Pixel

In digital imaging, a pixel, pel,[1] or

picture element[2] is a smallest
addressable element in a raster image, or
the smallest addressable element in an all
points addressable display device; so it is
the smallest controllable element of a
picture represented on the screen.

Each pixel is a sample of an original

image; more samples typically provide
more accurate representations of the This example shows an image with a portion greatly enlarged
original. The intensity of each pixel is so that individual pixels, rendered as small squares, can easily
variable. In color imaging systems, a color be seen.
is typically represented by three or four
component intensities such as red, green,
and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.

In some contexts (such as descriptions of camera sensors), pixel

refers to a single scalar element of a multi-component
representation (called a photosite in the camera sensor context,
although sensel is sometimes used),[3] while in yet other contexts it
may refer to the set of component intensities for a spatial position.

Contents A photograph of sub-pixel display

elements on a laptop's LCD screen
Etymology
Technical
Sampling patterns
Resolution of computer monitors
Resolution of telescopes
Bits per pixel
Subpixels
Megapixel
See also
References
External links

Etymology
The word pixel is a combination of pix (from "pictures", shortened to "pics") and el (for "element"); similar
formations with 'el' include the words voxel[4] and texel.[4] The word pix appeared in Variety magazine
headlines in 1932, as an abbreviation for the word pictures, in reference to movies.[5] By 1938, "pix" was
being used in reference to still pictures by photojournalists.[6]

The word "pixel" was first published in 1965 by Frederic C. Billingsley of JPL, to describe the picture
elements of scanned images from space probes to the Moon and Mars.[7] Billingsley had learned the word
from Keith E. McFarland, at the Link Division of General Precision in Palo Alto, who in turn said he did
not know where it originated. McFarland said simply it was "in use at the time" (circa 1963).[6]

The concept of a "picture element" dates to the earliest days of television, for example as "Bildpunkt" (the
German word for pixel, literally 'picture point') in the 1888 German patent of Paul Nipkow. According to
various etymologies, the earliest publication of the term picture element itself was in Wireless World
magazine in 1927,[8] though it had been used earlier in various U.S. patents filed as early as 1911.[9]

Some authors explain pixel as picture cell, as early as 1972.[10] In graphics and in image and video
processing, pel is often used instead of pixel.[11] For example, IBM used it in their Technical Reference for
the original PC.

Pixels, abbreviated as "px", are also a unit of measurement commonly used in graphic and web design,
equivalent to roughly 1 ⁄96 inch (0.26 mm). This measurement is used to make sure a given element will
display as the same size no matter what screen resolution views it.[12]

Pixilation, spelled with a second i, is an unrelated filmmaking technique that dates to the beginnings of
cinema, in which live actors are posed frame by frame and photographed to create stop-motion animation.
An archaic British word meaning "possession by spirits (pixies)", the term has been used to describe the
animation process since the early 1950s; various animators, including Norman McLaren and Grant Munro,
are credited with popularizing it.[13]

Technical

A pixel does not need to be rendered as a small square. This image shows alternative
ways of reconstructing an image from a set of pixel values, using dots, lines, or smooth
filtering.

A pixel is generally thought of as the smallest single component of a digital image. However, the definition
is highly context-sensitive. For example, there can be "printed pixels" in a page, or pixels carried by
electronic signals, or represented by digital values, or pixels on a display device, or pixels in a digital
camera (photosensor elements). This list is not exhaustive and, depending on context, synonyms include
pel, sample, byte, bit, dot, and spot. Pixels can be used as a unit of measure such as: 2400 pixels per inch,
640 pixels per line, or spaced 10 pixels apart.
The measures dots per inch (dpi) and pixels per inch (ppi) are sometimes used interchangeably, but have
distinct meanings, especially for printer devices, where dpi is a measure of the printer's density of dot (e.g.
ink droplet) placement.[14] For example, a high-quality photographic image may be printed with 600 ppi on
a 1200 dpi inkjet printer.[15] Even higher dpi numbers, such as the 4800 dpi quoted by printer
manufacturers since 2002, do not mean much in terms of achievable resolution.[16]

The more pixels used to represent an image, the closer the result can resemble the original. The number of
pixels in an image is sometimes called the resolution, though resolution has a more specific definition. Pixel
counts can be expressed as a single number, as in a "three-megapixel" digital camera, which has a nominal
three million pixels, or as a pair of numbers, as in a "640 by 480 display", which has 640 pixels from side
to side and 480 from top to bottom (as in a VGA display) and therefore has a total number of 640 × 480 =
307,200 pixels, or 0.3 megapixels.

The pixels, or color samples, that form a digitized image (such as a JPEG file used on a web page) may or
may not be in one-to-one correspondence with screen pixels, depending on how a computer displays an
image. In computing, an image composed of pixels is known as a bitmapped image or a raster image. The
word raster originates from television scanning patterns, and has been widely used to describe similar
halftone printing and storage techniques.

Sampling patterns

For convenience, pixels are normally arranged in a regular two-dimensional grid. By using this
arrangement, many common operations can be implemented by uniformly applying the same operation to
each pixel independently. Other arrangements of pixels are possible, with some sampling patterns even
changing the shape (or kernel) of each pixel across the image. For this reason, care must be taken when
acquiring an image on one device and displaying it on another, or when converting image data from one
pixel format to another.

For example:

LCD screens typically use a staggered grid, where

the red, green, and blue components are sampled
at slightly different locations. Subpixel rendering is
a technology which takes advantage of these
differences to improve the rendering of text on LCD Text rendered using ClearType using
screens. subpixels
The vast majority of color digital cameras use a
Bayer filter, resulting in a regular grid of pixels
where the color of each pixel depends on its position on the grid.
A clipmap uses a hierarchical sampling pattern, where the size of the support of each pixel
depends on its location within the hierarchy.
Warped grids are used when the underlying geometry is non-planar, such as images of the
earth from space.[17]
The use of non-uniform grids is an active research area, attempting to bypass the traditional
Nyquist limit.[18]
Pixels on computer monitors are normally "square" (that is, have equal horizontal and
vertical sampling pitch); pixels in other systems are often "rectangular" (that is, have unequal
horizontal and vertical sampling pitch – oblong in shape), as are digital video formats with
diverse aspect ratios, such as the anamorphic widescreen formats of the Rec. 601 digital
video standard.
Resolution of computer monitors

Computers can use pixels to display an image, often an abstract image that represents a GUI. The resolution
of this image is called the display resolution and is determined by the video card of the computer. LCD
monitors also use pixels to display an image, and have a native resolution. Each pixel is made up of triads,
with the number of these triads determining the native resolution. On some CRT monitors, the beam sweep
rate may be fixed, resulting in a fixed native resolution. Most CRT monitors do not have a fixed beam
sweep rate, meaning they do not have a native resolution at all - instead they have a set of resolutions that
are equally well supported. To produce the sharpest images possible on an LCD, the user must ensure the
display resolution of the computer matches the native resolution of the monitor.

Resolution of telescopes

The pixel scale used in astronomy is the angular distance between two objects on the sky that fall one pixel
apart on the detector (CCD or infrared chip). The scale s measured in radians is the ratio of the pixel
spacing p and focal length f of the preceding optics, s=p/f. (The focal length is the product of the focal ratio
by the diameter of the associated lens or mirror.) Because p is usually expressed in units of arcseconds per
pixel, because 1 radian equals 180/π*3600≈206,265 arcseconds, and because diameters are often given in
millimeters and pixel sizes in micrometers which yields another factor of 1,000, the formula is often quoted
as s=206p/f.

Bits per pixel

The number of distinct colors that can be represented by a pixel depends on the number of bits per pixel
(bpp). A 1 bpp image uses 1-bit for each pixel, so each pixel can be either on or off. Each additional bit
doubles the number of colors available, so a 2 bpp image can have 4 colors, and a 3 bpp image can have 8
colors:

1 bpp, 21 = 2 colors (monochrome)

2 bpp, 22 = 4 colors
3 bpp, 23 = 8 colors
4 bpp, 24 = 16 colors
8 bpp, 28 = 256 colors
16 bpp, 216 = 65,536 colors ("Highcolor" )
24 bpp, 224 = 16,777,216 colors ("Truecolor")

For color depths of 15 or more bits per pixel, the depth is normally the sum of the bits allocated to each of
the red, green, and blue components. Highcolor, usually meaning 16 bpp, normally has five bits for red and
blue each, and six bits for green, as the human eye is more sensitive to errors in green than in the other two
primary colors. For applications involving transparency, the 16 bits may be divided into five bits each of
red, green, and blue, with one bit left for transparency. A 24-bit depth allows 8 bits per component. On
some systems, 32-bit depth is available: this means that each 24-bit pixel has an extra 8 bits to describe its
opacity (for purposes of combining with another image).

Subpixels
Many display and image-acquisition systems are not capable of
displaying or sensing the different color channels at the same site.
Therefore, the pixel grid is divided into single-color regions that
contribute to the displayed or sensed color when viewed at a distance.
In some displays, such as LCD, LED, and plasma displays, these
single-color regions are separately addressable elements, which have
come to be known as subpixels, mostly RGB colors.[19] For
example, LCDs typically divide each pixel vertically into three
subpixels. When the square pixel is divided into three subpixels, each
subpixel is necessarily rectangular. In display industry terminology,
subpixels are often referred to as pixels, as they are the basic
addressable elements in a viewpoint of hardware, and hence pixel Geometry of color elements of
circuits rather than subpixel circuits is used. various CRT and LCD displays;
phosphor dots in the color display
Most digital camera image sensors use single-color sensor regions, for of CRTs (top row) bear no relation
example using the Bayer filter pattern, and in the camera industry to pixels or subpixels.
these are known as pixels just like in the display industry, not
subpixels.

For systems with subpixels, two different approaches can be taken:

The subpixels can be ignored, with full-color pixels being treated as the smallest
addressable imaging element; or
The subpixels can be included in rendering calculations, which requires more analysis and
processing time, but can produce apparently superior images in some cases.

This latter approach, referred to as subpixel rendering, uses knowledge of pixel geometry to manipulate the
three colored subpixels separately, producing an increase in the apparent resolution of color displays. While
CRT displays use red-green-blue-masked phosphor areas, dictated by a mesh grid called the shadow mask,
it would require a difficult calibration step to be aligned with the displayed pixel raster, and so CRTs do not
currently use subpixel rendering.

The concept of subpixels is related to samples.

Megapixel
A megapixel (MP) is a million pixels; the term is used not
only for the number of pixels in an image but also to express
the number of image sensor elements of digital cameras or the
number of display elements of digital displays. For example, a
camera that makes a 2048 × 1536 pixel image (3,145,728
finished image pixels) typically uses a few extra rows and
columns of sensor elements and is commonly said to have
"3.2 megapixels" or "3.4 megapixels", depending on whether Diagram of common sensor resolutions of
the number reported is the "effective" or the "total" pixel digital cameras including megapixel
count.[20] values

Pixel is used to define the resolution of a photo. Photo

resolution is calculated by multiplying the width and height of a sensor in pixel.
Digital cameras use photosensitive electronics, either charge-coupled device (CCD) or complementary
metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) image sensors, consisting of a large number of single sensor
elements, each of which records a measured intensity level. In most digital cameras, the sensor array is
covered with a patterned color filter mosaic having red, green, and blue regions in the Bayer filter
arrangement so that each sensor element can record the intensity of a single primary color of light. The
camera interpolates the color information of neighboring sensor elements, through a process called
demosaicing, to create the final image. These sensor elements are often called "pixels", even though they
only record 1 channel (only red or green or blue) of the final color image. Thus, two of the three color
channels for each sensor must be interpolated and a so-called N-megapixel camera that produces an N-
megapixel image provides only one-third of the information that an image of the same size could get from a
scanner. Thus, certain color contrasts may look fuzzier than others, depending on the allocation of the
primary colors (green has twice as many elements as red or blue in the Bayer arrangement).

DxO Labs invented the Perceptual MegaPixel (P-MPix) to measure the sharpness that a camera produces
when paired to a particular lens – as opposed to the MP a manufacturer states for a camera product, which
is based only on the camera's sensor. The new P-MPix claims to be a more accurate and relevant value for
photographers to consider when weighing up camera sharpness.[21] As of mid-2013, the Sigma 35 mm
f/1.4 DG HSM lens mounted on a Nikon D800 has the highest measured P-MPix. However, with a value
of 23 MP, it still wipes off more than one-third of the D800's 36.3 MP sensor.[22] In August 2019, Xiaomi
released Redmi Note 8 Pro as the world's first smartphone with 64 MP camera.[23] On December 12, 2019
Samsung released Samsung A71 with also a 64 MP camera.[24] In late 2019, Xiaomi announced the first
camera phone with 108MP 1/1.33-inch across sensor. The sensor is larger than most of bridge camera with
1/2.3-inch across sensor.[25]

One new method to add megapixels has been introduced in a Micro Four Thirds System camera, which
only uses a 16 MP sensor but can produce a 64 MP RAW (40 MP JPEG) image by making two exposures,
shifting the sensor by a half pixel between them. Using a tripod to take level multi-shots within an instance,
the multiple 16 MP images are then generated into a unified 64 MP image.[26]

See also
Computer display standard Pixel art
Dexel Pixel art scaling algorithms
Gigapixel image Pixel aspect ratio
Image resolution Pixelation
Intrapixel and Interpixel processing Pixelization
LCD crosstalk Point (typography)
PenTile matrix family Glossary of video terms
Pixel advertising Voxel

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External links
A Pixel Is Not A Little Square (http://alvyray.com/Memos/CG/Microsoft/6_pixel.pdf): Microsoft
Memo by computer graphics pioneer Alvy Ray Smith.
Video of Lyon's talk on pixel history (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D6n2Esh4jDY) at
the Computer History Museum
Square and non-Square Pixels (http://lurkertech.com/lg/pixelaspect/): Technical info on pixel
aspect ratios of modern video standards (480i, 576i, 1080i, 720p), plus software
implications.
 120 Megapixel is here now (http://www.gigapixel360.com): A lot of information about
MegaPixel and Gigapixel.
How a TV Works in Slow Motion - The Slow Mo Guys (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3
BJU2drrtCM) – YouTube video by The Slow Mo Guys

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