Introduction to On-Orbit Thermal

Environments

Presented by:
Steven L. Rickman
NASA Technical Fellow for Passive Thermal
NASA Engineering and Safety Center

Thermal and Fluids Analysis Workshop, 2014

Cleveland, Ohio
August 2014
1
NASA Photo: ISS003E7557
 Introduction

This lesson provides an introduction to On-Orbit

Thermal Environments for those unfamiliar with this
subject and will also serve as a refresher for
practitioners of thermal analysis.

2
 Overview of Natural Thermal Environments

Main focus will be on naturally occurring heating

sources driven by solar heating, reflected solar
heating and infrared sources;

Some focus will be given to free molecular heating;

Charged particle heating will be briefly discussed.

3
 Scope of this Lesson

Radiation heat transfer;

Basic orbit mechanics;

Derivation of the solar, albedo and planetary

infrared heating components;

Beta angle and eclipse effects;

An example problem will be presented.

4
 Scope of this Lesson

Free molecular heating;

Charged particle heating.

5
 Lesson Roadmap
Solar Zenith Angle

Thermal Radiation
Orbits Solar Flux Albedo Flux
Basics

Form Factor

Planetary Infrared Albedo and Planetary

Beta Angle
Flux Flux Combinations

The Celestial
Projected Area Time Constant
Inertial Coordinate
System

Consequences of Beta Putting It All Other Heating

Angle Variation Together Environments

6
Thermal Radiation Basics

7
 Thermal Radiation Basics

Unlike conduction and convection, thermal radiation

is a highly non-linear phenomenon and is
proportional to the fourth power of an object's
absolute temperature.

Conduction and Convection

Radiation

8
 The Rayleigh-Jeans Law and the Ultraviolet
Catastrophe (Ref. 1)
Classical theory used the Rayleigh-Jeans law to
predict spectral distribution:

where u(l) is the spectral radiance, l is the

wavelength, k is the Boltzmann constant, and T is
temperature.

For large l, there was good agreement with

experiment but as l approached zero, u(l)
approached infinity -- the "ultraviolet catastrophe."
9
 Blackbody Radiation and Planck's Law (Ref. 1)

By assuming that electromagnetic radiation is

quantized, Max Planck showed that for a blackbody
at a temperature, T:

where u(l) is the spectral radiance, l is the

wavelength, h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of
light, and k is the Boltzmann constant.

This is known as Planck's Law.

10
 Blackbody Radiation and Planck's Law (Ref. 1)

The total energy density is given by:

Let x = hc/lkT. The integral becomes:

11
 Blackbody Radiation and Planck's Law (Ref. 1)

We see that:

and observe the quantity in the integral is

dimensionless;

We conclude that the spectral radiance is

proportional to T4 - the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.

12
 The Solar Spectrum

Wehrli 85 Data (Ref. 2)

Spectral Irradiance (W/m2/nm)

Planck Blackbody (5777 K)

Wavelength, l (nm)
13
 The Solar and Infrared Spectra (Ref. 3)

>98% of the solar

spectrum energy lies
below 4000 nm;

For a blackbody at 300 K,

>99% of its energy lies
above 4000 nm;

Think of these two regions

as the solar and infrared
spectra, respectively.
14
 The Blackbody

A blackbody is the perfect absorber and emitter of

radiant energy;

The Stefan-Boltzmann law shows that energy

radiated from a blackbody is a function only of its
absolute temperature, T:

where s = 5.67  10-8 W/m2 K4.

15
 The Grey Body

Most objects are not perfect blackbody absorbers or

emitters -- they are said to be "grey";

To account for imperfect absorption and emission,

the Stefan-Boltzmann equation is scaled by an
emissivity term, e;

e is a value between 0 and unity.

16
 Solar Absorptance and Infrared Emittance

In the spacecraft thermal lexicon, we differentiate

between how well a surface absorbs solar spectrum
energy and how well it absorbs and emits infrared
energy:

a refers to solar absorptance;

e refers to infrared emittance;

But for a given wavelength, l, the absorptance is

equivalent to the emittance:
al = e l
17
 Conservation of Energy

Conservation of energy tells us that the energy

absorbed by a surface, al plus the energy reflected,
rl plus the energy transmitted, tl must equal the
energy incident on that surface:
a l + rl + t l = 1
For an opaque surface, tl = 0 and the equation
simplifies to:
a l + rl = 1
This will be important when we calculate albedo flux.
18
 Solar Absorptance and Infrared Emittance

When we differentiate between the solar and

infrared spectra, we drop the l subscript and it is
understood that:

a applies to the 0-4000 nm range;

r applies, roughly, to the 0-4000 nm range;

e applies to the 4000 nm and above range.

19
Orbits

20
 Anatomy of an Orbit
Periapsis -- the location
of minimum orbit
altitude Argument of Periapsis --
the angle, measured in
Semimajor Axis-- half
the orbit plane, from
the distance from
the ascending node to
apoapsis to periapsis
the periapsis

True Anomaly -- angle + Inclination -- the tilt of

from the periapsis
Focus
the orbit plane with
location to the respect to the equator
spacecraft location
Ascending Node -- the location
where the orbit crosses the
+ equator headed south to north
Focus
Apoapsis -- the location
Right Ascension of the Ascending Node
of maximum orbit
will be discussed in a subsequent section.
altitude

21
 Orbit Eccentricity

The eccentricity, e, of an a
ellipse is defined as:
+ + +

f
where a is the length of the
semimajor axis and f is the
distance from the center to f=0
one of the foci. +

a
For a circle, e = 0.

22
 Orbit Eccentricity

Three orbits with the

same semimajor axis are
shown here;

The only difference is the

orbit eccentricity:

e = 0.0 (circular)
e = 0.4
e = 0.8

23
 Circular Orbits

Circular orbits are easier to describe because they

are a degenerate case of the ellipse;

For a circular orbit, the semimajor and semiminor

axes are equal in length and, because of this, the
argument of periapsis is undefined;

Hence, the shape and orientation of a circular orbit

may be described by its radius, inclination and right
ascension of the ascending node, only.

24
Solar Flux

25
 Solar Flux

At a distance of 1 a.u.,
the intensity of the
incoming solar flux is
1367 W/m2 (Ref. 4);

We seek an expression
that allows us to
calculate the intensity of
the solar flux at any The Sun as seen by the Solar Dynamics
distance. Observatory on 04 May 2011

NASA Photo
26
 Solar System Geometry

Earth's orbit around

the sun is slightly
elliptical (e = 0.0167);

n
Earth closer to the sun rA rP
during part of the year;

Earth's average 2a

distance from the sun,

a, is one half of the
ellipse's major axis.
27
 Solar System Geometry

Earth's closest approach

to the sun is called
perihelion (rP);

Earth's most distant n

rA rP
point from the sun is
called aphelion (rA);
2a

Earth's angular position

from perihelion is called
true anomaly (n).
28
 Solar System Geometry

Earth's distance from the

sun may be determined
for any value of true
anomaly, n by using the
formula: n
rA rP

2a

29
 Solar System Geometry

Perihelion, then, is determined

as:

n
rA rP
And, similarly, aphelion is:

2a

For Earth, a = 1 a.u.

30
 Calculating Solar Flux

The sun broadcasts its

energy in all directions;
rA
If we construct imaginary
rP
spherical surfaces about Q

the sun, we know that

the total energy crossing
each surface must be the
same.

31
 Calculating Solar Flux

We can set up an energy

balance as follows:
rA

rP
Q

But since the same

amount of energy must
cross each sphere:

32
 Calculating Solar Flux

The flux at Earth

perihelion and aphelion is,
respectively: rA

rP
Q

33
 Calculating Solar Flux

For a = 1 a.u., e = 0.0167 and a solar flux of 1367

W/m2 at 1 a.u., the following values are obtained:

W/m2
W/m2

These typically have a ±5 W/m2 accuracy.

Note: A value of 1423 W/m2 is a typical hot case

solar flux design parameter and depends on the
mean value of solar constant assumed.
34
 Calculating Solar Flux

Using this same

formulation, we can
calculate the solar flux at
any distance, r, from the
r
sun:

r=1 a.u.

For the remainder of this

lesson, solar flux will be
referred to as, simply .
35
Albedo Flux

36
 Albedo Heating

Albedo heating is solar

energy reflected from
the planet and its
atmosphere;

It is not a point source --

it subtends a solid angle
and has non-uniform
area intensity. Partially Illuminated Earth as
Seen from Apollo 12
(NASA Photo)

37
 A Simplified Albedo Model

Analysis of albedo is complicated by its non-

uniform area intensity;

We can, however, gain an understanding of the

contribution of albedo heating by making some
simplifying assumptions;

Corrections to this will be discussed.

38
 Assumptions for the Simplified Albedo Model

Simplifying assumptions:

Low altitude, circular orbit --

restricts planet viewing to
local regions with similar
illumination conditions;

Constant albedo factor

planet-wide -- uniform albedo
factor, with diffuse reflection,
is the easiest to model.
39
 Simplified Albedo Flux Calculation

The expression for the simplified albedo flux is

formed by considering the following:
.
intensity of the sunlight striking the planet, qsol;

fraction of sunlight reflected, r (i.e., the albedo

factor is just 1 - a);

scaling of intensity from orbit noon (i.e., solar zenith

angle, );

local form factor to the planet, FF. 40

 Aside: Solar Zenith Angle, 

The solar zenith angle, , is

a measure of angular q

distance from orbit noon; b

If orbit angle, q is measured

from orbit noon and b is
measured from a plane

containing the sun, an
increase in either
parameter results in an
increase in .
41
 Aside: Solar Zenith Angle, 

Mathematically,  is
expressed as: q

for:


We'll explore b in detail

in a subsequent section.
42
 Aside: The Form Factor

A form factor
describes how
well one object
can "see"
another object;

The form factor

may take on a
value from zero
to unity.

43
 Aside: Form Factor

The Nusselt Sphere

technique is one of many Surface 2
ways to calculate form
factors;

The form factor from dA1 to

Surface 2 is calculated as the
projected area, AP, divided
by the area of the
hemisphere's circular base. dA1
AP

44
 Aside: Form Factor
re
Let's use the Nusselt Sphere Planet
re
technique for calculating the
form factor to the planet
from an orbiting plate, at
altitude h above the planet,
whose surface normal faces
h
the nadir direction.

dA1
AP

45
 Aside: Form Factor
re
We see that we can Planet
re
construct a right triangle (in
green) with a short side re
measuring re and a
hypotenuse measuring re+h;
h
We define the angle f by
noting: f

dA1
AP

46
 Aside: Form Factor
re
Similarly, we can construct a Planet
re
right triangle (in red) with a
hypotenuse measuring unity re
and the angle f, already
defined;
h x
We define the distance x by
noting: f r=1

dA1
AP

47
 Aside: Form Factor
re
Projecting x down to the base, Planet
re
we see that the ratio of the
projected circular area to the re
total area of the base is:

h x

We'll come back to this result f r=1

in our heating calculations.

dA1
AP

48
 Aside: Form Factor

The forward (east)-, aft (west)-, north- and south-

facing surfaces have a different view to the planet
due to their orientation.

For these "perpendicular" surfaces, the form factor

is presented in Ref. 5 and shown here, without
derivation.

49
 Simplified Albedo Flux Calculation

The equation for a nadir-facing plate is:

Intensity of sunlight Scaling of

striking the planet intensity from
Fraction of the Local Form
orbit noon
sunlight reflected Factor to the
planet

r

qsol

re
h For:

50
 Solar Zenith Angle Corrections
to Albedo (Ref. 6)
Our simplified model isn't perfect but there's a way
to correct for albedo by applying this formula:

Note that this correction was derived from data

restricted to latitudes of +30° to -30°.
51
 Solar Zenith Angle Corrections
to Albedo (Ref. 6)
Albedo Correction Term, r()

Solar Zenith Angle,  (°)

52
 Solar Zenith Angle Corrections to Albedo

Corrected Model

Simplified Model
Albedo Flux (W/m2)

Assumptions:
r = 0.3
.
qsol = 1367 W/m2

Note: Raw flux value with no form factor correction.

Solar Zenith Angle,  (°)

53
Planetary Infrared Flux

54
 Planetary Infrared Heating

Thus far, we've discussed natural heating

components using illumination in the solar
spectrum;

But there is another heating source incident on a

spacecraft when in proximity to a planet/moon;

And the heating is concentrated in the infrared

portion of the spectrum -- it's called planetary
infrared or outgoing long-wave radiation (OLR);

55
 Simplifying Assumptions for Earth Infrared

We can learn much by examining a simplified

representation of Earth's heat balance;

For this analysis, we'll assume that Earth's

atmosphere and relatively rapid rotation with
respect to the sun results in uniform temperatures
over the entire globe; Earth is at thermal radiation
equilibrium; and, Earth's albedo is constant over the
entire surface.

56
 The Overall Planetary Heat Balance

The overall planetary heat balance assumes steady

state heat transfer -- the amount of heat absorbed
by the planet must equal the amount radiated:

Let's take a closer look at each of these terms.

57
 The Overall Planetary Heat Balance

The heat absorbed is the amount of incoming solar

flux times the area that intercepts the flux times the
fraction absorbed:

But what is meant by the projected area (Aproj)?

58
 Aside: Projected Area

The entire planetary sphere is not

illuminated;

Only half is illuminated at any given

instant and even that illumination
is not uniform;

But it's easy to visualize how much

sunlight is intercepted by the Earth as Seen
planet, even with this non-uniform from Apollo 8
(NASA Photo)
illumination.
59
 Aside: Projected Area

Imagine that you could lower a white screen behind

an illuminated planet and observe from afar;

How much sunlight would be missing?

Incoming Solar Heating

re

(Assumed Parallel)

60
 Aside: Projected Area

Looking at the screen head-on, we see that a circle

of sunlight is missing;

The projected area of a sphere is simply that of a

circle.

re

61
 The Overall Planetary Heat Balance

The heat emitted is assumed uniform over the

entire planet;

We can express the heat rejected using the familiar

Stefan-Boltzmann law:

where is recognized as the surface area of the

planetary sphere.

62
 The Overall Planetary Heat Balance

Next, we equate the outgoing and incoming energy,

and substituting for the projected area:

Solving for the planetary temperature, T yields:

63
 The Overall Planetary Heat Balance

We can also find the flux emitted by the planet at

temperature, T:

For a mean solar flux of 1367 W/m2, albedo of 0.3

and an assumed Earth emittance of 1.0:

255 K
239 W/m2

64
 The Overall Planetary Heat Balance

The flux incident on the spacecraft is scaled by the

local form factor to the planet for a nadir-facing
plate:

qsol

re
h

65
 Why Won't This Calculation Work for the
Moon?
Recall our simplifying
assumptions:
Cold
Earth has an atmosphere Hot
to transport heat over the
globe -- the Moon does
not;

Earth rotates rapidly with Moon as Seen

respect to the sun when from Apollo 11
(NASA Photo)
compared to the Moon.
66
 Why Won't This Calculation Work for the
Moon?
Because of this, assuming the Moon is isothermal
is not a good assumption.

Moon as Seen from Apollo 11 as it

was Homeward Bound
(NASA Photo)
67
Albedo and Planetary Flux
Combinations

68
 Combination of Natural Environmental
Parameters
The previous developments were used to show
how reasonable estimates of natural
environmental parameters could be obtained
using some simplifying assumptions;

Now, it's time to explore "reality".

69
 Local Variation vs. the Planet-Wide Heat
Balance
Our earlier derivation for planetary OLR assumed
a planet-wide heat balance;

This isn't necessarily true for local conditions;

Seasonal variation in vegetation, snow cover,

cloud cover, etc., can all affect local albedo and
OLR components.

So how do engineers account for this?

70
Local Variation vs. the Planet-Wide Heat
Balance (Ref. 7)

71
 Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE)

The Earth Radiation Budget

Experiment (ERBE) used a
new generation of
instrumentation to make
accurate regional and
global measurements of
the components of the
radiation budget. (Ref. 8)
Earth Radiation Budget
Satellite (ERBS)

72
 Albedo and Planetary OLR Data (Ref. 9)
51.6° Inclination 51.6° Inclination
16 s Data 3600 s Running Means

Albedo
Albedo

51.6° Inclination 51.6° Inclination

895 s Running Means 5400 s Running Means
Albedo

Albedo

73
 Albedo vs.Planetary OLR (Ref. 9)
High Inclination Orbits, 128 Second Averaged Data

74
 Aside: Time Constant

As the thermal environment changes, so does an

object's temperature;

Objects with low thermal inertia react faster than

objects with a higher thermal inertia;

Objects with high heat transfer to or from the

environment will react more rapidly than those
with lower heat transfer.

75
 Aside: Time Constant

The effect of thermal inertia and heat transfer into

and out of an object may be understood through
investigation of the time constant, t.

Mathematically, for a mass, m, the time constant,

t is given by:

where Cp is the specific heat and G is conductance

or a linearized conductance.
76
 Aside: Time Constant

Real-life problems require more than a single set of

environmental parameters:

Objects with short time constants react to short-

term changes in the thermal environment --
examples: components such as radiators and
insulation surfaces;

Objects with longer time constants react more

slowly to changes -- examples: massive components
with small area and insulated structure.
77
 Albedo vs. OLR (Ref. 9)
Engineering Extreme Cases for High Inclination Orbits
COLD CASES
Averaging Time Minimum Albedo Combined Minimum Minimum OLR
Alb  OLR (W/m2) Alb – OLR (W/m )
2
Alb – OLR (W/m2)
16 second 0.06  273 0.16  212 0.40  97
128 second 0.06  273 0.16  212 0.38  102
896 second 0.09  264 0.17  218 0.33  141
30 minute 0.13  246 0.18  218 0.31  171
90 minute 0.16  231 0.19  218 0.26  193
6 hour 0.18  231 0.20  224 0.27  202
24 hour 0.18  231 0.20  224 0.24  205

HOT CASES
Averaging Time Maximum Albedo Combined Maximum Maximum OLR
Alb – OLR (W/m2) Alb – OLR (W/m2) Alb – OLR (W/m2)
16 second 0.50  180 0.32  263 0.22  350
128 second 0.49  184 0.31  262 0.22  347
896 second 0.35  202 0.28  259 0.20  304
30 minute 0.33  204 0.27  260 0.20  280
90 minute 0.28  214 0.26  244 0.22  231
6 hour 0.27  218 0.24  233 0.22  221
24 hour 0.24  224 0.23  232 0.20  217

Mean Albedo: 0.21 Mean OLR: 211

78
Albedo and OLR Combinations (Ref. 10)

79
Albedo and OLR Combinations (Ref. 10)

Design Hot Case Thermal Environment Profile

80
Albedo and OLR Combinations (Ref. 10)

Design Cold Case Thermal Environment Profile

81
Beta Angle

82
 The Beta Angle

The beta angle, b is the angle between the solar

vector, s, and its projection onto the orbit plane;

We're going to calculate the beta angle but before

we do, we need to explain some concepts.
83
 Aside: The Celestial Inertial Coordinate
System
A simplified representation of Earth's orbit about
the sun is shown below:

Vernal Perihelion
Summer Equinox (~January 4)
Solstice
Sun

Winter
Aphelion Solstice
(~July 4)

Autumnal
Equinox
84
 Aside: The Celestial Inertial Coordinate
System
The celestial inertial coordinate system is convenient
for performing on-orbit thermal environment
calculations.
North
z

e = 23.45 °

x
g
(Vernal Equinox)

85
 The Solar Vector

We define the solar vector, s, as a unit vector in the

celestial inertial coordinate system that points
toward the sun.
North
z

s y

e = 23.45 °

x
g
(Vernal Equinox)

86
 The Solar Vector

The apparent motion of the sun is constrained to

the Ecliptic Plane and is governed by two
parameters: G and e.
North
z

s y

G e = 23.45 °

x
g
(Vernal Equinox)

87
 The Solar Vector

e is the Obliquity of the

Ecliptic and, for Earth, is
presently 23.45°;

G is the Ecliptic True

Solar Longitude and
changes with date -- G is
0° when the sun it at the
Vernal Equinox.

88
 The Solar Vector

We can form the solar vector via two Euler angle

transformations: first a rotation of the unit vector of
e about the x-axis and then a rotation of G about the
new z-axis.

Unit Vector, First Rotation, Second Rotation,

No Rotation e about x-axis G about new z-axis

89
 The Solar Vector

Mathematically, the transformation is expressed as:

90
 The Orbit Normal Vector

In the same celestial inertial coordinate system, we

define the vector, o, as a unit vector pointing normal
to the orbit plane.
North
o z

x
g
(Vernal Equinox)

91
 The Orbit Normal Vector

i is the Orbit Inclination --

a measure of angular tilt
from the equatorial plane;

W is the Right Ascension of

the Ascending Node -- a
measure of angle between
the x-axis at the point
where the orbit cross the
equatorial plane going
from south to north.
92
 The Orbit Normal Vector

We can form the orbit normal vector via two Euler

angle transformations: first a rotation of the unit
vector of W about the z-axis and then a rotation of i
about the new x-axis.

Unit Vector, First Rotation, Second Rotation,

No Rotation W about z-axis i about new x-axis

93
 The Orbit Normal Vector

Mathematically, the transformation is expressed as:

94
 Calculating the Beta Angle

To most easily calculate the

angle between a vector and a
plane, it is necessary to
determine the angle f

between the vector and a b

vector normal to the plane,
denoted here by f;
s

We note that b = f - (p/2)

radians.

95
 Calculating the Beta Angle

The beta angle, then, is given by:

But, since b = f - (p/2) radians:

96
 Calculating the Beta Angle

We see that b is limited by:

Beta angles where the sun is north of the orbit

plane are considered positive -- beta angles where
the sun is south of the orbit are considered
negative.

97
Consequences of Beta Angle
Variation

98
 Variation of the Beta Angle

Our expression for b, repeated here for convenience

is:

The beta angle is not static and varies constantly;

Two factors that affect b variation the most:

1. The change of seasons (variation in G);

2. Perturbation of the orbit due to the oblateness of
the planet (variation in W).
99
 Variation Due to the Change of Seasons

It takes the sun just over

one year to make one
circuit around the celestial
sphere;

We measure the sun's

progress by G;

Strictly speaking, the rate

that the sun makes this
circuit is not constant.
100
 Variation Due to the Change of Seasons

Since Earth's orbit about

the sun is nearly circular,
an approximation of the
variation of G with time is
sufficient.

101
 Variation Due to Precession of the Orbit

Earth is not a perfect sphere;

Equatorial bulge produces a

torque on the orbit;

Effect is a precession of the

orbit ascending node;

Precession is a function of
orbit altitude and inclination.

102
 Variation Due to Precession of the Orbit

This variation is called the .

Ascending Node Angular Rate, W,
and is given by:

where J2 is the oblateness

perturbation, req is the planet
equatorial radius, p is the
"parameter", m is the planet mass
 G, r is the orbit radius and i is
inclination. 103
 Variation Due to Precession of the Orbit

For Earth, typical values for

these parameters are (Ref. 4):

J2 = 1082.62  10-6
req = 6378.1 km
m = 0.3986  106 km3/s2
For a typical ISS orbit...
r = 6378.1 km + 408 km
Circular (e = 0, a = r)
i = 51.6°
104
 Variation Due to Precession of the Orbit

The "parameter" is calculated

as:

The resulting precession is:

.
W = -1.0063410-6 rad/s
.
W = -4.98 /day

105
 Variation of the Beta Angle Due to Seasonal
Variation and Orbit Precession
Representative Profile:
Altitude = 408 km, Circular
Inclination = 51.6 °
Beta Angle (°)

Note: This is one of many possible profiles

Number of Days Since Vernal Equinox

106
 Consequences of Beta Angle Variation

As b changes, there are two consequences of

interest to thermal engineers:

1) The time spent in eclipse (i.e., planet shadow)

varies;

2) The intensity and direction of heating incident on

spacecraft surfaces changes;

Let's explore each of these effects.

107
 Eclipse: Umbra and Penumbra

Umbral region - sunlight is completely obscured;

Penumbral region - sunlight is partially obscured.

Penumbra
Umbra

Planet Sun
Not to Scale

108
Orbital Sunset: From Penumbra to Umbra
Earth Earth Earth

Earth Earth Earth

Earth Earth Earth

NASA Photos
109
 Eclipse: Umbra and Penumbra

If time in penumbra is minimal, analysis may be

simplified using a cylindrical shadow assumption.
Cylindrical Shadow Approximation

Umbral Shadow Cone

(Exaggerated ~4X)

110
 Geometry for Eclipse Calculation
(Low, Circular Orbit Only)
We create a new coordinate system where the sun is
always in the xy-plane and the orbit is inclined b;
zb

b
xb
re

yb is in to the page
111
 Geometry for Eclipse Calculation
(Low, Circular Orbit Only)
Looking down onto the orbit plane gives us this
geometry (when b = 0°).
yb

q
r'
r
xb
re

zb is out of the page

112
 Geometry for Eclipse Calculation
(Low, Circular Orbit Only)
We seek an expression for r' which is a projection of
r onto the ybzb-plane.
yb

q
r'
r
xb
re

zb is out of the page

113
 Geometry for Eclipse Calculation
(Low, Circular Orbit Only)
When |r'| < re, the spacecraft is in the umbral
shadow.
yb

q
r'
r
xb
re

zb is out of the page

114
 Calculating Umbral Eclipse Entry
(Low, Circular Orbit Only)
Spacecraft position vector, r, can be expressed as a
function of altitude above planet, h, planet radius,
re, angle from orbit noon, q, and beta angle, b:

The magnitude of this vector is:

This reduces to:

115
 Calculating Umbral Eclipse Entry
(Low, Circular Orbit Only)
The projection of this vector onto the ybzb-plane is
given by:

And the magnitude is given by:

The onset of shadowing occurs when |r'| < re:

116
 Calculating Umbral Eclipse Entry/Exit
(Low, Circular Orbit Only)
Now that the q of eclipse onset is known, it is a
simple matter to determine the entire eclipse period
by noting that the total angle shadowed is 2(p-q):

2(p-q)

117
 Fraction of Orbit Spent in Sunlight/Eclipse

The fraction of orbit spent in sunlight and eclipse for

a circular orbit is clearly related to b:
408 km (220 nm) Circular Orbit

Fraction Spent
Fraction of Orbit

in Sunlight

Fraction Spent
in Eclipse

b Angle (°)
118
 Variation of the Orbit Eclipse Period as a
Function of Beta Angle
Fraction of Orbit In Sunlight

Representative Profile:
Altitude = 408 km, Circular
Inclination = 51.6 °

Note: This is one of many possible profiles

Number of Days Since Vernal Equinox

119
 Variation of the Heating to Surfaces as
Function of Beta Angle
To study this, we will consider an orbiting plate and
look at the effect of b angle on heating to a planet-
facing (N = nadir) surface.

r N

120
 Variation of the Solar Heating to a Nadir-
Facing Surface as a Function of Beta Angle
At orbit noon (q = 0°), the
nadir-facing surface has no
view to the incoming solar r
flux; q
sol

As q varies past 90°, the

heating scales with -cos q.

As b increases, the projected

for:
area scales with cos b;

121
 Variation of the Albedo Heating to a Nadir-
Facing Surface as a Function of Beta Angle
For a given b, at orbit noon
(q = 0°), the nadir-facing
surface has a maximum r
view to the sun lit planet; q
sol

As b increases and q
increases from orbit noon,
the solar zenith angle, ,
increases.
for:
Overall, the heating scales
with cos . 122
 Variation of the Planetary Heating to a Nadir-
Facing Surface as a Function of Beta Angle
From our assumption of a
constant planetary flux,
the planetary infrared r

heating to the plate is qsol

easily calculated as the

product of the planetary
flux, scaled by the form
factor to the planet.
for:

123
 Variation of the Heating to a Nadir-Facing
Surface as a Function of Beta Angle
b = 0° b = 60°
Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle, q (°) Orbit Angle, q (°)

b = 75°
Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

h = 408 km (Circular)
.
qsol = 1367 W/m2
r = 0.3
.
qpla = 236 W/m2
re = 6378.14 km

Orbit Angle, q (°) 124

Putting It All Together

125
 Putting It All Together

We've looked separately at:

The solar, albedo and planetary infrared heating

components;

Beta angle and its effect on heating flux and on-orbit

eclipse.

Let's pull it all together with an example problem.

126
 Example: The Orbiting Box

Consider a box-like spacecraft orbiting Earth:

h. = 408 km (Circular)
qsol = 1367 W/m2
r = 0.3
.
qpla = 236 W/m2
re = 6378.14 km

q is in orbit plane
(green dashed line)
127
 Example: The Orbiting Box

Side 1 - faces away from the planet (zenith-facing)

Side 2 - faces the planet (nadir-facing)
Side 3 - faces forward (velocity vector-facing)
Side 4 - faces aft (anti-velocity vector-facing)
Side 5 - faces north
Side 6 - faces south

Note: Side 3 not

shown
128
 Example: The Orbiting Box

View Looking
"Down" from q
Normal to the
Orbit Plane
Note: Side 6 not
shown

View Looking
Edge On to b
the Orbit
Plane
Note: Side 3 not
shown
129
 Example: Side 1 - Zenith-Facing Surface

The zenith-facing plate "sees" only sunlight.

b = 0° b = +60°

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°) Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°)

130
 Example: Side 2 - Nadir-Facing Surface

The nadir-facing plate experiences solar, albedo and

planetary heating.
b = 0° b = +60°

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°) Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°)

131
 Example: Side 2 - Nadir-Facing Surface

For this orbit, above |b| = ~71°, no eclipse is

experienced.
b = +75°
Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°)

132
 Example: Side 3 - Forward-Facing Surface

Solar flux phase is shifted due to orientation of

surface;
b = 0° b = +60°

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°) Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°)

133
 Example: Side 4 - Aft-Facing Surface

Solar flux phase is shifted again due to orientation of

surface -- mirror image of Forward-Facing surface;
b = 0° b = +60°

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°) Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°)

134
 Example: Side 5 - North-Facing Surface

At b = 0°, surface is edge on to sun and solar flux is

zero -- for negative b, solar flux is zero;
b = 0° b = +60°

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°) Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°)

135
 Example: Side 6 - South-Facing Surface

At b = 0°, the surface is edge on to sun and solar

flux is zero -- for positive b, solar flux is zero;
b = 0° b = -60°

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Incident Heating Flux (W/m2)

Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°) Orbit Angle from Solar Noon, q (°)

136
Other Heating Environments

137
 Free Molecular Heating (Refs. 11 and 12)

We define the Stanton number, St to be:

.
where qw is the convective heat flux, re is the flow
density at the edge of the boundary layer, ue is the
flow velocity at the edge of the boundary layer, haw
is the enthalpy at the wall assuming an adiabatic
wall temperature and hw is the enthalpy at the wall
assuming the actual wall temperature.

138
 Free Molecular Heating (Ref. 11)

St can be thought of is the efficiency of heat transfer

from the flow field to a surface;

The numerator is the actual heating applied while

the denominator is the total available convective
energy;

From this definition, we see that:

139
 Free Molecular Heating (Ref. 11)

We can rearrange our equation for St to solve for

the surface convective heating flux:

We assume that:

This is true for a calorically perfect gas (i.e., Cp and

Cv are functions of T only) and may be true for a
thermally perfect gas (Cp and Cv are constant)
assuming Cp is a function of T only.
140
 Free Molecular Heating (Ref. 11)

From this, we can say that:

For a high energy flow field, it is reasonable to

assume that:

and this implies:

141
 Free Molecular Heating (Ref. 11)

With this information, we can further simplify our

expression for the convective heating flux at the
wall:

But, this equation can be simplified even further

because if viscous effects are ignored:

142
 Free Molecular Heating (Ref. 11)
Our expression becomes:

Also,

so...

143
 Free Molecular Heating (Ref. 11)

By definition,

But for high velocity flows,

because

144
 Free Molecular Heating (Ref. 11)

T is typically low. The expression becomes:

For maximum heating, St = 1.0 and the expression

becomes:

which is our desired result.

145
 Free Molecular Heating and Density
Dispersions
Ref. 12 describes a methodology to calculate free
molecular heating using dispersed density, rdisp:

The dispersed density may be calculated from:

where K is a density dispersion factor, affected by

numerous factors but most notably solar activity,
and r76 is the U.S. Standard 1976 density.
146
 Free Molecular Heating and Density
Dispersions
K factors were developed to disperse nominal
densities for different altitudes and times in the
solar cycle;

The strategy is to calculate a 3-sigma dispersed

density. (Ref. 13)

147
 Charged Particle Heating (Ref. 14)

Charged particle heating must be considered in the

design of a system operating at cryogenic
temperatures;

Focus is to calculate the energy dissipation of

charged particles as they pass through an absorbing
medium;

The volumetric heating created as a result through

interaction with absorbing medium must be
factored into the overall heat transfer calculation.
148
Charged Particle Heating (Ref. 15)

Van Allen Radiation Belts

(NASA Image)
149
 Charged Particle Heating (Ref. 14)

Volumetric heating may be calculated as follows:

Where...

is the "stopping power"

is the particle energy

is the penetration depth

is the particle flux.

150
 Concluding Remarks

Overview of radiation heat transfer, the solar and

infrared spectra;

Derived expressions for solar, albedo and planetary

heating fluxes;

Derived an expression for the beta angle and

investigated the effect beta has on orbit
environment heating;

Explored free molecular heating and charged

particle heating phenomena. 151
 Acknowledgements

Special acknowledgement is given to JSC/Mr. Brian

Anderson for his development and derivation of the
free molecular heating lesson content.

This author is grateful to the NESC Passive Thermal

Technical Discipline Team (TDT) for their
contributions and technical review of this lesson.

152
 References/Credits

1) Tipler, P. A., Modern Physics, New York, Worth Publishers, Inc., 1978.

2) National Renewable Energy Center, Renewable Resource Data Center,

http://rredc.nrel.gov/solar/spectra/am0/wehrli1985.html.

3) Ungar, E. K., Slat Heater Boxes for Control of Thermal Environments in

Thermal/Vacuum Testing, SAE 1999-01-2135, 1999.

4) National Space Science Data Center (NSSDC)

http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/earthfact.html.

5) Ballinger, J. C., Elizalde, J. C., Garcia-Varela, R. M., and Christiansen, E. H.,

Environmental Control of Space Vehicles, Part II, Thermal Environment of Space,
Convair, ERR-AN-016, 1960.

6) Anderson, B. J., Justus, C. G., Batts, G. W., Guidelines for the Selection of Near-
Earth Thermal Environment Parameters for Spacecraft Design, NASA/TM-2001-
211221, 2001.
153
 References/Credits

7) The Earth Radiation Budget Experiment, http://asd-

www.larc.nasa.gov/erbe/components2.gif.

8) The Earth Radiation Budget Experiment, http://asd-

www.larc.nasa.gov/erbe/erbssat.gif.

9) Space Station Program Natural Environment Definition for Design, SSP 30425
Revision B, February 8, 1994.

10) Russian Segment Specification, International Space Station Program, SSP 41163G,
October 9, 1999.

11) Anderson, B. P., fmh-derivation.pdf, March 31, 2011.

12) Heiser, W., Pratt, D., Hypersonic Airbreathing Propulsion, American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics, Washington, D.C., 1994.

154
 References/Credits

13) Charles, T. L., Nitschke, M. D., Prediction of Three Sigma Maximum Dispersed
Density for Aerospace Applications, Fifth Annual Thermal and Fluids Analysis
Workshop, NASA Conference Publication 10122, August 16-20, 1993.

14) Jimenez, R., "Effects of Natural Environment Charged Particle Heating on the
Design and Performance of Spacecraft Cryogenic Components", AIAA 89-1760, AIAA
24thThermophysics Conference, Buffalo, June 12-14, 1989.

15) Van Allen Belts, http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/venus/a11789.html

Microsoft® Clip Art was used throughout the presentation.

155
 For Additional Information

Natural and Induced Thermal Environments

Musgrave, G.E., Larsen, A., Sgobba, T., Safety Design for Space Systems, Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2009. [Section 2.6, Natural and Induced Thermal Environments by Rickman,
S.L.]

Orbit Mechanics
Bate, R.R., Mueller, D.D., White, J.E., Fundamentals of Astrodynamics, 1st Edition, New York,
Dover, 1971.

Thermal Environments
Gilmore, D. G., Spacecraft Thermal Control Handbook, Volume I: Fundamental
Technologies, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 2nd Edition, 2002.

Eclipse Entry and Exit Angles for Elliptical Orbits

Mullins, L.D., “Calculating Satellite Umbra/Penumbra Entry and Exit Positions and
Times,” The Journal of Astronautical Sciences, 39 [4], 411-422, 1991.

Orbital Average Thermal Environments

Rickman, S.L., "A Simplified, Closed-Form Method for Screening Orbital Heating Variations",
Thermal and Fluids Analysis Workshop (TFAWS) 2002, August 16-20, 2002.
156
 To Contact the Author

Address:
Steven L. Rickman
NASA Engineering and Safety Center (NESC)
NASA - Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
2101 NASA Parkway
Mail Code: WE
Houston, TX 77058

Phone:
281-483-8867

Email:
[email protected]

157