Module 1: The polymers are performed by the

cells.
Role Of ATP In • The components of ATP are
Nitrogenous Base, Ribose Sugar,
Energy Coupling and Phosphate Group.
• The energy is released when
And Transfer ATP is broken down.
• The second and third phosphate
groups bond in ATP that
ATP In Energy Coupling contains most of the energy.
And Transfer
A living cell cannot store Coupled Reaction
significant amounts of free
energy. Excess free energy
Processes Dehydration of ATP – This
Energy production within reaction reverse the hydrolysis of
would result in an increase of
a cell involves many coordinated ATP by regenerating ATP. This
heat in the cell, which would
chemical pathways. Most of ATP regeneration requires an
result in excessive thermal
these pathways are combinations input of free energy.
motion that could damage and
of oxidation and reduction in a
then destroy the cell. Rather, a
compound. An oxidation strips
cell must be able to handle that
an electron from an atom in a
energy in a way that enables the
compound, and the addition of
cell to store energy safely and
this electron to another
release it for use only as needed.
compound is a reduction reaction
Living cells accomplish this by
or the so-called redox reactions
using the compound adenosine
because they usually occur
triphosphate (ATP) which
together.
known as the “energy currency”
of the cell due to its versatility to
A. Endergonic and Exergonic
fill any energy need of the cell.
reactions - Endergonic reactions
How? It functions similarly to a
require an input of energy. An
rechargeable battery.
example of endergonic reaction
in the living system is
• Endergonic Reaction is a
photosynthesis. On the other
chemical reaction that requires a ATP Structure And
hand, an exergonic reactions
net input of energy.
releases energy. An example of Function
Example: Photosynthesis
exergonic reaction is cellular
• Exergonic Reaction is a
respiration.
chemical reaction that releases
energy.
• Hydrolysis is the addition of
water to ATP breaking the bonds
of its phosphate group. The type
of chemical reaction of
Hydrolysis is Exergonic Adenosine triphosphate
Reaction. is comprised of adenosine bound
• Endergonic and Exergonic; to three phosphate groups. At the
Anabolic and Catabolic; b. Exergonic Hydrolysis Of heart of ATP is a molecule of
Hydrolysis and Dehydration Atp And Endergonic adenosine monophosphate
reactions are often coupled in an Dehydration Process: (AMP), which is composed of
organism. Hydrolysis of ATP – It is the adenine molecule bonded to a
• Cells need energy to perform process of breaking complex ribose molecule and to a single
their works. The type of energy macromolecules. The hydrolysis phosphate group. Ribose is a
used by the cell is Adenosine of ATP produces ADP, together five-carbon sugar found in RNA,
Triphosphate. with an inorganic phosphate ion , and adenine is one of the
• Muscle contractions, pumping and the release of free energy. nucleotides in RNA. The
across membranes, and making
addition of a second phosphate reflected visible light is still pigment has a distinct set of
group to this core molecule green. peaks and troughs, revealing a
results in the formation of • Photosynthetic Pigments Facts: highly specific pattern of
adenosine diphosphate (ADP); Each type of pigment can be absorption. Chlorophyll a
the addition of the third identified by the specific pattern absorbs wavelengths from either
phosphate group forms of wavelength it absorbs from end of the visible spectrum (blue
adenosine triphosphate. The the visible light. and red), but not green. Because
Three phosphate groups are Chlorophyll and Carotenoids are green is reflected or transmitted,
labeled as alpha, beta and the two major classes of chlorophyll appears green.
gamma. These chemical groups photosynthetic pigments in Carotenoids absorb in the short-
constitute an energy plants. wavelength blue region, and
powerhouse. Many photosynthetic organisms reflect the long yellow, red, and
However, not all bonds have a mixture of pigments. orange wavelengths.
within this molecule exist in a Many photosynthetic
particularly high-energy state. Understanding Pigments organisms have a mixture of
The bonds that link the Chlorophyll and pigments; using them, the
phosphate are equally high carotenoids are the two major organism can absorb energy
energy bonds that when broken, classes of photosynthetic from a wider range of
release sufficient energy to pigments found in plants and wavelengths. An instrument
power a variety of cellular algae; each class has a multiple called spectrophotometer can
reactions and processes. These types of pigment molecules. differentiate which wavelengths
high-energy bonds are the bonds There are five major of light a substance can absorb.
between the second and third chlorophylls: a, b, c, d and a Spectrophotometers measure
(beta and gamma) and between related molecule found in transmitted light and compute
the first and second phosphate prokaryotes called from it the absorption. By
groups. bacteriochlorophyll. Chlorophyll extracting pigments from leaves
a and chlorophyll b are found in and placing theses samples to
Chlorophyll And Other higher plant chloroplasts. spectrophotometer, scientists can
Pigments Carotenoids are much identify which wavelengths of
Different kinds of larger group of pigments. The light an organism can absorb.
pigments exist and absorbs only carotenoids found in fruit-such
certain wavelengths (colors) of as the red tomato (lycopene), the • When ATP release energy, the
visible light. Pigments reflect or yellow of corn seeds molecule that is left after the
transmit the wavelengths they (zeaxanthin), the orange of an bond break off is called ADP.
cannot absorb, thus affecting orange peel (B-carotene) – are • ATP-ADP Cycle: ATP is
how they appear to the human used as advertisements to attract synthesized from the chemical
eye. Chlorophyll and carotenoids seed dispersers. In energy in glucose.ATP release
are the two major classes of photosynthesis, carotenoids energy, turning the molecule into
photosynthetic pigments found function as photosynthetic ADP with lesser amount of
in plants and algae. pigments that are very efficient energy. ATP are being
molecules for the disposal of constantly rebuilt from ADP and
• Chlorophyll is a kind of excess energy. These carotenoids lone phosphate group to ensure
photosynthetic pigment that reside in the thylakoid continuous supply of energy.
found in plants and algae that membrane, absorb excess • Spectrophotometer is used to
absorbs blue-violet and red energy, and safely dissipate that differentiate which wavelengths
spectrum of the visible light. energy as heat. of light a substance can absorb.
• Chlorophyll A and B can be Each type of pigment can • is a type of pigment that can be
found in higher plants be identified by the specific identified by the specific pattern
chloroplasts. pattern of wavelength it absorbs of wavelengths it absorbs from
• Chloroplast is a cellular from the visible light, which is the visible light.
structure that the chlorophyll and the absorption spectrum. The
other photosynthetic pigments graph shows the absorption of
resides. chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and
• When the plant leaves appear other types of carotenoid
as green in color, the color of the pigments. Notice how each
 Photosynthesis: The Light
Reaction Events
Photosynthesis is the
process by which green plants
Module 2: Patterns harness light energy from the
sun to convert it to the chemical
of Electrons Flow energy of sugar. The use of
carbon dioxide and water during 1. Light energy or photon is
Through Light photosynthesis results in the absorbed by a pigment molecule
manufacture of glucose and of the lightharvesting complex of
Reaction Events oxygen gas (as by-product). Photosystem II and is passed on
to other pigment molecules
• Plants capture light energy and nearby until the energy makes it
use that energy to make glucose to the reaction center. In the
occurs first during reaction center, it is absorbed by
photosynthesis. the P680 pair of chlorophyll a.
• The equation above is simple 2. The electron in this pair of
• Glucose and oxygen are two but the exact mechanism by
main products that is result from chlorophyll a is raised to an
which photosynthesis occurs is excited state and is transferred to
photosynthesis. complicated. For convenience,
• During photosynthesis: CO2 the primary electron acceptor.
the process may be divided into P680 loses its electron and
combines with the stored energy two phases:
in the chloroplasts through a becomes positively charged
1. the light-dependent phase or (P680+).
chemical reaction to make photochemical reaction that
glucose. The sugar is moved 3. The positively charged
occurs in the granum and molecule attracts electrons from
through tubes in the leaf to the requires the presence of light
roots, stems and fruits of the a water molecule, resulting to the
energy; and splitting up of H20 into two
plants. Some of the sugar is used 2. the-independent phase/calvin
right away by the plant for electrons, two hydrogen ions
cycle or carbon fixation that (H+), and an oxygen atom with
energy; some is stored as starch; occurs in the stroma with or
and some is built into plant the provision of light energy.
without light. The oxygen atom immediately
tissue. • The products of the light-
• Photosynthetic Pigments: combines with another oxygen
dependent phase are used as atom to form an oxygen
Chlorophyll is required in the reactants in the light-
Calvin cycle. molecule (O2) which is then
independent phase. Hence, the released outside the leaf through
• Photosystem II: Electron light-dependent phase is a
trapped by P680 are energized by the stomata.
prerequisite to the light- 4. The excited electrons are then
light. independent phase.
• Carbon Fixation is a passed on from the primary
• Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, electron acceptor to the electron
conversion process of inorganic nitrogen and magnesium are the
carbon to organic compounds by carrier molecules through the
major essential nutrients needed electron transport chain until
living organisms. by plants.
• Regeneration of RuBP forms they reach Photosystem I. The
5-carbon compound immediately electron carrier molecules
converted into 3 two- carbon involved here are plastoquinone
compounds. (Pq), a cytochrome complex, and
• Three turns of Calvin cycle are plastocyanin (Pc). 10
necessary to produce one net 5. At each transfer, the electrons
gain of PGAL. Five PGAL release small amounts of energy.
molecules are required to This energy is used to pump
regenerate 3 molecules of RuBP. hydrogen ions across the
During the three turns 6, 3 membrane. The splitting up of
molecules of ATP and NADPH water molecules results to an
Light Reactions Events uneven distribution of hydrogen
are used up.
ions in the stroma and the lumen.
The H+ ions tries to equalize
their distribution by moving described in the events of the 1. In this phase, the CO2
from the lumen to the stroma light reactions (i.e., noncyclic or molecule is attached to a five-
through the aid of a membrane linear electron flow), photo- carbon sugar molecule named
protein called ATP synthase. excited electrons may take a ribulose biphosphate (RuBP)
This is referred to as short-circuited route which aided by an enzyme named
chemiosmosis. The movement of utilizes Photosystem I but not rubisco or RuBP carboxylase.
hydrogen ions through the ATP Photosystem II. The ferrodoxin Rubisco is believed to be the
synthase channel triggers the goes back to the cycle and passes most abundant protein in the
synthesis of ATP from ADP. the electron to the cytochrome chloroplast and maybe on Earth.
The ATP contains high-energy complex and to the Pc until it 2. The resulting product, a six-
phosphate bonds. reaches P700 chlorophyll instead carbon sugar, is extremely
6. Meanwhile, photon is also of transferring the electron to unstable and immediately splits
absorbed and energy is passed NADP+reductase. Due to this in half. The split forms two
on from one pigment molecule event, no NADPH is produced molecules of a 3-
to another until the energy but ATP is still synthesized. phosphoglycerate (3-carbon).
reaches the reaction center Reduction
complex of Photosystem I. The The second stage of 1. A phosphate group (from
energy excites the electron photosynthesis, the formation of ATP) is then attached to each 3-
present in the pair of P700 glucose from carbon dioxide, phosphoglycerate by an enzyme,
chlorophyll a located here. The does not directly require light, forming 1,3-phosphoglycerate.
excited electron is then and thus it is called the dark 2. NADPH swoops in and
transferred to a primary electron stage or lightindependent reduces 1,3-biphosphogycerate
acceptor, making the P700 reaction. to G3P.
positively charged and now 3. For every six G3Ps produced
Although the generalized
seeking electrons to fill up the by the Calvin Cycle, five are
equation of photosynthesis
missing ones. This is filled up by recycled to regenerate three
shows that light is a requirement,
the electrons from Photosystem molecules of RuBP. Only one
light energy is actually used only
II that are passed on through the G3P leaves the cycle to be
during the first phase, which is
electron transport chain. packaged for use by the cell.
the light-dependent phase. The
7. The photo-excited electron 3. It will take two molecules of
light-independent phase involves
from the primary electron G3P to make one molecule of
the use of NADPH and ATP for
acceptor of Photosystem I enters glucose.
the conversion of carbon dioxide
another electron transfer chain, 4. The ADP and NADP+ that is
into carbohydrates.
passing the electron to an iron- formed during the Calvin Cycle
containing protein called will be transported back to the
Core Concepts:
ferredoxin (Fd). thylakoid membrane and will
1. The sugar that is produced in
8. An enzyme, the NADP+ enter the light reactions. Here,
the Calvin Cycle is not the six-
reductase, then transfers the they will be ‘recharged’ with
carbon glucose that we are
electron to NADP+ and energy and become ATP and
familiar with. This is formed
stabilizes it by adding a proton NADPH.
later on. What is produced in the
(H+) to form NADPH. NADPH Regeneration of RuBP
Calvin Cycle is a three-carbon
is then released to the stroma and 1. Five molecules of G3P
sugar known as G3P or
becomes part of the Calvin undergo a series of complex
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
Cycle. enzymatic reactions to form
2. The Calvin Cycle needs to
three molecules of RuBP. This
‘spin’ three times to make one
Cyclic Electron Flow costs the cell another three
molecule of G3P from three
molecules of AT, but also
molecules of CO2.
provides another set of RuBP to
continue the cycle.
Three Phases of Calvin Cycle:
What happens to G3P after its
Carbon Fixation
release from the cycle?
Carbon fixation is a process of
1. Two G3Ps can combine
incorporating an inorganic
together to form either glucose
Aside from the usual carbon molecule, CO2, into an
or fructose which are both are
route of electron flow as organic material.
six-carbon sugar.
2. Glucose and fructose can be • It is the initial step in the (sing.mitochondrion). It refers to
combined to form sucrose. process of photosynthesis by as the cell’s power plant - as a
3. Glucose can be connected in which plants can store energy primary site of cellular
chains to form starch. from sunlight. In this process, respiration. It metabolizes
4. G3Ps can also be used in lipid light energy is converted to glucose, the most common cell
and protein synthesis. chemical energy in the form of fuel, to generate ATP
energy reserving molecules ATP (Adenosine triphosphate).
The cost of making and NADPH.
carbohydrate: To make one
molecule of G3P, the chloroplast
needs:
3 molecules of CO2
9 molecules of ATP There are several
6 molecules of NADPH processes under cellular
respiration involving in the ATP
formation.
Glycolysis. It occurs in
the cytoplasm by which one
Module 3: Aerobic glucose molecule (a six-carbon
compound) is broken down into
and Anaerobic two pyruvic acid (or pyruvate)
Respiration molecules (a three-carbon
compound) generating two net
• Equation that describes the ATPs and 2 NADH molecules
chemical reaction of Cellular Respiration: (reduced NAD+ nicotinamide
photosynthesis: Obtaining Energy From adenine dinucleotide molecule).
Food The by-products produced in
• Equation that describes the
Autotrophs like green glycolysis enter the
chemical reaction of respiration:
plants and other chlorophyll- mitochondria.
• Photosystem II: Optimally bearing organisms such as algae A. Energy investment of 2 ATPs
absorbs photons of wavelength and certain bacteria produce B. Energy return of 4 ATPs
of 700 nm. their own food through the C. NET: PRODUCED 4 ATPs
• Calvin Cycle: The enzyme process of photosynthesis. Figure 2. Summary of
RuBisCo incorporates carbon However, animals and other Glycolysis USED -2 ATPs
dioxide into an organic heterotrophic organisms depend, NET:2 ATPs
molecule. directly or indirectly on plants D. Produced 2 NADH (proceeds
• PGAL is a substance used by and other photosynthetic to the ETC)
plants to make other organic organisms for food. E. Produced 2 pyruvates
subtances. An example of these The body needs energy (proceeds to Krebs Cycle)
organic substances synthesized and other materials in order to
by plants is glucose. To make function and that food that we
one glucose molecule, a 6 – eat are the sources. They need
carbon sugar, two molecules of energy to move, grow, repair and
PGAL are linked, 6 turns of reproduce.
Calvin cycle is needed. Cellular respiration is a
• Light Reaction: ATP and complex process by which
NADPH are continuously energy, in the form of ATP, is
produced that then triggers the released from food molecules
synthesis of three carbon sugar ingested by organisms.
from carbon dioxide. Four
hydrogen ions will be added in Photosynthesis happens
the thylakoid space that makes in the chloroplast in plant cells. There are two pathways
the environment high in On the other hand, cellular in which ATP can be generated
Hydrogen concentration. respiration takes place in from pyruvic acid molecules -
mitochondria Aerobic and anaerobic.
 In aerobic respiration, it A. Alcohol or Ethanol
involves the use of oxygen. It fermentation. It occurs in some
takes place in the plants cells and some one-celled
mitochondrion’s inner matrix organisms like yeasts. During
and in the cristae. this process, pyruvic acid is
converted to ethyl alcohol.
NAD+ and ethanol (ethyl
Three Major Stages: alcohol) are produced. The bread
1. Conversion of pyruvic acid to made with yeast release CO2
Acetyl-CoA. The three-carbon causes it to rise. Wine and beer
pyruvic acid is first converted are the products of this process
into a two-carbon molecule or carried out by some
acetyl group called AcetylCoA. microorganisms.
During the transformation, the Pyruvic acid + NADH →
3. Electron transport chain or
pyruvic acid loses H2 and alcohol + CO2 + NAD+
Oxidative phosphorylation. It
produces CO2 + NADH + H+ B. Lactic acid fermentation. It
transpires in the cristae of the
(as NAD+ accepts H2). takes place when there is a short
mitochondrion. It refers to a
supply of oxygen in the cells.
series of oxidation processes
Lactic acid from glucose in the
where (H2+) carried by NADH2
liver when pyruvic acid accepts
2. Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle and FADH2 are transferred to
hydrogen from NADH+. This
or Tricarboxylic acid cycle). electron acceptors (Coenzyme Q
contributes to muscle fatigue.
Named after the British and cytochrome b, c and a).
Pyruvic acid + NADH → lactic
biochemist Sir Hans Adolf ATPs are released and water as a
acid+ NAD+
Krebs) refers to a series of by-product as electrons are
enzyme-catalyzed reactions that transferred. The final electron
• Products that yeasts produce in
break down acetyl-CoA acceptor is an oxygen molecule.
fermentation of glucose are ethyl
completely into carbon dioxide alcohol and carbon dioxide.
and water. It takes place in the • The presence of lactic acid in
mitochondrial inner matrix. For the cells of an animal’s muscle
every molecule of acetyl-CoA tissue is an indication that the
that entered the Krebs cycle, one muscle cells have been active
molecule of ATP is produced during a period of oxygen
with three molecules of NADH deficiency.
and one molecule of FADH2 • 2 ATPs are used or consumed
(FAD – Flavin adenine in the process of glycolysis?
dinucleotide). There are two In aerobic respiration, the • Aerobic cellular respiration
turns of the cycle since 1 glucose theoretical yield of ATP requires an adequate supply of
= 2 pyruvic acid = 2 acetyl CoA, harvested from glucose is 38 oxygen.
the number of molecules molecules. This is reduced to 36 • One molecule of glucose is
mentioned are doubled. in eukaryotes because it takes 1 broken down into two molecules
3 molecules of NADH 2 molecules of CO2
1 molecule of FADH2 1 molecule of ATP
ATP to transport each NADH of pyruvate as a result of the
molecule that is generated by process of glycolysis.
glycolysis inside the cytoplasm • Water is produced at the end of
into the mitochondria. the electron transport chain.
On the other hand, • Carbon dioxide is given off
Anaerobic respiration. The term during cellular respiration.
closely related to this is • The first stage of cellular
fermentation which is the respiration is called glycolysis.
breakdown of pyruvic acid • Pyruvate is the end product of
without the use of oxygen. glycolysis.
• The final output of the Krebs
Fermentation comes in two cycle includes all of the
forms: following: FADH2, ATP, and
CO2.
• Acetyl-CoA is produced by the respiration. Each process in enzyme hexokinase. One ATP is
conversion of pyruvate before cellular respiration has distinct used in the process.
entering into the citric acid features that distinguish one 2. Glucose-6-phosphate is
cycle. from the other. converted to fructose-6-
• O2 play the final electron phosphate with the enzyme
acceptor at the end of the Glycolysis isomerase.
electron transport chain in Digestion results in the 3. Phosphorylation of fructose-6-
aerobic respiration. formation of glucose. Glucose is phosphate to fructose-1,6-
• During aerobic respiration, the source of energy for living bisphosphate with the enzyme
FADH2 is produced in the Krebs cells. However, glucose must be phosphofructokinase. The
cycle. converted to Adenosine second ATP molecule is used.
• The term anaerobic means Triphosphate (ATP) first so that 4. Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is
without O2. it can fuel the metabolic converted to two three-carbon
• The overall equation for the processes in cells. ATP is the isomers: dihydroxyacetone-
aerobic cellular respiration of energy currency of cells. phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-
glucose is C6H12O6 + O2 → Glycolysis is the first phosphate with the enzyme
CO2 + H2O + ATP + Heat. step in cellular respiration that aldolase.
results in the breakdown of 5. Transformation of the
dihydroxyacetone-phosphate into
Module 4: Major glucose to draw energy for
cellular metabolism. Almost all its isomer, glyceraldehyde-3-
Features of organisms carry out glycolysis as phosphate with an isomerase
part of their metabolism. enzyme. At this point in the
Glycolysis, Krebs Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells pathway, there is a net
undergo glycolysis. Glycolysis is investment of energy from two
Cycle, Electron anaerobic which means oxygen ATP molecules in the
is not needed in the process. It breakdown of one glucose
Transport System takes place in the cytoplasm of molecule.
• Glycolysis is a process that the cell. 6. Oxidation of the sugar
results in the formation of Glycolysis is a series of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate to
pyruvic acid. reactions that converts glucose extract high-energy electrons,
• Glycolysis is a process that molecules into pyruvic acid. The which are picked up by the
uses ATP, results in the process begins with the six electron carrier NAD+ ,
formation of pyruvic acid, and carbon ring-shaped structure of a producing NADH.
occurs in the cytoplasm of the single glucose molecule and 7. Phosphorylation of
cell. ends with two molecules of a glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate by
• Electron Transport System is a three-carbon sugar called the addition of a second
process uses a chain of electron pyruvic acid or pyruvate. phosphate group, producing 1, 3-
acceptors. Glycolysis initially uses two bisphosphoglycerate.
• Chemiosmosis is the movement ATP molecules as an energy 8. Remaining phosphate group in
of ions across a semipermeable source and produces four ATP 3-phosphoglycerate moves from
membrane bound structure, molecules and two NADH the third carbon to the second
down their electrochemical (nicotinamide adenine carbon, producing 2-
gradient. dinucleotide) molecules in the phosphoglycerate. A mutase
latter stage. The process results (isomerase) catalyzes this step.
Cells respire. Cellular to a net gain of two ATP 9. 2-phosphoglycerate loses
respiration involves major events molecules and two molecules of water from its structure; this is a
to generate the energy needed to NADH. The following sequence dehydration reaction, resulting in
sustain life. of events take place in the formation of a double bond
Series of energy- glycolysis. Enzymes catalyzed that increases the potential
producing processes are these reactions (Figure 1 and energy in the remaining
involved in the production of Figure 2). phosphate bond and produces
energy molecules and other by- 1. The six-carbon sugar phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
products. Moreover, molecules (glucose) is converted to Enolase catalyzes this step.
of ATP are also used in the glucose-6-phosphate with the 10. The last step in glycolysis is
initial process of cellular catalyzed by the enzyme
pyruvate kinase (the enzyme in Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid transport chain and it is the only
this case is named for the reverse Cyclel/Tricarboxylic Acid part of glucose metabolism that
reaction of pyruvate’s uses atmospheric oxygen. It
Cycle (TAC)
conversion into PEP) and results exists in the mitochondria's inner
1. Condensation of Acetyl CoA
in the production of a second membrane. In this step, high-
(two-carbon acetyl group) by
ATP molecule by substrate level energy electrons within NADH
combining with oxaloacetate to
phosphorylation and the and FADH2 will be transferred
form a six-carbon molecule of
compound pyruvic acid (or its to a group of mitochondrial
citrate or citric acid.
salt form, pyruvate). membrane-bound enzymes,
2. Citrate loses one water
collectively known as the
molecule and gains another to
Glycolysis can be electron transport chain. The
form its isomer, isocitrate.
summarized in figure 3. As electron transport chain is a set
3. Oxidation of isocitrate to
shown in the figure, it has 2 of electron carriers which exist
produce a five-carbon molecule,
phases, the energy investment in an ordered form. The system
αketoglutarate. A molecule of
phase and the energy payoff or chain includes Complex I,
CO2 and NADH are formed.
phase. Initially, glucose is Complex II, Complex III and
4. CoA binds with the succinyl
converted to fructose Complex IV. Ubiquinone(Q) and
group to form succinyl CoA. In
diphosphate with the help of Cytochrome C are included in
the next step, a phosphate group
enzymes. Two ATP molecules the system. Electrons move
is substituted for coenzyme A,
are used in the process. Then through carrier molecules in a
and a highenergy bond is
fructose diphosphate splits into series of exergonic redox
formed. This energy is used in
two glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate reactions. It is composed of an
substrate-level phosphorylation
which then forms into two enzymatic sequence of electron
(during the conversion of the
pyruvic acid or pyruvate. In the donors and acceptors. Each
succinyl group to succinate) to
process, four ATP molecules and electron donor transfers electrons
form either guanine triphosphate
two molecules of NADH are to a more electronegative
(GTP) or ATP.
formed. Glycolysis has a net of acceptor, which gives these
5. Succinate is converted to
two ATP molecules since two electrons to another acceptor in
fumarate. Two hydrogen atoms
molecules of ATP were used in turn. NADH passes its electrons
are transferred to FAD,
the initial stage. to Complex I while FADH2
producing FADH2 (flavin
passes its electrons to Complex
adenine dinucleotide).
Oxidation of Pyruvate II in the chain then passed on to
6. Water is added to fumarate to
If oxygen is sufficient, the next protein and so on. As
form malate.
aerobic respiration takes place. these occur, their energy is used
7. Malate is oxidized to
Pyruvate molecules which are in the inner membrane to pump
regenerate oxaloacetate. Another
produced in glycolysis enter H+ ions to the intermembrane
molecule of NADH is produced
mitochondria, the sites of space, forming an
in the process.
cellular respiration. Pyruvate is electrochemical gradient.
converted into an acetyl group Oxygen, the most
The Citric Acid Cycle is
within the mitochondrial matrix, electronegative acceptor in the
a metabolic pathway involving
which is picked up and activated chain, is the final acceptor,
biochemical reactions which
by a carrier compound called which then forms a molecule of
produces NADH, carbon
coenzyme A (CoA). The water with free H+ ions.
dioxide, ATP and FADH2.
compound resulting from this is NADH and FADH2 are electron Chemiosmosis
called acetyl CoA. The cell can carriers that will be used in the Chemiosmosis is an
use Acetyl CoA in a number of next step of cellular respiration. event that proceeds after what
ways, but its main function is to The cycle takes place in the take place in the electron
deliver the pyruvate-derived inner matrix of mitochondria. transport chain. In
acetyl group to the next stage of chemiosmosis, the free energy
the glucose catabolism pathway from the series of redox
Electron Transport
which is the Krebs cycle. This reactions is used to pump
process also generates carbon System/Electron hydrogen ions (protons) across
dioxide and NADH. Transport Chain the membrane. It occurs in the
The last part of aerobic inner mitochondrial membrane.
respiration is the electron The uneven distribution of H+
ions across the membrane down their electrochemical leads to the formation of useful
establishes both concentration gradient. products.
and electrical gradients (thus, an • Glycolysis: pyruvic acid; Krebs The Role of Oxygen in
electrochemical gradient), owing cycle: NADH and FADH2 Respiration
to the hydrogen ions’ positive • Electron Transport System: In aerobic cellular
charge and their aggregation on H2O; Krebs cycle: CO2 respiration, an oxygen molecule,
one side of the membrane. If the • Glucose-6-phosphate: O2, is the final electron acceptor
membrane were open to isomerase; glyceraldehyde-3- for the electron transport chain.
diffusion by the hydrogen ions, phosphate: phosphofructokinase If aerobic respiration takes place,
the ions would tend to diffuse • After glycosis, pyruvic acid is then, during the electron
back across into the matrix, transformed into acetyl transport chain and
driven by their electrochemical coenzyme A. chemiosmosis, molecules
gradient. Recall that many ions • Mitochondria is a part of the Jumpstart Discover 7 of ATP
cannot diffuse through the cell is associated with the Krebs will be formed using energy
nonpolar regions of phospholipid cycle. from high-energy electrons
membranes without the aid of • Oxygen molecule is the final brought to the electron transport
ion channels. Similarly, acceptor of H+ in the electron chain by NADH or FADH2.
hydrogen ions in the matrix transport system. NAD+ and FAD are
space can only pass through the • Electron Transport Chain is a regenerated when NADH or
inner mitochondrial membrane process that generates the most FADH2 send their high energy
through an integral membrane number of ATP. electrons to the electron
protein called ATP synthase. • Glycolysis is a process that has transport chain. These low-
This complex protein acts as a both energy investment and energy molecules cycle back to
tiny generator, turned by the energy payoff. glycolysis and/or citric acid,
force of the hydrogen ions • With a glucose molecule, 2 where they capture more
diffusing through it, down their cycless takes place in the Krebs electrons of high energy and
electrochemical gradient. The cycle. allow the process to begin.
turning of parts of this molecular • ATP synthase enzyme is If there is no NAD+
machine facilitates the addition associated in the electron present to pick up electrons as
of a phosphate to ADP, forming transport system. the reactions continue, glycolysis
ATP, using the potential energy and the citric acid cycle do not
of the hydrogen ion gradient.
Since ADP uses the energy of
Module 5: Role of occur. This is not a problem
when oxygen is present, all of
hydrogen oxidation to Oxygen in the NADH and FADH2 that
phosphorylate ATP, the entire were created during glycolysis
process is known as oxidative Respiration and the citric acid cycle is
phosphorylation. • Oxygen is required in aerobic transformed into NAD+ and
respiration. FAD after the electron transport
• Glycolysis process uses • Carbon dioxide is produced in chain.
glucose to produce pyruvic acid. aerobic respiration. The electron transport
• Glycolysis is a process that • Oxygen is the final acceptor in chain is a series of electron
does not take place in the the electron transport chain. transporters or complexes
mitochondria of the cell. • FADH2 is a product of alcohol embedded in the inner
• Chemiosmosis, Glycolysis, fermentation. mitochondrial membrane which
Electron Transport Chain is a set • Fermentation is a process uses shuttle electrons from NADH
of processes occurs when there yeast to produce wine. and FADH2 to molecular
is a supply of oxygen oxygen. In the process, protons
• Electron Transport System Oxygen is vital to are pumped to the
process uses NADH and FADH2 survival of almost all organisms. intermembrane space from the
to generate ATP. Without it, generating enough mitochondrial matrix, and
• Chemiosmosis is a process that energy to fuel cellular processes oxygen is reduced to form water.
described as the movement of is impossible. However, in some There are four electron
ions across a semipermeable cases, the absence of oxygen complexes to which electron
membrane bound structure, may still be beneficial to a move through before ending
number of organisms as this with oxygen as the final
acceptor. Complex I, Complex problem when oxygen is present, to produce a minimal energy
II, Complex III, and Complex all of the NADH and FADH2 molecule (2 ATP).
IV. Complex V is better known that were created during Anaerobic respiration
as ATP synthase, that which glycolysis and the citric acid uses molecules other than
generates ATP. There are two cycle is transformed after the oxygen as the terminal electron
other molecules associated with electron transport chain back acceptors in the electron
the chain which are the into NAD+ and FAD. transport chain. The electron
coenzyme Ubiquinone (coU) and In aerobic respiration, the transport chain is still included in
cytochrome C (CytC). electron transport chain does not this form, but without using
The process starts when occur when no oxygen is present oxygen as the terminal electron
NADH approaches complex I since nothing will serve as the acceptor. Instead, as electron
and gives up its proton and final acceptor of electrons. This acceptors, molecules like sulfate
electron and becomes NAD. means that NADH's electrons (SO4 2- ), nitrate (NO3 - 9 ), or
NADH donates its electrons to will not be recognized by the sulfur (S) are used. These
complex I and make it ETC as its power source, so molecules have a lower
supercharged which causes the NAD+ will not be regenerated. reduction potential than oxygen,
pumping of H+ ions from the For cells to continue to produce so in anaerobic versus aerobic
mitochondrial matrix to the ATP, NADH must be converted environments, less energy is
intermembrane space. Then back to NAD+ for use as an released per glucose molecule.
electrons from complex I is electron carrier. For fermentation, pyruvate
picked up by CoU. FADH2 Anaerobic processes use serves as an electron acceptor to
approaches complex II gives up different mechanisms, but all recycle NAD+. Some bacteria
and donates its electron. Unlike function to convert NADH back use sulphate ion and produce
Complex I, complex II is not to NAD+(Figure 2). There are hydrogen sulfide instead of
supercharged so it cannot pump two ways in which this is done. water which produces an odor
H+ ions. The electrons in First is the use of an organic like a rotten egg in some
complex II is passed to coU. molecule to regenerate NAD+ environment.
Then, electrons from coU are from NADH. This is collectively Anaerobic respiration
passed to Complex III and called fermentation. Second is uses several different types of
become supercharged thus, the use of inorganic molecule electron acceptors. The use of
allowing protons to be pumped (such as nitrate or sulfur) to nitrate (NO3 - ) as the terminal
out to the intermembrane space. regenerate NAD+. Both methods electron acceptor is
The buildup of H+ (protons) are referred to as anaerobic denitrification. Nitrate has a high
creates a proton gradient. cellular respiration. They do not reduction potential, like oxygen.
Electrons from Complex III require oxygen to regenerate This process is widespread, and
moves to cytC and then passed NAD+ and enable organisms and is used by many Proteobacteria
to complex IV then becomes convert energy for use in the members. Ferric iron (Fe2+) and
supercharged. Complex IV can absence of oxygen. various organic electron
pumped more H+ (protons) to In anaerobic respiration, acceptors can also be used by
the intermembrane space. glycolysis occurs. The 2 several denitrifying bacteria.
Electrons from Complex IV are molecules of NADH that are Sulfate reduction uses
passed to oxygen as the final generated in the process are sulfate (SO2 −4) as the acceptor
acceptor. Oxygen molecule splits converted back into NAD+ so of electrons, generating as a
into two. Two H2O molecules that glycolysis can continue. metabolic end result hydrogen
are formed. NAD+ and FAD Since glycolysis generates only sulfide (H2S). A relatively
become available in the cell for two net ATP molecules, energetically weak method is
cellular respiration to begin. anaerobic respiration is much sulfate reduction, which is used
less efficient than aerobic by many Gram negative bacteria
Pathways of Electron respiration. However, 2 ATP found within the δ-
Flow in the Absence of molecules is so essential as the Proteobacteria.
cell dies if it does not generate Acetogenesis is a form of
Oxygen
any ATP at all. In anaerobic microbial metabolism that uses
If there is no NAD+
respiration, the cell has to hydrogen (H2) for the
present to pick up electrons,
continue performing glycolysis development of acetate as an
glycolysis and the citric acid
electron donor and carbon
cycle do not occur. This is not a
dioxide ( CO2) as an electron acetaldehyde is reduced to • Ubiquinone (Q) serves as a
acceptor, the same electron ethanol using 2 molecules of shuttle of electrons from
donors and methanogenesis NADH in the process. NADH is complex II.
acceptors. converted back to NAD+. • NO3 is an electron acceptor in
A widespread anaerobic The chemical reaction of denitrification.
terminal electron acceptor used alcohol fermentation is the
by both autotrophic and following: Pyruvic acid +
heterotrophic species is ferric NADH ↔ ethyl alcohol + CO2 +
iron (Fe3+). The flow of NAD+
electrons in these species is The fermentation of
similar to the flow of electrons, pyruvic acid by yeast produces
resulting in oxygen or nitrate,
except that the final enzyme in
the ethanol found in alcoholic
beverages. If the carbon dioxide
Module 6:
this mechanism is ferric iron produced by the reaction is not Advantages and
reductase in ferric iron-reducing released from the fermentation
species. chamber, for example in beer Disadvantages of
Lactic Acid Fermentation and sparkling wines, it remains
In lactic acid dissolved in the medium until Fermentation and
fermentation (Figure 2), the pressure is released. Ethanol
glycolysis occurs the way it above 12 percent is toxic to Aerobic
yeast, so natural levels of alcohol
happens in aerobic respiration. A
in wine occur at a maximum of
Respiration
glucose molecule breaks to form
two pyruvate molecules. The 12 percent. • Aerobic - It has greater ATP
pyruvate molecules in this production, and it can do
process does not undergo • Oxygen is needed aerobic physical exercise for a longer
decarboxylation but will be respiration. period of time. Complete
directly reduced by NADH to • Carbon dioxide s is a by- breakdown of glucose. Slow
produce lactate. This allows the product in aerobic respiration. breakdown of glucose into ATP.
regeneration of NAD+ for use • Lactic acid is a product of Muscle pain or burning sensation
during glycolysis. It is involves fermentation in animal muscles. after a vigorous physical activity.
in no release of CO2. The • Fermentation uses bacteria to Human brain cells will die with
fermentation method used by produce cheese. just a minute of no oxygen.
animals and some bacteria like • 2 molecules of water are Majority of glucose metabolism
those in yogurt is lactic acid formed in one electron transport becomes heat in the
fermentation. This occurs chain. environment. Muscle cramps
routinely in mammalian red • In alcohol fermentation, after physical exercise. Muscle
blood cells and in skeletal decarboxylation comes after cramps after physical exercise.
muscle that does not have forming pyruvate. • Anaerobic - Production of
enough oxygen to allow aerobic • In electron transport chain is wine and production of yogurt
respiration to continue (such as associated with Complex II. and cheese. Soy sauce and
in muscles after hard exercise). • Matrix part of the mitochondria vinegar production, and food
The chemical reaction of lactic does binding of oxygen and preservation. Rising of bread or
acid fermentation is the protons happen. dough and removal of muscle
following: Pyruvic acid + • Regeneration of NAD+ ensures pain after a vigorous exercise.
NADH ↔ lactic acid + NAD+ the continuity of cellular Fast consumption of ATP,
respiration. incomplete breakdown of
• Alcohol fermentation forms glucose, and . lower ATP
Alcohol Fermentation
acetaldehyde. production. Needs a large supply
In alcohol fermentation
• SO2 −4 is an acceptor in of glucose to perform cellular
(Figure 3) a glucose molecule
anaerobic respiration. work. Have lots of energy
breaks to form two pyruvate
• Anaerobic respiration is best reserves because of less energy
molecules two ATP molecules
described as the production of extraction.
using NAD+ in the process.
Each pyruvate undergoes pyruvate in the absence of
decarboxylation to produce oxygen. Advantages Of Aerobic
acetaldehyde. And finally, Respiration
1. All available energy extracted 5. Yeast and lactobacillus
from glucose is 36 to 38 ATP. together produce sour taste in
2. 39% energy transferred from wheat beer.
glucose to ATP. 6. Yeasts and Acetobacter aceti
3. Slow breakdown of glucose in spoil wine to become vinegar.
ATP. 7. Bacterial fermentation
4. Organisms can do more work produces yogurt(due to
for a longer time with the slow Streptococcus thermophilus and
and efficient breakdown of ATP. lactobacillus bulgaris), sour
5. Animals and the human cream, cheese, brine cucumber
muscle cells can adapt and pickles, and kimchi.
perform lactic acid fermentation 8. Clostridium bacteria can
for a rapid burst of energy. produce nail polish remover and
6. Can breathe heavily to refill rubbing alcohol from the acetone
the cells with oxygen so that and isopropanol they make.
lactate is removed from the 9. Soy sauce is produced by
muscle cells. adding mold (Aspergillus),
7. Lactate is returned to the liver yeasts and fermenting bacteria.
to become pyruvate or glucose Disadvantages Of
again. Anaerobic
8. Complete breakdown of
Respiration/Fermentation
glucose.
1. Consumption of 2 ATP is fast.
Disadvantages Of Aerobic 2. Ethanol and lactate, the by-
Respiration products of fermentation, have a
1. 61% of glucose metabolism lot of energy reserves-
becomes heat and enters the prokaryotes and eukaryotes
environment. cannot extract the energy in
2. Human brain cells cannot lactate and ethanol using
perform lactic acid fermentation. anaerobic method.
3. Human muscle cells feel the 3. Needs a large supply of
burning sensations and pain glucose to perform the same
when lactate accumulates in the work as in aerobic respiration.
cell and experience oxygen debt. 4. Glucose is partially oxidized.
Advantages Of Anaerobic
Respiration/ Fermentation
1. All available energy extracted
from glucose is 2 ATP.
2. Certain bacteria produce
chemicals of industrial
importance such as isopropanol,
butyric acid, acetic acid when
bacteria ferment- breakdown of
sugars in the absence of oxygen.
3. Foods that are fermented last
longer because these fermenting
organisms have removed many
of the nutrients that would attract
other microorganisms.
4. Yeast ferment fruits and wine
is produced. Grain is also
fermented to produce beer. They
also caused the bread to rise due
to carbon dioxide, a by-product,
and alcohol is lost in the bread.