Engineering Encyclopedia

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Selecting A Motor Type

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s
employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given,
or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part,
without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering
Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Electrical For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: EEX20302 W.A. Roussel on 874-1320
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Selecting Motor Type

CONTENTS PAGE

Operating Characteristics and Applications 1

of Three-Phase AC Motors and Single-Phase AC Motors

Operating Characteristics and Typical Applications of DC Motors 35

Selecting the Appropriate Types of Three-Phase AC Motors 45

Selecting the Appropriate Types of Single-Phase AC Motors 52

Selecting the Appropriate Types of DC Motors 54

WORK AID:

Work Aid 1: Procedure and Technical and Economic Factors From 57

SADP-P-113 for Selecting the Appropriate Types of
Three-Phase AC Motors

Work Aid 2: Procedure and Technical and Economic Factors from 61

Established Engineering Practices for Selecting the
Appropriate Types of Single-Phase AC Motors

Work Aid 3: Procedure and Technical and Economic Factors from 64

Established Engineering Practices for Selecting the
Appropriate Types of DC Motors

GLOSSARY 64

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OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS AND APPLICATIONS OF THREE-PHASE AC

MOTORS AND SINGLE-PHASE AC MOTORS

The operating characteristics of three-phase and single-phase alternating current (AC) motors
are very different from each other and will be separately discussed. Each type of AC motor
also has a typical application that is based on the motor's operating characteristics. The
following topics will be discussed:

• Operating Characteristics of Three-Phase AC Motors

• Typical Applications of Three-Phase AC Motors
• Operating Characteristics of Singe-Phase AC Motors
• Typical Applications of Single-Phase AC Motors

Operating Characteristics of Three-Phase AC Motors

All three-phase AC motors can be supplied from the same power network. The difference in
three-phase motors is in the characteristics that the motor displays when the motor is in
operation. The following types of three-phase AC motor operating characteristics will be
discussed:

• Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

• Wound Rotor Induction Motors
• Synchronous Motors

Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors

The squirrel-cage induction motor is the simplest and most rugged of the three-phase AC
motors. The squirrel-cage induction motor can be used in a variety of applications due to the
motors design. The following topics of squirrel-cage induction motors will be discussed in
this section:

• Uses and Classifications

• Operating Characteristics

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Uses and Classifications - The standard squirrel-cage motor is a general-purpose motor.

The squirrel-cage induction motor is for use in driving loads that require a variable
torque at a relatively constant speed and a high full-load efficiency.

There are different types of squirrel-cage induction motors. The main difference
between types of squirrel-cage induction motors is the construction of the rotor. A
change in the construction of the rotor causes a change in the resistance characteristics
of the rotor; a change in the resistance characteristics of the rotor causes a change in
the torque and current characteristics of the motor.

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) classifies squirrel-cage

motors in accordance with the motor's electrical characteristics. Squirrel-cage motors
have the following classifications:

• NEMA Class A motors are the most popular motors. Class A motors have a
normal starting torque, a normal starting current, and a low slip.

• NEMA Class B motors are built to develop a normal starting torque with a
relatively low starting current.

• NEMA Class C motors have a high starting torque, a low starting current, and a
low slip.

• NEMA Class D motors are special purpose motors. Class D motors have a very
high starting torque, a high slip (15-20%), a low starting current, and a low
efficiency.

Operating Characteristics - Figure 1 shows the basic torque/speed characteristics of an

induction motor. Figure 1 shows two curves: curve 1 represents the load torque and
curve 2 represents the motor torque. The following specific torques that are associated
with the operating characteristics of an AC induction motor are identified on Figure 1:

• Locked-rotor torque - The minimum torque that is developed by a motor at the

instant that rated power is supplied to the motor terminals. Locked-rotor torque
also is called breakaway or starting torque. The motor must have enough locked-
rotor torque to start turning the load. A motor cannot start a connected load when
the connected load has a higher torque rating than the motor.

• Breakdown torque - The maximum torque that a motor can develop when the
motor is supplied with its rated input power.

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• Accelerating torque - The torque that a motor develops between zero speed and full
rated speed when the motor is supplied with its rated input power. Accelerating
torque is the net difference between the motor torque and the load torque.
Accelerating torque determines the rate at which the motor can accelerate a load to
full rated speed.

• Full-load torque - The torque that a motor can develop when the motor is at rated
speed and the motor is supplied with its rated input power. The previous motor
torques normally are expressed as a percent of the full-load torque value.

The torque of a motor is a rudimentary operating characteristic. Analysis of torque

fluctuations during the stages of motor operation will provide an understanding of the
types of conditions in which a particular type of motor can be utilized. The torque that
a motor produces depends on a set of operational variables. The following proportion
shows how the operational variables relate to motor torque. The operating
characteristics of a squirrel-cage induction motor can be derived through an analysis of
the operational variables.

where: _ = Motor torque

I = Motor current
V = Motor terminal voltage
L = Load on the motor
N = Motor speed
R = Resistance of the motor windings

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Basic Torque/Speed Characteristics of an Induction Motor

Figure 1

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The best way to analyze how each of the variables effect the torque of the squirrel-
cage induction motor is to look at the different phases of motor operation. There are
three phases of motor operation to analyze:

_How the motor responds at starting.

_How the motor responds to changing loads.
_How the motor responds to an overload.

A motor at standstill must produce enough starting torque to cause rotation of the
motor and the connected load. The development of motor start torque can be seen
through an analysis of the variables in the following torque relationships:

The relative values of the variables in the torque relationship at the moment a squirrel-
cage induction motor start are as follows:

_I - Current - When the motor is energized, the starting

current that is drawn will be high. The high starting current is
due to the fact that no counter electromotive force (CEMF) is
being produced in the motor.

_V - Voltage - The applied voltage will equal line voltage and

will not fluctuate.

_L - Load - The load is constant at this point.

_N - Speed - The motor speed at the instant of start is zero.

The speed of the motor at start is as low as possible, which
causes torque to be high.

_R - Resistance of the Rotor - This value will not vary with a

particular motor. The only way that the resistance will vary is to
design the motor differently.

As the variables change, so does the motor torque. At the moment of start, the torque
is high because current is high and speed is low. The starting torque that is developed
by a motor must be larger than the torque that is required by the load. Starting torque
that is equal to or less than load torque will not cause rotation of the motor and load.

Figure 2 shows the minimum starting torque for a squirrel-cage induction motor as a
percentage of full load torque for various numbers of motor poles. The minimum
starting torques are established by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA).

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Minimum Starting Torque for a Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor

Figure 2

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After the motor has been energized and the motor develops starting torque, the rotor
will start to rotate. The rate at which the motor accelerates depends on the motor's
developed torque and the torque that is required by the load. The difference in these
torques is known as net accelerating torque. The change in motor torque from
standstill to full rated speed can be analyzed through reference back to the torque
proportion.

_I - Current - The motor current will continue to increase

initially until there is sufficient rotation to produce CEMF that
will limit the current flow. The increase in current will cause an
increase in torque.

_N - Speed - The speed will continue to rise as the motor

accelerates. The rise in speed will tend to lower torque, but until
the motor reaches about 80-85% of full rated speed, the rise in
current will greatly outweigh the rise in speed.

_V-L-R - Voltage, load, and resistance will all remain relatively constant
during motor acceleration.

The net accelerating torque of a squirrel-cage induction motor will be large at the
moment of starting. Net accelerating torque will continue to increase until the motor
reaches about 80-85% of the motor's rated speed. After reaching 80-85% of rated
speed, the net accelerating torque of the motor will start to decrease.

The next phase of motor operation is how the motor responds to a change in load.
Analysis of how torque and the variables of torque vary during a change in load will
explain the operating characteristics of a running squirrel-cage induction motor. The
torque proportion for use in this analysis remains the same as during starting.

A motor that is running at rated speed will develop just enough torque to maintain the
load rotation at a predetermined speed. As the variables of torque change during
operation, the changing variable will cause other variables to change, which keeps the
proportion balanced and the load running. Figure 3 shows a graphic representation of
how the variables of torque change during operation.

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Speed of a squirrel-cage induction motor will vary as load is added or subtracted from
the motor. A squirrel-cage induction motor's operating range is from approximately
90% synchronous speed to 100% synchronous speed. A load (L) increase will cause
motor speed (N) to decrease. The decrease in motor speed will cause the current (I) of
the motor to increase. The resultant increase in current will cause torque of the motor
to increase to a level that is high enough to support operation of the added load. This
relationship between load, speed, and torque will continue until the point of
breakdown torque is reached. The changes in speed on the curves of Figure 3. The
bottom axis shows that as speed decreases, both current and torque will increase. The
amount of motor slowdown for a load increase is a characteristic of a particular
squirrel-cage induction motor design. Torque and current of a squirrel-cage induction
motor will decrease when speed increases as load is removed.

Because the torque of a squirrel-cage induction motor also varies with the square of
the terminal voltage that is applied to the motor, low terminal voltage will significantly
reduce a squirrel-cage induction motor's torque.

The final phase of motor operation is how a squirrel-cage induction motor responds to
an overload. All squirrel-cage induction motors are designed to operate under a
certain amount of overload; however, the overload cannot exceed the breakdown
torque of the motor. The breakdown torque is the point at which the torque that is
required to run the load at overload exceeds the maximum torque that the motor can
produce.

A squirrel-cage induction motor will react to the increase in load (overload) as

previously discussed. Every time more load is added to the motor, the motor's speed
will decrease and the motor's current will increase. The resultant change will be an
increase in motor torque. Torque will continue to increase as load is added to the
maximum value of torque that the motor can produce. A motor that operates at
maximum torque will operate just to the right of the breakdown torque point on Figure
3. Any more load that is added to the motor will cause the motor's speed to drop more
and will cause current to increase. The torque that is produced by the motor will not
be large enough to continue operation of the motor, and the motor will stop.

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Typical Relationship Between Current, Torque, and Speed

in a Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor
Figure 3

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Figure 4 shows the comparative torque speed characteristics of the different

classifications of squirrel-cage induction motors. Typically, starting torque is 150% to
250% of the full load torque. All of the NEMA classes of motors will respond to
operational changes in the same manner. The difference in the four types of squirrel-
cage induction motor classes is the construction of the rotor. A change in the squirrel-
cage induction motor's rotor construction will change the resistance of the motor's
rotor circuit. A change in the rotor circuit's resistance will cause the motor's torque
characteristics to change.

Comparative Torque-Speed Characteristics of

Different Classifications of Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors
Figure 4

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In addition to torque, the following operating characteristics are important to an

understanding of the operation of a squirrel-cage induction motor:

_Slip
_Power factor
_Efficiency

For a given motor, slip is the difference between synchronous speed and motor speed.
Slip is expressed as a percentage of the synchronous speed. The amount of slip of the
motor depends on the amount of load. The slip of the motor will increase and the
motor will run slower when the load is increased. At full load, the motor only slows
slightly, which amounts to one to four percent of synchronous speed. Because of the
small changes in speed from no load to full load, a squirrel-cage induction motor is
considered to be a constant speed motor. The actual speed of the motor rotor will
never reach the motor's synchronous speed. A difference between the speed of an
induction motor and synchronous speed is necessary because of the way the rotor field
is developed in an induction motor.

The most common method for calculation of slip in induction motors is through use of
the following formula:

The synchronous speed of a motor is found through use of the following formula:

where: Ns = Synchronous speed

The following is an example of how to determine the slip of an induction motor. A

three-phase, squirrel-cage induction motor with four poles is operating on a 60 Hz, AC
power circuit at a motor speed of 1,728 rpm. The slip of this squirrel-cage induction
motor can be determined through substitution of the following values into the previous
formulas:

Because of the natural slip characteristic of squirrel-cage induction motors, the

conclusion can be made that the squirrel-cage induction motor is not suitable in
industrial applications where a great amount of speed regulation is required. The
reason for non-selection of a squirrel-cage induction motor is that the speed only can
be controlled by a change in frequency, the number of poles of the rotor, or the motor
slip. Speed of a motor is seldom changed through change of the frequency. The
number of poles can be changed either through use of two or more distinct windings or
through reconnection of the same winding to establish a different number of poles.
Slip is an inherent characteristic of the motor's design.

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A squirrel-cage induction motor will operate most efficiently when the power factor
range is maintained in the design range of the motor. A squirrel-cage induction
motor's power factor will vary as the load on the motor changes. The power factor of
the squirrel-cage induction motor will be lowest at no load and will increase to the
highest value at rated full load of the motor. Load that is added to the motor beyond
full load will cause the power factor to start to decrease.

The power factor of a squirrel-cage induction motor also is a factor of the motor's
design speed. The power factor of a slow-speed squirrel-cage induction motor will be
lower than the power factor of a squirrel-cage induction motor that operates at a higher
rated speed. The change in power factor over the range of motor speed is due to the
high leakage reactance of the squirrel-cage induction motor at lower speeds.

The efficiency of a squirrel-cage induction motor is the last characteristic that must be
discussed. Efficiency is the ratio between the input and the output of a motor. The
efficiency of a motor can be described by the following equation:

This equation can be restated as:

The losses of a squirrel-cage induction motor will vary with the exact construction and
application of the motor. Some examples of the losses that are experienced by a
squirrel-cage induction motor are:

_I2R
_Winding
_Bearing friction
_Hysteresis
_Eddy currents

The efficiency of a squirrel-cage induction motor also will vary with the load on the
motor. A lightly-loaded squirrel-cage induction motor will have a lower efficiency
than an identical squirrel-cage induction motor that is supplied with rated load.
Because a motor is more expensive to operate when the efficiency is lower, each
motor that is installed should be selected so that the actual load and the rated load of
the motor are as close as possible.

Figure 5 shows a comparison of AC squirrel-cage induction motor curves. The

comparison shows how the values of power factor, amps, watts, and efficiency of the
motor vary as a percent of the motor load. Efficiency and power factor of a squirrel-
cage induction motor are maximum at full load. Note how rapidly efficiency and
power factor decrease when the motor is operated at less than 100% motor load.

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Comparison of AC Induction Motor Curves

Figure 5

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Wound Rotor Induction Motors

The wound rotor induction motor is another form of the three-phase induction motor. The
wound rotor induction motor has operating characteristics that are similar to the squirrel-cage
induction motor. The only real difference in the operating characteristics of the two types of
induction motors is that some of the operating characteristics of the wound rotor induction
motor can be varied. The operating characteristic that can be varied are torque, current,
speed, and efficiency. These characteristics are varied through a change in the amount of
external resistance that is connected in series with the wound rotor windings.

Figure 6 shows typical torque, current, and speed relationships of wound rotor induction
motor with different amounts of external resistance added. Curve 1 shows the torque speed
characteristics of the wound rotor motor with no external resistance added to the rotor. Curve
2 is the torque speed characteristics of the wound rotor motor with 10% external resistance
added to the rotor. The external resistance is given as a percentage of the external resistance
value required to give full load torque at standstill.

The starting torque of the wound rotor induction motor with no external resistance adds is
approximately 90% of full load torque. Through addition of 10% external resistance to the
rotor circuit, the starting torque produced by the wound rotor induction motor can be raised to
approximately 200% of full load torque. The starting torque required by the load can be
achieved through change in the amount of external resistance that is added to the circuit.
Also, the addition of the resistance in the rotor circuit will cause the starting current of the
motor to drop.

During operation, the wound rotor induction motor will produce the necessary running torque
that is required to support the operation of the load. The variations in running torque of the
wound rotor induction motors shown in curve 1 and curve 2 are the rate of change in running
torque as compared to speed. A wound rotor induction motor with no external resistance
added to the rotor circuit will develop more running torque for a given drop in speed than a
wound rotor induction motor with 10% external resistance added. The difference in the rate
of development of running torque is due to the current change between the motor in curve 1
and the motor in curve 2. The resistance added to the rotor circuit of the motor in curve 2 will
limit the rise in current as motor speed decreases. The lower increase in current will cause
less running torque to be produced.

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As mentioned above, the breakdown torque of a motor is the maximum torque that a motor
can produce when the motor is supplied with its rated input power. Through change of the
amount of external resistance added to the rotor circuit of a wound rotor induction motor, the
value of breakdown torque can be varied and the speed at which the motor reaches
breakdown torque can be varied. The breakdown torque of the wound rotor induction motor
with no external resistance shown by curve 1 has a breakdown torque of approximately 250%
of full load torque; the breakdown torque of the motor is reached at approximately 83% of
synchronous speed. Addition of 10% external resistance the rotor circuit will cause the
motor's breakdown torque to change as shown in curve 2. The value of the breakdown torque
will only slightly vary by a few percentage points of full load value. The biggest change is
the speed of the motor when breakdown torque is reached. The motor in curve 1 reached
breakdown torque at approximately 83% of synchronous speed, but, if 10% external
resistance is added to the rotor circuit, the motor will not reach breakdown torque until the
motor slows to approximately 50% of synchronous speed.

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Typical Torque, Current, and Speed Relationship of Wound Rotor

Induction Motors With Different Amounts of External Resistance
Figure 6

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The speed and efficiency of the wound rotor induction motor are dependent upon each other.
The speed of the wound rotor motor can be varied by about 50 to 75 percent. To change the
speed of the wound rotor induction motor under a constant load condition, resistance is added
or removed from the rotor circuit. The speed of the motor is decreased through the addition
of resistance to the rotor circuit. The resistance will cause the current flow to drop in the
rotor; the torque produced will be reduced; and the speed of the motor will slow. Conversely,
the speed of the wound rotor induction motor is increased through a removal of resistance
from the rotor circuit. The wound rotor motor is not designed to run at speeds that are slower
than rated speed for extended periods of time. The addition of resistance to the rotor circuit to
lower speed will generally only be done for short duration duties.

A consequence of the addition of resistance to the wound rotor induction motor is the change
in the motor's efficiency. The addition of resistance to the motor rotor circuit to lower the
motors speed will cause the efficiency of the motor to drop. Operation of a wound rotor
induction motor with external resistance added for extended periods of time will significantly
add to the operating cost of the motor due to the drop in efficiency of the motor. With all the
external resistance removed from the motor's rotor circuit, the wound rotor induction motor's
overall efficiency will be about 2 to 3% less than the overall efficiency of a comparable
squirrel-cage induction motor because of a difference in the motor's construction.

The power factor of a wound rotor induction motor is a factor of the motor's design. The
power factor of the motor will vary over the load of the motor just as the power factor varied
on the squirrel-cage induction motor.

Synchronous Motors

Synchronous motors have many of the same relationships and characteristics as induction
motors; however, there are differences. Figure 7 shows the relationship between the speed,
torque, and current in a synchronous motor. Note the location of the torque points on Figure
7 and the high starting current and low running current at different percents of synchronous
speed. The high starting current and low running current at different percents of synchronous
speed are typical of the following torques in a synchronous motor:

_Starting Torque is the torque that is developed when full voltage is applied to
the armature windings and when there is no motion of the motor rotor.
Because the synchronous motor itself has very little starting torque, an alternate
starting method must be used to develop a large enough starting torque.

_Pull-In Torque is the torque that is developed during the transition from slip
speed to synchronous speed. Pull-in torque is the maximum constant torque
with which the motor will pull its connected load into synchronism, with rated
power input, when field excitation is applied.

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_Pull-Out Torque is the value of the torque when the rotor will fall out of
synchronism with the rotating stator field. With increases in the motor load,
the rotor will fall behind the rotating stator field but not out of synchronism. If
the load is increased beyond the pull-out torque point, the motor will "slip a
pole" or pull-out of synchronism. The mechanical pull-out point of a
synchronous motor is approximately half of the distance between adjacent
poles.

Synchronous Motor Speed/Torque/Current Curves

Figure 7

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The speed of a synchronous motor is determined through the frequency of the power supply
and the number of poles of the motor. The operating speed of a synchronous motor will be
constant for a given frequency and the number of poles. The following formula is for use in
the determination of synchronous motor speed in revolutions per minute (RPM).

Because synchronous motor speed is controlled by the number of poles in the motor, a
synchronous motor can be designed for a specific speed application. Figure 8 shows
synchronous motor speeds in rpm for motors that are designed with different numbers of
poles for different supply frequencies (Hertz).

Synchronous Motor Speeds (rpm)

Figure 8

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The speed of a synchronous motor must always remain constant no matter how the load
changes. The angle between the rotation of the field and the rotation of the rotor will increase
as load is increased on a synchronous motor. This increase in angle will cause torque to
increase, but the speed of the synchronous motor will remain constant. Load can be added to
the synchronous motor until the developed torque of the motor reaches pull-out torque. The
addition of any more load to a motor that is operating at pull-out torque will cause the motor
to lose synchronism and stall.

Power factor and power factor correction are important aspects of a synchronous motor's
operation. Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power and is usually
expressed as a percent leading when the current in the circuit leads the voltage in the circuit,
or as a percent lagging when the current in the circuit lags the voltage in the circuit. Power
factor is a measure of the efficiency of a circuit. Power factor takes into account inductive
and capacitive reactance that dissipates power that is not available to do real work. The
capacitive reactance in a capacitive circuit causes the current in the circuit to lead the voltage
in the circuit; therefore, capacitive circuits have leading power factors. The inductive
reactance in an inductive circuit causes the current in the circuit to lag the voltage in the
circuit; therefore, inductive circuits have lagging power factors.

Power factor is expressed as a unitless fraction. Power factor equals one for a purely resistive
circuit (no inductance or capacitance) and is less than one for circuits with inductive or
capacitive reactance. Power factor is essentially a ratio of the pure resistance of a circuit to
the circuit's total impedance. The power factor of a synchronous motor is controlled by the
amount of field excitation that is supplied to the motor.

In a synchronous motor that is pulling a constant load, a variation of the stator current is
accomplished through variation of the field current. Figure 9 shows synchronous motor "V"
curves for no load, 1/2 load, 3/4 load, and full load conditions. The V curves describe the
relationship between stator current and field current. The curves are called V-curves because
of their shape. For any given load and any given motor, there is a single value of field
current that will give a unity power factor at the motor terminals. An increase in the field
current above the point for unity power factor (moving right) will cause a corresponding
increase in stator current that will cause the power factor to become increasingly leading. A
decrease of the field current from the unity point will cause the stator current to increase, and
the power factor will become more lagging (moving left).

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Synchronous Motor "V" Curves

Figure 9

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The motor field current is set at the value that is stamped on the nameplate and is kept at this
point for all loads during operation. Maximum pull-out torque is maintained through
sustenance of rated field current. Sustenance of rated field current provides the maximum
level of power factor correction. In a motor that is operated at reduced load for a long period
of time, reduction in the field current may be desired. Such a reduction of the field current
would increase the motor efficiency. For a motor that operates at part load with a unity power
factor, the field current can be adjusted until the stator current is at a minimum value.

The following equation is for use in the determination of the required stator current for a
given pf:

A motor that operates at other than unity power factor will supply the system with either
leading or lagging kVA. The amount of kVA that is supplied to the system can be
determined, but first the correct stator current to achieve a desired power factor must be
determined. The amount of kVA that is supplied to a system by a synchronous motor must be
known to allow protective devices and operating mechanisms to be set. A synchronous motor
that operates at full load and rated excitation delivers to the power system a leading kVA
equal to:

where:
hp rating = The horsepower of the synchronous motor
Eff = The efficiency of the synchronous motor
cos _ = Power factor

Electrical Engineers should note that more leading kVA is supplied at partial loads and rated
excitation. The curves in Figure 10 show the reactive kVA for synchronous motors at four
different power-factor ratings and at varying load conditions. These curves are based on
maintenance of full-load rated field current at all loads. For example, a 100 hp (74.6 kW)
80% power factor synchronous motor operated at 75% load supplies a leading reactive kVA
equal to approximately 66 percent of the motor's horsepower rating, or 66% reactive kVA.

The unity power factor synchronous motor (100% pf motor), whose curve is shown in Figure
10, only supplies a leading reactive kVA when the load is less than 100%. The unity power
factor synchronous motor, although providing no leading reactive kVA at full load, still
improves the system power factor through addition of kilowatt load without increase to the
system reactive-kVA load. A synchronous motor that operates at 90, 80, or 70% of power
factor will provide a leading reactive kVA at all loads.

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Reactive kVA for Synchronous Motors

Figure 10

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The efficiency of a motor is a ratio of the input power to the output power of the motor.
Because a synchronous motor has no slip as load is added, the synchronous motor will have a
higher efficiency than a corresponding induction motor. The full load efficiency of a
synchronous motor is generally one to three percent higher than that of an induction motor.

Typical Applications of Three-Phase AC Motors

The squirrel-cage motor is one of the most widely used machines because the squirrel-cage
motor can be built with electrical characteristics to suit almost any industrial requirement.
Another reason the squirrel-cage induction motor is widely used is the motor's simplicity of
construction. Squirrel-cage motors are not suitable in situations where a high starting torque
is required, but, when the starting-torque requirements are of a medium or low value, the
squirrel-cage induction motor is very suitable.

Typical applications of the squirrel-cage induction motor include blowers, centrifugal pumps,
and fans. Because of the absence of any exposed electrical connections, the squirrel-cage
induction motor is suitable for use in areas with hazardous environments.

The wound rotor induction motor is very similar to the squirrel-cage induction motor in
application, but the wound rotor induction motor has the ability to start extremely heavy
loads. The following are specific applications of the wound rotor induction motor:

_To drive various types of machinery that require development of considerable

starting torque to overcome friction.

_To accelerate extremely heavy loads that have a flywheel or inertial effect.

_To overcome back pressures set up by fluids and gases in the case of
reciprocating pumps and compressors.

_When motors must be started frequently without overheating the motor.

The advantages of a wound rotor motor over a squirrel-cage induction motor are:

_High starting torque.

_Moderate starting current.
_Smooth acceleration under heavy load.
_No excessive heating during starting.
_Good running characteristics.
_Adjustable speed control.

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The main disadvantage is that both initial and maintenance costs of a wound rotor motor are
greater than those costs of the squirrel-cage rotor motor. Also, the efficiency of the wound
rotor induction motor is lower than the efficiency of a squirrel-cage induction motor.

A synchronous motor can be used for almost any application for which a squirrel-cage
induction could be used. The main applications of synchronous motors fall into three areas:

_Power-factor correction
_Constant-speed, constant-load drives
_Voltage regulation

Synchronous motors have two advantages over AC induction motors:

_A constant speed with no variation due to changes in load.

_An ability to improve power factor when operated with high DC excitation.

Another factor that must be taken into account in the decision between an induction or
synchronous motor is cost. The cost of the higher-speed, low-horsepower, squirrel-cage
induction motor and control is lower than the cost of the corresponding synchronous motor.
The motor costs are reversed for higher horsepower and lower speeds; the synchronous
machines are less costly.

Running cost also must be considered in selection between a synchronous motor and an
induction motor. The full-load efficiency of an induction motor is generally one percent to
three percent lower than that of a synchronous motor of the same horsepower and speed
rating. The greater efficiency of the synchronous motor over the induction motor can pay
cost dividends over the life of the motor operation.

The synchronous motor should not be used where fluctuations in torque are violent. As a
general rule, synchronous motors also are not used in small sizes (under 50hp) because they
require DC excitation and are more difficult to start than induction motors. Synchronous
motors also fall out of step quite readily when system disturbances occur.

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Operating Characteristics of Single-Phase AC Motors

Single-phase motors were one of the first types of motors developed for use on AC circuits.
Single-phase motors have been perfected over the years from the original repulsion type into
many improved types. The following are the types of single-phase motors that will be
covered:

_Split-phase motor
_Repulsion induction motor
_Capacitive start motor
_Universal motor

Split-Phase Motor

The split-phase induction motor is the most popular of all the single-phase motors. The split-
phase motor consists of a squirrel-cage rotor and two stator windings, a main winding, and a
starting winding. Current that is applied to the motor will cause both windings to produce a
magnetic field. The magnetic fields that are produced by the main winding and the starting
winding will be mechanically and electrically displaced. The mechanical displacement is
produced through position of the windings in the stator. The electrical displacement is
produced through the use of windings with different electrical properties.

The main winding is produced to have a low resistance and a high inductance. The starting
winding will have a high resistance and a low inductance. The different characteristics of the
two windings produce a weak rotating electric field. The interaction of the two fields that are
produced by the windings produce the motor's starting torque. In a split-phase motor, the
starting torque is 150 to 200 percent of the full-load torque, and the starting current is six to
eight times of the full-load current.

Figure 11 shows the speed torque characteristics of a split-phase induction motor. Upon
energization of the motor, the combined windings produce the rotating magnetic field that
will produce the necessary torque to start the motor. The motor accelerates to 75 to 80
percent of synchronous speed. At this speed, a starting switch (usually centrifugally operated)
opens to disconnect the starting winding, and the motor operates with the main winding only.
The function of the starting switch is to prevent the motor from drawing excessive current
from the line and to protect the starting winding from damage due to overheating.

The motor may be started in either direction through reversal of the connections to either the
main or the starting winding, but not to both.

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Speed-Torque Characteristics of a Split-Phase

Induction Motor
Figure 11

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Repulsion Induction Motors

The repulsion induction motor has a combination of a squirrel-cage and a repulsion winding
on the rotor. Because of the combination windings, occasionally the motor is referred to as a
squirrel-cage repulsion motor.

A repulsion induction motor can be designed to have either a constant speed or a variable
speed characteristic. In the repulsion induction motor, the desirable starting characteristics of
the repulsion motor (such as high starting torque) and the constant speed characteristics of the
induction motor are obtained. Unfortunately, the two types of motors are impossible to
combine and obtain only the desirable characteristics of each. Because the combination of
both windings will cause the running torque of the repulsion induction motor to be less than a
comparative split phase induction motor, a larger repulsion induction motor would be
necessary for the same load rating.

Figure 12 shows the torque-speed characteristics of a typical repulsion induction motor. The
rotating magnetic field of the repulsion induction motor is produced in the same way as in the
split phase induction motor. The construction of the repulsion induction motor was discussed
in Module EEX 203.01. The torque-speed curve of the repulsion induction motor is very
similar to that of a repulsion motor. The repulsion induction motor has a high starting torque
(approximately 300-350% full load torque) and can operate at relatively high speeds under
light loads. The similarity between the repulsion induction motor curve and the curve of a
repulsion motor is due to the dominance of the commuted repulsion winding when the
repulsion induction motor is started.

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Torque/Speed Characteristic of a Typical Repulsion-Induction Motor

Figure 12

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Brush position of the repulsion induction motor is very important in determination of the
motor's operating characteristics. Figure 13 shows the characteristic curves of a repulsion
induction motor that illustrates the effects of adjustment of brush position. Through
adjustment of the brushes, the direction of rotation of the motor can be changed from
clockwise to counterclockwise or vice versa. The other main effect of a shift in the brush
position is the effect on motor starting torque. When the brushes are at the 0 brush position,
the repulsion induction motor will produce zero starting torque. Starting torque can be
maximized through shift of the motor brushes to 25 degrees off center. The torque graph is a
quantative analysis of how the motor's torque will change. The line of zero torque shows the
relative amount of motor starting torque as compared to other brush positions. The shift in
brush position also will lower the motor's current.

Characteristic Curves of a Repulsion Induction Motor Showing

the Effect of Adjusting Brush Position
Figure 13

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Capacitive Start Motors

The capacitive-start motor is another form of split-phase induction motor that has a capacitor
that is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. The auxiliary circuit of a capacitive
start motor is opened when the motor has attained a predetermined speed. The net effect of
the capacitor in the auxiliary circuit is to give its motor a starting torque of about four times
the motor's rated torque. Once the capacitive start motor has come up to speed and the
starting winding has been disconnected, the motor will have the same running characteristics
as the split-phase motor.

The rotating magnetic field is produced identically to the way in which this field is produced
in the split-phase motor. The larger starting torque comes from the addition of a capacitor in
series with the starting winding. The addition of the capacitor will cause the electrical
displacement of the two fields to increase. This increase in the displacement of the electrical
fields produces the larger torque.

Figure 14 shows a comparison of the torque slip curves for a capacitor start and a split-phase
motor. Curves are shown for both types of motors to show the comparison. Various starting
capacitor values (200 _F, 300 _F, 400 _F, and 500 _F) also are shown for comparison.
Through change of the value of the starting capacitor, the starting current will be greatly
effected. An increase in the capacitor size will cause an increase in the motor's starting
torque. The capacitor start type of motor has certain advantages over the other single-phase
AC motors in that the motor has a considerably higher starting torque that is accompanied by
a high power factor. Notice how the torque of the capacitive start motor drops at the point
where the centrifugal switch opens. The capacitive start motor operates in the same speed
range as a split-phase induction motor.

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Torque-Speed Curves for Capacitor-Start and Split-Phase Motors

Figure 14

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Universal Motors

A universal motor is a series wound motor that may be operated on direct current (DC) or
single-phase alternating current (AC). Because a universal motor is a series wound motor, the
universal motor's operating characteristics are very similar to those of a DC series wound
motor. The main difference in the operating characteristics of the universal motor and the
series DC motor is that the universal motor will have a no load speed. The no load speed of
the universal motor will be quite high but not high enough to damage to motor.

Universal motors are very susceptible to changes in speed and these changes in speed must be
considered whenever a universal motor is used. The following three factors change the speed
of a universal motor:

_A change in load.
_A change in frequency of the power supply.
_A change in applied voltage.

When a load is placed on a universal motor, torque will increase and speed will decrease. The
speed of the universal motor will continue to decrease as load and torque are added. Figure
15 shows the torque-speed characteristics for a typical universal motor with a change in the
frequency of the power supply. The power supply frequencies that are shown are of 25 Hz
AC, 60 Hz AC, and DC power. The curves show that at a 25 Hz supply, the universal motor
will develop the maximum torque and that the minimum starting torque will be developed at
60 Hz.

Adjustment of the speed of a universal motor is very easily accomplished. The speed of the
universal motor can be adjusted through adjustment of the input voltage to the motor.
Adjustment of the input voltage to the motor is accomplished through use of a variable
resistor. Adjustment of the value of the variable resistor allows the speed of the universal
motor to be adjusted at will.

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Torque/Speed Characteristics of a Typical Universal Motor

Figure 15

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Typical Applications of Single-Phase AC Motors

The split-phase induction motor is the most popular of the fractional-horsepower motor types.
The split-phase motor is most commonly used in sizes that range from 1/30 hp (24.9 W) to
1/2 hp (373 W) for applications such as fans, business machines, automatic musical
instruments, and buffing machines.

The split-phase motor has the advantage of a very low initial cost. A disadvantage of the
split-phase motor is that the motor has a relatively low starting torque.

The capacitive-start motor is made in sizes from 1/4 hp (150W) to 10 hp (7.5 KW). The
starting capacitor is a dry-type electrolytic cell made for AC use. Typical values of the
capacitors are from 200 to 600_F. The major advantage of the capacitor start motor is the
increase in starting torque. The starting torque of a capacitive start motor can be about four
times the rated torque of the motor. This increase in starting torque makes the capacitive start
motor very useful. The disadvantage in the capacitive start motor is the increased cost over
the split-phase motor. Typical applications of the capacitive start motor would be a
compressor or a pump drive because of the large starting torque that is developed by the
capacitive start motor.

The repulsion induction motor is especially suitable to drive frequently started devices such as
compressors, air pumps, and water systems. The two advantages to the repulsion induction
motor are its low starting current and its constant speed. The low starting current of the
repulsion induction motor is what makes this motor so suitable for applications that require
frequent starting. The motor's constant speed characteristics add to the motor's efficiency.

The only disadvantage to the repulsion induction motor is the increased cost of the motor over
the split-phase induction motor. The repulsion induction motor will generally cost about
twice as much as a split-phase induction motor.

The universal motor is often preferred because of this motor's ability to operate on direct
current (DC) or on alternating current (AC). In areas where both AC and DC are available,
use of a universal motor increases the flexibility of the motor's application. Most universal
motors are used in high speed applications (such as portable tools) because of the difficulty in
obtaining similar performance from AC and DC power supplies at low speeds.

The ability to adjust the speed of a universal motor at will by adjustment of the resistance is
an advantage in uses where speed must be adjusted over a large range.

The disadvantage of a universal motor is the increased cost. The increased cost is due to the
increased winding insulation requirements. The winding insulation requirements increase
over a comparable series wound DC motor because of the peak voltage to which insulation is
exposed in an AC supply.

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OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPICAL APPLICATIONS OF DC

MOTORS

Each type of DC motor, although it contains the same basic parts as discussed in EEX 203.01,
has very different operating characteristics. The operating characteristics of the different
types of DC motors will be determined by how the windings of the motors are employed. The
following topics will be covered in this section:

_Operating Characteristics of DC Motors

_Typical Applications of DC Motors

Operating Characteristics of DC Motors

Different types of DC motors have different operating characteristics. Because of these

differences, the proper type of DC motor should be selected when the load to be driven is
known. The following types of DC motors are discussed below:

_Series Motors
_Shunt Motors
_Cumulative Compound Motors
_Differential Compound Motors.

Series Motors

The series motor has the highest starting torque of all DC motors and is ideal for applications
(such as hoists, cranes, and locomotives), that require high torque and slow speeds. The
speed of a DC series motor is controlled by the size of its load.

Figure 16 shows the torque/speed characteristics of a DC series motor. Note that the motor
speed varies greatly with respect to the torque. At point 1, there is no load on the motor, and
the motor will overspeed and destroy itself from excessive speed. At point 2, 50% of the load
has been applied to the motor. The torque increases, and speed will be about 150% of full
load speed. At point 3, 100% load has been applied to the motor; the torque has increased to
100% full load torque; and speed is at 100% of full load speed. As load is increased past
100% full rated load, the speed of the series motor will drop rapidly. A heavy load must
always be applied to a series DC motor otherwise, these motors will speed out of control and
destroy themselves.

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Operating Characteristics of A DC Series Motor

Figure 16

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Shunt Motors

The shunt motor, in comparison to the series motor, has a very low starting torque that
requires the shaft load to be relatively small. A DC shunt motor has a no load speed point and
can be operated without a connected load. Operation of a DC shunt motor without load will
not cause the motor to speed out of control.

Figure 17 shows the torque/speed characteristics of a DC shunt motor. Figure 17 shows that
this motor will run at nearly the same speed at any load within the motor's capacity and that
the motor will not slow very much even when it is greatly overloaded. There is only a slight
drop in speed from no load (point 1) to full load (point 2). The slight difference in speed is
called the droop of the motor.

Figure 17 also shows the development of linear torque through addition of load to the motor.
The linear addition of torque allows for very smooth operation of the motor over a varying
load.

Operating Characteristics of a DC Shunt Motor

Figure 17

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The shunt motor's speed can be varied through variance of the amount of current that is
supplied to the shunt field. Control of the current to the shunt field allows the rpm to be
changed by 10 to 20 percent when the motor is at full rpm. A shunt motor's speed control
usually is accomplished through placement of a rheostat in series with the shunt field.
Change in the position of this rheostat will increase or decrease the voltage that is applied to
the field. This change in the voltage that is applied to the field results in a corresponding
change in field current and strength. When the field current is decreased, the motor speed will
increase. Motor speed will increase because of the following chain of events:

_When motor field decreases, CEMF decreases (FC _ N ¢f).

_When CEMF decreases and applied EMF stays the same, armature current
increases.

_When armature current increases in a shunt motor, torque increases (_a _

_fIa).

_When torque increases with constant load, speed increases (N _ _).

In the above explained sequence:

Fc = Force of the CEMF

N = Speed of rotor
_f = Flux of the field
Ia = Armature current
Ea = Armature voltage
Ec = CEMF voltage
Ra = Armature resistance
_= Torque

From this sequence, the net effect of a decrease in the shunt motor field current is an increase
in the shunt motor's speed. The opposite is true when shunt motor field current is increased.

The shunt motor's rpm also can be controlled through regulation of the voltage that is applied
to the motor armature. If such regulation is applied, and if the motor is operated on less
voltage than is shown on its nameplate, the motor will run at less than full rpm. The shunt
motor's efficiency will drastically drop off when the shunt motor is operated below the
motor's rated voltage. The drop in motor efficiency is caused by an increase in heat loss in
the motor windings. Because the motor will tend to overheat when operated below full
voltage, motor ventilation must be provided. The motor's torque also is reduced when the
motor is operated below the full voltage level.

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Cumulative-Compound Motors

In a cumulative compound motor, the series and shunt windings are connected so that the flux
that is produced by the windings aid each other. The DC cumulative compound motor will
have a combination of the operating characteristics of a series DC motor and a shunt DC
motor. The cumulative compound DC motor will have more starting torque than a
shunt DC motor but not as much starting torque as a series DC motor. The cumulative motor
will have larger speed droop than a shunt DC motor but not as much speed droop as a series
DC motor. The characteristics of the cumulative motor will be determined by the amount of
turns in the series field. The more turns there are in the series winding, the more closely the
operating characteristics will emulate those of a series DC motor. When a cumulative
compound DC motor has few turns in the series field DC motor, the motor will more closely
resemble the operating characteristics of a DC shunt motor.

Figure 18 shows the torque/speed characteristics of a cumulative compound DC motor.

Notice how the speed droops as the load is increased. Although the droop is greater than that
of a shunt DC motor, the cumulative compound motor does have a no load speed and will not
runaway. The torque development of a cumulative DC motor is relatively linear. Because
speed is not easily controlled in a cumulative compound DC motor, the cumulative compound
DC motor is not suitable for applications that require adjustable speed.

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Torque/Speed Characteristics of a Cumulative Compound Motor

Figure 18

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Differential Compound Motors

A differential compound DC motor is of a very similar design to a cumulative compound DC

motor. The only difference in the two types of compound motors is that in the differential
compound DC motor the series and shunt windings will be connected so that their individual
flux will be in opposition to each other. A change in the connections of the fields in the
differential compound DC motor will cause the field fluxes to oppose each other. The
differential compound DC motor will have a lower starting torque but a more constant speed
characteristic than the cumulative compound motor.

Figure 19 shows the torque/speed characteristics of a differential compound DC motor.

Notice that the torque will raise in an approximately linear manner as in the cumulative
compound DC motor, but the speed will not droop as much as it will in the cumulative
compound DC motor. Figure 19 also shows that the differential compound DC motor will
have a rising speed characteristic when load is added beyond the full load of the motor.

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Torque/Speed Characteristics of a Differential Compound Motor

Figure 19

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Typical Applications of DC Motors

A series DC motor is used in applications where a high starting torque is required but where
running speed regulation is of little concern. The advantages of the series DC motor are the
motor's high starting torque and relatively low initial cost. One disadvantage of the series
motor is that the speed will decrease steadily as more load is applied to the motor. Another
disadvantage of the series DC motor is that the motor must be hard-connected to a load
because the series DC motor has no "no load" speed. Loss of load on a DC series motor will
cause the motor to speed out of control and destroy itself.

A shunt DC motor, as compared to the series DC motor, will have a lower starting torque but
much better speed control. Because of the motor's speed control, the shunt DC motor is very
useful in applications where speed accuracy is required but where a large starting torque is not
required. A good example of where speed control would be necessary is on machine tools or
lathes. Because a shunt DC motor also has a no load speed, runaway is not a concern of the
shunt DC motor. A no load speed makes the shunt motor very useful in running belt drive
equipment such as a conveyor belt. The main advantage of a shunt DC motor is speed
control. The main disadvantage of a shunt DC motor is the low starting torque.

The use of the cumulative and differential compound DC motors are very similar. Because
both the cumulative and differential compound DC motors are the same except for electrical
connections, cost is not an issue in selection of the motor type. Both of the compound DC
motors cost more than the series or shunt motors. The cumulative compound DC motor
would be used where a higher starting torque is required but where speed control is not a vital
issue; examples of this application would be in some hoisting and conveying machinery. The
differential compound DC motor would be used in situations where a high starting torque is
not required but where speed regulation is more important. Examples of typical applications
of the differential compound DC motor would be in pumps or paper cutting machines. The
main advantage of a compound DC motor is that these motors can be designed to combine the
desired characteristics of the shunt DC motor and the series DC motor. The main
disadvantage of compound DC motors is that these motors cost more than the shunt DC motor
or the series DC motor.

Figure 20 shows an overall composite of the speed, torque, and current (load) characteristics
for compound, shunt, and series DC motors of equal size. This figure provides a comparison
of the torque and speed characteristics that each DC motor type will exhibit. The cumulative
and differential compound motors are shown as one line that is called compound because the
curve that is shown is typical. Figure 20 shows that the series motor has the highest torque,
followed by the compound motors, and by finally the shunt motor. If starting torque is the
most important consideration, the series motor would be the best selection.

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Figure 20 also shows that the series motor speed droop is much greater than that of the
compound or shunt motors. If speed control is the most important consideration, the shunt
motor is the best selection. The DC compound motors are good examples of a compromise in
both torque and speed characteristics. The selection of this compromise will cause costs to
increase due to the complexity of the motor.

Speed-Torque and Current Characteristic Curves for Compound, Shunt, and

Series DC Motors of Equal Size
Figure 20

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SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES OF THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS

Selection of the appropriate type of three-phase motor for a Saudi Aramco application,
requires that all the motor selection factors to be considered. Early failure may occur in a
three-phase AC motor that does not completely fit the intended application. The selection of
a type of 3_ AC motor basically involves a choice between an induction and a synchronous
motor. The subselection of a squirrel-cage induction versus a wound rotor motor is based on
torque requirements and cost. The selection of a motor also will take into account the area
into which the motor will be installed.

Motor Selection Factors

A designer must weigh all of the factors that bear on the selection of the type of 3_ AC motor
for a particular application. The following factors must be considered:

_Preferred Voltage and Horsepower Ranges

_Load Characteristics
_Motor Starting Characteristics
_Speed
_Power Output Required
_Limitations of the Supply Network
_Cost

Preferred Voltage and Horsepower Ranges

Three-phase AC motors come in a variety of standard voltage and horsepower ratings. A

special order for a specific rating that is not in a standard rating would cause the cost of the
motor to increase. Saudi Aramco allows a limited choice of voltage and horsepower ranges.
The actual table of the allowed voltage and horsepower ranges for use in Saudi Aramco
installations is in Work Aid 1.

The second table in Work Aid 1 shows the preferred voltage and horsepower ranges of Saudi
Aramco installations. Column 1 of the table in Work Aid 1 shows the nominal system
voltages. Column 2 of the table in Work Aid 1 shows the nameplate voltage or utilized
voltage. The European practice is to quote the nameplate voltage, but the American practice
is to quote nominal system voltage. To avoid confusion of voltage, all motors for use in
Saudi Aramco will be specified by the nameplate voltage only. Column 3 of the table in
Work Aid 1 gives the number of phases in the motor. Column 4 of the table in Work Aid 1
shows the available Hp ranges for the specified voltage and phases. Column 5 of the table in
Work Aid 1 shows the type of motor to be selected to meet the necessary requirements.

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The table shows that synchronous motors are only used on high horsepower applications
unless the operating speed is required to be less than or equal to 1200 rpm.

Load Characteristics

Load characteristics refer to the following:

_Load horsepower
_Required load starting torque
_Speed at which the load must operate
_Steadiness or unsteadiness of a load

Load horsepower will determine the size of the motor that is required for the application. In
actuality, any type of motor can be designed for a specific horsepower requirement. Column
4 of the second table in Work Aid 1 gives the approved Saudi Aramco horsepower ranges for
motors.

Required Load Starting Torque of a load will vary with the type of load. For loads that obey a
square-law characteristic, a motor's required load starting torque should be at least 60 percent
of the full-load torque for liquid pumps, and 40 percent of full-load torque for gas-handling
pumps. Pumping requirements over 11,000 kW (15,000 Hp) should be referred to Consulting
Services Department.

A constant speed motor must be applied for loads that must operate at constant speed. The
synchronous motor by design must always run at a constant speed. The speed of a
synchronous motor was designed by its construction and the supply frequency. Saudi
Aramco uses 60 Hz input frequency for all motors. The synchronous motor would be the best
choice for a load that must be operated at a constant speed.

The steadiness of a load also plays a large role in the selection of a type of 3_ AC motor.
Induction motors account for varying loads through adjustment of the amount of slip. A
synchronous motor does not compensate for a varying load. Where the variations in load are
excessive, such as a compressor application, a synchronous motor may slip out of
synchronism and stall. The pole slippage could be for a short duration such as one pole or a
complete stoppage of the motor. Slippage or stoppage depends on the amount of load
variation.

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Figure 21 shows typical load speed/torque curves for Saudi Aramco equipment. The figure
shows that the profile of the curve for the centrifugal pump can be changed through variance
of the load (valve shut or valve open). Reduced load starting (valve shut) should be done
only when absolutely necessary because of excess heat build up in the motor. The axial
compressor load torque drops initially after the load commences to move because of the
inertia of the load. The axial compressor will develop a smooth torque build up.

Typical Load Speed/Torque Curves

Figure 21

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Motor Starting Characteristics

All motors that are used in Saudi Aramco applications must be self-starting. Induction motors
are self-starting by design and always can be used in Saudi Aramco. Synchronous motors
must be designed with a method of self-starting. The most common way to accomplish the
self-starting of a synchronous motor is to build a squirrel-cage into the motor's rotor. A
squirrel-cage that is built into the rotor of a synchronous motor provides the necessary starting
torque to start the rotor rolling. At the point where the motor reaches synchronous speed,
there will be no relative motion between the rotating magnetic field and the squirrel-cage; no
voltage, therefore, will be induced into the squirrel-cage.

Motor starting torque is a major consideration in the selection between a squirrel-cage

induction motor and a wound rotor induction motor. The addition of the external resister in a
wound rotor induction motor causes starting torque to increase. Also, motor run up time can
be safely increased because the resisters will limit the amount of current flow. Limitation of
the amount of current flow will prevent damage to the motor's windings when the load takes a
long period of time to accelerate.

Speed

A motor's speed generally is dictated by the need of the driven equipment, except in cases
where the driven equipment is connected to the motor through use of gear boxes. For
example, if the driven equipment must rotate at 1800 RPM, the motor must rotate at 1800
RPM or the driven equipment must be connected to the motor through use of a gearbox that
changes the speed of the motor to 1800 RPM. Such specifications are referred to the relevant
Project Engineers.

Occasionally the motor application requires that speed be optional: e.g., 600 rpm, 900 rpm or
1800 rpm will perform the job to an equal level of satisfaction. When the speed of the motor
is optional, the 1800 rpm (4-pole) motor should be chosen. Generally, 1800 rpm motors are
lighter in weight and less expensive than lower speed motors and 3600 rpm motors.

Because the speed of a synchronous motor is constant at synchronous speed, and because the
speed of an induction motor will vary slightly with load, a synchronous motor is preferable
when constant speed is required.

Power Output Required

The second table in Work Aid 1 shows the acceptable Hp ranges of motors for Saudi Aramco
applications. The table shows that a motor can be selected for almost any necessary output
range and that synchronous motors are used only for motors that are larger than 15,000 Hp or
for motors that are between 670 - 4000 HP and that operate at 1200 RPM or below.

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Motors should not be oversized for an application. An oversize motor will cause the motor to
run at less than maximum output and, consequently, at less than maximum efficiency.

Limitations of the Supply Network

Motor placement and application depend on the kind of power that can be supplied to the
location. Where the application needs a 3_ AC power and only a single-phase AC power is
available, either the installation must be reconsidered or a 3_ AC power supply must be
supplied to the system.

Consideration must given to the strain that starting of the motor will place on the supply
network when large motors are to be selected. This strain will increase as the size of the
motor increases. Voltage dips upon starting will be discussed in more detail later in this
course.

Cost

All costs of the motor must be taken into account prior to selection of a squirrel-cage
induction motor, wound rotor motor, or a synchronous motor.

The following costs must be taken into account to determine the total cost:

_Initial cost
_Running cost
_Maintenance cost

Initial cost is lowest in the squirrel-cage induction motor. The lower initial cost is due to the
simple design of the motor. The wound rotor induction motor and synchronous motor are
more complicated in design and construction and cost more to buy and install.

Maintenance cost is again lowest in the squirrel-cage induction motor. The lower
maintenance cost can again be attributed to the simple construction. The wound rotor motor
has the addition of slip rings and brushes that require a certain amount of maintenance. The
added maintenance for the brushes and slip rings of the wound rotor motor causes the
maintenance cost to rise. Synchronous motors have the highest maintenance costs because
they have not only brushes and slip rings but also some source of excitation that requires a
certain amount of maintenance.

The running cost of a motor will depend on the size of the motor. All motors improve in
efficiency as their size increases. The efficiency of synchronous motors tends to be higher
than the efficiency of induction motors. The increase in efficiency of running a synchronous
motor can sometimes justify the added initial and maintenance costs of the synchronous
motor. For Saudi Aramco purposes, the critical size for justification of a synchronous motor

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selection is approximately 11,000 kW (15,000 Hp), but the economic power rating may be
lower if there is a need to control the power factor of an installation.

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Motor Selection for Hazardous Areas

Motors that will not ignite a flammable atmosphere can be constructed in various forms to
meet the different classifications of hazards and can be constructed with different types of
protection. The "Ex d" (flameproof or explosion-proof) type of protection, is usual for Zone 1
(Division 1) applications. The "Ex n" (non-sparking type of protection) of totally enclosed
motors is usual for Zone 2 (Division 2) locations.

Because different types of protection are permitted in Zone (Division) 1 and 2 areas, the final
choice must be based on economic considerations. The economic considerations should take
into account the operating costs, reliability, maintenance, and capital cost. The following
guidelines highlight the main cost parameters of each type of protection. Other factors,
however, may apply to particular installations or motor requirements.

_Zone 1 (Division 1 ) Areas

The Ex d type is preferred in sizes up to several hundred kW because this type

is simple and rugged and requires no special motor protection. Above 750 kW,
the price becomes prohibitive because it is difficult to produce a sufficiently
strong enclosure to withstand an internal explosion.

Large motors should not be located in Zone 1 areas to minimize costs.

_Zone 2 (Division 2) Areas

In Zone 2 areas, Ex n motors should be used because they are cheaper. Ex d

type motors should not be used due to their higher cost.

Figure 22 shows a cost comparison for different Ex type motors. The cost of each of the Ex
type motors is compared to the cost of a standard industrial motor. At lower ratings, Ex d
motors that are explosion-proof are relatively inexpensive. But as motor rating goes up the
cost of an Ex d motor rapidly increases. The increase in cost of Ex d motors prohibit their use
above about 750 kW. The cost of Ex n motors that are non-sparking starts out just slightly
above the cost of a standard industrial motor and decreases as the motor rating increases. The
Ex n motor is the most economical motor to use. Ex p motors are pressurized motors. For
small motors, the cost of the Ex p motor is prohibitively large. The cost of the larger Ex p
motors drops rapidly as the motor size increases. At large motor ratings, the cost of an Ex p
motor is feasible.

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Cost Comparisons for Different Ex Type Motors

Figure 22

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SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES OF SINGLE-PHASE AC MOTORS

Selection of a single-phase AC motor is much simpler than the selection of a 3_ AC motor.

Fewer factors must be considered because of the size and applications of single-phase AC
motors.

Motor Selection Factors

The following factors are taken into account in the selection of a single-phase AC motor:

_Load Characteristics
_Motor Starting Characteristics
_Speed
_Power Output Requirements
_Cost

Load Characteristics

The load characteristics must be taken into account in selection of a 1_ AC motor just as with
a 3_ AC motor. The amount of torque that is required to start a load in motion must be
known. The starting torque of the load must be met so that the correct motor can be selected.
A motor with a starting torque that is too low will cause the run up time to increase and can
cause the motor to overheat.

Duty cycle also must be considered. The length of time that the load will be required to run
and the frequency with which the load will be cycled are important factors in the selection of
a single-phase AC motor. The more often a load is cycled, the more times the motor windings
will be subjected to starting current. The starting current also is a concern with long load run
up times. A long load run up time will result in the application of the starting current for a
longer period of time.

Motor Starting Characteristics

For proper selection of a single-phase AC motor, the motor starting characteristics must be
matched with the required load characteristics. The starting torque that is required by the load
must be met by the selected single-phase motor. The split-phase motor has the lowest starting
torque. The repulsion induction motor has a large amount of starting torque. The capacitor
start and universal both have about the same amount of starting torque.

The motor to be selected must have the necessary amount of starting torque to operate the
load. If the starting torque is too low, damage to the motor can occur through excessive
starting current. The repulsion induction motor will have the lowest starting current. This

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characteristic makes the repulsion induction motor more suitable for a load with a harsh-
cyclic duty.

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Speed

The split-phase, capacitor start, and repulsion induction motors can be designed for a wide
variety of speeds. When operated, these types of single-phase motors will exhibit
approximately the same speed droop characteristics. The universal motor is generally only
designed for speeds of 3500 rpm or higher. Most universal motors will operate between
8,000 and 10,000 rpm. Universal motors operate at high speeds because it is difficult to
obtain similar performance on AC and DC at low speeds.

Power Output Required

The second table in Work Aid 1 shows the accepted ranges of Hp for single-phase AC
motors. Each of the four types of single phase AC motors is manufactured for a range of
power output requirements. The HP ranges for each type of single-phase AC motor is shown
in Work Aid 2.

The power output of the motor must be matched with the power required of the load. A
motor is not to be oversized. An oversize motor will cause motor efficiency to drop and cost
to increase.

Cost

The cost of a single-phase AC motor is much simpler to determine than the cost of a 3_ AC
motor. No maintenance costs are associated with single-phase AC motors. Because of
smaller sizes and relative cheapness of the single-phase AC motors, it is more cost effective to
replace them than to perform maintenance on them.

Because all four types of motors are designed to operate at about the same efficiency, running
costs are about the same.

The only difference in cost is the initial cost of the single-phase AC motor. The split-phase
motor is the cheapest single-phase AC motor due to the simplicity of the motor's design. The
capacitive start motor is a little more expensive because of the addition of the starting
capacitor. The repulsion induction motor is still more expensive because of the dual rotor
(discussed earlier). The most expensive is the universal motor. The cost of the universal
motor increases due to the different types of voltages that this motor is designed to withstand.

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SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES OF DC MOTORS

Selection of the appropriate type of DC motor is very important for the protection of the
motor and the load. Improper selection of the motor can cause significant damage or failure
of the motor or load.

Motor Selection Factors

The following factors should be considered in the selection of a type of DC motor:

_Load Characteristics
_Motor Starting Characteristics
_Speed
_Power Output Required
_Cost

Load Characteristics

Load characteristics of the DC motor are very similar to the load characteristics of the AC
motors that were previously discussed. The motor must meet the starting torque of the load.
If the motor does not meet the starting torque of the load, the motor can be damaged.
Variations in load also are a large concern in the selection of a DC motor because of the effect
the load has on the speed of the DC motor. Speed will be discussed later.

One load characteristic that is unique to the selection of a DC motor is the type of drive that is
used. The two methods that are used to connect a load to a motor are direct drive or through a
belt drive. All DC motors can be used on direct drive systems. Belt drive systems add an
extra factor to the selection of DC motors. The possibility that something will go wrong with
the belt and that the motor will be left with no load must be considered in the selection of a
DC motor. A belt failure on a shunt, cumulative compound, or differential compound motor
would not adversely affect the motor because each motor has a no load speed point.
Conversely, a series motor does not have a "no load" speed point. On a series DC motor, a
belt failure would cause the motor to be under no load and to speed out of control. This
condition would damage the motor. Because of the no load runaway of a series DC motor,
the series DC motor never should be used except in a direct drive set up.

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Motor Starting Characteristics

Motor starting characteristics again must match those of the load or damage to the motor will
occur. The series DC motor has the largest starting torque of all DC motors. The series DC
motor has a very large starting torque because this torque, will vary in proportion to the
square of the armature current. The cumulative compound motor has a high starting torque
due to the cumulative properties of the series and shunt windings. The starting torque of the
cumulative compound motor is high but is not as high as the starting torque of a series DC
motor.

In the differential compound motor, the series and shunt winding fluxes oppose each other.
This opposition will lower the starting torque of the differential compound motor lower than
the starting torque of the cumulative compound motor. The shunt DC motor will have the
lowest starting torque.

Speed

All DC motors can be designed to operate at any given full load speed. Analysis of how
motor speed varies over a range of load is more important in the selection of the type of
motor. Where the load does not require a set speed as the load varies, a series motor could be
used. The series motor speed will vary up and down as the load is changed up and down.
When very small variations in load speed are allowable, a shunt DC motor should be applied.
The shunt motor, because its speed has little variation over the load range, is very useful for
constant speed applications. The cumulative compound and differential compound DC
motors are a combination of a series and shunt motor. The speed regulation will fall between
the two extremes. The importance of speed regulation vs added cost to the motor must be
considered in the selection of a DC motor.

Power Output Required

Power output requirements are a small concern in themselves. DC motors can be designed for
almost any value of power output without concern for the type. The power output concerns
are more accurately described as cost concerns. As the power output that is required is
increased, the size of the DC motor also increases. The differences in the cost of the different
types of DC motors increases as the motor size increases.

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Cost

In several instances, cost can be the deciding factor in the selection of a DC motor. Cost
becomes a deciding factor because of the closeness in the operating characteristics of the four
types of DC motors. The cheapest type of DC motor would be the series motor due to its
simple construction. The shunt motor is only slightly more expensive and is still relatively
simple in construction. There is a large jump in cost when the compound motors are selected.
Because the cumulative and differential compound motors are the same except for
connections, the cost of these motors would be the same. The large jump in cost with
compound motors, is due to the use of two sets of windings (series and shunt) instead of a
single set.

The difference in cost of the four types of DC motors will increase in percentage as motor size
increases. This increase in the percentage difference in cost is due to the more complex and
difficult construction of the compound motors.

Cost will be the overriding factor in DC motor selection only if two different types of motors
are equally capable of performing the specified task.

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WORK AID 1: PROCEDURE AND TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS

FROM SADP-P-113 FOR SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES
OF THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS

Work Aid 1A: Procedure

Use this procedure to fill in the chart to compare the requirements of the load with the
supplied ratings in the description and to select the appropriate type of three-phase AC
motors.

1. Determine the motor output requirements and the motors that can meet this
requirement.

2. Determine the speed requirement of the load and the motors that can meet this
requirement.

3. Determine classification of the area in which the motor is to be installed and the
motors that can meet this requirement.

4. Determine the level of speed regulation that is required by the load and the types of
motors that can meet this requirement.

5. Determine the types of power supplies that are available in the installation and the
types of motors that can use these power supplies.

6. Determine if cost is a major concern. If more than one motor will meet the
requirements, choose the cheaper motor.

7. Compare the motors that will meet the requirements of the installation and choose the
most appropriate three-phase AC motor. The most appropriate three-phase AC motor
will be the least expensive motor that can meet the requirements of the load.

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WORK AID 1 (Cont'd)

Question Requirement Allowable Motor for

of the Load this Equipment
1. Output-load required
2. Speed
3. Classification of the
location the motor is to
be installed
4. Level of speed
regulation required
5. Available types and
values of power
(AC,DC, 1_,3_,
voltage)
6. Cost comparison

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WORK AID 1 (Cont'd)

Nominal Motor Number

System Nameplate of
Voltage Voltage Phases kW (HP) Type Notes
120 115 1 up to 0.25 (0.34) -- -
208 200 1 up to 0.25 (0.34) -- 1
240 230 1 up to 0.25 (0.34) -- 1
208 200 3 0.18 (0.24) to 3.7 (5) Induction 1
240 230 3 0.18 (0.24) to 7.5 (10) Induction 1
480 460 3 0.18 (0.24) to 300 (400) Induction -
4160 4000 3 150 (200) to 3000 (4000) Induction -
4160 4000 3 500 (670) to 3000 (4000) Synchronou 2
6900 6600 3 1000 (1340) to 6000 s 3
13800 13200 3 (8000) Induction -
13800 13200 3 above 1000 (1340) Induction 4
above 10 (15000) Synchronou
s

Note:

1. 200 V rating only for operation on 208 V system, and 230 V only for operation
on 240 V system (see NEMA MG 1-14.33).

2. Only for application at operating speeds of 1200 rpm and below.

3. Above 1000 kW (1340 HP), the additional level of 6.6 kV is permitted. The
use of a 6.6 kV motor plus unit transformer must be compared with a 13.2 kV
motor on the basis of cost.

4. Synchronous motors smaller than 10000 kW (15000 HP) only for operating
speeds of 1200 rpm and below.

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WORK AID 1 (Cont'd)

Work Aid 1B: Technical and Economic Factors

The application of synchronous motors is primarily reserved for:

_Low speed, high power applications (typically reciprocating compressors) in

which synchronous motors have high efficiencies and are generally smaller and
lighter than an equivalent rated induction motor.

_High speed, high power, high inertia applications (typically axial compressors
or centrifugal pumps) in which motor efficiency, rotor temperature rise under
starting, and system supply limitations dictate the choice of synchronous
motors.

_General high power applications in which the system supply limitations

dictate the choice of synchronous motors.

_Where speed control is a major concern for proper operation.

Motors for applications in hazardous areas:

_In a Zone 1 location, a type EX d (explosion proof) motor must be used.

_In a Zone 2 location, the type Ex n (non sparking) motor can be used.

_In a non-classified area, any type of motor can be used.

Where either type of motor could be utilized, based on the foregoing technical considerations,
motor choice should be dependent on first cost, running costs, and maintenance costs.

A squirrel-cage induction motor will run at a constant speed (just less than synchronous
speed). Because there are no mechanical connections to the rotor, the squirrel-cage motor is
classified as non-sparking.

A wound rotor motor has the ability to vary speed while running, but to incorporate this
ability to vary speed, external connections must be made to the rotor. For this reason, a
wound rotor motor cannot be classified as non sparking. A wound rotor motor will have a
higher starting torque than a squirrel-cage induction motor.

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WORK AID 2: PROCEDURE AND TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS

FROM ESTABLISHED ENGINEERING PRACTICES FOR
SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES OF SINGLE-PHASE AC
MOTORS

Work Aid 2A: Procedure

1. Determine the load output requirements of the motor. Determine what motors can
meet these requirements.

2. Determine the speed output requirement. Determine the importance of speed output.

3. Determine the duty cycle for the load. Determine which motors are good for this
operational duty.

4. Determine the necessary value of starting.

5. Determine the type of power that is available for the installation.

6. Determine if the cost is the deciding factor in selection of motor type. If there is more
than one type that can be used, the cheaper motor should be applied.

7. Determine the appropriate single-phase motor to be selected through comparison of

the requirements of the installation to the motors that meet the requirement. Compare
all motors that can be used and determine what motor is most appropriate.

Use the answers to these questions to determine the most appropriate type of 1_ AC motor.
Fill in the chart to determine the correct motor.

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WORK AID 2 (Cont'd)

Question Requirement Allowable Motor for

this Equipment
1. Output - load required
2. Speed
3. Duty Cycle
4. Starting torque
5. Power available
6. Cost comparison

Work Aid 2B: Technical and Economic Factors

Load Requirements:

The motors are manufactured for different Hp ranges.

Split-Phase 1/30 - 1/2 Hp
Capacitive Start 1/4 - 10 Hp
Repulsion Induction 1/2 - 15 Hp
Universal 1/3 - 3/4 Hp

The speed requirement of the motors:

Split-phase, repulsion induction, and capacitive start are manufactured for any motor
speed required. Universal is only designed for speeds greater than 3500 rpm.

Duty Cycle:

All 1_ AC motors can be continuously operated. Motor installations with a cyclic

duty, the repulsion induction motor is more suited due to the motors low starting
current.

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WORK AID 2: (Cont'd)

Starting torque of 10 Ac motors:

Split-Phase about 200% Full load torque

Capacitive Start about 400% Full load torque
Repulsion induction about 300% Full load torque
Universal motor about 400% Full load torque

Power Requirements:

All the motors can be designed to run on 1_ AC at 120 or 240 volts.

The universal motor has the added advantage over the other single-phase AC motors
of being able to run on AC and DC voltage.

Cost Comparison:

From the cheapest to the most expensive:

Split-Phase
Capacitive Start
Repulsion Induction
Universal

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WORK AID 3: PROCEDURE AND TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC FACTORS

FROM ESTABLISHED ENGINEERING PRACTICES FOR
SELECTING THE APPROPRIATE TYPES OF DC MOTORS

Work Aid 3A: Procedure

Use the questions below to fill in the chart for selection of the appropriate type of DC motor.

1. Determine the importance of speed control on the load.

2. Determine the required starting torque.

3. Determine the required output of the motor

4. Determine the type of drive that the motor and load use.

5. Determine the load variations that the motor will accept.

6. Determine if cost of the motor is the deciding factor in the selection of the type
of DC motor. Where more than one type of DC motor meets the requirements
of the load, choose the cheaper motor.

7. Determine the appropriate DC motor to be selected through comparison of the

requirements of the installation to the available motors that meet the
requirements.

8. Select the appropriate DC motor through comparison of the motors that meet
the installation requirements and select the most appropriate one.

Factor Requirement Types of Motor for Use

in Requirement
Speed Regulation
Starting Torque
Motor Output
Motor Drive Type
Load Variations
Cost

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Work Aid 3B: Technical and Economic Factors

Speed Regulation:

The series motor speed will continually vary with the load over a larger range. The
series DC motor has no "no load" speed and will overspeed if no load is applied.

The shunt motor has very small speed variations over load range. Shunt DC motor has
no load speed with no load applied.

The cumulative compound has more speed variation than the shunt motor but not as
much speed variation as a series motor. The cumulative compound motor has no load
speed.

The differential compound motor has less speed variation than a cumulative compound
motor but more than a shunt motor. The differential compound motor has no load
speed.

Starting Torque:

The starting torque will vary with the type of DC motor used. The motor's torque
compare as below:

_The series motor has the highest starting torque of DC motors.

_The cumulative compound motor has less torque than a series motor but still
has relatively high torque.

_The differential compound motor has less torque than a cumulative compound
motor but more than a shunt motor.

_The shunt motor has the lowest amount of starting torque.

Relative Cost:

The cost of a DC motor will vary with the type of DC motor used. The comparative
cost of the different DC motors are:

_The series motor is the cheapest due to simple design.

_The shunt motor is slightly more expensive than the series motor.

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_The cumulative and differential compounds motors both cost the same and
more than the series and shunt motors due to more complicated design.

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GLOSSARY

alternating current A periodic current, the average value of which over a period is 0.
(AC)

accelerating torque The torque that is developed with rated power input between zero speed
and full rated speed.

breakdown torque The maximum torque that is developed with rated power input.

counter The effective electromotive force that is within the system that opposes
electromotive the passage of current in a specified direction.
force (CEMF)

capacitive start A split-phase motor with a capacitor that is connected in series wit
motor the auxiliary winding.

cumulative Applied to a compound machine to denote that the magnetomotive

compound forces of the series and the shunt field windings are in the same
direction.

differential Applied to a compound machine to denote that the magnetomotive

compound forces of the series field winding is opposed to the magnetomotive force
of the shunt field winding.

duty cycle The time interval occupied by a device on intermittent duty in starting,
running, stopping, and idling.

Ex d Explosive-proof motor.

Ex n Non sparking motor.

full load torque The torque that is necessary to produce rated output at rated speed and
at rated power input.

impedance The total opposition to the flow of current in an alternating current (AC)
circuit.

kVA Kilovolt amperes.

locked-rotor torque The minimum torque that is developed by the motor at the instant that
rated power is supplied to the terminal of the motor.

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NEMA National Electrical Manufacturer's Association.

power factor The ratio of the circuit power (watts) to the circuit volt-amperes.

pull-in torque The torque that is developed during the transition from slip speed to
synchronous speed.

pull-out torque The value of torque where the rotor will slip out of synchronism with
the rotating stator field.

repulsion-induction A motor with repulsion-motor windings and short-circuited brushes,

motor without an additional device for short-circuiting the commutator
segments,
and with a squirrel-cage winding in the rotor in addition to the repulsion
motor winding.

resistance Opposition to current flow.

series motor A commutator motor in which the field circuit and armature circuit are
connected in series.

Squirrel-cage A motor in which the secondary circuit consists of a scroll-cage winding

induction motor that is suitably disposed in slots in the secondary core.

shunt-wound motor A DC motor in which the field circuit and armature circuit are
connected in parallel.

slip The quotient of the difference between the synchronous speed and the
actual speed of a rotor.

starting torque The torque that is developed when full voltage is applied to the armature
windings and when there is no motion of the rotor.

universal motor A series-wound or a compensated series-wound motor that is designed

to operate at approximately the same speed and output on either direct
or single-phase alternating current.

wound-rotor An induction motor in which the secondary circuit consists of polyphase

induction motor windings or coils whose terminals are either short-
circuited or closed through suitable circuits.

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Zone 1 A location in which ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or

vapors can exist under normal conditions.

Zone 2 A location in which volatile flammable liquids or flammable gases are

handled, processed, or used but in which the liquids, vapors, or gases
will normally be confined within closed containers or closed systems
from which they can escape only in case of accidental rupture or
breakdown.

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