Powder Technology (POWDER TECHNOL )

There is a multitude of powder used within pharmaceutical, chemical, metallurgy

and food industries. The processing and handling of powder also involved a
multitude of operations such as production, the size and type of particles, transport,
storage, powder blending etc. A clear understanding of the characteristics of
powders is required in other to carry out these operations in an optimal manner.
Parameters such as particle size distribution, particle shape etc have a great
significant impact on the powder properties and the handling of powder.

Powder metallurgy
Powder metallurgy is the process of blending fine powdered materials, pressing them into a
desired shape or form (compacting), and then heating the compressed material in a controlled
atmosphere to bond the material (sintering). The powder metallurgy process generally consists of
four basic steps: powder manufacture, powder blending, compacting, and sintering. Compacting
is generally performed at room temperature, and the elevated-temperature process of sintering is
usually conducted at atmospheric pressure. Optional secondary processing often follows to
obtain special properties or enhanced precision.[1] The use of powder metal technology, bypasses
the need manufacture the resulting products by metal removal processes thereby reducing costs.

Two main techniques used to form and consolidate the powder are sintering and metal injection
molding. Recent developments have made it possible to use rapid manufacturing techniques
which use metal powder for the products. Because with this technique the powder is melted and
not sintered, better mechanical strength can be accomplished.

Powder production techniques

Any fusible material can be atomized. Several techniques have been developed which permit
large production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable control over the size ranges
of the final grain population. Powders may be prepared by comminution, grinding, chemical
reactions, or electrolytic deposition.
Powders of the elements titanium, vanadium, thorium, niobium, tantalum, calcium, and uranium
have been produced by high-temperature reduction of the corresponding nitrides and carbides.
Iron, nickel, uranium, and beryllium submicrometre powders are obtained by reducing metallic
oxalates and formates. Exceedingly fine particles also have been prepared by directing a stream
of molten metal through a high-temperature plasma jet or flame, simultaneously atomizing and
comminuting the material. Various chemical and flame associated powdering processes are
adopted in part to prevent serious degradation of particle surfaces by atmospheric oxygen.

In tonnage terms, the production of iron powders for PM structural part production dwarfs the
production of all of the non-ferrous metal powders combined. Virtually all iron powders are
produced by one of two processes: The sponge Iron Process or Water Atomisation.

Sponge iron process

The longest established of these processes is the sponge iron process, the leading example of a
family of processes involving solid state reduction of an oxide. In the process, selected magnetite
(Fe3O4) ore is mixed with coke and lime and placed in a silicon carbide retort. The filled retort
is then passed through a long kiln, where the reduction process leaves an iron “cake” and a slag.
In subsequent steps, the retort is emptied, the reduced iron sponge is separated from the slag and
is crushed and annealed.

The resultant powder is highly irregular in particle shape, therefore ensuring good “green
strength” so that die-pressed compacts can be readily handled prior to sintering, and each particle
contains internal pores (hence the term “sponge”) so that the good green strength is available at
low compacted density levels.

Sponge iron provides the base feedstock for all iron-based, self-lubricating bearings and still
accounts for around 30% of iron powder usage in PM structural parts.

Atomization

Atomization is accomplished by forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate

pressures. A gas is introduced into the metal stream just before it leaves the nozzle, serving to
create turbulence as the entrained gas expands (due to heating) and exits into a large collection
volume exterior to the orifice. The collection volume is filled with gas to promote further
turbulence of the molten metal jet. On Earth, air and powder streams are segregated using gravity
or cyclonic separation. Most atomised powders are annealed, which helps reduce the oxide and
carbon content. The water atomized particles are smaller, cleaner, and nonporous and have a
greater breadth of size, which allows better compacting.

Atomization are three types:

1.Liquid Atomization
2.Gas Atomization
3.Centrifugal Atomization

Powder compaction
Rhodium metal: powder, pressed pellet (3*10 5 psi), remelted

Powder compaction is the process of compacting metal powder in a die through the application
of high pressures. Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool
forming the bottom of the cavity. The powder is then compacted into a shape and then ejected
from the die cavity.[8] In a number of these applications the parts may require very little
additional work for their intended use; making for very cost efficient manufacturing.

The density of the compacted powder is directly proportional to the amount of pressure applied.
Typical pressures range from 80 psi to 1000 psi, pressures from 1000 psi to 1,000,000 psi have
been obtained. Pressure of 10 tons/in² to 50 tons/in² are commonly used for metal powder
compaction. To attain the same compression ratio across a component with more than one level
or height, it is necessary to work with multiple lower punches. A cylindrical workpiece is made
by single-level tooling. A more complex shape can be made by the common multiple-level
tooling.

Production rates of 15 to 30 parts per minutes are common.

Sintering
Sintering is a method for creating objects from powders, including metal and ceramic powders.
It is based on atomic diffusion. Diffusion occurs in any material above absolute zero, but it
occurs much faster at higher temperatures. In most sintering processes, the powdered material is
held in a mold and then heated to a temperature below the melting point. The atoms in the
powder particles diffuse across the boundaries of the particles, fusing the particles together and
creating one solid piece. Because the sintering temperature does not have to reach the melting
point of the material, sintering is often chosen as the shaping process for materials with
extremely high melting points such as tungsten and molybdenum.

Sintering is traditionally used for manufacturing ceramic objects but finds applications in almost
all fields of industry. The study of sintering and of powder-related processes is known as powder
metallurgy. A simple, intuitive example of sintering can be observed when ice cubes in a glass of
water adhere to each other.

The word "sinter" comes from the Middle High German Sinter, a cognate of English "cinder".
Advantages
Particular advantages of the powder technology include:

1. Very high levels of purity and uniformity in starting materials

2. Preservation of purity, due to the simpler subsequent fabrication process (fewer steps) that it
makes possible
3. Stabilization of the details of repetitive operations, by control of grain size during the input
stages
4. Absence of binding contact between segregated powder particles – or "inclusions" (called
stringering) – as often occurs in melting processes
5. No deformation needed to produce directional elongation of grains
6. Capability to produce materials of controlled, uniform porosity.
7. Capability to produce nearly net-shaped objects.
8. Capability to produce materials which cannot be produced by any other technology.
9. Capability to fabricate high-strength material like turbine blades.
10. After sintering the mechanical strength to handling becomes higher.

The literature contains many references on sintering dissimilar materials to produce solid/solid-
phase compounds or solid/melt mixtures at the processing stage. Almost any substance can be
obtained in powder form, through either chemical, mechanical or physical processes, so basically
any material can be obtained through sintering. When pure elements are sintered, the leftover
powder is still pure, so it can be recycled.

Disadvantages
Particular disadvantages of the powder technology include:

1. 100% sintered (iron ore) can not be charged in the blast furnace.
2. By sintering one cannot create uniform sizes.

Ceramic sintering
Sintering is part of the firing process used in the manufacture of pottery and other ceramic
objects. These objects are made from substances such as glass, alumina, zirconia, silica,
magnesia, lime, beryllium oxide and ferric oxide. Some ceramic raw materials have a lower
affinity for water and a lower plasticity index than clay, requiring organic additives in the stages
before sintering. The general procedure of creating ceramic objects via sintering of powders
includes:

 Mixing water, binder, deflocculant, and unfired ceramic powder to form a slurry;
 Spray-drying the slurry;
  Putting the spray dried powder into a mold and pressing it to form a green body (an unsintered
ceramic item);
 Heating the green body at low temperature to burn off the binder;
 Sintering at a high temperature to fuse the ceramic particles together.

All the characteristic temperatures associated to phases transformation, glass transitions and
melting points, occurring during a sinterisation cycle of a particular ceramics formulation (i.e.,
tails and frits) can be easily obtained by observing the expansion-temperature curves during
optical dilatometer thermal analysis. In fact, sinterisation is associated to a remarkable shrinkage
of the material because glass phases flow, once their transition temperature is reached, and start
consolidating the powdery structure and considerably reducing the porosity of the material.

There are two types of sintering: with pressure (also known as hot pressing), and without
pressure. Pressureless sintering is possible with graded metal-ceramic composites, with a
nanoparticle sintering aid and bulk molding technology. A variant used for 3D shapes is called
hot isostatic pressing.

To allow efficient stacking of product in the furnace during sintering and prevent parts sticking
together, many manufacturers separate ware using Ceramic Powder Separator Sheets. These
sheets are available in various materials such as alumina, zirconia and magnesia. They are
additionally categorized by fine, medium and coarse particle sizes. By matching the material and
particle size to the ware being sintered, surface damage and contamination can be reduced while
maximizing furnace loading.

Plastics sintering
Plastic materials are formed by sintering for applications that require materials of specific
porosity. Sintered plastic porous components are used in filtration and to control fluid and gas
flows. Sintered plastics are used in applications requiring wicking properties, such as marking
pen nibs. Sintered ultra high molecular weight polyethylene materials are used as ski and
snowboard base materials. The porous texture allows wax to be retained within the structure of
the base material, thus providing a more durable wax coating.

Powder (substance)
Iron powder

A powder is a dry, bulk solid composed of a large number of very fine particles that may flow
freely when shaken or tilted. Powders are a special sub-class of granular materials, although the
terms powder and granular are sometimes used to distinguish separate classes of material. In
particular, powders refer to those granular materials that have the finer grain sizes, and that
therefore have a greater tendency to form clumps when flowing. Granulars refers to the coarser
granular materials that do not tend to form clumps except when wet.

Types
Examples of powders include flour, ground coffee, powdered milk, cosmetic powders,
gunpowder, powdered sugar, fine snow, household dust, volcanic ash, the top layer of the lunar
regolith, copy machine toner, and many pharmaceuticals.

Because of their importance to industry, medicine and earth science, powders have been studied
in great detail by chemical engineers, mechanical engineers, chemists, physicists, geologists, and
researchers in other disciplines.

There are other types of powders such as nasal powders, powder for injection, oral powder, and
extamporaneous powders applied to the skin.

Mechanical properties
Typically, a powder can be compacted or loosened into a vastly larger range of bulk densities
than can a coarser granular material. When deposited by sprinkling, a powder may be very light
and fluffy. When vibrated or compressed it may become very dense and even lose its ability to
flow. The bulk density of coarse sand, on the other hand, does not vary over an appreciable
range.

The clumping behavior of a powder arises because of the molecular Van der Waals force that
causes individual grains to cling to one another. Actually, this force is present not just in
powders, but in sand and gravel, too. However, in such coarse granular materials the weight and
the inertia of the individual grains are much larger than the very weak Van der Waals forces, and
therefore the tiny clinging between grains does not have a dominant effect on the bulk behavior
of the material. Only when the grains are very small and lightweight does the Van der Waals
force become predominant, causing the material to clump like a powder.

Many other powder behaviors are common to all granular materials. These include segregation,
stratification, jamming and unjamming, fragility, loss of kinetic energy, frictional shearing,
compaction and Reynolds' dilatancy.
Powder transport
Powders are transported in the atmosphere differently from a coarse granular material. For one
thing, tiny particles have little inertia compared to the drag force of the gas that surrounds them,
and so they tend to go with the flow instead of traveling in straight lines. For this reason, powders
may be an inhalation hazard. Larger particles cannot weave through the body's defenses in the
nose and sinus, but will strike and stick to the mucous membranes. The body then moves the
mucous out of the body to expel the particles. The smaller particles on the other hand can travel
all the way to the lungs from which they cannot be expelled. Serious and sometimes fatal
diseases such as silicosis are a result from working with certain powders without adequate
respiratory protection.

Also, if powder particles are sufficiently small, they may become suspended in the atmosphere
for a very long time. Random motion of the air molecules and turbulence provide upward forces
that may counteract the downward force of gravity. Coarse granulars, on the other hand, are so
heavy that they fall immediately back to the ground. Once disturbed, dust may form huge dust
storms that cross continents and oceans before settling back to the surface. This actually explains
why there is relatively little hazardous dust in the natural environment. Once aloft, the dust is
very likely to stay aloft until it meets water in the form of rain or a body of water. Then it sticks
and is washed downstream to settle as mud deposits in a quiet lake or sea. When geological
changes later re-expose these deposits to the atmosphere, they may have already cemented
together to become mudstone, a type of rock. For comparison, the Moon has neither wind nor
water, and so its regolith contains dust but no mudstone.

The cohesive forces between the particles tend to resist their becoming airborne, and the motion
of wind across the surface is less likely to disturb a low-lying dust particle than a larger sand
grain that protrudes higher into the wind. Mechanical agitation such as vehicle traffic, digging, or
passing herds of animals is more effective than a steady wind at stirring up a powder.

The aerodynamic properties of powders are often used to transport them in industrial
applications. Pneumatic conveying is the transport of powders or grains through a pipe by
blowing gas. A gas fluidized bed is a container filled with a powder or granular substance that is
fluffed up by blowing gas upwardly through it. This is used for fluidized bed combustion,
chemically reacting the gas with the powder.

Fire dangers of powders

Many common powders made in industry are combustible; particularly metals or organic
materials such as flour. Since powders have a very high surface area, they can combust with
explosive force once ignited. Facilities such as flour mills can be vulnerable to such explosions
without proper dust mitigation efforts.

Some metals become especially dangerous in powdered form, notably titanium.

Comparison with other substances

A paste or gel might become a powder after it has been thoroughly dried, but is not considered a
powder when it is wet because it does not flow freely. Substances like dried clay, although dry
bulk solids composed of very fine particles, are not powders unless they are crushed because
they have too much cohesion between the grains, and therefore they do not flow freely like a
powder. A liquid flows differently than a powder, because a liquid cannot resist any shear stress
and therefore it cannot reside at a tilted angle without flowing (that is, it has zero angle of
repose.) A powder on the other hand is a solid, not a liquid, because it may support shear stresses
and therefore may display an angle of repose.

References
 Duran, J., Reisinger A., Sands, Powders, and Grains: An Introduction to the Physics of Granular
Materials. November 1999, Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-387-98656-1.
 Rodhes, M (editor),Principles of powder technology, John Wiley & Sons, 1997 ISBN 0-471-
92422-9
 Fayed, M.E., Otten L. (editor), Handbook of powder science & technology, second edition,
Chapman & Hall, ISBN 0-412-99621-9
 Bagnold, R.A., Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes, First Springer edition, 1971, ISBN 0-
412-10270-6.
 Fundamentals of Particle Technology - free book