DISSERTATION PROJECT REPORT

“ A STUDY ON ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL OF LEATHER IN

FOOTWEAR INDUSTRY”
Submitted In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Degree of
B.Sc. (FDP)

SUBMITTED BY
RISHABH.M.DUBEY
B.Sc. (FDP) MARKETING AND MERCHANDISING
E.N - 2017/01/ANK/UG/FDP/11

MENTOR NAME
MR. RAJESH PARASHAR
Faculty, FDDI, ANKLESHWAR

MENTORS Name and Signature

PLACE: - FDDI ANKLESHWAR DATE:- 30thNOVEMBER, 2019

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure in presenting this report on “A STUDY ON
ALTERNATIVE MATERIAL OF LEATHER IN FOOTWEAR INDUSTRY”. It
has been my privilege to have administration like ‘FDDI’ which helped me from
the commencement of this report. The success of this report is a result of hard
work and determination put in by me with the help of my mentor. I hereby take
this opportunity to add a special note of thanks for “MR.RAJESH PARASHAR”
who undertook to act as my mentor despite his many other academic and
professional commitments. His wisdom, knowledge and commitment to the
highest standards inspired and motivated me. Without his insight, support and
energy this report wouldn’t have reached fruitfulness.

I also feel heartiest sense of obligation to all the ‘Faculty members of FDDI
Ankleshwar who helped me in collection of data and resource material and also in
its processing as well as in drafting manuscript. This report is dedicated to all
those people who helped me while completing this report.

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 DECLARATION
I ‘RISHABH.M.DUBEY’ hereby declare that this project is submitted by me
under the guidance of “MR. RAJESH PARASHAR” ,at footwear design and
development institute, Ankleshwar during the academic year 2019-2020 is record
of original work done by me.

PLACE: - ANKLESHWAR

DATE: - 30th November 2019

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 CONTENTS
SR. TOPIC PAGE.
NO. NO.
1. Introduction 5
2. Executive summary 6-7
3. Leather definition and types of leather 8 - 22
4. Tanning process 23 - 31
5. Inputs used to manufacture leather 32
6. Leather production process 33 - 36
7. Analysis – export performance of leather and leather 37- 40
products
8. Natural Alternatives of leather 41 - 48
9. Artificial Alternatives of leather 49 - 64
10. Shortcomings of leather 65 - 70
11. Conclusion 71
12. List of references 72

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 1. INTRODUCTION
If we talk about footwear industry, leather is a material which is being used from
very beginning, thus the long experience of using leather by industries. Every
designer has become very comfortable working with leather because of its ideal
qualities such as flexibility, durability, breathability, elasticity, available in
varieties of color and finishes, thermal conductivity, etc.

“Sustainable materials and components for footwear” is dedicated to the footwear

materials that are actually available and may be used in footwear production, as
well as their environmental impact.

This manual intends to be a tool to support footwear technicians in the selection of

most suitable materials to develop more ecological and sustainable footwear
products.

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 2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Leather is one of the most widely traded commodities in the world. As per
officially notified DGCI&S monthly export data, the export of Leather and
Leather products for the financial year April-Jan 2018-19 touched US$ 4750.62
million as against the performance of US$ 4803.62 million in the corresponding
period of last year, recording a negative growth of -1.10%. In Rupee terms, the
export touched Rs. 331771.26 million in April-Jan 2018-19 as against the
previous year’s performance of Rs. 309383.41 million registering a positive
growth of 7.24%.

Leather footwear global market trend is one of the major trend in the leather
footwear is the use of leather alternatives that do not involve any killing of
animals. These alternatives are mainly derivative of the plant based family with
earthy options of fruit, palm, mushroom or pineapple. For instance, Muskin made
from mushroom skins, provides a better alternative to leather.it is soft, durable,
breathable and anti-bacterial which is tanned using an all-natural, non-chemical
process. Also, Pinatex, made from the pineapple leaves is a byproduct of
agricultural pineapple farming which requires no extra water, pesticides or
fertilizers.

World population grew dramatically in the 20th century and it continues to grow
at present. This growing population and the general increase in wealth have led to
increases in the demand for meat, which in turn have kept the supply of leather
raw material fairly constant. The current predictions are that the supply of leather
raw material will continue to grow in step with population growth, but that higher
costs and a decreasing availability of land for raising cattle and for growing grains
to feed the cattle, as well as an increase in pork and poultry consumption in Asia
and Africa are now becoming apparent. At some stage, these developments may
generate tighter traditional supplies and raise the importance of such non-
mainstream sources of raw material as camel, kangaroo and deer.

Leather raw materials have increasingly become available in the developing

world, while in the developed countries, a declining per capita consumption of red
meat has reduced the supply of hides and skins. Now, more than half of the world
supply of leather raw material comes from the developing world and, increasingly,
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those countries with large supplies are seeking to process them through to finished
leather articles.

About 65% of all leather comes from bovine material. Climate and adequate
husbandry account for the fact that the best bovine raw material generally comes
from the developed countries. The shift in raw material origins has prompted the
industry to use more hides with surface defects or other structural deficiencies.
This trend is expected to continue. It has already led to changes in finishing
techniques to disguise defects, and to greater efforts to explain to consumers that
some defect types are natural and should be accepted. The demand for high-
quality hides for products such as automobile upholstery has helped, at least until
now, to retain highly efficient upholstery leather tanning in the developed world.

Historically, the tanning industry was characterized by small or medium-size

family businesses. The trend has been for the manufacture of leather products to
move to where labor is cheapest, and for tanneries to follow. Very often, the
countries with the fastest growing leather industries – such as the Republic of
Korea, Taiwan, China, Indonesia and Viet Nam – have been hindered by
shortcomings in raw material supply and had to import large quantities of hides
and skins. Now, new tanneries are being set up in these countries in order to meet
the growing demand for leather, while most tanners in Europe, Japan and the USA
have closed down their facilities. This trend seems likely to continue.

It has also been the case that countries with good raw material supplies, such as
India and Brazil, have continued to grow their industries successfully all the way
to the finished product stage. We expect that this trend will continue in places
such as Ethiopia and Pakistan, which are joining the group of countries
determined to achieve high levels of competence and employment in the leather
industry by capitalizing on indigenous resources. China has been, by far, the most
significant player in all sectors of the leather industry in recent years. The country
now dominates every category of manufacture by a considerable margin.

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 3. WHAT IS LEATHER?
Leather is a natural raw material and it is the by-product of meat industry. Leather
is a durable and flexible material created by tanning animal’s rawhides and skins.
Leather is a material obtained from tanning the skins of animal such as cattle,
goats, pigs, crocodiles and buffalo.

TYPES OF LEATHER

In general, leather is solid in four forms:

1. FULL-GRAIN LEATHER is natural leather having original grain pattern.

On other words we can say that if the grain side of the leather has minimum
defects then we covert these type of hide/skin into full grain leather. In this
leather the grain is 100% visible after finishing. Full grain leather is typically
available in two finish types: aniline and semi-aniline finish. In this leather the
shade variation is very distinct if we work on light colour leather or semi-
aniline or aniline leather. We always cut full grain leather pair-wise, in each
pair the grain and shade should be match.

FULL-GRAIN LEATHER

 Full-grain leather is the leather of young animals has a fine texture

and tight grain. The final leather is thinner than that of more mature
animals. It has the property of the finest material for making top quality
footwear uppers. The resulting leather has a natural leather look. The final
grain will be tight and fine appearance with silky touch. Its leather is light
weight and it is suitable for men’s and women’s shoe. Therefore the full
grain leather is costly leather. This type of leather has natural look. This is
mostly finished with aniline or semi-aniline. Sometimes, we have full grain
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 leather in pigmented finish and also called full grain pigmented leather. Full
grain refers to leather which has not been sanded or buffed. Sanding or
buffing removes surface imperfections from the leather, except in the case
of nubuck where the buffing is very light.

 Full grain leather is considered among the best quality you can buy.
It can be made from variety of different animals, but most it is made from
cow skin. The grain remains allowing the fibre strength and durability. The
grain also has breathability, resulting in less moisture from prolonged
contact. High quality leather furniture and footwear are often made from
full-grain leather. Leather can undergo complex treatment processes in
order to create numerous products. This is especially true when the leather
is treated with chemicals. Full grain leather is desirable because of its
minimal treatments and its durability.

2. CORRECTED GRAIN LEATHER is any leather that has had an

artificial grain applied to its surface. A large proportion of the hide or skin
coming to the tannery are full of defects and they are either unusable or it is
very costly for shoe manufactures to use them. The tanners therefore,
endeavors to improve the quality the quality by eliminating or rendering these
defects by a procedure called “correcting the grain side”. Corrected grain
leathers can mainly be bought as two finish types: semi-aniline and pigmented.

CORRECTED-GRAIN LEATHER

 If the raw hide / side are defective from the grain side, in tannery, the
leather is buffed from the grain side and then finished, plated at high
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 temperature and pressure to give it a good appearance and grain finished with
heavy coats of pigmented finish. Since, correction of grain pattern takes place
in the whole process, to hide the defects and increase the cutting value, this
leather is called corrected grain leather often denoted by C / G.

 Based on different design and different plates, different name is given to

C /G LEATHER e.g. smooth C / G are a plain plated leather, hair cell printed,
booty print, etc. The imperfections are corrected or sanded off, and an artificial
grain embossed into the surface and dressed with stain or dyes. Most corrected-
grain leather is used to make pigmented leather as the solid pigment helps hide
the correction or imperfections.

3. SPLIT LEATHER is leather created from the fibrous part of the hide left
once the top-grain of the rawhide has been separated from the hide. During the
splitting operation, the top-grain and drop split are separated. The drop spilt
can be further split (thickness allowing) into a middle spilt and a flesh spilt. In
very thick hides, the middle spilt can be separated into multiple layers until the
thickness prevents further splitting.

SPLIT LEATHER

 Split leather than has an artificial layer applied to the surface of the split
and is embossed with a leather grain. Spilt are also used to create suede. The
strongest suede is usually made from grain splits (that have the grain
completely removed) or from the flesh split that has been shaved to the correct
thickness. Suede is “fuzzy” on both sides. Manufactures use a variety of
techniques to make suede from full-grain. Reversed suede is grained leather
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 that has been designed into the leather article with the grain facing away from
the visible surface. It is not considered to be a true form of suede.

4. TOP-GRAIN LEATHER (the most common type used in high-end leather

products) is the second-highest quality. It has had the spilt layer separated
away, making if thinner and more pliable than full-grain.

TOP-GRAIN LEATHER

 Its surface has been sanded and a finished coat is added to the surface
which results in a colder, plastic feel with less breathability, and it will not
develop a natural patina. It is typically less expensive and has greater
resistance to stains than full-grain leather, so long as the finish remains
unbroken.

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 Less-common leathers include:

5. BUCKSKIN OR BRAINED LEATHER is a tanning process that uses

animal brains or other fatty materials to alternative the leather. It is the soft,
pliable, porous preserved hide of an animal – usually deer – tanned in the
same way as deerskin clothing worn by Native Americans.   Some leather
sold as "buckskin" may now be sheepskin tanned with modern chromate
tanning chemicals and dyed to resemble real buckskin.

BUCKSKIN OR BRAINED LEATHER

 Buckskin is preserved with a dressing of lubricant, physically manipulated

to make it soft and pliable, and usually smoked with wood smoke. The
resulting supple, suede- like hide is usually smoked heavily to prevent it from
returning to a rawhide state, if wetted. It will be easier to soften, and will help
keep leather eating bugs away.

6. PATENT LEATHER is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish.

The original process was developed in Newark, New Jersey, by inventor Seth
Boyden in 1818. Patent leather usually has a plastic coating. Patent leather is
basically a PU finish in which a special coating is carried out. The film
thickness is restricted to be less than 0.15mm. The mirror like appearance is
the unique features of this finish. PU film coated leather is either a split or
sometimes full grain leather with a very thin film of PU laminated on it.

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 PATENT LEATHER

 Patent PU coated or PU film coated is split leather with a thick film of PU

laminated on it. This leather does not have breakability like leather because of
thick PU film. In earlier times before the mid of this century it was an art to
produce patent leather based on hardening of coatings from linseed oil drying
on the air in the sun. In case of D.D. lack, the brand names stand for a
disocynate and polyester. On mixing both in appropriate relation and an
appropriate dilution viscous solution of 25 – 40 % are prepared with a profile
of some hours. Drying there with hardening occurs in few hours. The grounded
leather has to be coated very “wet” flat lying extended in frames.

7. FISH LEATHER is popular for its motifs and its pigmentation. Mainly
used for making shoes and bags, the fish skin is tanned like other animals skin.
The species used include salmon, perch, sturgeon, etc.

FISH LEATHER

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 o Salmon: It is farmed in Iceland and Norway, salmon skin has fine scales.
Its strength and elegant look make it the most popular fish leather.

o Perch: It has coming from Nile, its skin is recognizable with its large,
round and soft scales.

o Wolfish: Its skin is smooth because without scales. We recognize it thanks

to its dark spots, and the ‘stripes’ which are due to the friction of marine rocks.

o Cod: Its skin has finer scales than salmon, but its texture is more varied,
sometimes smooth and something rough.

o Sturgeon: The fish well known for its eggs (caviar), which make it rare. Its
leather is thus quite expensive.

o Eel: The fish without scales, its skin has a shiny appearance.

o Shagreen: Shagreen is also known as stingray skin/ leather. Applications

used in furniture production date as far back as the art deco period. The word
“shagreen” originates from France. It is known as the most difficult leather to
work due to dished scales of the animal, and it is one of the most expensive
leathers.

o Shark: Shark is covered with small, dose-set tubers’, making it very tough.
The handbags made of shark skin used to be in vogue but this keen interest has
since fallen as the costs of production and of the leather itself are very high.
Moreover, this skin is more difficult to work, should not be confused with
traditional “sharkskin” a woven textile product.

o Tilapia: It is compared with salmon skins the patterns of tilapia leather is

more beautiful, but the skins are smaller. The leather has resistant qualities
similar to salmon and perch. Tilapia originates from Africa, and is farmed in
many tropical countries. It is a popular food fish and is considered as in
evasive species in much of the United States.

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 8. VACHETTA LEATHER is premium cowhide leather that has a buttery soft
appearance that can feel really good when brushed against your skin.  It is
untreated and unprotected leather that's usually used in the trimming of
luggage and handbags. The leather is left untreated and is therefore susceptible
to water and stains. Sunlight will cause the natural leather to darken in shade,
called a patina.

VACHETTA LEATHER

9. DEERSKIN is tough, water-resistant leather, possibly due to the animal's

adaptations to its thorny and thicket-filled habitats. Deerskin has been used by
many societies, including indigenous Americans. Most modern deerskin is no
longer procured from the wild, with deer farms breeding the animals
specifically for the purpose of their skins. Large quantities are still tanned from
wild deer hides in historic tanning towns such as Gloversville and Johnstown
in upstate New York. Deerskin is used in jackets and overcoats, martial arts
equipment such as kendo and bogu, as well as personal accessories such as
handbags and wallets.

DEERSKIN LEATHER

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 10. GOATSKIN is called as “kid” is the term applied to full chrome tanned
leather made from kid or goat skins for use as footwear uppers. The size of
these skins varies considerably according to the age of the animal when
slaughtered. Just as in bovine leathers, where the grain is lighter and finer in
calf leather than in side leather a difference is apparent between the skins of
young and old goat. Although goat skins are relatively thin they are strong and
have a very hard-wearing grain.

GOATSKIN LEATHER

 Our industry uses glace (glazed) kid for the uppers of high quality dress
shoes. This leather has a highly polished but natural grain appearance and with
regular cleaning and polishing, retains its high polish and well groomed look.
Although the term “kid” is also applied to older skins, these goat skins are
usually processed to produce suede or printed leathers as they have a coarser
grain.

11. SHEEP SKIN is grown in country for their wool or meat, with the skin or
pelt being a by-product. Sheep pelt does not have great strength characteristics
and is more suited to use in clothing – with proper selection and processing
they could be used as lining leather. Crust vegetable tanned “Persian” sheep
skins are important into European countries. These come from the Middle East,
where the sheep grow a wool-fiber resembling hair. The resulting skin is
lighter in grain than the local sheep skin and much stronger. It is excellent for
use as shoe linings, usually dyed and finished in brawn and grey shades.

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 SHEEPSKIN LEATHER

11. NUBUCK LEATHER is top-grain cattle hide leather that has been sanded
or buffed on the grain side, or outside, to give a slight nap of short protein
fibers, producing a velvet-like surface. In nubuck leather, the grain side of the
leather is made velvety nap by snuffing. The nap in nubuck leather is very fine
because of the tight fiber structure in the grain layer. The dye finish is done on
nubuck leather. This leather has got a very good writing effect. Writing effect
is the effect caused due to raised naps on the surface. When we apply our
finger on the surface we get ginger marks on this leather. This effect is called
writing effect.

NUBUCK LEATHER

NOTE: - Buff nubuck has low writing effect. This leather is usually aniline
leather that has a sanded surface to give a fine velvety, surface, the look and
feel of the leathers are incomparable and work well for low use applications.

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 The following are not "true" organic leathers, but are materials that contain
leather fiber. Depending on jurisdiction, they may still be labeled as "Genuine
Leather", even though the consumer generally can only see the outer layer of
the material and can't actually see any of the leather content:

12. BONDED LEATHER also called reconstituted leather or blended leather

is a term used for a manufactured upholstery material which contains animal
hide. It is made as a layered structure of a fiber or paper backer covered with a
layer of shredded leather fibers mixed with a polyurethane binder that is
embossed with a leather-like texture.

 Bonded leather is made by shredding leather scraps and leather fiber, then
mixing it with bonding materials. The mixture is next extruded onto a cloth or
paper backing, and the surface is usually embossed with a leather-like texture
or grain. Color and patterning, if any, are a surface treatment that does not
penetrate like a dying process would. The natural leather fiber content of
bonded leather varies.

BONDED LEATHER

 It is an economical type that uses leftovers of organic leather (often from

leather tanneries or leather workshops) which are shredded and then bonded
together with polyurethane binders or latex on top of a fiber sheet. Due to its
reduced cost it is becoming a popular choice for furniture upholstery,
especially for commercial use, where durability is needed; however durability
can vary widely, depending on the formulation.

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 13. ANILINE LEATHER is a type of leather dyed exclusively with soluble dyes
without covering the surface with topcoat paint or insoluble pigments. The
resulting product retains the hide's natural surface with the 'grain', i.e. visible
pores, scars etc. of the complete original animal's skin structure.

 Originally, the dyes used for this process were synthesized from aniline
through chemical reactions. These dyes used to be called 'aniline dyes' or 'tar
dyes'. In modern times, the dyes used are subject to laws and regulations in
many countries, and the use of certain azo compounds is prohibited in the
European Union as there are reasons to assume health risks.

ANILINE LEATHER

 Typically, leather is dyed both for aesthetic reasons and to conceal

blemishes. The dye colors leather without producing the uniform surface of
pigmented leather. Any visible variations on the surface of the un dyed leather
such as natural blemishes will remain visible. There are different kinds of
aniline leather, but the same kinds of dyes are used in the process. The dyes
used are clear and transparent chemicals that allow the grain structure of the
leather to be seen. These dyes show the natural texture, but do not protect the
leather from damage. Aniline leather may be referred to as full aniline or full
savage leather to differentiate between this dye treatment and variants. Semi-
aniline leather is produced through a very similar process to full-aniline, but
has a thin protective top coat added to protect it from wear and staining. Pull-
up aniline leather has additional oil or wax applied to the leather to give it a
distressed look.

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 14. CROCODILE SKIN either refers to the skin of a live crocodile or leather
made from dead crocodile hide. It has multiple applications across the fashion
industry such as use for bags, shoes and upholstery after being farmed and
treated in specialist farms and tanneries. A crocodile farm or alligator farm is
an establishment for breeding and rising of crocodilians in order to produce
crocodile and alligator meat, leather, and other goods. Many species of both
alligators and crocodiles are farmed internationally. In Louisiana alone,
alligator farming is a $60 to $70 million industry.

 Crocodiles can be housed in a number of ways depending on the goals of

the rearing facility. Large areas of a lake or marsh can be enclosed for many
individuals or a smaller area can be created for fewer individuals. Due to the
size and lifespan of the animals, adult crocodiles need a substantial amount of
space. Tourism can bring additional revenue to crocodile rearing facilities, but
they must be made safe for the public and the crocodiles, while maintaining an
aesthetically pleasing environment. This frequently depends on enclosures that
can be easily cleaned without harming the animals. If closed to public viewing,
facilities have fewer requirements and can have a more practical design.

CROCODILE SKIN LEATHER

 Alligators and crocodiles can be raised in captivity with "open cycle" or

"closed cycle" methods. Open cycle refers to programs that are concerned with
the health of the wild population and are using captive rearing as a means to
supplement the wild populations. Closed-cycle operations are primarily
concerned with harvest. In closed cycle operations, adult females are kept in
captivity, and the eggs they lay are collected, incubated artificially, hatched,
and the juveniles are grown to a certain size and harvested. Closed cycle
operations provide no incentive for conservation and are often unsuccessful

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 because the cost of starting and managing the operation often outweighs the
profits gained from products. Although the cost of operating an open cycle
operation is comparable to closed cycle, the goal of an open cycle operation is
the overall health of the species, rather than economic profit. Captive breeding
and ranching operations provide more incentive to protect natural populations
and are important contributors to the success of crocodilian populations.

15. KANGAROO SKIN is used to make items which need to be strong but
flexible; it is the material most commonly used in bullwhips. Kangaroo leather
is favored by some motorcyclists for use in motorcycle leathers specifically
because of its light weight and abrasion resistance. Kangaroo leather is also
used for falconry jesses, soccer footwear, and boxing speed bags. At different
times in history, leather made from more exotic skins has been considered
desirable. For this reason certain species of snakes and crocodiles have been
hunted.

KANGAROO SKIN LEATHER

16.CHROME FREE LEATHER: - When it comes to performance,

breathability, and durability, leather is still regarded to be the best material
available for shoe uppers, and we say: but only if it’s ethically sourced! Unlike
most leathers in the market which are tanned with highly toxic substances and
which could be sourced from cattle farms that cause deforestation, our leathers
are certified by Biocalce. They are tanned in Portugal using an
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 environmentally friendly method, which is free from harmful chemicals such
as chromium, and heavy metals. We can also guarantee that all the raw hides
that end up as leather in our shoes are of Iberian origin. With the increased
interest in avoidance of certain chemicals and industrial products that are
particularly harmful to our environment, it’s not surprising that manufacturers
are becoming ingenious in pointing out attributes that play to this script. So we
now see claims for “chrome free” leather as being “ecofriendly”.

CHROME FREE LEATHER

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 4. TANNING PROCESS:
Tanning is the process by which the putrescible hides and skins converted
into non-putrescible form with the help of suitable chemicals the conversion
process is called tanning and after tanning the received material is called
leather. Tanning is the process that converts the protein of the raw hide or skin
into a stable material which will not putrefy and is suitable for a wide variety
of end applications. The principal difference between raw hides and tanned
hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard inflexible material that can
putrefy when re-wetted (wetted back), while tanned material dries out to a
flexible form that does not become putrid when wetted back. A large number
of different tanning methods and materials can be used; the choice is ultimately
dependent on the end application of the leather. The most commonly used
tanning material is chromium, which leaves the leather, once tanned, a pale
blue color (due to the chromium), this product is commonly called “wet blue”.

The acidity of hides once they have finished pickling will typically be
between pH of 2.8-3.2. At this point the hides are loaded in a drum and
immersed in a float containing the tanning liquor. The hides are allowed to
soak (while the drum slowly rotates about its axle) and the tanning liquor
slowly penetrates through the full substance of the hide. Regular checks will be
made to see the penetration by cutting the cross section of a hide and observing
the degree of penetration. Once an even degree of penetration is observed, the
pH of the float is slowly raised in a process called basification. This
basification process fixes the tanning material to the leather, and the more
tanning material fixed, the higher the hydrothermal stability and increased
shrinkage temperature resistance of the leather. The pH of the leather when
chrome tanned would typically finish somewhere between 3.8-4.2. Tanning
hide into leather involves a process which permanently alters the protein
structure of skin, making it more durable and less susceptible to
decomposition, and also possibly coloring it. Before tanning, the skins are
unaired, degreased, desalted and soaked in water over a period of 6 hours to 2
days.

1. RAWHIDE is a hide or animal skin that has not been exposed to tanning. It
is similar to parchment, much lighter in color than leather made by traditional
vegetable tanning. It is made by scraping the skin thin, soaking it in lime, and
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 then stretching it while it dries. Like alum-tanning, rawhide is not technically
"leather”, but is usually lumped in with the other forms. Rawhide is stiffer and
more brittle than other forms of leather; it is primarily found in uses such as
drum heads and parchment where it does not need to flex significantly. The
skin from buffalo, deer, elk or cattle from which most rawhide originates is
prepared by removing all fur, meat and fat. The hide is then usually stretched
over a frame before being dried. The resulting material is hard and translucent.
It can be shaped by rewetting and forming before being allowed to thoroughly
re-dry. It can be rendered more pliable by 'working', i.e. bending repeatedly in
multiple directions, often by rubbing it over a post, sometimes traditionally by
chewing. It may also be oiled or greased for a degree of waterproofing.

RAWHIDE
Leather; usually vegetable-tanned, can be oiled to improve its water resistance.
This currying process after tanning supplements the natural oils remaining in
the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water.
Russia leather was an important international trade good for centuries.
Frequent oiling of leather, with mink oil, neat’s-foot oil, or a similar material
keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically. Leather with the hair
still attached is called hair-on.

TYPES OF TANNING PROCESS

Chrome-tanned Leather
Vegetable-tanned Leather
Alum Tanning
Oil Tanning
Aldehyde Tanning
Formaldehyde Tanning
Zirconium Tanning
Combination Tanning
Brain-tanned Leather
Synthetic-tanned Leather
Rose tanned Leather
Chamois Leather
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 Rawhide

1. CHROME-TANNED LEATHER they invented in 1858 is tanned using

chromium sulfate and other salts of chromium. It is popular with the
consumers because of its light weight, durability and its resistance to heat and
water. It is also to dye and finish. There is no wonder, that these properties
should induce the leather manufactures to a steadily increasing use of the
chromium compounds in the manufacture of various other leathers like
clothing and gloving leathers, glazed kids, sole belting leathers, textile and
technical leathers. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to
finish, and the ease and agility of this method make it a popular choice. It is
reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather
supply.

CHROME-TANNED LEATHER

2. VEGETABLE-TANNED LEATHER it gives additional abrasive

strength, solidity, fullness etc. to the leather. This method is primitive but the
processing method has advanced with time. Tree barks, woods, leaves, roots,
etc. Containing tannins are the tanning agents basically used. The method
involves the action of surrounding the fibers with natural greases. The process
time is very high (approx. 8 weeks). The astringent organic compound
obtained from plant kingdom and capable to convert raw hides and skin into
leather is called vegetable tanning. Tannins are water soluble and are used in
the extracted form, either as a spray dried powder or as a solid material.
Tanning materials differ in structure composition, properties and the leather
made out of it due to its extraction from different plant.

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 VEGETABLE-TANNED LEATHER

3. ALUM TANNING towing is a method of tanning with aluminum salts

(alum). It is a naturally-occurring double salt, but which is also artificially
produced. Tawing comes under mineral tanning and is one of the oldest
tanning processes. After tanning with alum, the dried leather is stiff and firm.
To make it softer, the leather is then tumbled and greased. Alum tanning makes
the leather white and very water-sensitive. The tannins are washable, making
this leather much more sensitive than with chrome tanning which, with a few
exceptions such as for Sheepskin, has replaced alum tanning. Alum tanning is
a good method for beginners, or as one of the least expensive to produce a
finer finished product. This tan is not waterproof. There is several different
alum tanning chemicals. “Alum” is simply short for aluminum. They use the
Potassium Alum.

ALUM TANNING

4. OIL TANNING is a process of tanning leather using natural oils after

the initial vegetable tan. Typically fish oil, cod oil to be more specific. We like
to use oil-tanned leather for a number of reasons. ... Oil-tanned leather has
remarkable qualities to resist the degrading effects of water on the surface of

26 | P a g e
 the leather. Many oils and fats have tanning property. Oil tanning involves
through impregnation of fibers with natural oil and fats.

OIL TANNING

5. ALDEHDE TANNING is tanned using glutaraldehyde or oxazolidine

compounds. This is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather
due to its pale cream or white color. It is the main type of "chrome-free"
leather, often seen in automobiles and shoes for infants. Aldehyde tanned
leathers have reduced ability to fix acid (basic groups have reacted).Similarly
they can reduce fixation of some vegetable tans and dyes. Aldehyde tannage
reduces isoelectric point of hides, so that at any pH it has a lower cationic
charge than raw skin, and mineral tanned leather.

ALDEHYDE TANNING

 FORMALDEHYDE TANNING is a strong reducing agent that reacts

with proteins in a hide to form insoluble, stable compounds that are resistant to
putrefaction. The use of formaldehyde was a standard tanning method for
washable skins from sheep or lamb. It produces strong, white, pliable, leather
that is water-resistant. Formaldehyde, glutaraldehde are the agents used in this

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 method. This also gives better results in combination with chrome, used for
garments and gloving leathers.

FORMALDEHYDE TANNING

 CHAMOIS LEATHER also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning

and, like brain tanning, produces porous and highly water-absorbent leather.
Chamois leather is made by using marine oils (traditionally cod oil) that
oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to make the fabric
the color it is. It is a type of porous leather, traditionally the skin of the
chamois a type of European mountain goat but today it is made almost
exclusively from the flesh split of a sheepskin.

CHAMOIS LEATHER

6. ZIRCONIUM TANNING is a tanning process that produces white, water-

resistant leather. Zirconium tanning uses a low pH (about 2) solution of
zirconium salts (zirconium sulfate, zirconium chloride) to produce a firm, tight
leather with low-shrinkage. For white leathers basic zirconium salts are used.
This method produces light fast leather.

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 ZIRCONIUM TANNING

7. COMBINATION TANNING is that involves the combination of chrome

with vegetable or other tanning agents so that the final leather is having the
effect of both the agents. The types of combination of chrome and vegetables
are: Chrome retan and Semi chrome.

 CHROME RETAN the chrome tanning is carried out first then light
vegetable tanning is given as per suitability and final effect required. As for
example, in case of corrected grain leather this combination tanning produces
better substances and substances and firm grain so that grain correction desired
snuffing could be effectively carried out.

 SEMI CHROME this is the combination involving vegetable tanning first.

Chroming is carried out as a post tanning operation. Semi-chrome cannot
withstand the boiling temperature hence not suitable for the vulcanizing
process of shoe making.

COMBINATION TANNING

8. BRAIN-TANNED LEATHER is a lot of work. It's a very labor intensive

process that uses an emulsified solution of animal brain and water to provide
outstanding absorbency to the final product. But what you get at the end of
your sweat and toil is an exceptionally soft hide that stays pliable even after it
gets wet. Brain tanned leathers are made by a labor-intensive process which
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 uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cows, and
buffaloes. They are known for their exceptional softness and their ability to be
washed.

BRAIN -TANNED LEATHER

9. SYNTHETIC-TANNED LEATHER is tanned using aromatic polymers

such as the Novolac or Neradol types (syntans, contraction for synthetic
tannins). This leather is white in color and was invented when vegetable
tannins were in short supply during the Second World War. Melamine and
other amino-functional resins fall into this category as well, and they provide
the filling that modern leathers often require. Urea-formaldehyde resins were
also used in this tanning method until dissatisfaction about the formation of
free formaldehyde was realized.

SYNTHETIC-TANNED LEATHER

10.ROSE TANNED LEATHER is a variation of vegetable oil tanning and

brain tanning, where pure rose Otto replaces the vegetable oil and emulsified
oils. Rose tanned leather tanned using rose Otto oil leaves a powerful rose
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 fragrance even year from the day it is manufactured. It has been called the
most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose
otto and its labor-intensive tanning process.

ROSE-TANNED LEATHER

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 5. INPUTS USED TO MANUFACTURE LEATHER
Dedicated research has shown that a significant part of the environmental
impact of leather is in the manufacturing processes, taking it from a hide to
finished leather. In this respect it is the environmental stewardship practice of
tanners coupled with chemical selection that should determine how eco-
friendly leather is. If we take the model adopted by some of the world's
leading brands that have been working on these issues for the past two years,
we can determine the following areas of leather manufacture that have the
most significant potential impact:

• Management of restricted substances

• Energy consumption
• Air emissions
• Waste management (hazardous and non-hazardous)
• Environmental management systems
• Water consumption
• Control of manufacturing processes
• Effluent treatment
• Chrome management
• Traceability of material

In terms of the selection of inputs for the manufacturing process it is

necessary to consider the use of certain materials that could give an improved
eco profile to leather. These are elements such as:

• Biodegradable wetting agents for soaking

• Reduced sulphide processing
• Non synthetic or polymeric re-tannage systems
• Natural dyestuffs
• Vegetable oil based fat liquors
• Optimized finishing systems to reduce waste such HVLP or roller coating
• Biodegradable in 12 months or less.

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 6. LEATHER PRODUCTION PROCESSES
The leather manufacturing process is divided into three sub-processes:
preparatory stages, tanning and crusting. All true leathers will undergo these
sub-processes. A further sub-process, surface coating may be added into the
sequence. The list of operations that leathers undergo varies with the type of
leather.

A. PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT

The leather making process is in general restricted to batch processing, but

if the surface coating sub-process is added then some continuous processing
can be included. The operation flow has to follow the preparatory → tanning
→ crusting → surface coating sub-process order without deviation, but some
of the sub-processes can be omitted to make certain leathers (or partially
tanned/ untanned products).

B. PREPARATORY STAGES

The preparatory stages are when the hide/skin is prepared for

tanning. During the preparatory stages many of the unwanted raw skin
components are removed. Many options for pretreatment of the skin exist. Not
all of the options may be performed. Preparatory stages may include:

 Preservation: - the hide/skin is treated with a method which renders it

temporarily imputrescible.

 Soaking: - water for purposes of washing or rehydration is reintroduced.

 Liming: - unwanted proteins and “opening up” is achieved.

 Unhairing: - the majority of hair is removed.

 Fleshing: - subcutaneous material is removed.

 Splitting: - the hide/skin is cut into two or more horizontal layers.

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  Reliming: - the hide/skin is further treated to achieve more "opening up"
or more protein removal.

 Deliming: - liming and unhairing chemicals are removed from the pelt.

 Bating: - proteolytic proteins are introduced to the skin to remove further

proteins and to assist with softening of the pelt.

 Degreasing: - natural fats/oils are stripped or as much as is possible from

the hide/skin.

 Frizing: - physical removal of the fat layer inside the skin. Also similar to
Slicking.

 Bleaching: - chemical modification of dark pigments to yield a lighter

colored pelt.

 Pickling: - lowering of the pH value to the acidic region. Must be done in

the presence of salts. Pickling is normally done to help with the penetration of
certain tanning agents, e.g., chromium (and other metals), aldehydes and some
polymeric tanning agents.

 Depickling: - The raising of the pH out of the acidic region to assist with
penetration of certain tanning agents.

C. TANNING
Tanning is the process that converts the protein of the raw hide or skin into
a stable material which will not putrefy and is suitable for a wide variety of end
applications. The principal difference between raw hides and tanned hides is
that raw hides dry out to form a hard inflexible material that can putrefy when
re-wetted (wetted back), while tanned material dries out to a flexible form that
does not become putrid when wetted back. A large number of different tanning
methods and materials can be used; the choice is ultimately dependent on the
end application of the leather. The most commonly used tanning material
is chromium, which leaves the leather, once tanned, a pale blue color (due to
the chromium), this product is commonly called “wet blue”.

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 The acidity of hides once they have finished pickling will typically be
between pH of 2.8-3.2. At this point the hides are loaded in a drum and
immersed in a float containing the tanning liquor. The hides are allowed to
soak (while the drum slowly rotates about its axle) and the tanning liquor
slowly penetrates through the full substance of the hide. Regular checks will be
made to see the penetration by cutting the cross section of a hide and observing
the degree of penetration. Once an even degree of penetration is observed, the
pH of the float is slowly raised in a process called basification. This
basification process fixes the tanning material to the leather, and the more
tanning material fixed, the higher the hydrothermal stability and increased
shrinkage temperature resistance of the leather. The pH of the leather when
chrome tanned would typically finish somewhere between 3.8-4.2.

D. CRUSTING

Crusting is when the hide/skin is thinned, retained and lubricated. Often a

coloring operation is included in the crusting sub-process. The chemicals
added during crusting have to be fixed in place. The culmination of the
crusting sub-process is the drying and softening operations. Crusting may
include the following operations:

 Wetting back: - semi-processed leather is rehydrated.

 Sammying: - 45-55 %( m/m) water is squeezed out the leather.

 Splitting: - the leather is split into one or more horizontal layers.

 Shaving: - the leather is thinned using a machine which cuts leather fibers
off.

 Neutralization: - the pH of the leather is adjusted to a value between 4.5

and 6.5.

 Retanning: - additional tanning agents are added to impart properties.

 Dyeing: - the leather is colored.

 Fat liquoring: - fats/oils and waxes are fixed to the leather fibers.
35 | P a g e
  Filling: - heavy/dense chemicals that make the leather harder and heavier
are added.

 Stuffing: - fats/oils and waxes are added between the fibers.

 Stripping: - superficially fixed tannins are removed.

 Whitening: - the color of the leather is lightened.

 Fixation: - all unbound chemicals are chemically bonded/trapped or

removed from the leather.

 Setting: - area, grain flatness is imparted and excess water removed.

 Drying: - the leather is dried to various moisture levels (commonly 14-

25%).

 Conditioning: - water is added to the leather to a level of 18-28%.

 Softening: - physical softening of the leather by separating the leather

fibers.

 Buffing: - abrasion of the surfaces of the leather to reduce nap or grain

defects.

E.SURFACE COATING

For some leathers a surface coating is applied. Tanners refer to this as finishing.
Finishing operations may include: brushing, padding, impregnation, buffing,
spraying, roller coating, curtain coating, polishing, plating, embossing, ironing,
combing (hair-on) and glazing.

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 7. ANALYSIS – EXPORT PERFORMANCE OF LEATHER
AND LEATHER PRODUCTS DURING APRIL- JAN 2018-19
TO APRIL-JAN 2017-18
(Value in Million Rs)
APR-JAN APR-JAN
PRODUCTS % VARIATION
2017-18 2018-19
FINISHED LEATHER 47376.86 44084.67 -6.95%
LEATHER FOOTWEAR 116911.87 127969.91 9.46%
FOOTWEAR
COMPONENTS 18062.86 19003.09 5.21%
LEATHER GARMENTS 29232.36 28907.12 -1.11%
LEATHER GOODS 73281.89 82428.11 12.48%
SADDLERY AND
HARNESS 8261.84 9334.20 12.98%
NON-LEATHER
FOOTWEAR 16255.73 20044.16 23.31%
TOTAL 309383.41 331771.26 7.24%

(Value in Million US$)

APR-JAN APR-JAN %
PRODUCTS % Share
2017-18 2018-19 VARIATION
FINISHED
LEATHER 735.59 631.25 -14.19% 13.29%
LEATHER
FOOTWEAR 1815.22 1832.40 0.95% 38.57%
FOOTWEAR
COMPONENTS 280.45 272.10 -2.98% 5.73%
LEATHER
GARMENTS 453.87 413.92 -8.80% 8.71%
LEATHER GOODS 1137.81 1180.29 3.73% 24.84%
SADDLERY AND
HARNESS 128.28 133.66 4.19% 2.81%
NON-LEATHER
FOOTWEAR 252.39 287.01 13.72% 6.04%
TOTAL 4803.62 4750.62 -1.10% 100.00%

PRODUCT-WISE SHARE:
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 3% 7%
17%
FINISHED LEATHER

LEATHER FOOTWEAR

23% FOOTWEAR COMPONENTS

LEATHER GARMENTS

LEATHER GOODS

SADDLERY AND HARNESS

35%
NON-LEATHER FOOTWEAR
10%

6%

 Footwear (leather & non-leather and components) holds the major share of
50.34% in the total export of leather and leather products.

COUNTRY-WISE ANALYSIS

 Showing Export of Leather & Leather Products to different countries during

April-January 2018-19 vis-à-vis April-January 2017-18 is given below :

  (Value in Million US$)

  TOTAL    Share in
APR-JAN APR-JAN % change Total Export
COUNTRY
2017-18 2018-19 2018-19 2018-19
GERMANY 577.92 564.21 -2.37% 11.88%
U.S.A. 709.41 745.41 5.07% 15.69%
U.K. 510.68 504.76 -1.16% 10.63%
ITALY 320.40 318.83 -0.49% 6.71%
FRANCE 263.97 269.19 1.98% 5.67%
HONG KONG 213.30 166.74 -21.83% 3.51%
SPAIN 232.99 216.77 -6.96% 4.56%
RUSSIA 45.67 42.80 -6.27% 0.90%
NETHERLANDS 161.85 163.55 1.05% 3.44%
AUSTRALIA 75.17 77.36 2.91% 1.63%
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NEW ZEALAND 7.88 8.30 5.43% 0.17%
DENMARK 59.74 57.31 -4.08% 1.21%
GREECE 7.86 8.16 3.77% 0.17%
CANADA 41.43 42.23 1.93% 0.89%
SWITZERLAND 24.61 26.56 7.92% 0.56%
SWEDEN 36.50 34.22 -6.24% 0.72%
S. AFRICA 37.44 40.81 9.00% 0.86%
AUSTRIA 38.97 35.65 -8.50% 0.75%
BELGIUM 95.56 98.20 2.77% 2.07%
JAPAN 60.09 54.46 -9.37% 1.15%
PORTUGAL 56.32 57.96 2.92% 1.22%
CHINA 147.27 130.87 -11.13% 2.75%
SINGAPORE 12.10 7.56 -37.57% 0.16%
U.A.E. 141.10 153.86 9.04% 3.24%
INDONESIA 28.26 32.03 13.35% 0.67%
KOREA REP. 56.06 54.60 -2.61% 1.15%
VIETNAM 88.92 85.77 -3.54% 1.81%
SAUDI ARABIA 33.38 24.78 -25.76% 0.52%
SOMALIA 52.50 77.44 47.52% 1.63%
POLAND 121.06 99.36 -17.92% 2.09%
CHILE 37.69 43.24 14.73% 0.91%
MALAYSIA 42.19 41.99 -0.48% 0.88%
SLOVAK REP 30.71 22.28 -27.44% 0.47%
TURKEY 18.91 13.92 -26.37% 0.29%
HUNGARY 19.91 21.92 10.10% 0.46%
SUDAN 8.60 5.42 -36.95% 0.11%
NIGERIA 19.55 25.74 31.64% 0.54%
BANGLADESH 24.49 17.33 -29.23% 0.36%
THAILAND 16.72 16.93 1.29% 0.36%
FINLAND 15.55 14.85 -4.47% 0.31%
KENYA 19.78 25.46 28.75% 0.54%
DJIBOUTI 7.58 4.41 -41.81% 0.09%
MEXICO 15.28 30.55 99.96% 0.64%
NORWAY 7.38 5.52 -25.18% 0.12%
ISRAEL 12.71 12.78 0.55% 0.27%
OMAN 7.80 7.92 1.60% 0.17%
SRI LANKA 10.34 7.91 -23.45% 0.17%
CAMBODIA 5.91 9.20 55.72% 0.19%
CZECH
REPUBLIC 10.41 8.99 -13.71% 0.19%

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TAIWAN 7.05 7.50 6.28% 0.16%
OTHERS 206.67 206.60 -0.04% 4.35%
TOTAL 4803.62 4750.62 -1.10% 100.00%

MAJOR EXPORT DESTINATIONS OF INDIA – APR – JAN 2018-19

(Value in Million US$)

U.S.A. 745.41
GERMANY 564.21
U.K. 504.76
ITALY 318.83
FRANCE 269.19
SPAIN 216.77
HONG KONG 166.74
NETHERLANDS 163.55
U.A.E. 153.86
CHINA 130.87
POLAND 99.36
BELGIUM 98.20

i. The major markets for Indian Leather & Leather Products are USA
with a share of 15.69%, Germany 11.88%, UK 10.63%, Italy 6.71%, France
5.67%, Spain 4.56%, Hong Kong 3.51%, Netherlands 3.44%, UAE 2.94%,
China 2.75%, Poland 2.52% and Belgium 1.99%.

ii. These 12 countries together accounts for nearly 72.29% of India’s

total leather& leather products export. Hence we analysis from the above
survey that India’s export of Leather and Leather products for the financial
year April-January 2018-19 touched US$ 4750.62 million as against the
performance of US$ 4803.62 million in the corresponding period of last year,
recording a negative growth of -1.10%.

8. NATURAL ALTERNATIVES OF LEATHER

Natural leather is an ancient, durable material created through a process of
tanning animal rawhide to preserve it and make it pliable when dry. Many

40 | P a g e
 features of natural leather make it superior to synthetic products including
durability, comfort, beauty, suppleness, and resilience. Animals are subject to
various external influences in their natural environment. Wounds, insect bites,
manure contact, these eventualities leave their mark on the leather and provide.

PROPERTIES OF NATURAL LEATHER ARE

Water resistance: - Leather can be made to absorb water, resist water or be

completely waterproof. Most leathers manufactured for the shoe, bag,
upholstery and leather goods industries offer a degree of water resistance that
allows the leather to get wet and after drying retain the properties of elasticity
and shape. Waterproofing can be made for specific applications, particularly
for outdoor shoes and boots that allow for walking several hours in the rain
without getting wet feet. Most waterproof leathers are made from cattle hides.

WATERPROOF LEATHER

Thickness: - Skins produce thin leathers that can be used for bookbinding,
gloves, lining and garments; they have outstanding softness. Cow hides can
have a great variation of thicknesses because they can be split in layers. When
split thin, leathers can be used for garment, gloves and leather goods; medium
thickness leathers are the most widely used for upholstery, automotive, shoes,
bags and leather goods. Thick leathers are used for footwear soles and crafts.

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 MEASURING THICKNESS

Softness: - The softness of leather is usually associated to its thickness. The

thinner the leather, the softer it will be. But there are other variables that make
leather softer, particularly the type of tannage: chrome tanned will be softer;
aldehyde tanning less soft and vegetable tanned leather firmer. The amount of
fatty materials added influence the softness; the higher the amount of fatty
material added to the leather the greater the softness. Process variations allow
us to get a wide range of softness, from a leather glove to a footwear sole from
the same raw material.

Thick leather that has been processed to make it incredibly soft.

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 Water absorption/desorption: - This is a unique property to leather,
allowing the leather to absorb the moisture and with time release it to the
environment. For shoes this property creates outstanding comfort that is not
replicated by any other material.

Water vapor permeability: - Often called ‘breathability’, it is a

characteristic that allows moisture and air to permeate through the leather. This
property is particularly important for shoes; as the foot sweats it produces
moisture that move through the leather to the outside, keeping the inside of the
shoe drier and more comfortable. With a lower moisture level. Waterproof
leathers that are engineered to maintain breathability while providing
protection from wet conditions will provide an outstanding combined
performance.

Your feet never sweat in natural leather shoes and boots do in synthetic and
rubber footwear.

Aesthetics and surface pattern: - That are many variations to the color,
texture, feel, smell, surface resistance and handle of leather that makes this
product unique and valuable. Leathers can be as natural as observed in pure
vegetable leather or as refined with outstanding performance as an automotive
seat. Leather is fashionable in all colors while maintaining outstanding
technical performance.

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 TYPES OF NATURAL ALTERNATIVE OF LEATHER

A. LINEN: - Linen is an extraordinary material. It's spun from the blue-

flowered plant, Flax, of which 80% is grown in Europe. Flax is GMO-free and
only requires rainwater to grow. What's more, every part of the plant can be
used, making Linen a superb zero-waste material. It is a textile made from the
fibers of the flax plant. Linen is laborious to manufacture, but the fiber is very
strong, absorbent and dries faster than cotton. Garments made of linen are
valued for their exceptional coolness and freshness in hot and humid weather.
Textiles in linen weave texture, even when made of cotton, hemp, or other
non-flax fibers, are also loosely referred to as "linen". Such fabrics frequently
have their own specific names: for example fine cotton yarn in a linen-style
weave may be called madapolam.

LINEN

B. PIÑATEX: - Pinatex is an innovative, natural and sustainable non-woven

textile made from pineapple leaf fibers. These fibers are the by-product of the
pineapple harvest grown by farmers in the Philippines and require no extra
land, water, fertilizers or pesticides to produce them. Pinatex is a great vegan
alternative to leather and as well as being strong is soft, light, flexible and
breathable. Pinatex is created by felting the long fibers from pineapple leaves
together to create a non-woven substrate. The pineapple industry globally
produces 40,000 tons of waste pineapple leaves each year, which are usually
left to rot or are burned. Approximately 480 leaves (the waste from 16
pineapple plants), are needed to create 1 square meter of material.

44 | P a g e
 PINATEX

C. ORGANIC COTTON:- Cotton is hypoallergenic and dust-mite resistant,

which means it is the best choice of material for people who suffer from
allergies, or those who have sensitive skin prone to irritation. Natural fabrics
allow for better air circulation, which helps absorb and remove body moisture,
drawing heat away from the skin and keeping the body cool and dry. Our
Organic cotton canvas is GOTS certified, and is grown in Turkey. Organic
farming is not only safer and healthier for the farmers, the wildlife, and the
environment, but also for the end consumer. People with allergies and
chemical sensitivity especially benefit from organic cotton, as conventional
cotton may retain harmful toxic residues due to the pesticides used in growing
it.  Cotton is biodegradable and a renewable resource. Organic cotton growers
must also provide a description of the control procedures and physical barriers
established to prevent contact of organic and non-organic crops on split
operations and to avoid contact of organic production with prohibited
substance during gestation, harvesting, and handling operations.

ORGANIC COTTON

D. WOOL:- Wool has many similar benefits as cotton and it makes a great
material for shoes due to being such a good insulator - it keeps your feet
45 | P a g e
 snuggly and warm in cold weather, but also lets them breathe in warmer
temperatures so they stay fresh and dry. Wool is naturally antibacterial and it’s
very durable. All our wool is unbleached, and in most cases un-dyed, such as
our felt wool lining and our British wool tweed, which is sourced locally from
white, brown and black British Jacob sheep. Wool's scaling and crimp make it
easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach to each other, so
they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than
other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool
has a high specific thermal resistance, so it impedes heat transfer in general.
This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool
clothes for insulation. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow.
Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water.
 Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white
color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black,
brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than
cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame spread, a lower
rate of heat release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip; it
forms a char that is insulating and self-extinguishing, and it contributes less to
toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets. Wool
carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft.
Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in
occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.

WOOL

E. CORK: - We use cork in various components, such as around the heel

counter of the shoe. Cork is a naturally springy material that can absorb huge
amounts of energy, and it is also an exceptional insulator; even NASA is using
it in their rockets! Cork is made from the bark of the Cork Oak tree, which
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 grows close to our factory in Portugal. The harvesting of the bark does not
harm the tree and a new layer of cork quickly regrows, making it an excellent
renewable resource. There are about 2,200,000 hectares of cork forest
worldwide; 34% in Portugal and 27% in Spain. Annual production is about
200,000 tons; 49.6% from Portugal, 30.5% from Spain, 5.8% from Morocco,
4.9% from Algeria, 3.5% from Tunisia, 3.1% Italy, and 2.6% from France.
Once the trees are about 25 years old the cork is traditionally stripped from the
trunks every nine years, with the first two harvests generally producing lower
quality cork. The trees live for about 300 years. The cork industry is generally
regarded as environmentally friendly. Cork production is generally considered
sustainable because the cork tree is not cut down to obtain cork; only the bark
is stripped to harvest the cork. The tree continues to live and grow. The
sustainability of production and the easy recycling of cork products and by-
products are two of its most distinctive aspects. Cork oak forests also prevent
desertification and are a particular habitat in the Iberian Peninsula and the
refuge of various endangered species.

CORK
F. COIR: - Coir is a mix of coconut husk and natural latex. We use it for the
legendary Foot Mattress, as well as for our original shoebox, which was
nominated for a Green Award. Coir fiber is heat and moisture resistant, has
good ventilation, is moth proof and is an excellent insulator. Our raw coconut
husk is sourced from Sri Lanka, while the Foot Mattress is produced in the
UK. Coir fibers are found between the hard, internal shell and the outer coat of
a coconut. The individual fiber cells are narrow and hollow, with thick walls
made of cellulose. They are pale when immature, but later become hardened
and yellowed as a layer of lignin is deposited on their walls. Each cell is about
1 mm (0.04 in) long and 10 to 20 μm (0.0004 to 0.0008 in) in diameter. Fibers
are typically 10 to 30 centimeters (4 to 12 in) long.The two varieties of coir are
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 brown and white. Brown coir harvested from fully ripened coconuts is thick,
strong and has high abrasion resistance. It is typically used in mats, brushes
and sacking. Mature brown coir fibers contain more lignin and less cellulose
than fibers such as flax and cotton, so are stronger but less flexible. White coir
fibers harvested from coconuts before they are ripe are white or light brown in
color and are smoother and finer, but also weaker. They are generally spun to
make yarn used in mats or rope.

COIR

G.NATURAL LATEX: - In addition to the Foot Mattress we use natural latex

in our advanced Butterfly Suspension Sole. Natural latex is a rubber made
from the milky sap of the Lactae Hevea tree. It has excellent cushioning
properties, it is solvent-free and abrasion tests have shown that the natural latex
rubber in our soles is more hardwearing than the standard petroleum based
rubber. The natural latex used in our soles is a similar compound to what is
used for babies’ soothers, and is FDA certified. Latex is a stable dispersion
(emulsion) of polymer micro particles in an aqueous medium. It is found in
nature, but synthetic latexes can be made by polymerizing a monomer such as
styrene that has been emulsified with surfactants.

NATURAL LATEX
9. ARTIFICIAL ALTERNATIVE OF LEATHER
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 Artificial leather is a leather substitute consisting of natural or synthetic
fiber cloth coated with plasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or polyurethane
(PUR).These coatings can be dense or foamed depending on the application.
Usually it gives the appearance of natural leather. Artificial leather is used for
shoes, bags and tops of convertible cars.

Artificial leather is a fabric or finish intended to substitute for leather in

fields such as upholstery, clothing and fabrics, and other uses where a leather-
like finish is required but the actual material is cost- prohibitive or unsuitable.

ARTIFICIAL LEATHER COMPOSED OF

i. A fibrous substrate, non-woven, or woven or knitted fabric

ii. A urethane polymer layer containing finely divided inorganic particles
iii. A thinner urethane polymer layer consisting of at least about 80% by
weight of polyurethane.
iv. A coating layer consisting of at least about 80% by weight of polyurethane.

REQUIREMENTS FOR ARTIFICIAL LEATHER

o Maintain their form

o Durable

o Good mechanical properties

o Good stitch tear resistance advantages of artificial leather

o Resistant to color fading

o Crease free

o Easy to care

o Odorless
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 o Uniform surface

o Low Price

SPECIFICATIONS FOR MANUFACTURING OF ARTIFICIAL

LEATHER

Artificial leather comprising a fibrous substrate having a thickness of about

0.3 mm to 3.0 mm.
The fibrous substrate comprising a sheet of ultra-fine fiber bundles and
polymer impregnated therein, in which the denier of each fiber is about 0.01 to
1.0 denier and coating layers (III), (II) and (I) adhered in that order to the
surface of said substrate, with the coating layer (III) immediately on the
surface of the substrate.
Coating layer (I) is prepared by a dry-coagulating method. Coating layer (I)
is coated on coating layer (II) and dried to remove solvent.
The satisfactory range of thickness of the coating layer (I) is about 0.001
mm to 0.1 mm, more satisfactory about 0.003 mm to 0.05 mm, and the most
satisfactory about 0.005 mm to 0.02 mm.
In the case of a thickness of the coating layer (I) larger than 0.3 mm, the
appearance of creases and the feeling and appearance of the artificial leather
obtained are not those of natural leather (the appearance of creases becomes
too small), and water vapor permeability and flexibility resistance become
worse, and the touch of the artificial leather becomes hard.

PREPARATION OF ARTIFICIAL LEATHER

1. STEP: The coating composition for coating layer (II) is uniformly coated
on a release support such as plastic film, glass plate, steel plate, or paper, so as
to attain a thickness of about 0.01 to 0.03 mm of the coating layer (II).

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 2. STEP: The coating composition for coating layer (III) is uniformly coated
on the coating layer (II) instep so as to attain a thickness of about 0.1 to 3.0
mm of the coating layer (III).

3. STEP: On the other hand, the non-woven, or woven or knitted fabric is

impregnated with an impregnating composition and then coagulated by
immersing in a liquid which is a non-solvent for the polymer. The product of
this step is immersed in a solution composed of non-solvent and solvent for
the polymer in the impregnating composition. In this way the wet-treated
fibrous substrate is obtained. This is then applied to the surface of the coating
layer (III) obtained in step, and pressed lightly.

4. STEP : The material obtained in step is immersed and coagulated in a

coagulating liquid for a definite time at a definite temperature, to obtain a
micro porous structure of coating layer (II) and (III), and to unite the coating
(II) and (III) with the fibrous substrate.

5. STEP: The release support is stripped from the surface of the coating layer
(II), and the solvent which is contained in the coating layer (II), (III) and wet-
fibrous substrate is extracted and washed and then dried.

6. STEP: The coating composition for coating layer (I) is coated on the
surface of the coating layer (II) so as to attain 0.001 to 0.1 mm in thickness of
the coating layer (I), and then dried.

TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL LEATHERS

1. PLASTIC LEATHER (PLEATHER): The word “pleather” is a popular

slang term for synthetic leather made out of plastic, and is actually a
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 combination of the words “plastic leather.” When pleather first arrived on the
fashion scene in the 1970s, the word was used in a derogatory manner,
implying that the pleather wearer was just too poor to buy the pricey, stylish
genuine leather items that were in fashion. In today’s more enlightened times,
however, many people prefer wearing pleather articles of clothing
because they are against using products made from animals.

This animal friendly fabric gives individuals a trendy way to show their
support for the animal rights movement without sacrificing any of their fashion
sense. Pleather is often used as an inexpensive substitute for leather. The most
popular form of pleather is made out of a polyurethane film, which is a lighter,
more flexible and less restrictive material than leather. This kind of pleather is
easy to clean, requiring the owner to simply wipe it off occasionally with a
cloth dipped in a solution of mild detergent and warm water. This simple care
routine ensures a longer life for pleather garments, making them nearly as
durable and reliable as their true leather counterparts.

PLASTIC LEATHER (PLEATHER)

Pleather, being made of plastic, will not decompose as quickly. But not all
pleather are the same. Polyurethane is washable, can be dry-cleaned and allows
some air to flow through the garment. PVC pleather in contrast does not
"breathe" and is difficult to clean. PVC cannot be dry-cleaned because the
cleaning solvents can make the PVC unbearably stiff. Another reason for
pleather’s consistent popularity is that it is a very versatile fabric that can be
made into virtually any accessory or item of clothing.
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 In recent years, pleather has been used by numerous designers to create
garments such as form-fitted jackets, stylish jeans, flattering skirts, trendy tops,
fabulous handbags, and sexy shoes. This multi-faceted textile is one that
people of all ages and fashion styles can wear tastefully. This fabric also
breathes, meaning that even individuals living in hot, muggy climates can
enjoy pleather garments. In addition, the fact that it is easily dyed means
consumers can always find pleather items in the “in colors" of the season.
Pleather can even be made to look like real leather, ostrich skin, or python
skin.

Pleather is still less expensive, sometimes costing three times less than real
animal hide leather. This makes pleather an attractive fabric for companies
that make mass-produced clothing lines and accessories. This also makes it
a popular choice for use in furniture lines and car upholstery. The pleather of
today isn’t the much-ridiculed, squeaky, faux hides of yesteryear. The softer,
realistic-looking pleather is a popular choice with designers, not only offering
them a flexible, versatile textile to work with, but also bridging the great divide
between being stylish and being animal friendly.

2. NAUGAHYDE (NAUGA): Naugahyde is an American brand of artificial

leather. Naugahyde is a composite knit fabric backing and expanded polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) plastic coating. It was developed by Byron A. Hunter, senior
chemist at the United States Rubber Company, and is now manufactured and
sold by Uniroyal Engineered Products, LLC, a publicly held company under
Invisa, Inc. Invisa also owns Wardle Storeys in the UK. It is a well-known and
established brand of artificial leather ("pleather"), made from vinyl polymer
coated plastic. The product was developed by Uniroyal Engineered Products
and is now manufactured and sold by a division of the same company, the
Naugahyde Company.

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 VEGETARIAN CHELSEA BOOTS

Its name comes from the Borough of Naugatuck, Connecticut, where it was
first produced. A marketing campaign of the 1960s and 1970s asserted
humorously that Naugahyde was obtained from the skin of an animal known as
a "Nauga"; this is an urban myth. The campaign emphasized that, unlike other
animals, which must typically be slaughtered to obtain their hides, Naugas can
shed their skin without harm to themselves. Naugahyde is one of the most
popular premium pleather.

3. MICROFIBER LEATHER: FibreChem manufactures uniform

microfiber leather, which is environmentally friendly, and represents the
latest development in synthetic leather production. Uniform microfiber leather
could be the closest substitute for natural leather due to their high resemblance
in physical characteristics. The uniform microfiber leather is produced from
uniform sea-island short fiber.

This short fiber is processed into non-woven fabric, which forms the base
for making synthetic leather. Chucra is the registered trademark used to market
the Group’s uniform microfiber leather. Chucra has qualities similar to that of
natural leather and is as exquisite as high-grade deer hide after post-production
finishing. Its uniformity in thickness, high tensile strength, color richness and
end applications exceed that of natural leather. Its resistance to water, mould,
toxins, and ultraviolet ray far surpass those of natural leather, which make it an
ideal substitute. Synthetic Upholstery Leather; Car Ornament; Bags Synthetic
Fashion Leather Glove Leather Synthetic Shoe Leather.

4. POROMERIC:- Imitation Leather Sometimes referred to as poromerics,

Poromeric imitation leathers are a group of artificial ‘breathable’ leather
substitutes made from a plastic coating (usually a polyurethane) on a fibrous

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 base layer (typically a polyester).The term Poromeric was coined as a
derivative of the terms micro porous and polymeric. Its major advantages over
natural leather are its durability and its high gloss finish which can be easily
cleaned with a damp cloth. Its disadvantages are its stiffness which cannot be
lessens of during wearing and its relative lack of breathability.

POROMERIC

5. KOSKIN: - Koskin is an artificial leather material commonly found in

computer laptop cases. It is commonly used in Hewlett-Packard, Targus and
Belkin laptop cases, CD wallets, and other consumer goods. It is made to look
and feel like authentic leather. In Swedish, Koskin means cow’s skin, often
causing much confusion for consumers.

KOSKIN

6. LEATHERETTE: - Leatherette is a form of artificial leather, usually made

by covering fabric base with plastic. The fabric can be made of a natural or
artificial fiber which is then covered with a soft PVC layer. A disadvantage of
plastic “leatherette” is that it is not porous and does not allow air to pass
through it, thus sweat can accumulate if it is used for clothing, car seat
coverings, etc. However, one of its primary advantages, especially in cars, is
55 | P a g e
 that it requires little maintenance in comparison to leather and not cracks or
fades as easily.

Leatherette is the cheaper of the two, often being half the price of leather.
Leatherette is not washable, but is less porous than leather and therefore
waterproof and easy to clean. Spills can usually be cleaned with a damp
cloth. Leatherette is less durable. With proper care and maintenance, it will
typically last less than 10 years. Leatherette is not biodegradable.
Leatherette does not breathe well and can cause sweating in hot weather.
Leatherette does not fade with age, however, with heavy use the top layer
can crack revealing the cloth underneath, making it appear more worn.

LEATHERETTE

7. VEGAN LEATHER: - Vegan Leather is an artificial alternative to

traditional leather. It may be chosen for ethical reasons or as a designed
material which may have different properties but a similar look to the
natural material.

VEGAN LEATHER

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 8. SYNTHETICS: - PVC, PU, rubber, plastic, artificial leather, poromerics. The
appearance of these materials is often reminiscent of leather, but their
properties (breathability, absorption, adaptability) are inferior to those of
natural leather. Usually combined with breathable liners made of modern PVC
and PU. New possibilities in colors and shapes inspire new product ranges,
especially in youth fashion. Apart from the above advantages, these materials
are also cheap.

SYNTHETICS

9. Textiles: - Woven, non-woven, knitted. Used for light, often summer, or

indoor shoes. The latest textile-based material is stretch, providing enough
wearing comfort. Textiles are breathable, easy to maintain and have sufficient
durability. It is a flexible material consisting of a network of natural or
artificial fibers (yarn or thread). Yarn is produced by spinning raw fibers of
wool, flax, cotton, hemp, or other materials to produce long strands. Textiles
are formed by weaving, knitting, crocheting, knotting or tatting, felting, or
braiding. Textiles are made from many materials, with four main sources:
animal (wool, silk), plant (cotton, flax, jute, bamboo), mineral (asbestos, glass
fiber), and synthetic (nylon, polyester, acrylic, rayon). The first three are
natural. In the 20th century, they were supplemented by artificial fibers made
from petroleum. Textiles are made in various strengths and degrees of
durability, from the finest microfiber made of strands thinner than one denier
to the sturdiest canvas.

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 TEXTILES

10.Rubber-: It has similar properties to plastic materials, used for special

protective and work shoes. Rubber produced as a fiber, sometimes called
'elastic', had significant value to the textile industry because of its excellent
elongation and recovery properties. For these purposes, manufactured rubber
fiber was made as either an extruded round fiber or rectangular fibers cut into
strips from extruded film. Because of its low dye acceptance, feel and
appearance, the rubber fiber was either covered by yarn of another fiber or
directly woven with other yarns into the fabric. Rubber yarns were used in
foundation garments. While rubber is still used in textile manufacturing, its
low tenacity limits its use in lightweight garments because latex lacks
resistance to oxidizing agents and is damaged by aging, sunlight, oil and
perspiration. The textile industry turned to neoprene (polymer of chloroprene),
a type of synthetic rubber, as well as another more commonly used elastomer
fiber, spandex (also known as elastane), because of their superiority to rubber
in both strength and durability.

RUBBER

11.CORFAM: - Corfam leathers are a group of synthetic breathable leather

substitutes made from a plastic coating (usually a polyurethane) on a fibrous
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 base layer (typically a polyester). The term Poromeric was coined by DuPont
as a derivative of the terms micro porous and polymeric. The first Poromeric
material was DuPont’s ill-fated Corfam introduced in 1963 at the Chicago
Shoe Show. It was the centerpiece of the DuPont pavilion at the 1964 New
York World’s Fair in New York City. Major advantages of corfam over natural
leather were its durability and its high gloss finish that could be easily cleaned
with a damp cloth. Disadvantages of it were its stiffness which did not lessen
with wearing, its relative lack of breathability, and easy confusion with non-
breathable cheaper products. DuPont manufactured it at its plant in Old
Hickory, Tennessee, from 1964 to 1971. After spending millions of dollars
marketing the product to shoe manufacturers, DuPont withdrew it from the
market in 1971 and sold the rights to a company in Poland.

It is still used today in some products, an example being certain types of

equestrian saddle girth. Corfam shoes are still popular in uniformed
professions where shiny shoes are desirable. Corfam was the centerpiece of the
DuPont pavilion at the 1964 New York World’s Fair in New York City. Major
advantages of corfam over natural leather were its durability and its high gloss
finish that could be easily cleaned with a damp cloth. Disadvantages of corfam
were its stiffness which did not lessen with wearing, its relative lack of
breathability, and easy confusion with non-breathable cheaper products.
DuPont manufactured Corfam at its plant in Old Hickory, Tennessee, from
1964 to 1971. After spending millions of dollars marketing the product to shoe
manufacturers, DuPont withdrew Corfam from the market in 1971 and sold the
rights to a company in Poland. Corfam is still used today in some products, an
example being certain types of equestrian saddle girth. Corfam shoes are still
popular in uniformed professions where shiny shoes are desirable.

12.FAUX LEATHER: - Faux leather is a fabric that looks like leather, but is
actually made out of other materials. It looks different from real leather in
several ways, and also feels and smells different. While real leather usually has
visible, irregular pores, rough edges and forms a pattern of crisscrossing lines
when folded, faux leather generally won’t. Real leather has a very distinctive
smell, and faux leather doesn’t smell like anything or smells like plastic.

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 It is not always easy to distinguish between faux leather and real leather. It
can be quite frustrating to purchase looks like a genuine leather jacket, only to
later realize it is actually synthetic. Authentic leather is much more expensive
than faux, so it is important to tell the difference between the two.

Faux leather is made from a fabric base, which is chemically treated with
wax, dye, or polyurethane for a color and texture. Ultimately, it is manmade
and exists to give the look and feel of real leather at an exceptionally lower
cost. The most common type of faux leather is p leather. It is a plastic fabric
made to look like leather. It is lighter and less restrictive than real leather, and
can be dyed any color. It comes in many forms and some are better quality
than others. Other types of faux leather include leatherette and vegan leather.

FAUX LEATHER

The main differences between real and faux leather are the quality and
durability. Spotting the difference between faux and real protected leather can
be difficult because they can look very similar. There are several techniques
that are used to identify faux leather.

Faux leather has a similar look and feel to genuine leather, while being
much more affordable. Some people prefer faux leather simply because no
animals are harmed in the making of the material. Faux leather is made from a
machine, which ensures that the fabric has an even, consistent color
throughout. It can also be dyed into many different colors, and is usually fade
resistant.

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 13.KYDEX: - Kydex is a line of thermoplastic acrylic-polyvinyl chloride. It
has a wide variety of applications, including for firearm holsters and sheaths
for knives. Similar acrylic polyvinyl chloride material (IPK Acrylic-polyvinyl
chloride) is manufactured by EMCOR Plastics and Interstate Plastics, which
carries nearly identical properties with an added layer for screen printing.

It is an acrylic-polyvinyl chloride composite engineered for thermoforming

fabrication, and combines properties of both the acrylic and the polyvinyl
chloride components. From acrylic, it obtains rigidity and formability; from
PVC, toughness, chemical resistance and good interior finish ratings. Sheet
thickness ranges from .028 to .500 and can be thermoformed, post formed,
brake formed and laminated.

a) Modulus of elasticity in flexure is 330,000 psi.

b) Parts formed from sheet will be rigid and will see moderate deformation
when loaded. This is of particular importance in deep formed parts with thin
wall sections.
c) Relatively hard thermoplastic, with a hardness of 90 on the Rockwell R
scale. This hardness, combined with a grained surface, increases its abrasive
resistance.

• For some applications it is used as replacement for leather, where it has the
following advantages:

a) Waterproof.
b)Scratch resistant.
c) Holds its shape better, and will not stretch or shrink under normal
conditions.

14.CORK LEATHER: - Cork fabric, or cork leather as it is sometimes called,

is a high quality fabric produced from thin cork shavings obtained directly
from the bark of the cork oak tree. Much of the production is hand crafted. The
innovative characteristics of cork fabric are unique and original.

a) Soft to the touch and pleasant to the view.

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 b)Environmentally friendly and ecologically correct.
c) Easily cleaned and long lasting.
d)Durable as leather, versatile as fabric.
e) Waterproof and stain resistant.

Cork fabric is available in a unique assortment of natural textures, patterns,

and designs and is produced with different backing materials dependent on
final use.

Cork fabric is usually supplied in rolls 1.50 yards wide (1.40 meters wide)
by 27 yards long (81 linear feet).

Cork fabrics can be purchased. It is produced from natural cork fabrics, are
stylish and sophisticated and are used on a wide selection of products,
including handbags, sport bags and luggage, wallets and watches, upholstered
and reupholstered furniture, clothing, pillows, yoga mats, shoes, painter’s
canvases, and more.

CORK

15.POLYVINYL CHLORIDE: - PVC is used in the soles and uppers of

modern shoes. It provides a synthetic alternative to traditional leather in formal
shoes, often allowing for more cost-effective production and innovative styles
through its capacity to be molded into shape. Modern sports shoes also make
extensive use of PVC to provide shock absorbance, support and strength in
demanding use environments.

CHARACTERISTICS

a) easy to use and convert into many different forms;

b)strong and durable but light weight;

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 c) waterproof and resistant to attack by chemicals
d)relatively low energy demand in manufacture and longevity in service,
making it a cost effective material in both economic and environmental terms;
e) an innovative material, enabling designers to improve products and create
new ones;
f) cost competitive, allowing the production of good quality goods at a
reasonable price;

Polyvinyl chloride, also known as PVC or vinyl, was first developed for
commercial use in the 1920s and is now one of the most commonly used
plastics.

Global production is measured in tens of millions of tons, and it finds use in

a wide range of diverse industries such as automotive, building materials,
electronics, food packaging, and of course footwear.

There is a considerable "anti-PVC" movement (not without good reason, as

discussed below) but this is counteracted by the fact that it is so inexpensive to
produce.

Within the footwear industry PVC is used in a number of different ways,

including whole footwear (for example beach sandals and rain boots can be
entirely made of PVC), coatings for upper materials, logos/appliques, and
outsole units.

For the latter application, PVC can be in cellular form but is more often
seen as a solid material with a specific gravity typically around 1.2 kg/m3.

In its pure form PVC is relatively hard and inflexible, and whilst this is
acceptable for some applications (like window frames, for example), when
used in footwear it is necessary to impart a degree of flexibility to it by the
addition of plasticizers.

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 These are liquid substances which are blended into the PVC compound prior
to molding, and for outsoles can be used in proportions approaching 50% (and
in even higher amounts for uppers).

They can be thought of as lubricants between the individual polymer

molecules, allowing them to slide over one another when the material is flexed.

This is where one of the main health risks of PVC in consumer products
comes from - the plasticizer can gradually leach out of the product over its
lifetime and some of the commonly used ones are harmful.

Phthalates in particular are a group of plasticizers, a number of which are

known to be toxic to reproduction.

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 10. SHORTCOMINGS OF LEATHER

Leather can be made from cows, pigs, goats, and sheep; exotic animals such
as alligators, ostriches, and kangaroos; and even dogs and cats, who are
slaughtered for their meat and skin in China, which exports their skins around
the world. Because leather is normally not labeled, you never really know from
where or from whom it came from.

Most leather comes from developing countries such as India and China,
where animal welfare laws are either non-existent or not enforced. In India, a
PETA [People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals] investigation found that
workers break cows’ tails and rub chili peppers and tobacco into their eyes in
order to force them to get up and walk after they collapse from exhaustion on
the way to the slaughterhouse.

In the U.S., many of the millions of cows and other animals who are killed
for their skin endure the horrors of factory farming—extreme crowding and
deprivation as well as castration, branding, tail-docking, and dehorning—all
without any painkillers. At slaughterhouses, animals routinely have their
throats cut and some are even skinned and dismembered while they are still
conscious.

Buying leather directly contributes to factory farms and slaughterhouses

because skin is the most economically important byproduct of the meat
industry. Leather is also no friend of the environment, as it shares
responsibility for all the environmental destruction caused by the meat industry
as well as the pollution caused by the toxins used in tanning.

But with the wealth of fashionable faux leather alternatives, there’s no need
to ever wear animal skins. So-called “cruelty-free” fashions have advanced in
leaps and bounds, with variations on every style of handbag, wallet, belt and
boot. Online “vegan boutique” Alternative Outfitters even has a version of the
ubiquitous Ugg boot made with micro suede “shearling” on the outside and
synthetic wool inside, while Iowa-based Heartland Products sells western-style
non-leather boots and non-leather Birkenstock sandals. Science has come up
with plenty of comfortable, durable alternatives to materials made with animal
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 products. These include Vegan Microfiber, which claims to match leather in
strength and durability, and Pleather, Dura buck and NuSuede.

Though we may consider ourselves intellectually and technologically

superior to our cave-dwelling ancestors, we still adorn our bodies, transports,
and homes with the skin of conquered animals. But unlike the wholly organic
methods used by our forebears, the modern leather industry is simultaneously
killing the local environment and the people that work there with a toxic slurry
of chemicals.

As for processed leather exports, the Chinese and Indian industries are
among the world leaders with 6.6 billion square feet and 2 billion square feet,
respectively, in 2013. However, the dirt cheap labor rates (and generally
nonexistent workplace or environmental safety regulations) prevalent
throughout poorer nations in Southeast Asia have attracted a large amount of
the work tanning leather and turning it into goods for Western markets.

The type of leather produced in a given region depends largely on the

dominant source available. It’s cattle skin will supplemented by goat, lamp,
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 deer, ostrich, buffalo and even yalk. More exotic leathers are also becoming
more common. Kangaroo is often employed for bullwhips and motorcycle
leathers, given its lightweight and abrasion-resistant nature. Snake, alligator,
and crocodile skins are all popular as well.

The tanning process is essentially one designed to identify a hide and

stabilize the resulting material so that it will not or harden into an unusable
form. The process for doing so first involves preparing the hide—scraping it
clean of meat, fat, and hair; and optionally applying debilitating lime pastes,
bleaching, or pickling the skin as well.

The tanning industry poses many dangers to both the environment and those
that work within it. The primary environmental threat involves the dumping of
solid and liquid waste that contains leftover chromium and other hazardous
compounds. This is commonplace in regions without strong environmental
protection standards, which also happen to be the primary regions where
leather is tanned, such as China, India, and Bangladesh.

Even in fully modernized and carefully managed facilities, it is nearly

impossible to reclaim all of the pollutants generated by the tanning process. As
a rule of thumb, tanning one ton of hide typically results in 20 to 80 cubic
meters of wastewater with Chromium concentrations around 250 mg/L and
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 Sulfide concentrations at roughly 500 mg/L, not to mention the offal effluence
from the preparation phase and the pesticides often added to keep mold growth
down during transport to the facility. 70 percent of an untreated hide is
eventually discarded as solid waste.

Sure, there are ways to mitigate these impacts. As the United Nations
Industrial Development Organization's report Chrome Management in the Tan
yard points out, using industry-proven techniques such as direct recycling—
which uses the same chromium bath for both the initial tanning and sub
sequent re-tanning stage—can reduce Chromium levels in wastewater by 21
percent. Additionally, by reclaiming Chromium, either by rapidly precipitating
it out of the acid bath using Sodium Hydroxide or Sodium Carbonate or slowly
pulling it out with Magnesium Oxide, one can recapture at least 25 to 30
percent of the bath's chrome content.

However, as the UNIDO [United Nations Industrial Development

Organization] study authors wrote, even though the chrome pollution load can
be decreased by 94 percent on introducing advanced technologies, the
minimum residual load 0.15 kg/t raw hide can still cause difficulties when
using landfills and composting sludge from wastewater treatment on account
of the regulations currently in force in some countries. What's more, all of
these advanced recovery techniques cost heaps of money, effort, and time—but
mostly money—to implement properly. In regions where such regulations are
relaxed or easily bypassed with some well-placed bribes, tanneries are still
throwing the chrome out with the bathwater.

Wastewater pollution is primarily a byproduct of the initial preparation (or

"beam house") stage, wherein bits of flesh, hair, mold, poop, and other animal
byproducts are mixed into wash water and discarded. Minute doses of
Chromium are needed by many plants and animals to regulate metabolic
functions. However, in large doses, such as when Chromium-laced waste is
dumped into regional water systems, it can damage fish gills, incite respiratory
problems, infections, infertility, and birth defects. It can also instigate a
number of serious cancers in animals throughout the food chain.

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 Work within the tannery itself is fraught with dangers—often the result of
inadequate or non-existent worker protections. These include slips and fall on
improperly drained floors; exposure to lime, tanning liquor, acids, bases,
solvents, disinfectants, and other noxious chemicals; injury from heavy
machinery or flaying knives; drowning, being boiled alive, or buried in lime,
are all terrifyingly real hazards. Still, the most dangerous part of modern
tanning is handling Chromium. In humans, Chromium causes a myriad of
ailments depending on how it is absorbed.

When inhaled, Chromium acts as a lung irritant and carcinogen, affecting

the upper respiratory tract, obstructing airways, and increasing the chances of
developing lung, nasal, or sinus cancer. Chromium normally is absorbed this
way as fine particulate dust that is produced when both raw and tanned leathers
are buffed, smoothed, and ground up.

Additionally, the raw hides are also a breeding ground for anthrax, which
can easily make the leap to humans by mixing with aerosolized pollution,
though this has been virtually eliminated in the Western tanning industry now
that hides are disinfected before being shipped for processing. It doesn't play
well with your skin either. Once absorbed through unprotected handling,
Chromium can cause dry, cracked, and scaled skin; as well as erosive
ulcerations that refuse to heal known "chrome holes." And should one become
sensitive to Chromium exposure, contact with it will result in swelling and
inflammation known as allergic dermatitis.

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 AND THEN THERE'S THE CANCER

Back in 1980, nobody outside of the tanning industry had any inkling that
the work they were doing might be making them sick. In fact, a 1981 study by
the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) found no link
between the tanning process and nasal cancer in tannery workers. However,
over the next few years additional case reports and studies began uncovering a
link not just to nasal cancer but bladder and testicular cancer as well, which
was associated with the dyes or solvents employed in the finishing process. By
the mid-1990s, a number of other forms, including lung and pancreatic cancer
—both of which are way down the list of cancers you might survive—were
associated with leather dust and tanning.By the start of this century,
researchers had uncovered another link between Hexavalent Chromium or Cr
(VI) compounds and increased risk of respiratory cancer.

Hexavalent Chromium is the +6 oxidation state of the element, a purely

manufactured form of the ore that is not found in nature and inherently more
unstable than the natural +3 oxidation state.Once common throughout the
tanning industry, as well as the automotive industry, Cr (VI) has been labeled
as a known human carcinogen by the EPA, the US Department of Health and
Human Services (DHHS), the IARC, and the WHO, and has become strictly
regulated—verging on outright banning.And that's a good thing too because, as
a number of studies since the 1980s have suggested, Cr(VI) toxicity appears to
be an additive process with more severe issues developing and worsening over
years of exposure—the same as with lead exposure or cigarette smoking.The
problem, as you may have gathered, isn't in the tightly-regulated tanneries in
first world-countries—it's in the developing nations that perform the vast
majority of the work.

Many regions are making efforts to clean up these polluting industries.

However, progress is slow. Take Kanpur, India—the self-proclaimed "Leather
City of World"—for example. This city once housed more than 10,000
tanneries which, in 2003, were dumping more than 22 tons of effluence into
the Ganges River every day. The city took action in 2009, sealing 49 of the
highest-polluting tanneries in town—out of a list of 404 heavy polluters.

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 11. CONCLUSION

 In the end of my study, I would conclude that the footwear industry is a

diverse industry with an infinite scope. The above study is performed to
explain the various materials other than leather that can be used in
manufacturing of footwear. It covers the basics of leather, tanning process,
manufacturing process and its disadvantages. The study includes the various
types leather substitutes their compositions, usage, characteristics etc.
Materials like Poromerics, Koskin, Leatherette, Vegan leather, Synthetics like
PU, PVC etc., Textiles, Rubber, Waterproof membrane etc. can replace leather
to a larger extent.

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 12. LIST OF REFERENCES

 BOOKS :- MODERN CONCEPT OF LEATHER AND FOOTWEAR

MANUFACTURING.

 WEBSITES:-

 https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Leather_production_processes.

 http://leatherindia.org/analysis-export-performance-of-leather-and-leather-
products-during-april-march-2018-19-vis-a-vis-april-march-2017-18/.

 https://www.wikiwand.com/en/leather_production_processes.

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