BIOMECHANICS

FORCE

- a push or a pull, this usually changes the state of motion of an object

- some forces include gravity, air resistance and drag (in water)

MOTION

LINEAR MOTION ANGULAR MOTION

- same direction, same distance, same time - same angle, same direction, same time

- following a straight or curved path - rotation

- rectilinear – straight line, e.g. running 60m - spinning around an external axis such as a
gymnastics bar
- curvilinear – curved path, e.g. 200m bend

GENERAL MOTION
A combination of linear and angular motion

- most common in sports

example: 100m sprint, the body is travelling in a linear fashion (from start to finish), but the arms
and legs are rotating around the joint (angular motion)

INERTIA

- an objects resistance to a change in motion

Exam tip! Think about inertia and mass as directly proportional. An elephant would be much harder
to move (greater resistance to change in motion) due to its heavy mass, when compared to a human

NEWTON’S THREE LAWS OF MOTION

Linear Angular
1st An object will remain at rest or in a constant An object will remain at rest or in a
state of motion unless acted upon by an constant state of motion unless acted
external, unbalanced force upon by an external, unbalanced torque

2nd The force applied to an object is directly The torque applied to an object is directly
proportional to the acceleration of an object, proportional to the angular acceleration of
given the mass remains constant an object, given the mass remains
constant
(force = mass x acceleration)
3rd For every action there will be an equal and For every action there will be an equal and
opposite reaction opposite reaction
MOMENTUM

Momentum - the quantity of motion an object possess

Momentum (p)= velocity (v) x mass (m)

To think of this in simpler terms, momentum

just measures how hard it is to stop a moving object, which also means a greater momentum is
required to overcome greater inertia!

- It is also important to note that momentum is CONSERVED,

that is, momentum remains the same before a collision, and
after a collision. As seen in the diagram, since the line-backer
has a greater momentum, his momentum will transfer onto the
full back, leading to a net movement of both players to the left

SUMMATION OF MOMENTUM

Summation of momentum entails the correct sequencing of body parts to

1. Use as many body parts as possible

2. Using larger muscle groups first, then the smallest to the end
3. Transfer momentum between body parts at max, i.e. optimal timing and fluency between
each movement
4. Ensure a stable base when performing movement
5. Ensure appropriate follow through (applying force over greatest period of time – impulse!)

ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Angular momentum = moment of inertia x angular velocity Moment of inertia = mass x radius2
when airborne, angular momentum is conserved - the concept of momentum conservation becomes
extremely important here, as this allows athletes to manipulate the inversely proportional
relationship of moment of inertia, and angular velocity.

Moment of inertia – how far away mass is distributed from the central axis / an objects resistance to
change in rotation (basically inertia, but angular!)

Angular velocity – speed of rotation

So if the above two variables are INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL (meaning when one increases, the
other decreases) athletes can manipulate either one to their own advantage.

An example would be ice-skating.

Athlete’s movement Biomechanical concept Formula

Skater extends arms Moment of inertia has increased, since mass is MOI increases
out (T pose), they distributed further away from central axis (trunk)
AV decreases
slow down
Skater pulls arm Moment of inertia decreases, since mass is now MOI decreases
back into body close to the central axis (trunk)
AV increases

Exam tip! When considering this concept, always think of the GOAL of the athlete (spin faster? More
stability?) then identify how the two variables can be changed (spreading out mass? etc.)

IMPULSE
Impulse = force x time Impulse – the change in momentum

To increase impulse, the greatest amount of force, must be applied over the greatest period of time.

Impulse, since is a measure of momentum, also remains unchanged when airborne. Hence, you can
also manipulate the inversely proportional relationship of FORCE and TIME in the context of landing
a jump.

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance – the amount of ground an individual cover

Displacement – the straight-line distance from start to end, how far they are
from the starting point

SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed – state of motion Velocity – displacement over time

ACCELERATION

- rate of change of velocity

- positive acceleration is when velocity increases, and vice versa for negative acceleration
PROJECTILE MOTION As speed of release increases, distance
travelled increases

As height of release increases, distance

travelled increases

As angle of release increases, vertical distance

travelled increases, and horizontal distance
decreases

EQUILIBRIUM

Equilibrium – balance of forces

Stability – ability to resist any disruptions to equilibrium

Balance – ability to control equilibrium

** a person can be unstable, but still balanced. An example would be a swimmer on the blocks,
being unstable as they lean forward, but still remaining balanced

Base of support Area that the object is in contact with surface

Line of gravity The central line that runs through the centre of gravity
Centre of gravity The point of the body where mass is evenly distributed

Increasing stability Decreasing stability

BIOMECH
- lower centre of gravity - moving line of gravity

- move line of gravity

outside of base of
support promotes agility.
TIPS
within base of support
- this is because by being - you will never be
- increase size of base of required to do calculations
less stable, less force is
support in the exam, but you
required to produce
motion (overcome should familiarise yourself
- increase mass of object
inertia) , thus giving sprint with relationships within
runners a faster start the equations.

- for example, for

LEVERS AND MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

First class F–A–R Axis in middle

Second class A–R–F Resistance in middle

Third class A–F–R Force in middle

Axis – turning point

Force – where force is applied

Resistance – the thing being moved

2nd Mechanical advantage >1; force advantage

3rd Mechanical advantage <1; speed advantage

MANIPULATION OF MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE

Scenario: using a longer, heavier bat

By using a longer bat, this increases the resistance of this third-class lever (the point from the hand,
to the end of the racket has increased), thus decreasing mechanical advantage (force arm divided by
resistance arm). As a result, this increases the velocity at which this racquet can be swung at.
However, as this also increases the moment of inertia of the racquet (more mass distributed away
from axis of rotation), this would make it harder for the player to swing the bat. This is why weights
training was implemented so the player could overcome such moment of inertia and benefit from the
increased velocity, swinging the bat faster and hitting it more powerfully.

EXAMPLE: VOLLEYBALL BIOMECHANICS APPLICATION

** it may be worth while doing something like this, just to practice your application skills!

Newton’s first law of motion – Law of Inertia

 The volleyball will remain stationary or continue to move in the same direction until it is
acted upon by an unbalanced force
o e.g. the ball will travel parallel to the net / towards spiker, and will change direction
when the spiker hits it (unbalanced force)
Newton’s second law of motion – F=ma

 Since the mass of the volleyball remains the same, the force applied during a spike can be
increased by increasing acceleration (change in velocity). To do so, the spiker swing their
arm faster to cover a greater angular distance over a shorter period of time (increasing
angular velocity – greater change in velocity = greater acceleration)
 Increased force applied onto volleyball = more forceful spike = better chance that opposing
team will be unable to receive the ball

Newton’s third law of motion – Law of Action/Reaction

 In order to jump as high as possible during a spike, the athlete will bend his knees, exerting
the greatest amount of force into the ground. Since there will be an equal and opposite
reaction, the same amount of force will be exerted back up towards the athlete, allowing
them to jump up high and spike

General motion

 Arms / legs are undergoing angular motion

 Body is moving in a rectilinear / curvilinear path

Summation of momentum

 To maximise momentum, multiple body parts are utilised in sequence (sequential

summation of forces): maximal muscle recruitment

 E.g. spike run-up

o using quadriceps / lower body muscles first – generating the greatest amount of
energy that can be transferred to other body parts
o transfer of momentum from thighs / glutes to arms to core – using smaller body
parts later in the sequence since smaller body parts are able to move quicker
(increasing velocity as well)

Velocity

 A great angular velocity of the athlete’s arms (wider arm swing during spike), can increase
the linear velocity of the volleyball upon contact, thus also result in greater momentum

Impulse

 when landing from a spike / set, athletes bend their knees to maximise time of contact with
ground
 Impulse = force x time
 o Impulse remains the same during the jump, meaning that time and force will have
an inverse relationship
o Therefore, increasing time decreases force applied onto joints, thus preventing
injury

Projectile motion

 Angle of release depending on where the spiker is

o Setting for a middle (#2)
 Angle of release >45°; increasing the vertical component of the set
o Setting for an outside hitter (#1)
 Angle of release ~45°; increasing both vertical and horizontal component

Stability and Balance

 When preparing for a serve receive, players tend to lift their heels of
the ground LINE OF GRAVITY
 This decreases stability and balance as they
move their line of gravity away from the centre
of their base of support
 However, this gives them more agility, allowing
them to react quicker to the serve
 Players also keep their feet shoulder width apart
to increase their base of support (less likely to
fall back when receiving)
BASE OF SUPPORT
Levers

 Third class lever – arms

 Shoulder joint – axis

 Biceps + forearm muscle – force
 Volleyball – resistance

 Long resistance arm = mechanical advantage < 1

o Speed producing lever – allows for volleyball to be
served at high speed