CHAPTER-10 ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION AND WEATHER SYSTEM

This chapter deals with

Atmospheric pressure, vertical variation pressure, horizontal distribution of pressure, world
distribution of sea level pressure, factors affecting the velocity and direction of wind( pressure
gradient force, frictional force, carioles force, pressure and wind, ) general circulation of the
atmosphere, ENSO seasonal wind, local winds land and sea breezes mountain and valley winds,
air masses , fronts, exratropical cyclone tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, tornadoes.

The weight of a column of air

contained in a unit area from the
mean sea level to the top of the
atmosphere is called the
atmospheric pressure. The
atmospheric pressure is expressed in
units of milibar. At sea level the
average atmospheric pressure is
1,013.2 milibar. Due to gravity the
air at the surface is denser and
hence has higher pressure. Air
pressure is measured with the help of
a mercury barometer or the aneroid
barometer.

The pressure decreases with height. At any elevation it varies from place to place and its variation is
the primary cause of air motion, i.e. wind which moves from high pressure areas to low pressure
areas.
Vertical Variation of Pressure
In the lower atmosphere the pressure decreases rapidly with height. The decrease
amounts to about 1 mb for each 10 m increase in elevation. It does not always decrease at the same
rate. Table 10.1 gives the average pressure and temperature at selected levels of elevation for a
standard atmosphere.
Table 10.1 : Standard Pressure and
Temperature at Selected Levels

The vertical pressure gradient force is much

larger than that of the horizontal pressure
gradient.
But, it is generally balanced by a nearly
equal but opposite gravitational force.
Hence, we do not experience strong upward
winds.
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure
Small differences in pressure are highly
significant in terms of the wind direction and velocity.
Horizontal distribution of pressure is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. Isobars are lines
connecting places having equal pressure. In order to eliminate the effect of altitude on pressure, it
is measured at any station after being reduced to sea level for purposes of comparison.

World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure

The world distribution of sea level pressure in January and July has been shown in Figures 10.2 and
10.3. Near the equator the sea level pressure is low and the area is known as equatorial low.
Along 30° N and 30 °S found the high-pressure areas known as the subtropical highs.
Further pole wards along 60°N and 60°S, the low-pressure belts are termed as the sub polar lows.
Near the poles the pressure is high and it is known as the polar high.
These pressure belts are not permanent in nature. They oscillate with the apparent movement of
the sun. In the northern hemisphere in winter they move southwards and in the summer northwards.

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Forces Affecting the Velocity and
Direction of Wind
You already know that the air is set in
motion due to the differences in
atmospheric pressure.
The air in motion is called wind. The
wind blows from high pressure to low
pressure. addition, rotation of the
earth also affects the wind movement.
The force exerted by the rotation of
the earth is known as the Coriolis
force.

The horizontal winds near the earth

surface respond to the combined
effect of three forces – the pressure
gradient force, the frictional force
and the Carioles‟ force. In addition,
the gravitational force acts
downward.

Pressure
Gradient Force

The differences in atmospheric pressure produces a force. The rate of change of pressure with
respect to distance is the pressure gradient. The pressure gradient is strong where the isobars are
close to each other and is weak where the isobars are apart.

 It affects the speed of the wind. It is greatest at

the surface and its influence generally extends up to an
elevation of 1 - 3 km. Over the sea surface the friction is
minimal.

Coriolis Force

The rotation of the earth about its axis

affects the direction of the wind. This
force is called the Coriolis force after
the French physicist who described it in
1844. It deflects the wind to the right
direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The deflection is
more when the wind velocity is high. The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of
latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator. The Coriolis force acts
perpendicular to the

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 pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient
force is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher
the pressure gradient force, the more is the
velocity of the wind and the larger is the
deflection in the direction of wind. As a result
of these two forces operating perpendicular to
each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind
blows around it. At the equator, the Coriolis
force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular
to the isobars. The low pressure gets filled
instead of getting intensified. That is the reason
why tropical cyclones are not formed near the
equator.

Pressure and Wind

The velocity and
direction of the wind
are the net result of the wind generating forces. The winds in
the upper atmosphere, 2 - 3 km above the surface, are free
from frictional effect of the surface and are controlled mainly by
the pressure gradient and the Coriolis force. When isobars are
straight and when there is no
friction, the pressure gradient force is balanced by the
Coriolis force and the resultant wind blows parallel to the isobar.
This wind is known as the geostrophic wind .

 Figure 10.4 : Geostrophic Wind

The wind circulation around a low is called cyclonic circulation.

Around a high it is called anti cyclonic circulation.

The direction of winds around such systems changes according to their location in
different hemispheres
(Table 10.2).The wind
circulation at the earth‘s
surface
closely related to the
wind circulation at
higher level. Generally,
over low pressure area
the air will converge and
rise. Over high pressure
area the air will subside
from above and diverge
at the surface (part from
convergence, some
eddies, convection
currents, orographic
uplift and uplift along
fronts cause the rising of
air, which is essential for
the formation of clouds
and precipitation.

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 General
circulation of the
atmosphere

The pattern of planetary

winds largely depends on
: (i) latitudinal variation of
atmospheric heating;
(ii) emergence of pressure
belts;
(iii)the migration of belts
following apparent path of
the sun;
(iv) the distribution of
continents and oceans;
(v) the rotation of earth.
The pattern of the
movement of the planetary
winds is called the general
circulation of the
atmosphere. The general
circulation of the
atmosphere also sets in
motion the ocean water
circulation which
influences the earth‘s
climate. A schematic description of the general circulation is shown in Figure 10.6. The air at the
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) rises because of convection caused by high insolation and a
low pressure is created.
The winds from the tropics converge at this low pressure zone.
The converged air rises along with the convective cell.
It reaches the top of the troposphere up to an altitude of 14 km. and moves towards the poles. This
causes accumulation of air at about 30 N and S.
Part of the accumulated air sinks to the ground and forms a subtropical high. Another reason for
sinking is the cooling of air when it reaches 30 N and S latitudes.
Down below near the land surface the air flows towards the equator as the easterlies.
The easterlies from either side of the equator converge in the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ).
Such circulations from the surface upwards and vice-versa are called cells.
Such a cell in the tropics is called Hadley Cell.
In the middle latitudes the circulation is that of sinking cold air that comes from the poles and the
rising warm air that blows from the subtropical high. At the surface these winds are called
westerlies and the cell is known as the Ferrel cell. At polar latitudes the cold dense air subsides
near the poles and blows towards middle latitudes as the polar easterlies. This cell is called the
polar cell.

General Atmospheric Circulation and its Effects on Oceans

Warming and cooling of the Pacific Ocean is most important in terms of general atmospheric
circulation. The warm water of the central Pacific Ocean slowly drifts towards South American coast
and replaces the cool Peruvian current. Such appearance of warm water off the coast of Peru is
known as the El Nino. The El Nino event is closely associated with the pressure changes in the
Central Pacific and Australia. This change in pressure condition over Pacific is known as the southern
oscillation. The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation and El Nino is known as ENSO. In the
years when the ENSO is strong, large-scale variations in weather occur over the world. The arid
west coast of South America receives heavy rainfall, drought occurs in Australia and sometimes in
India and floods in China. This phenomenon is closely monitored and is used for long range
forecasting in major parts of the world.

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  Seasonal Wind

The pattern of wind circulation is modified indifferent seasons due to the shifting of regions of
maximum heating, pressure and wind belts. The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed in
the monsoons, especially over southeast Asia.

SEASONAL WIND LOCAL WIND

The other local deviations from the general circulation system are as follows.

 Local Winds

Differences in the heating and cooling of earth surfaces and the cycles those develop daily or
annually can create several common, local or regional winds.

Land and Sea Breezes

As explained earlier, the land and sea absorb and transfer heat differently. During the day the land
heats up faster and becomes warmer than the sea. Therefore, over the land the air rises giving rise
to a low pressure area, whereas the sea is relatively cool and the pressure over sea is relatively
high. Thus, pressure gradient from sea to land is created and the wind blows from the sea to the
land as the sea breeze. In the night the reversal of condition takes place. The land loses heat faster
and is cooler than the sea. The pressure gradient is from the land to the sea and hence land breeze
results (Figure 10.7).
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Figure 10.7 : Land and sea breezes

Mountain and Valley Winds

In mountainous regions, during the day the slopes get heated up and air moves upslope and to fill
the resulting gap the air from the valley blows up the valley. This wind is known as the valley
breeze. During the night the slopes get cooled and the dense air descends into the valley as the
mountain wind. The cool air, of the high plateaus and ice fields draining into the valley is called
katabatic wind. Another
type of warm wind occurs on the leeward side of the mountain ranges. The moisture in these winds,
while crossing the mountain ranges condense and precipitate. When it descends down the leeward
side of the slope the dry air gets warmed up by adiabatic process. This dry air may melt the snow in
a short time.
Air mass

When the air remains

over a homogenous area
for a sufficiently longer
time, it acquires the
characteristics of the
area. The homogenous
regions can be the vast
ocean surface or vast
plains. The air with
distinctive
characteristics in terms
of temperature and
humidity is called an air
mass.
It is defined as a large
body of air having little
horizontal variation in temperature and moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses
form, are called the source regions.

The air masses are classified according to the source regions. There are five major source regions.
These are:
(i) Warm tropical and subtropical oceans;
(ii) The subtropical hot deserts;
(iii) The relatively cold high latitude oceans;
(iv) The very cold snow covered continents in high latitudes;
(v) Permanently ice covered continents in the Arctic and Antarctica. Accordingly,
following types of air masses are recognised:
(i) Maritime tropical (mT);
(ii) Continental tropical (cT);
Maritime polar (mP);
(iv) Continental polar (cP);
(iv) Continental arctic (cA).
(v) Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are cold.

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 Fronts
When two different air
masses meet, the
boundary zone
between them is
called a front.
The process of
formation of the fronts
is known as
frontogenesis. There
are four types of
fronts:
(a) Cold; (b) Warm;
(c) Stationary; (d)
Occluded.
When the front
remains stationary, it
is called a stationary
front.
When the cold air
moves towards the
warm air mass, its
contact zone is called
the cold front,
whereas if the warm
air mass moves
towards the cold air
mass, the contact zone
is a warm front. If an
air mass is fully lifted
above the land
surface, it is called
the occluded front.

The fronts occur in middle latitudes and

are characterized by steep gradient in
temperature and pressure. They bring
abrupt changes in temperature and cause
the air to rise to form clouds and cause
precipitation.

Extra Tropical Cyclones

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The systems developing in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics are called the middle
latitude or extra tropical cyclones.

 location of temperate cyclones

The passage of front causes abrupt changes in the weather conditions over the area in the middle
and high latitudes. Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front.
Initially, the front is stationary. In the northern hemisphere, warm air blows from the south and cold
air from the north of the front.
When the pressure drops along the front, the warm air moves northwards and the cold air move
towards, south setting in motion an anticlockwise cyclonic circulation.
The cyclonic circulation leads to a well developed extra tropical cyclone, with a warm front and a
cold front.
Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and
large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. This is one of
the most devastating natural calamities. They are known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean,
Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South China Sea, and Willy-willies
in the Western Australia.
Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.
The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
(i) Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C;
(ii) (ii) Presence of the Coriolis force;
(iii) Small variations in the vertical wind speed;
(iv) A pre-existing weak low-pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation;
(v) Upper divergence above the sea level system.
The energy that intensifies the storm, comes from the condensation process in the towering
cumulonimbus clouds, surrounding the centre of the storm. With continuous supply of moisture from
the sea, the storm is further strengthened. On reaching the land the moisture supply is cut off and
the storm dissipates. The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast is called the landfall of
the cyclone. The cyclones, which cross 20 N latitude generally, reserve and they are more
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destructive. A schematic representation of the vertical structure of a mature tropical cyclonic storm
is shown in Figure given below

Physical Structure of Tropical Cyclone

To best understand the structure of tropical cyclones, you may find useful to briefly
review the concept of thermal wind and vorticity

Structure of a tropical cyclone. (Source: Britannica)

A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the strong spirally circulating wind around the centre,
called the eye. The diameter of the circulating system can vary between 150 and 250 km.
The eye is a region of calm with subsiding air. Around the eye is the eye wall, where there is a
strong spiraling ascent of air to greater height reaching the tropopause. The wind reaches maximum
velocity in this region, reaching as high as 250 km per hour. Torrential rain occurs here. From the
eye wall rain bands may radiate and trains of cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds may drift into the
outer region. The diameter of the storm over the Bay of Bengal, Arabian sea and Indian ocean is
between 600 - 1200 km. The system moves slowly about 300 - 500 km per day.
The cyclone creates storm surges and they inundate the coastal low lands. The storm peters out on
the land.

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  Thunderstorms and Tornadoes

Other severe local storms are thunderstorms and tornadoes. They are of short duration, occurring
over a small area but are violent. Thunderstorms are caused by intense convection on moist hot
days.
From severe thunderstorms sometimes spiralling wind descends like a trunk of an elephant with
great force, with very low pressure at the centre, causing massive destruction on its way. Such a
phenomenon is called a tornado. Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes. The tornado over
the sea is called water sprouts.

These violent storms are the

manifestation of the
atmosphere‘s adjustments to
varying energy distribution.
The potential and heat
energies are converted into
kinetic energy in these
storms and the restless
atmosphere again returns to
its stable state.

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