1

CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

1 REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

OVERVIEW
What have you learned during your geotechnical engineering 1 course? Did you find it easy to
understand and memorize all those formulas that have been discuss to you by your instructor? Or did you
feel the difficulty in coping with those sample problems in soil mechanics? This module takes you into the
fundamental concepts in foundation engineering which some have been discussed already in soil
mechanics. This will be the review of related concepts in foundation engineering.
You may find it hard to study this module in your own but you must take time to read and understand
every details that is written in this module. This will help you in dealing with complex problems and exercises
on the succeeding modules.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you are expected to:

1. Define geotechnical engineering and foundation engineering.
2. Solve problems using the methods of classification of soil.
3. Compute the shear strength of soil.
4. Identify the appropriate formula in soil mechanics for solving problems in foundation engineering.

KEY TERMS

AASHTO Method Foundation Engineering

Cohesive Soils Geotechnical Engineering
Consolidated undrained test (CU test) Shear Strength
Consolidation Tri-axial test
Direct shear test Unconsolidated undrained test (UU test)
Drained Condition Undrained Condition
Effective Stress USCS Method

1.1. WHAT IS GEOTECHNICAL AND FOUNDATION ENGINEERING?

Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering
behavior of earth materials. It uses the principles and methods of soil mechanics and rock mechanics for the
solution of engineering problems and the design of engineering works. It also relies on knowledge
of geology, hydrology, geophysics, and other related sciences.
Geotechnical engineering is important in civil engineering, but also has applications
in military, mining, petroleum, coastal, ocean, and other engineering disciplines that are concerned with
construction occurring on the surface or within the ground, both onshore and offshore. The fields of
geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are closely related, and have large areas of overlap.
However, while geotechnical engineering is a specialty of civil engineering, engineering geology is a
specialty of geology: they share the same principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics, but may differ
in terms of objects, scale of application, and approaches.
A foundation is the element of a structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from
the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep. Foundation
engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics (Geotechnical engineering) in the
design of foundation elements of structures.
Foundations provide the structure's stability from the ground:
1) To distribute the weight of the structure over a large area in order to avoid overloading the
underlying soil (possibly causing unequal settlement).
2) To anchor the structure against natural forces including earthquakes, floods, frost heaves,
tornadoes and wind.
3) To provide a level surface for construction.
4) To anchor the structure deeply into the ground, increasing its stability and preventing
overloading.
5) To prevent lateral movements of the supported structure (in some cases).
The design and the construction of a well-performing foundation must possess some basic
requirements:

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

1) The design and the construction of the foundation is done such that it can sustain as well as
transmit the dead and the imposed loads to the soil. This transfer has to be carried out without
resulting in any form of settlement that can result in any form of stability issues for the structure.
2) Differential settlements can be avoided by having a rigid base for the foundation. These issues
are more pronounced in areas where the superimposed loads are not uniform in nature.
3) Based on the soil and area it is recommended to have a deeper foundation so that it can guard
any form of damage or distress. These are mainly caused due to the problem of shrinkage and
swelling because of temperature changes.
4) The location of the foundation chosen must be an area that is not affected or influenced by future
works or factors.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE 1

INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following questions. Write your answer in your notebook. Please observe
cleanliness to your work.
1) What is the relationship of these terms, geotechnical and foundation engineering?
2) As an engineering student, why is it important to study foundation engineering?
3) As a future civil engineer, discuss some factors to be consider in designing foundation.

1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL

Foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, towers, dams, oil tanks generally requires the
knowledge of the behavior and stress related deformability of the soil that will support the foundation system
and the geological conditions of the soil under consideration. Structural designers must have a thorough
knowledge of the geology of the area where the structure must be constructed especially the origin and the
nature of the soil stratification and groundwater conditions. Foundation engineering is actually a combination
of soil mechanics and engineering geology. Significant engineering properties of soil deposit such as
strength, compressibility, soil density, water content, void ratio, degree of saturation are used in calculation
to determine the bearing capacity of foundations, to estimate foundation settlement and stability of earth
slopes. This information helps to define the condition of a soil deposit for its suitability as a foundation of
construction material. For this reason, an understanding of the terminology and definitions relating to soil
composition is fundamental to the study of soil mechanics.
Soils maybe classified as follows:
1) Cohesionless soils – the soil particles do not tend to stick together. Examples of cohesionless soils
are gravel, sand and silt.
2) Cohesive soil - the particles do stick together, the result of water particle interaction and attractive
forces between particles. They are both sticky and plastic. Common of this type of soil is that of clay.
3) Organic soil-"They are typically spongy, crumbly and compressible. This type of soil is undesirable
for use in supporting structures.
Common type of cohesionless soils:
1) Gravel – It has particles size greater than 2(mm)
2) Sand – It has particle sizes that ranges from 0.1(mm) to 2(mm)
3) Silt – it has particles size that ranges from 0.005(mm) to 0.1(mm)
Common type of cohesive soil:
1) Clay -it has a particle size less than 0.005(mm). This type of soil cannot be separated by sieve
analysis into size categories because no practical sieve can be made with openings so small, instead
particle sizes maybe determined by observing settling velocities of the particles in a water mixture.

Granular Soils
Engineering properties of granular soils (except for loose sand) generally possess excellent
engineering properties. They make outstanding foundation materials tor supporting roads and structures
because they exhibit large bearing capacities and experience relatively small settlements. Granular soils
also makes excellent backfill materials for retaining walls because they are easily drained and they exert
small lateral earth pressures. Granular soils make superior embankment material due to high shear strengths
and ease of compaction. Due to high permeability's of granular soils, they are poor and unacceptable for use
as core materials for either dikes or dams.

Cohesive Soils

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

This type of soil exhibit generally undesirable engineering properties. They tend to have lower shear
strengths and loose shear strength further upon wetting. They developed large lateral pressures and have
low permeability's, for these reasons they are poor materials for retaining wall backfills. Being impervious,
they make better core materials for earthen dams and dikes.

Organic soils
They are typically spongy, crumbly and compressible. They possess low shear strength and are
essentially unacceptable for supporting foundations.

1.3. METHODS OF SOIL CLASSIFICATION

1. AASHTO Method – (American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials)
Group Index = this utilizes the percent of soil passing a No. 200 sieve the liquid limit and the plasticity
index.
GI = (F – 35) [0.2 + 0.005 (LL – 40)] + 0.01 (F – 15) (P.L. – 10)
Where F = percentage of soil passing No. 200 sieve
L..L. = Liquid limit
P.I = Plasticity index
The group index as computed is rounded off to the nearest whole numbers. If the group index is
either zero or negative, the number zero is used as the group index. When computing the group index for
soils belonging to group A-2-6 and A-2-7, use the partial group index to P.I. which is equal to
G.I = 0.01 (F – 15) (P.I – 10)

AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Table 1. Classification of Highway Subgrade Materials
General Granular Materials
Classification (35% or less of total sample passing No. 200)
Group A–1 A–2
Classification A-1-a A-1-b A–3 A-2-4 A-2-5 A-2-6 A-2-7
Sieve Analysis
(percent passing)
No. 10 50 max.
No. 40 30 max. 50 max. 51 min.
No. 200 15 max. 25 max. 10 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max. 35 max.
Characteristics of
fraction passing
No. 40
Liquid Limit 40 max. 41 min. 40 max. 41 min.
Plasticity Index 6 max. NP 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min.
Usual types of
significant Stone fragments, Fine
Silty or clayey gravel and sand
constituent gravel, and sand sand
materials
General subgrade
Excellent to good
rating

Silt Clay Materials

General Classification
(more than 35% of total sample passing No. 200)
A-7
Group Classification A-4 A-5 A–6 A-7-5a
A-7-6b
Sieve Analysis (percent passing)
No. 10
No. 40
No. 200 36 min. 36 min. 36 min. 36 min.
Characteristics of fraction
passing No. 40
Liquid Limit 40 max. 42 min. 40 max. 41 min.

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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

Plasticity Index 10 max. 10 max. 11 min. 11 min.

Usual types of significant constituent
Silty soils Clayey soils
materials
General subgrade rating Fair to poor
a
For A-7-5, PI < LL – 30
b
For A-7-6, PI > LL – 30

PROBLEM 1. (CE Board Nov 2005) From the given data, shows a sieve analysis of soil samples A, B, C.
PERCENTAGE PASSING OF SOIL SAMPLE
SIEVE NO. DIAMETER, mm
A B C
#4 4.760 100 100 100
#8 2.380 97 90 100
#10 2.000 92 77 78
#20 0.840 87 59 92
#40 0.420 53 51 84
#60 0.250 42 42 79
#100 0.149 26 35 70
#200 0.074 17 33 63
Characteristics of – 40 fraction
LL 35 46 47
PL 20 29 24
a) Classify soil A using AASHTO Method.
b) Classify soil B using AASHTO Method.
c) Classify soil C using AASHTO Method.

Solution
(a) Given: LL = 35 PL = 20
% passing sieve No. 200 17< 35%
P.I. = LL – PL = 35 – 20 = 15
From table 1, the soil is A-2-6
LL =40% max. > 35 and P.I. = 11 min. < 15
Use Partial Group Index:
G.I. = 0.01(F – 15) (P.I. – 10)
G.I. = 0.01(17 - 15)(15 – 10)
G.I. = 0.10 say 0
Therefore soil A is A-2-6(0)

(b) % passing sieve No. 200 = 33% < 35%

LL = 46% PL = 29%
P.I.= 46 – 29 = 17%
From table 1.
For A-2-7 soil:
LL 41 min. < 46% ok.
P.I.11 min. < 17%% ok.
Use Partial Group Index for A-2-7(soil)
G.I. = 0.01(F – 15) (PI – 10) = 0.01(33 15) (17- 10) = 1.26 say (1)
Therefore soil B is an A-2-7(1)

(c) % passing sieve No. 200 = 63% > 35%

LL = 47 LL = 24
P.I. = 47 – 24 = 23
LL – 30 = 47 – 30 = 17
23 > 17
The soil is A-7-6 (PI > LL – 30)

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

Group index = (F – 35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)] + 0.01(F – 15) (PI – 10)
= (63 – 35) [0.2 + 0.005(47- 40)] +0.01(63 – 15) (23 – 10)
G.I. = 12.82 say (13)
Therefore the soil is A-7-6 (13)

2. USCS Method – (Unified Soil Classification System)

Grain Size classification of Soil:

1) Coarse-grained (also referred to as granular soils) – gravel and sand will cad soil grains
coarser than 0.075(mm) or a No. 200 sieve size.
2) Fine-grained – silt and clay with soil grains finer than 0.075(mm) are fine- grained.
3) Highly Organic Soils – These contain large percentage of fibrous organic matter, such as peat,
and the particles of decomposed vegetation.

Table 2. Classification of Organic Fine-grained Soils

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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

Group Symbol Group Name

≥85% pass #200 Lean Clay
≥70% pass #200 %sand ≥ %gravel Lean Clay with Sand
70 - 84% pass #200
%sand < %gravel Lean clay with gravel
CL <15% gravel Sandy lean clay
%sand ≥ %gravel
≥15% gravel Sandy lean clay with gravel
50-69% pass #200
<15% sand Gravelly lean clay
%sand < %gravel
≥15% sand Gravelly lean clay with sand
≥85% pass #200 Silty clay
Liquid Limit < 50

≥70% pass #200 %sand ≥ %gravel Silty clay with sand

70 - 84% pass #200
%sand < %gravel Silty clay with gravel
CL - ML <15% gravel Sandy silty clay
%sand ≥ %gravel
≥15% gravel Sandy silty clay with gravel
50-69% pass #200
<15% sand Gravelly silty clay
%sand < %gravel
≥15% sand Gravelly silty clay with sand
≥85% pass #200 Silt
≥70% pass #200 %sand ≥ %gravel Silt with sand
70 - 84% pass #200
%sand < %gravel Silt with gravel
ML <15% gravel Sandy silt
%sand ≥ %gravel
≥15% gravel Sandy silt with gravel
50-69% pass #200
<15% sand Gravelly silt
%sand < %gravel
≥15% sand Gravelly silt with sand
≥85% pass #200 Fat clay
≥70% pass #200 %sand ≥ %gravel fat clay with sand
70 - 84% pass #200
%sand < %gravel Fat clay with gravel
CH <15% gravel Sandy fat clay
%sand ≥ %gravel
Liquid Limit ≥ 50

≥15% gravel Sandy fat clay with gravel

50-69% pass #200
<15% sand Gravelly fat clay
%sand < %gravel
≥15% sand Gravelly fat clay with sand
≥85% pass #200 Elastic silt
≥70% pass #200 %sand ≥ %gravel Elastic silt with sand
70 - 84% pass #200
%sand < %gravel Elastic silt with gravel
MH <15% gravel Sandy elastic silt
%sand ≥ %gravel
≥15% gravel Sandy elastic silt with gravel
50-69% pass #200
<15% sand Gravelly elastic silt
%sand < %gravel
≥15% sand Gravelly elastic silt with sand

Table 3. Classification of Organic Coarse-grained Soils

Group Symbol Group Name
<15% sand Well-graded gravel
1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 GW
Cu ≥ 4 ≥15% sand Well-graded gravel with sand
<5% pass #200
Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 <15% sand Poorly-graded gravel
GP
Cu < 4 ≥15% sand Poorly-graded gravel with sand
<15% sand Well-graded gravel with silt
Gravel (%sand < %gravel)

ML or MH GW-GM
1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 ≥15% sand Well-graded gravel with silt and sand
Cu ≥ 4 CL, CH, or <15% sand Well-graded gravel with clay (or silty clay)
GW-GC
CL-ML ≥15% sand Well-graded gravel with clay & sand (or silty clay & sand)
5 - 12% pass #200
<15% sand Poorly-graded gravel with silt
ML or MH GP-GM
Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 ≥15% sand Poorly-graded gravel with silt & sand
Cu < 4 CL, CH, or <15% sand Poorly graded gavel with clay (or silty clay)
GP-GC
CL-ML ≥15% sand Poorly-graded gravel with clay & sand (or silty clay & sand)
<15% sand Silty gravel
ML or MH GM
≥15% sand Silty garvel with sand
<15% sand Clayey gravel
>12% pass # 200 CL or CH GC
≥15% sand Clayey gravel with sand
<15% sand Silty, clayey gravel
CL-ML GC-GM
≥15% sand Silty, clayey gravel with sand
<15% gravel Well-graded sand
1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 SW
Cu ≥ 4 ≥15% gravel Well graded sand with gravel
<5% pass #200
Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 <15% gravel Poorly-graded sand
SP
Cu < 4 ≥15% gravel Poorly-graded sand with gravel
<15% gravel Well-graded sand with silt
ML or MH SW-SM
Sand (%sand ≥ %gravel)

1 ≤ Cc ≤ 3 ≥15% gravel Well-graded sand with silt and gravel

Cu ≥ 4 CL, CH, or <15% gravel Well-graded sand with clay (or silty clay)
SW-SC
CL-ML ≥15% gravel Well-graded sand with clay & gravel (or silty clay & gravel)
5 - 12% pass #200
<15% gravel Poorly-graded sand with silt
ML or MH SP-SM
Cc < 1 or Cc > 3 ≥15% gravel Poorly-graded sand with silt and gravel
Cu < 4 CL, CH, or <15% gravel Poorly-graded sand with clay (or silty clay)
SP-SC
CL-ML ≥15% gravel Poorly-graded sand with clay & gravel (or silty clay & gravel)
<15% gravel Silty sand
ML or MH SM
≥15% gravel Silty sand with gravel
<15% gravel Clayey Sand
>12% pass # 200 CL or CH SC
≥15% gravel Clayey sand with gravel
<15% gravel Silty, clayey sand
CL-ML SC-SM
≥15% gravel Silty, clayey snad with gravel

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

Several useful parameters which can be determined from the grain size distribution curves.
1) Effective Size (D10) = the diameter at which 10% passes.
2) Coefficient of Uniformity Cu = D60 / D10
3) Coefficient of Curvature Cc = (D30)2 / (D60 D10)
where D60 and D30 are the soil particle diameters corresponding to 60% and 30% respectively,
passing on the cumulative grain-size distribution curve.
In the case of cohesive soils, distribution of grain size is not determined by sieve analysis because
the particles are too small. Particle sizes maybe determined by the hydrometer method or by the use of
Atterberg Limits.

PROBLEM 2. (CE Board May 2007) From the given data, shows a sieve analysis of soil samples A, B, C.
PERCENTAGE PASSING OF SOIL SAMPLE
SIEVE NO. DIAMETER, mm
A B C
#4 4.760 90 100 100
#8 2.380 64 90 100
#10 2.000 54 77 98
#20 0.840 34 59 92
#40 0.420 22 51 84
#60 0.250 17 42 79
#100 0.149 9 35 70
#200 0.074 4 33 63
Characteristics of – 40 fraction
LL - 46 47
PL - 29 24
a) Classify soil A using USCS Method.
b) Classify soil B using USCS Method.
c) Classify soil C using USCS Method.
Solution:
FINES SAND GRAVEL
Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
#200 #4 3"
100

90

80

70
Percent Finer by Weight

60

Soil A
50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain Size (mm)

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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

#200 sieve = 4% < 50% Coarse Grain Soil

#4 sieve = 90%
% of gravel = 100 – 90 = 10%
% of sand = 90 – 4 = 86%
% of fines = 4%
% of sand is greater then % of gravel
4% < 5% pass #200 sieve
Cu = D60/ D10 Cc = (D30)2 / (D60)(D10)
Cu = 2.3 / 0.17 = 0.702 / (2.3)(0.17)
Cu = 13.52 > 6 = 1.25 < 3
From the table: (Use the tables for UCS method of classifying soil out of the computed criteria)
The soil is SW, 10% < 15% gravel
Therefore the soil is SW well graded sand

FINES SAND GRAVEL

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
#200 #4 3"
100

90

80

70
Percent Finer by Weight

60
Soil B
50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain Size (mm)

% passing sieve number = 33%

% retained sieve number 200 = 100 – 33 = 67% > 50%

Coarse Fraction = 100 – 33 = 67%

50% of coarse fraction = 0.50(67) = 33.5% < 100% (Soil is sand)

Classification of basis of percentage of fines:

%passing sieve number 200 = 33% > 12% (Soil is either SM or SC)

PI = LL – PL = 46 – 29 = 17 > 7
Note: For P.I. > 7, The soil is SC
For P.I. < 4, The soil is SM
Therefore, the soil is SC (Clayey Sands, Sand Clay Mixtures)

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

FINES SAND GRAVEL

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
#200 #4 3"
100

90

80

70
Percent Finer by Weight

60
Soil C
50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain Size (mm)

% passing sieve #200 = 63% > 50% (fine grained soil)

LL = 47 < 50 (Soil is either Ml, Cl, or OL)
Refer to Plasticity Chart Above. Then plot the value of LL and PI
PI = LL – PL = 47 – 24 = 23 (It plots above A-Line under CL)
Therefore the soil is CL.

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE 2

INSTRUCTIONS: Solve the following problems. Write your answer and solution in your notebook. Please
observe cleanliness to your work.
1) Classify the given soil to be used as highway subgrade using the AASHTO method by using the table for
its classification.
Sieve analysis % finer:
NO. 10 sieve = 47%
No. 40 sieve = 28%
No. 200 sieve = 9%
Plasticity for the minus No. 40 fraction
Liquid Limit = 0
Plasticity Index = 2%

2) From the figure shown in the grain-size distribution curve,

a) Compute the value of coefficient of uniformity.
b) Compute the value of coefficient of curvature.
c) Classify the soil using Unified Classification System.

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 10
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

FINES SAND GRAVEL

Fine Medium Coarse Fine Coarse
#200 #4 3"
100

90

80

70
Percent Finer by Weight

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Grain Size (mm)

1.4. GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS OF SOILS

The grain size distribution of coarse soil is generally determined by means Size of sieve analysis.
For a finer grained soil, the grain size distribution can be obtained by means of 'hydrometer analysis. A Sieve
analysis is conducted by taking a measured amount of dry, well-pulverized soil and passing it through a
stack of progressively finer sieve with a pan at the bottom, as shown on the figure below.
The amount of soil retained on each sieve is measured and the cumulative percentage of soil
passing through each sieve is calculated. This percentage is referred to as percent finer.

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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

Table 1. Standard Sieve Number and Their Sieve Openings

U.S. Sieve Size Size Opening (mm)

4 4.75
10 2.00
20 0.850
40 0.425
60 0.250
100 0.150
200 0.075

PROBLEM 3. An air-dry soil sample weighing 2000 grams (g) is brought to the
soils laboratory for mechanical grain-size analysis. The laboratory data are as
follows:
U.S. Sieve Size Size Opening (mm) Mass Retained (g)
3/4 in. 19 0
3/8 in. 9.50 156
No. 4 4.75 306
No. 10 2.00 610
No. 40 0.425 650
No. 100 0.150 220
No. 200 0.075 48
Pan 10
2000
a) Compute the percentage retained in the pan.
b) Compute the cumulative percentage retained in sieve No.4.
c) Compute the percentage passing in sieve No.100
Solution:
(a) Percentage retained in the pan.
10
= (100)
2000
= 0.50%
(b) Cumulative percentage retained in. sieve No.4.
0
Percentage retained on 3/4 in. sieve = (100) = 0%
2000
156
Percentage retained on 3/8 in. sieve = (100) = 7.8%
2000
306
Percentage retained on No. 4 sieve = (100) = 15.3%
2000
610
Percentage retained on 3/4 in. sieve = (100) = 30.5%
2000
650
Percentage retained on 3/4 in. sieve = (100) = 32.5%
2000
220
Percentage retained on 3/4 in. sieve = (100) = 11.00%
2000
48
Percentage retained on 3/4 in. sieve = (100) = 2.4%
2000
10
Percentage retained on 3/4 in. sieve = (100) = 0.50%
2000

Sieve No. Size Opening Mass Percentage Cumulative Percentage

Retained Retained Percentage Retained Passing

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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

3/4 in. 19 0 0 0 100

3/8 in. 9.50 156 7.8 7.8 92.2
No. 4 4.75 306 15.3 23.10 76.90
No. 10 2.00 610 30.5 53.6 46.40
No. 40 0.425 650 32.5 86.10 13.90
No. 100 0.150 220 11.0 97.10 2.90
No. 200 0.075 48 2.4 99.50 0.50
Pan 10 0.5 100

Cumulative percentage retained on sieve No. 4 = 23.10%

(c) Percentage passing in sieve No.100 = 2.90%

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE 3

INSTRUCTIONS: Solve the following problems. Write your answer and solution in your notebook. Please
observe cleanliness to your work.
1) From the laboratory data shown of a 3000 grams dry-soil sample for grain size analysis:
U.S. Sieve Size Size Opening (mm) Mass Retained (g)
3/4 in. 19 10
3/8 in. 9.50 198
No. 4 4.75 409
No. 10 2.00 680
No. 40 0.425 850
No. 100 0.150 520
No. 200 0.075
Pan 85
a) Compute the percentage of mass retained in sieve No. 200.
b) Compute the cumulative percentage retained in sieve No.40.
c) Compute the percentage passing in sieve No.200

1.5. SHEAR STRENGTHS OF SOIL

Shear strength of soil is its ability to resist shear stresses. It is a great importance in foundation
design, such as determining the soil bearing capacity, slope stability analysis, lateral earth pressure
computations in retaining walls and sheet piling designs.
Coulomb Equation:
S = C + σ tan ø
Where S = shear strength of soil
C = cohesion of soil
σ = effective inter granular normal pressure
ø = angle of internal friction
tan ø = coefficient of friction

DIRECT SHEAR TEST

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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

The soil specimen is placed in a metal Normal Force

shear box as shown in the figure. The soil
specimens maybe square or circular in cross
sections with sizes usually 50 mm x 50 mm or 100
Shear Force
mm x 100 mm and 25 mm high. The metal shear
box is split into halves. The normal stress is
applied from the top of the shear box, then a shear
force is applied by moving one half of the box
relative to the other to cause failure in the soil
specimen,

Normal Stress is computed as follows:

P
σ= where:
A
P = Applied Force
A = Area in contact
If there is shortening of length,
Ao ΔL
A= e=
1-e L
Where:
Ao = Area in contact
ΔL = Change in Length
Shear Force is computed as:
F
𝝉=
A

Relation of Normal Stress and Shear Stress

Shear Stress at Flixure

A. For normally consolidated, c = 0

𝝉 = σ tan ø
where: 𝜏 = shearing stress
σ = normal stress
ø = angle of internal friction ø
Effective Normal stress
B. For over consolidated cay
h = σ tan ø
𝝉 = c + σ tan ø
𝜏 = shearing stress
Shear Stress at Flixure

where:
c = cohesion of clay
σ = normal stress

In loose sand, the resisting shear stress

increases with shear displacement until a failure shear ø
stress is reached. After that, the shear resistance
remains approximately constant for any further
increase in shear displacements.
In dense sand, the resisting shear stress Effective Normal stress
increases with shear displacements until it reaches a
failure stress. This stress is called the peak shear strength. After failure stress is attained, the resisting shear
stress gradually decreases as shear displacement increases until it finally reaches a constant value called
ultimate shear strength.

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 14
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

PROBLEM 4. The size of sand specimen in a direct test was 50 mm x 50 mm x 30 mm (height). It is known
0.65
that for the sand, tan ø = , where e = void ratio and the specific gravity of solids is 2.65. During the test,
e
a normal stress of 138 kPa was applied. Failure occurred at a shear stress of 104 kPa.
a) Find the void ratio.
b) Find the dry unit weight of sand.
c) Find the weight of the sand specimen.
Solution:
𝝉 104 0.65
a) tan ø = = tan ø =
σ 138 e
0.65 104
= 138
e
e = 0.86
b) Dry unit weight of sand:
Gs γw 2.65(9.81)
γdry = =
1+e 1 + 0.86

γdry = 13.98 kN/m3

c) Weight of the sand specimen:
W = V γdry = 0.05 (0.05) (0.03) (13.98)
W = 1.05 N

PROBLEM 5. The following are the results of direct shear tests performed on two identical samples of the
soil. In test one, the sample shears at a stress of 71 kPa when the compressive normal stress is 95 kPa. In
test two, the sample shears at a stress of 104 kPa when the normal stress is 150 kPa.
a) Determine the value of the apparent cohesion.
b) Determine the angle of internal friction for the damp sand.
c) Determine the shear stress at a depth of 4 m. if the unit wt of soil is 15.6 kN/m3.
Solution
71 - c 104 - c
a) =
95 150
10650 – 150c = 9880 – 95c
55c = 770
c = 14 kPa

71 - c 71 - 14
b) tan ø = =
95 95
ø = 30.96

c) 𝜏 = c + σ tan ø
= 14 + 15.6(4) tan 30.96
𝝉 = 51.43 k

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE 4

INSTRUCTIONS: Solve the following problems. Write your answer and solution in your notebook. Please
observe cleanliness to your work.
1) A series of direct shear tests was performed on a soil sample. Each test is carried until the specimen
sheared (failed). The laboratory data for the tests are tabulated as follows:
Specimen No. Normal Stress (kPa) Shear Stress (kPa)
1 200 450
2 400 520
3 600 590
4 1000 730
a) Compute the cohesion of soil.

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 15
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

b) Compute the angle of internal friction.

c) Compute the strength of soil at the depth of 4 m. below the ground surface if it has a unit weight
of 15.8 kN/m3.

TRI-AXIAL TEST
A. For Normally Consolidated clay (non-cohesive soil C = 0)

r
Shea r Stress

Ø
O r A r
r
σ3 Δud Δd
σ3 σ1 Δσd

Norma l Stress
Effective stress failure envelope from drainage tests in sand and normally consolidated clay.
Where:
σ3 = chamber confining stress, cell stress, lateral stress
Δd = Deviator stress (diameter of semi-circle)
σ1 = major principal stress at failure
Ø = Angle of Internal Friction
From the figure, the following equations can be derive:
σ1 + σ 3
σ1 = σ3 + Δd OA =
2
σ1 - σ 3 r
r= sin Ø =
2 OA
σ1 - σ 3
2
OA = σ3 + r sin Ø = σ + σ
1 3
2
σ1 - σ 3 σ1 - σ 3
OA = σ3 + sin Ø =
2 σ1 + σ 3

Inclination of the Plane of Failure caused by Shear

σ1 Failure Envelope

Failure Plane

σ3
r
Ɵ 2Ɵ
Ø Ɵ

Δud r r

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σ3 Δσd
University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

Ø + 90 + 180 - 2Ɵ = 180
2Ɵ = 90 + Ø
Ɵ = 45 + Ø/2
Ɵ = angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal stress

B. Over Consolidated Clay (Cohesive Soil)

x = c cot Ø
σ1 = σ3 tan2 (45 + Ø/2) + 2c tan (45 + Ø/2)

CONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TEST (CU TEST)

This is the most common type of tri-axial test. The saturated soil specimen is first consolidated by
an all-around chamber fluid pressure. After the pore water pressure generated by the application of confining
pressure is completely dissipated, the deviator stress on the specimen is increased to cause shear failure.
During this phase of the test, the drainage line from the specimen is kept closed. Since drainage is not
permitted in this test during the application of the deviator stress, they can be performed rather quickly.
Total Stress
failure envelope
Effective Stress
failure envelope Undrained
condition

Ø
r
r
Øcu

Δud
σ3 Δσd
Where; Ø = Drained Angle of Friction
Øcu = Undrained Angle of Friction
Δud = pore pressure

UNCONSOLIDATED UNDRAINED TEST (UU TEST)

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 17
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

In unconsolidated-

SHEAR STRESS
undrained test, drainage from
the soil is not permitted during
the application of chamber
pressure. The test specimen is
Failure Envelope Ø = 0 sheared to failure by the
application of the deviator
stress without allowing
CU drainage. Since drainage is not
allowed at any stage, the test
can be performed very quickly.
σ3' Δud Δσd The added deviator stress at
failure is practically the same
σ3 regardless of the 'chamber
Δσd confining pressure. The failure
envelope for this type of test
σ1' becomes a horizontal Iine thus
giving a value of Ø (angle of
σ1 friction) equal to zero.
Note:
The Ø = 0 concept is applicable only to saturated clays and silts.
Δud = pore pressure
Δσd = deviators stress
Minor effective stress at failure:
σ3’ = σ3 - Δud
Major effective stress at failure:
σ1’= (σ3 + Δσd) – Δud
σ1’ = σ1 – Δud
Cu = undrained shear strength and is equal to the radius of the Mohrs circles.

Unconfined Compression Test of Saturated Clay

This is a special type of unconsolidated-undrained test. In this test, the confining pressure is zero.
An axial load is rapidly applied to the specimen to cause failure. At failure the total minor principal stress is
zero and the total major principal stress is σ1.
SHEAR STRESS

Cu = (½) σ1
Cu = (½) qu
qu = unconfined compression, strength
Cu = undrained shear strength

CU

σ3 = 0 σ1 = qu
NORMAL STRESS
Note: Theoretically, for similar saturated clay specimens, the unconfined compression test and the
unconsolidated-undrained tri-axial tests should yield the same values of undrained shear strength Cu. But
in practice, the unconfined compression tests on saturated clays yield slightly lower values of C. than those
obtained from unconsolidated undrained tests.

PROBLEM 6. A consolidated drained tri-axial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay. The
results were as follows:
Chamber confining pressure = 300 kPa
Deviator stress = 400 kPa

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
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CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

a) Compute the angle of friction of the clay sample

b) Compute the shear stress on the failure plane.
c) Compute the effective normal stress on the plane of max. shear.
Solution:
Failure Plane a) Effective angle of shearing resistance:
Sin Ø = 200/500
Ø = 23.58°
b) Shearing stress:
T = r Cos
Ø T = 200 Cos 23.58°
T r = 200 T = 183.30 kPa
Ø c) Normal stress at the point of max. shear
σ = 300 + (400/2)
r = 200 r = 200
σ = 500 kPa
300 400
σ3 Δσd
PROBLEM 7. CE Board Nov. 2002
A consolidated drained shear test is performed on a cohesionless soil sample. Failure occurred when the
normal stress is 6300 psi and the shear stress is 4200 psi
a) Compute the angle of internal friction.
b) Compute the angle of the failure plane.
c) Compute the maximum principal stress.
Solution:
a) Angle of internal friction Failure Plane
tan Ø = 4200/6300
Ø = 34°
b) Angle of the failure plane:
Ɵ = 45 + Ø/2
Ɵ = 45 + 34/2 Ø
Ɵ = 62° T = 4200 psi R
c) Max. principal stress: Ø Ɵ
R Cos 34° = 4200
R = 5066 6300 x R
X = 5066 Sin 34
X = 2833 σ3 Δσd
Max. principal stress = 6300 + x + R
σmax = 6300 + 2833 + 5066
σmax = 14199 psi

PROBLEM 8. A Consolidated drained tri-axial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay. The
results were as follows:
Confining pressure = 300 kPa
Deviators stress = 350 kPa
a) Compute the angle of friction.
b) Compute the angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.
c) Compute the normal stress on the failure plane.
Solution:
a) Angle of friction:
2r = 350
r = 175
Sin Ø = 175/475
Ø = 21.65

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 19
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

b) Angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal plane.
Ø = 45 + Ɵ/2
Ø = 45 + 21.6/2 Failure Plane
Ø = 55.8°

c) Normal stress on the failure plane:

σn = 475 - x
Sin Ø = x/r Ø
T R = 175
Sin 21.6 = x/175
Ø Ɵ
X= 64.42
σn = 475-64.42 Qn x R = 175
σn = 410.58 (normal stress at the
Q3 = 300
failure plane) σ3 Δσd

PROBLEM 9. The relationship between the relative density D, the angle of friction ø of a sand can be
expressed as 26 + 0.16 D, where D, is in o. A drained tri axial test on the same sand was conducted with a
chamber-confining pressure of 120 kPa. The relative density of compaction was 58%.
a) Compute the major principal stress at failure
b) Compute the normal stress at the point on the failure pane.
c) Compute the shear stress at the point on the failure plane.
Solution:
a) Major principal stress at failure:
Ø = 26 + 0.16 Dr,
Ø = 26 + 0.16 (58)
Ø = 35.28
Sin 35.28 = r / (120 + r)
69.31 +0.578 r = r
r= 164.08
2r = 328.16
σ1 = 120+328.16 Failure Plane
σ1 = 448.16 kPa (major
principal stress at failure)

b) Normal stress at the failure plane:

x = 164.08 Sin 35.28
Ø
x = 94.77 T R
σN = 120 + r – x
Ø Ɵ
σN = 120 + 164.08 – 94.77
σN = 189.31 kPa Qn x R

c) Shear stress at the failure plane: Q3 = 120

T = 164.08 Cos 35.28
σ3 Δσd
T = 133.94 kPa Q1

PROBLEM 10. The results of two drained tri axial tests on a saturated clay are recorded as follows:
Specimen A: Specimen B:
Chamber-confining pressure 104 kPa Chamber-confining pressure 170 kPa
Deviator stress at failure= 210 kPa Deviator stress at failure =324 KPa

a) Compute the angle of friction.

b) Compute the cohesion of soil.

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 20
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

c) If the clay specimen above is tested in a tri axial apparatus with a chamber-confining pressure of 248 kPa,
compute the major principal stress at failure.
Solution:
a) Angle of friction:

R = 105
Sin Ø = 105 / (x + 209)
Ø C

x Q3 = 104 210

σ3109 Δσd

Sin Ø = 162 / (x + 332) R = 162

Ø C

x Q3 = 170 324

σ3332 Δσd
105 162
=
x + 209 x + 332
105x + 34860 = 162x +33858
57x = 1002 Sin Ø = 162 / (17.58 + 332)
X = 17.58 Ø = 27.61

b) Cohesion of soil:
tan Ø = c/x
tan 27.61 = c / 17.58
c = 9.19 kPa

c) Major principal stress at failure when σ3 = 248 kPa.

Sin 27.61 = r / (r + 265.58)
0.463r + 123.58 = r
r = 229.20
σ1 = 248+2(229.20)
σ1 = 706.40 kPa

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING EXERCISE 5

INSTRUCTIONS: Solve the following problems. Write your answer and solution in your notebook. Please
observe cleanliness to your work.
1) It is desired to obtain information about the insitu strength properties c, ø, for a saturated soil and also
the preconsolidation pressure. Direct shear tests under consolidated-undrained conditions are
performed on three identical samples of clay. For sample one, the applied normal pressure is 36 kPa
and the sample fails when the shear stress is 21.6 kPa, for sample two, the applied normal stress is 72
kPa and the sample shear stress is 24 kPa, for sample three, the applied normal pressure is 120 kPa
and the sample shears at 38.4 kPa.
a) Compute the value of the cohesion.
b) Compute the value of the angle of internal friction.
c) Compute the value of the preconsolidation stress.

Engr. Ariel E. Novio

University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 21
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

2) An embankment consists of clay fill for which C = 25 kPa and ø = 26° (from consolidated undrained
test with pore pressure measurement). The weight of fill per unit volume is 18.64 kN/m3.
a) Compute the total stress at depth of 20 m.
b) Compute the effective stress at a depth of 20 m. if the pore pressure at this point is shown by a
piezometer to be 180 kPa.
c) Estimate the shear strength of the material on a horizontal plane at a point 20 m. below the
surface of the embankment.
3) An embankment consists of clay fill having a cohesion of 22 kN/m2 and an angle of internal friction of
26°. The saturated unit weight of the fill per unit volume is 21.4 kN/m 3.
a) Compute the effective pressure at a depth of 20 m.
b) Compute the shear strength at a depth of 15 m.
c) Compute the shear strength at a depth of 15 m. if the clay fill is cohesionless.
4) A consolidated drained tri-axial test was conducted on a normally consolidated clay
The results were as follows:
σ3 = 300 kPa (confining pressure)
Deviators stress = 300 kPa
a) Compute the angle of shearing resistance.
b) Compute the angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal stress
c) Compute the shear stress on the failure plane.
5) For consolidated clay, the results of a drained tri-axial test areas follows.
σ3 = 150 kPa
(Δσd)f = 275 kPa
a) Compute the max. principal stress at failure.
b) Compute the sol friction angle.
c) Compute the angle that the failure plane makes with the major principal stress.
6) A normally consolidated soil were subjected to a tri axial test with the following data:
Cell pressure = 320 kPa
The specimen failed when the deviator stress is 460 kPa
a) Compute the angle of shear resistance.
b) Compute the normal stress on the plane of max. shear stress.
c) Compute the shear stress on the failure plane.
7) A soil sample has an angle of shear resistance equal to 26.57°. If it has a cohesion of 10 kPa and a
normal stress of 400 kPa at a point of max. shearing stress.
a) Compute the deviator stress at failure.
b) Compute the chamber confining pressure.
c) Compute the normal stress at a point of failure plane.
8) A sample of normally consolidated clay was subjected to a consolidated undrained tri-axial
compression that was carried out until the specimen failed at a deviator stress of 50 KPa. The pore
water pressure at failure was recorded to be 18 kN/m 2 and a confining pressure of 48 kPa was used in
the test.
a) Compute the consolidated undrained friction angle for the total stress strength envelope.
b) Compute the drained friction angle for the effective stress strength envelope.
c) Compute the difference in the angle of shearing resistance.
9) The stresses at failure on the failure plane in a cohesionless soil mass were:
Shear stress= 4 kPa
Nomal stress= 10 kPa
a) Determine the resultant stress on the failure plane
b) Determine the angle of internal fiction of the soil.
c) Determine the angle of inclination of the failure plane to the major principal plane.

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University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 22
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

10) From the principal stresses from a soil sample on the horizontal plane x is shown on the figure.
σ3 = 20 kPa
σ1 = 40 kPa

σ1 = 40 kPa σ3 = 20 kPa
a) Compute the angle of friction.
b) Compute the shearing stress of the soil.
c) Compute the normal stress.
11) The normal and shear stresses acting on one plane passing a point in a soil mass are 120 KPa
compression and 25 kPa respectively. On an orthogonal plane, the respective stresses are 40 kPa
compression and 25 kPa respectively.
a) Compute the maximum principal stress.
b) Determine the angle between the plane on which the 120 kPa acts and the major principal plane.
c) What is the max. shear stress acting at the point?
12) A 16 m. thick normally consolidated clay layer has a plasticity index of 26. Saturated unit weight of clay
is 19.0 kN/m3. Thickness of soil which overlies the clay layer is 4 m. with a unit weight of 16 kN/m3
a) Compute the uncorrected undrained cohesion as would be determined from a vane shear test at a
depth of 8 m. below the ground surface
b) Compute the corrected undrained cohesion.
c) If the clay is over consolidated with an over consolidation ratio of 2.5, compute the pre consolidation
pressure at a depth of 8 m. below the ground surface

FEEDBACK

Congratulations for completing this first module! I hope that you have learned a lot. Please make
sure that you understand the topics in this module. You can go back and take time to explore each topics
specially the examples given after the discussion. This is not so easy to do but I know that you, as a future
engineer, can work with it. Once you have try to answers all the exercises on your own way, you are now
prepare to proceed to our second modules.
Goodluck and study well.

SUMMARY

Here are the important topics which can help you in reviewing this module:
 Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering behavior
of earth materials.
 Foundation engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics (Geotechnical
engineering) in the design of foundation elements of structures.
 Shear strength of soil is its ability to resist shear stresses. It is a great importance in foundation design,
such as determining the soil bearing capacity, slope stability analysis, lateral earth pressure
computations in retaining walls and sheet piling designs.
 Coulomb Equation:
S = C + σ tan ø
 For normally consolidated, c = 0

Engr. Ariel E. Novio

University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus
 23
CE 513 – Geotechnical Engineering 2

τ = σ tan ø
 For over consolidated cay
τ = c + σ tan ø

SUGGESTED READINGS

Foundation Engineering. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundation_(engineering)

USCS Method. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Soil_Classification_System

REFERENCES

Basic Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering

Besavilla, Venancio, VIB Publisher, Cebu City, 1998

Principles of Foundation Engineering – SI Edition – 8th Edition

Das, B.M., Cengage Learning, 2016

Basic Fundamentals of Foundation Engineering

Besavilla, Venancio, VIB Publisher, Cebu City, 2010

Foundation Design: Principles and Practices – 3rd Edition

Coduto, D.P., Pearson, 2016

Engr. Ariel E. Novio

University of Eastern Philippines Laoang Campus