ASSIGNMENT

ON
ELE8331 (POWER SYSTEM CONTROL)

SUBMITTED TO
PROF. N. MAGAJI

BY

S/No REGISTRATION NAME OF STUDENT

NUMBER
1. SPS/16/MEE/00038 Garba Rufa’i Usman
2. SPS/17/MEE/00007 Nasiru Haruna Dandago
3. SPS/17/MEE/00013 Terkaa Joseph Shima
4. SPS/17/MEE/00016 Sulaiman Dahiru Muhammad
5. SPS/17/MEE/00018 Habibu Muhammad Babura
6. SPS/17/MEE/00019 Muhammad Salisu Nuhu
7. SPS/17/MEE/00025 Muhammad Umar

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 ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS
1. Write the two types of VAR generators.
(a) Give some observations of rotating VAR generators.
(b) What is tap changing transformers?
(c) Write the types of tap changing transformers.

Q2(a) Write about load frequency mechanism.

(b) Give an important reason for voltage control

(c) What is the one distinct difference between P-f and Q-V  control?

Q3 (a) What is the use of secondary loop?

(b) What is the advantage of AVR loop over ALFC loop?

Q4 Consider an interconnected 50-Hz power system that contains four turbine-generator units
rated 750 MW, 500 MW, 220 MW and 110 MW. The regulating constant of each unit is 0.05 per
unit based on its own rating. Each unit is operating on 75% of its own rating when the load is
suddenly dropped by 250 MW. We shall choose a common base of 500 MW and calculate the rise
in frequency and drop in the mechanical power output of each unit.

Q5 Consider three interconnected areas shown in figure Q5. The connected load at 60Hz is
20,000MW in Area 1, 30,000MW in Area 2, and 40,000MW in Area 3. Respectively in Area 1,
Area 2 and Area 3, the load varies 1%, 1.5% and 2% for every 1% change in frequency. Area 1
is exporting 1,200MW, Area 2 is importing 1,500MW, and Area 3 is exporting 300MW. The
speed regulation, R, is 4% for all units. If the load in Area 3 decreases by 1000MW, and there are
no supplementary load frequency controls, determine:
a. the new steady-state system frequency
Area 1
Area 2

b. the new generation and load of each area

Area 3

c. the new MW export or import of each Fig Q5

area

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Q6 A generating unit has a simplified linearized AVR system as shown in the figure Q6. If
R=0.03 sec ,G=0.8 sec, E=0.4 sec, A=0.07 sec, . KR=1, KE=1 and KG=0.9.

(a) Use the Routh-Hurwitz array to find the range of KA for control system stability

(b) If KA is set to 2/3 of the upper limit determined from 3.a, then estimate the steady-state step
response

Q7 Consider a small system with two areas, say area 1 and area 2, whose area control errors are
ACE1=∆P12+B1∆ω and ACE2= -∆P12+B2∆ω. If B1 for area 1 is set to be smaller than its β1,
i.e. frequency bias factor. If area 2 experiences a 100MW increase in load, which of the five
statements is (are) correct, and why?
(i) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes positive
(ii) AGC will decrease generation in area
(iii) ACE1 will always go back to zero
(iv) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes negative
(v) AGC will increase generation in area 1
Q8 (a) Define system blackout problem.

(b) What is meant by cascading outages?

(c) What is the function of system monitoring?

(d) Define scada system.

(e )What are the states of power system?

(f) Define alert mode

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 QUESTION 1
(a) The two types of VAR generators are:
(i) Static VAR generator
(ii) Rotating VAR generator
(b) The following observations can be made about rotating VAR generators:
(i) The can provide both positive and negative VARs which are continuously
adjustable
(ii) VAR injection at a given excitation is less sensitive to changes in bus voltage
(c) Tap changing transformers are power transformers and many distribution transformers
which have taps in one or more windings for changing the turns ratio.
(d) The following are types of tap changing transformers:
(i) Off-load tap changing transformers
(ii) On-load tap changing transformers
QUESTION 2
(a) Load frequency control (LFC) is the basic control mechanism in the power system
operation and control. The main purpose of the load frequency is to keep the uniform
frequency during the load change. The variation in Load Frequency is an index for normal
operation of the power systems. When the load perturbation takes place, it will affect the
frequency of other areas also. In order to control frequency of the power systems, various
controllers are used in different areas, but due to the non-linearity in system components
and alternators, these conventional feedback controllers could not control the frequency
quickly and efficiently. The problem of controlling the real power output of generating
units in response to changes in system frequency and tie-line power interchange within
specified limits is known as load frequency control (LFC).
(b) Voltage control is important because real line losses depend very much on the real line
power flow. It is possible to minimize these losses by selecting an optimum power flow, in
term of real and reactive powers
(c) The surplus of megavars tend to increase the frequency of the system. The changes are not
uniform but will be greatest at the buses where the megavar is greatest

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 QUESTION 3

(a) A slower secondary loop maintains the fine adjustment of the frequency and also by “reset”
action maintains proper megawatt interchange in other pool members. This loop is
insensitive to rapid load and frequency changes but focuses instead on drift-like changes
which take place over periods of time.
(b) The advantage of the AVR loop over ALFC is that AVR loop is much faster than the ALFC
loop and therefore there is a tendency for the AVR dynamic to settle down before they can
make themselves felt in the slower load frequency control channel.

QUESTION 4

To convert the regulating constants given in per unit in the base of each generator to a common
base, we use
𝑆𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝑅𝑛𝑒𝑤 = 𝑅𝑜𝑙𝑑 ×
𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑑
Therefore,
500
𝑅1 = 0.05 × = 0.033
750
500
𝑅2 = 0.05 × = 0.05
500
500
𝑅3 = 0.05 × = 0.1136
220
500
𝑅4 = 0.05 × = 0.2273
110
But
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝛽= + + + = + + +
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅4 0.033 0.05 0.1136 0.2273
Therefore
β = 63.2 pu
Now, the per unit drop in load is
250
∆PL = − = −0.5 pu
500
Therefore, per unit change in frequency is

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 ∆𝑓 ∆𝑃𝐿 −(−0.5)
=− = = 0.0079 𝑝𝑢
𝑓 𝛽 63.2
Hence the rise in frequency is ∆𝑓 = 0.0079 × 50 = 0.3956 𝐻𝑧

Change in mechanical power of a unit is given by:

∆𝑓
∆𝑃𝑚𝑖 = − × ∆𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑓
𝑅𝑖
Therefore,
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚1 = − × 500 = −118.67 𝑀𝑊
0.033
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚2 =− × 500 = −79.11 𝑀𝑊
0.05
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚3 =− × 500 = −34.81 𝑀𝑊
0.1136
0.0079
∆𝑃𝑚4 =− × 500 = −17.41 𝑀𝑊
0.2273

QUESTION 5

Given the three interconnected areas shown in Figure Q5

Figure Q5
With no supplementary control, we will assume that all the generating units in the three areas
respond to the loss of load in area 3.

A 4% regulation on 21,200 MW generating capacity in Area 1 corresponds to:

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 1 1 21,200
= × = 8833.33 MW/Hz
R1 0.04 60

A 4% regulation on 28,500 MW generating capacity in Area 2 corresponds to:

1 1 28,500
= × = 11875 MW/Hz
R 2 0.04 60

A 4% regulation on 40,300 MW generating capacity in Area 3 corresponds to:

1 1 40,300
= × = 16791.67 MW/Hz
R 3 0.04 60

Total regulation due to 90,000 MW generating capacity in the three areas is:

1 1 1 1
= + + = 37,500 MW/Hz
R R1 R 2 R 3

Load damping due to 20,000 MW load in Area 1 is:

1 100
D1 = × 20,000 × = 333.33 MW/Hz
100 60

Load damping due to 30,000 MW load in Area 2 is:

1.5 100
D2 = × 30,000 × = 750 MW/Hz
100 60

Load damping due to 39,000 MW load (after the loss of 1000 MW) in Area 3 is:

2 100
D3 = × 39,000 × = 1,300 MW/Hz
100 60

Total effective load damping of the three areas is:

D = D1 + D2 + D3 = 333.33 + 750 + 1,300 = 2383.33 MW/Hz

(a) Change in system frequency due to loss of 1000 MW load in Area 3 is:

∆𝑃𝐿 −(−1000)
∆𝑓 = − = = 0.02507 Hz
1 37500 + 2383.33
+ 𝐷
𝑅

Therefore, the new steady-state frequency of the system is 60.02507 Hz

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(b) Generation changes in the three areas due to speed regulation are:

1
∆PG1 = − ∆f = −8833.33 × 0.02507 = −221.45 MW
R1

1
∆PG2 = − ∆f = −11875 × 0.02507 = −297.71 MW
R2

1
∆PG3 = − ∆f = −16791.67 × 0.02507 = −420.97 MW
R3

Therefore, new generation in the areas are as follows:

PG1 = 21,200 − 221.45 = 20,978.55 MW

PG2 = 28,500 − 297.71 = 28,202.29 MW

PG3 = 40,300 − 420.97 = 39,879.03 MW

Load changes in the three areas due to frequency increase are:

∆PD1 = D1 ∆f = 333.33 × 0.02507 = 8.3566 MW

∆PD2 = D2 ∆f = 750 × 0.02507 = 18.8025 MW

∆PD3 = D3 ∆f = 1,300 × 0.02507 = 32.591 MW

Therefore, the new load of each area is:

PD1 = 20,000 + 8.3566 = 20,008.3566 MW

PD2 = 30,000 + 18.8025 = 30,018.8025 MW

PD3 = 40,000 − 1000 + 32.591 = 39,032.591 MW

(c) Tie line power flow from Area 1 to Area 2 is 970.1934 MW and tie line power flow from
Area 3 to Area 2 is 846.439 MW.

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 QUESTION 6
Given the simplified linearized AVR system of a generating unit as shown in Figure Q6

Figure Q6

If 𝜏𝑅 = 0.03 sec, 𝜏𝐺 = 0.8 sec, 𝜏𝐸 = 0.4 sec, 𝜏𝐴 = 0.07 sec, . 𝐾𝑅 = 1, 𝐾𝐸 = 1 and 𝐾𝐺 = 0.9,
then,
Gain of the amplifier is
𝐾𝐴
𝐺𝐴 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.07𝑠
Gain of the exciter is
1
𝐺𝐸 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.4𝑠
Gain of the generator is
0.9
𝐺𝐺 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.8𝑠
Gain of the feedback sensor is
1
𝐺𝑅 (𝑠) =
1 + 0.03𝑠
Therefore, the total gain of the forward path is
𝐾𝐴 1 0.9
𝐺(𝑠) = 𝐺𝐴 (𝑠)𝐺𝐸 (𝑠)𝐺𝐺 (𝑠) = ( )( )( )
1 + 0.07𝑠 1 + 0.4𝑠 1 + 0.8𝑠
This gives
0.9𝐾𝐴
𝐺(𝑠) =
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1
The closed-loop transfer function of the system is

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 0.9𝐾𝐴
𝐺(𝑠) 0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1
𝑇(𝑠) = [ ]=[ ]
1 + 𝐺(𝑠)𝐺𝑅 (𝑠) 0.9𝐾𝐴 1
1+( ) ( )
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1 1 + 0.03𝑠
This gives the characteristic equation for this system as:
0.9𝐾𝐴 1
1+( ) ( )=0
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1 1 + 0.03𝑠
Or
0.000672𝑠 4 + 0.03452𝑠 3 + 0.4421𝑠 2 + 1.3𝑠 + 1 + 0.9𝐾𝐴 = 0
Dividing the equation by 0.000672 gives:
𝑠 4 + 51.36𝑠 3 + 657.88𝑠 2 + 1934.52𝑠 + 1488.10 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴 = 0
(a) Using the Routh-Hurwitz array, we have

𝑠4 1 657.88 1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴

𝑠3 51.36 1934.52 0

𝑠2 620.21 1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴

𝑠1 1123358.649 − 68785.9344𝐾𝐴
620.21

𝑠0 1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴

From the 4th row of the Routh-Hurwitz array, the system will be stable if:

1123358.649 − 68785.9344𝐾𝐴
>0
620.21

Solving this inequality gives 𝐾𝐴 < 16.33

Again, from the 5th row,

1488.52 + 1339.29𝐾𝐴 > 0

Solving this yields:

𝐾𝐴 > −1.11

Hence, the range of values of 𝐾𝐴 that will guarantee the stability of this system is:

−1.11 < 𝐾𝐴 < 16.33

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 2
(b) If 𝐾𝐴 = 3 × 16.33 = 10.89, then the closed-loop gain of the system will be
0.9 × 10.89
0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1
𝑇(𝑠) =
0.000672𝑠 4 + 0.03452𝑠 3 + 0.4421𝑠 2 + 1.3𝑠 + 1 + 0.9 × 10.89
(0.0224𝑠 3 + 0.404𝑠 2 + 1.27𝑠 + 1)(1 + 0.03𝑠)

This simplifies to:

9.801(1 + 0.03𝑠)
𝑇(𝑠) =
0.000672𝑠 4 + 0.03452𝑠 3 + 0.4421𝑠 2 + 1.3𝑠 + 10.801
Hence,
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = 𝑇(𝑠)𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠)
If the reference signal is a unit step, then:
1
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝑠) =
𝑠
Therefore,
9.801(1 + 0.03𝑠) 1
𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = ( )( )
0.000672𝑠 4 3 2
+ 0.03452𝑠 + 0.4421𝑠 + 1.3𝑠 + 10.801 𝑠
Using the final value theorem:
9.801
𝑣𝑠𝑠 (𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑉𝑡 (𝑠) = = 0.907
𝑠→0 10.801

QUESTION 7

Given a small system with two areas, say area 1 and area 2, whose area control errors are 𝐴𝐶𝐸1 =
∆𝑃12 + 𝐵1∆𝜔 and 𝐴𝐶𝐸2 = −∆𝑃12 + 𝐵2∆𝜔. If 𝐵1 for area 1 is set to be smaller than its 𝛽1, i.e.
frequency bias factor and area 2 experiences a 100MW increase in load:

(j) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes positive. This is CORRECT. As a result of the
increase in Area 2 load, there will be a decrease in system frequency according to the equation:
−∆𝑃𝐿2
∆𝜔 =
𝛽1 + 𝛽2
This will result to a flow from Area 1 to Area 2 giving rise to a tie line flow deviation of
∆𝑃𝐿2 𝛽1
∆𝑃12 =
𝛽1 + 𝛽2
Hence,

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 ∆𝑃𝐿2 𝛽1 −∆𝑃𝐿2 ∆𝑃𝐿2
𝐴𝐶𝐸1 = + 𝐵1 ( )= (𝛽 − 𝐵1)
𝛽1 + 𝛽2 𝛽1 + 𝛽2 𝛽1 + 𝛽2 1

But 𝐵1 < 𝛽1, then 𝐴𝐶𝐸1 will be a positive quantity.

(ii) AGC will decrease generation in area 1. This is CORRECT. Since 𝐴𝐶𝐸1 in area 1 is
positive, the appropriate control action is to decrease generation in area 1.
(iii) ACE1 will always go back to zero. This is CORRECT. Any combination of area control
errors containing components of tie line power deviation and frequency deviation will result
in steady-state restoration of the tie line flow and frequency since the integral control action
ensures that ACE is reduced to zero.
(iv) Following that load increase, ACE1 becomes negative. This is NOT CORRECT.
(v) AGC will increase generation in area 1. This statement is NOT CORRECT.

QUESTION 8

(a) System blackout may be defined as a short-term or long term state of electric power loss
in a given area or section of the power grid.
(b) A cascading outage is a process in a system of interconnected parts in which the failure of
one or few parts can trigger the failure of other parts and so on. In other words, it is the
uncontrolled successive loss of system elements triggered by an incident at any location. It
results in widespread electric service interruption that cannot be restrained from
sequentially spreading beyond an area predetermined by studies.
(c) System monitoring provides the operators with up-to-date information on the condition of
the power systems by doing the following:
(i) Measuring critical quantities such as voltages, currents, power flows, and the state
of circuit breakers and switches, frequency, generator outputs, and transformer tap
positions
(ii) Sending the measurements to the control central via the telemetry system
(iii) Computers collect the telemetric data, processes and stores them, and displays
information for the operators.
(d) The operating states of a power system are:

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 (i) Normal state
(ii) Preventive state
(iii) Emergency state
(iv) Restorative state
(v) Alert state
(e) Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) may be defined as a control system
architecture that uses computers, networked data communications and graphical user
interfaces for high-level process supervisory management.
(f) Alert mode is an operating state of power system which notifies operators when security
level falls below a certain limit of adequacy because of a disturbance.

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