Symmetry Point

Achromat Symmetry Point

• Early 3rd generation SR sources all used
double/triple bend achromats
• Later optimization included detuning from
achromatic condition
• New designs employ multi bend achromats
Dispersion Function

1/2 Insertion Straight 1/2 Insertion Straight

• To minimize emittance, stronger focusing is
necessary
Achromat
Insertion Symmetry Point
• Strength limit of magnets
• Chromaticity / Dynamic Aperture
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 Comment: Wide Time Scales for Particle
Dynamics in Rings
• We have discussed the motion of a particle
in an accelerator for all 6 phase space
dimensions
– 4 transverse dimensions and 2 longitudinal ones
• An important effect is that the time scales for
different phenomena are quite different:
– Damping: several ms for electrons, ~ infinity for
heavier particles
– Betatron oscillations: ~ tens of ns
– Synchrotron oscillations: ~ tens of µs
– Revolution period: ~ hundreds of ns to µs

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 Summary
• Recap of basic beam dynamics
– Accelerator History
– Transverse Focusing
– Tune, Resonances
– Emittance, Liouville
– Acceleration, Longitudinal Dynamics in Rings
– Synchrotron Radiation
• Damping / Excitation

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 List of Literature/Text Books
• Particle Accelerator Physics I (2nd edition, 1998), by Helmut
Wiedemann, Springer
– Or at a more advanced level: Particle Accelerator Physics II,
H. Wiedemann, Springer (nonlinear dynamics, etc.)
• D.A. Edwards and M.J. Syphers, An Introduction to the Physics
of High Energy Accelerators, John Wiley & Sons (1993)
• Accelerator Physics, S.Y. Lee, World Scientific, Singapore,
1999 (ISBN 9810237103)
• Many nice proceedings of CERN accelerator schools can be
found at http://cas.web.cern.ch/cas/CAS_Proceedings.html , for
the purpose of this class especially
– CERN 94-01 v1 + v2
– CERN 95-06 v1 + v2 (Advanced Class)
– CERN 98-04 (Synchrotron Radiation+Free Electron Lasers)
• Accelerators and Nobel Laureates by Sven Kullander which
can be viewed at:
https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/accelerators-and-
nobel-laureates/
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 Backup Slides

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 Magnetic lenses: Quadrupoles
æ1 L 0 0ö
ç ÷
ç0 1 0 0÷
ç0 0 1 L÷
ç ÷
ç0 1 ÷ø
è 0 0

Thin lens representation FODO cell

æ1 L 0 0ö æ1 0 0 0ö æ x( s) ö
ç ÷ ç1 ÷ ç ÷
ç0 1 0 0÷ çf 1 0 0÷ ç x' ( s) ÷
ç0 ç0 0÷ ç y( s) ÷
0 1 L÷ ç
0 1
÷ ç ÷
ç ÷ ç0 0 - 1f 1 ÷ø ç y' ( s) ÷
ç0 0 0 1 ÷ø è è ø
è
Drift: Thin lens:
C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25
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 Beam Ellipse
In an linear uncoupled machine the turn-by-turn positions and
angles of the particle motion will lie on an ellipse

Area of the ellipse, e :

e = g x 2 + 2a xx ' + b x ' 2

xb ( s ) = e b ( s ) cos(j ( s) + j 0 )
a e
xb' ( s ) = - e cos(j ( s) + j 0 ) - sin(j ( s) + j 0 )
b ( s) b ( s)

C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25

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 Ballistic time-of-flight
• Consider two particles with different momentum on parallel
trajectories:

• At a given time t:

• But:

• The ballistic path length dependence on momentum is important

everywhere, not just in bending magnets.
• Higher momentum particles are faster, i.e. precede the ones with
lower momentum.
• The effect vanishes for relativistic particles.

C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25

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 Radiation
The power emitted by a particle is

2 g
4
2
PSR = a !c 2
3 r

and the energy loss in one turn is

4p g4
U0 = a !c 2
3 r

C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25

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 Radiation damping
Energy damping:

Larger energy particles lose more energy

2 g 4
PSR = a !c 2 2
3 r
• Typically, synchrotron radiation damping is very efficient in electron
storage rings and negligible in proton machines.
• The damping time 1/aD (~ ms for e-, ~ 13 hours LHC at 7 TeV) is usually
much larger than the period of the longitudinal oscillations 1/2pW (~ µs).
This implies that the damping term can be neglected when calculating the
particle motion for t << 1/aD :

C. Steier, Beam-based Diagnostics, USPAS 2019, 2019/1/21-25

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 Quantum excitation - Longitudinally
The synchrotron radiation emitted as photons, the typical
photon energy is

3 g3
uc = !wc = !c
2 r
The number of photons emitted is
4 g
N = ac
9 r
With a statistical uncertainty of N

The equilibrium energy spread and bunch length is

æ se ö aR
2 2
E
ç E ÷ = 1.468 × 10 J r and s L = f s e
-6

è ø e 0

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