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When casting becomes inevitable ??

• For example when you want to machine very large

size holes

• For producing parts of complicated shapes

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 Casting

Refractory mold  pour liquid metal  solidify, remove  finish

• VERSATILE: complex geometry, internal cavities, hollow sections

• VERSATILE: small (~10 grams)  very large parts (~1000 Kg)

• ECONOMICAL: little wastage (extra metal is re-used)

• ISOTROPIC: cast parts have same properties along all directions

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CASTING PROCESS

Core
Cavity
Required casting
Gating
system

Pattern

Sand

Core box Sand mould in two-piece flask

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 Sand Casting

cope: top half

drag: bottom half

core: for internal cavities

pattern: positive

funnel  sprue 
 runners  gate 
 cavity 
 {risers, vents}

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 Sand Casting Considerations

(a) How do we make the pattern?

[cut, carve, machine]

(b) Why is the pattern not exactly identical to the part shape?

- pattern  outer surfaces; (inner surfaces: core)

- shrinkage, post-processing

(c) parting line

- how to determine?

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 Sand Casting Considerations..

(d) taper

- do we need it ?

(e) core prints, chaplets

- hold the core in position

- chaplet is metal (why?) chaplet

(f) cut-off, finishing

Mold
cavity

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PROPERTIES OF PATTERN MATERIAL …

• It should be easily shaped, worked, machined and joined.

• It should be resistant to wear and corrosion.

• It should be resistant to chemical action.

• It should be dimensionally stable and must remain unaffected by

variations in temperature and humidity.

• It should be easily available and economical.

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 WOOD

• Easily available
• Low weight
• Low cost
• It absorbs moisture and hence dimensions will change
• Lower life
• Suitable for small quantity production and very large size
castings.

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METAL

• Used for mass production

• For maintaining closer dimensional tolerances on
casting.
• More life when compared to wooden patterns
• Few of the material used include CI, Al, Fe, Brass
etc. Al is widely used.

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PLASTIC

• Low weight

• Easier formability

• Do not absorb moisture

• Good corrosion resistance

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POLYSTYRENE

• Used for prototype (single piece) castings

• Also known as Disposable patterns.

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TYPES OF PATTERNS

Loose pieces
Part 2
Part 1

Dowel pin
(a) Solid pattern (b) Split pattern (c) Loose piece pattern

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TYPES OF PATTERNS

 SOLID PATTERN

Simple shape castings are produced by

this type of patterns

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TYPES OF PATTERNS

 SPLIT PATTERN

Used when patterns cannot be made

as a single piece

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 LOOSE PIECE PATTERN

Loose pieces
Part 2
Part 1

Dowel pin
(a) Solid pattern (b) Split pattern (c) Loose piece pattern

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TYPES OF PATTERN

• LOOSE PIECE PATTERN

Used when

1. Withdrawal of pattern from mould is not possible

2. Castings is having projections, under cuts,etc

After ramming first main pattern is removed and then the

loose pieces

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 GATED PATTERN

Runner

Match plate
Pattern
Gate

Pattern
(a) Gated pattern for 8 castings (b) Match plate pattern

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GATED PATTERN

• USED FOR PRODUCING SMALL SIZED

CAVITIES IN ONE MOULD

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 MATCH PLATE PATTERN

Runner

Match plate
Pattern
Gate

Pattern
(a) Gated pattern for 8 castings (b) Match plate pattern

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MATCH PLATE PATTERN

• Split patterns attached on either side is

known as Match plate pattern.
• It increases production and helps in
maintaining uniformity in the size and
shape of the castings.

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DISPOSABLE PATTERN

Polystyrene
Sand pattern Hot metal

Sand

(a) Disposable pattern (b) Hot metal replacing

in sand mould disposable pattern
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PATTERN ALLOWANCE

• WHY ARE ALLOWANCES NECESSARY ?

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 TYPES OF ALLOWANCE

• SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE

• MACHINING ALLOWANCE

• DRAFT OR TAPER ALLOWANCE

• DISTORTION ALLOWANCE

• RAPPING OR SHAKE ALLOWANCE

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SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE

• Provided to compensate for shrinkage of material

• Pattern is made slightly bigger

• Amount of allowance depends upon type of

material, its composition, pouring temperature
etc.

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MACHINING ALLOWANCE

• Provided to compensate for machining on casting.

• Pattern is made slightly bigger is size.
• Amount of allowance depends upon size and shape of casting,
type of material, machining process to be used, degree of
accuracy and surface finish required etc.

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 DRAFT OR TAPER ALLOWANCE

(a) Pattern with zero (b) Pattern with draft or no draft

(a) Pattern with zero (no) draft (b) Pattern with draft
(Not to scale)

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DRAFT OR TAPER ALLOWANCE

• Provided to facilitate easy withdrawal of the

pattern.
• Typically it ranges from 1 degree to 3 degree for
wooden patterns.

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 DISTORTION ALLOWANCE

(a) (b) (c)

• Provided on patterns
Required shape of whose castings
Casting tend
produced to distort
when no onPattern
coolingwith distortion
casting distortion allowance is provided allowance

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MOULDING PROCESS

• Bench Moulding

• Floor Moulding

• Pit Moulding

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TYPES OF MOULDING OPERATIONS

• Hand Moulding

• Machine Moulding

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CORES

• Why Cores are used?

Core
Cavity
Required casting
Gating
system

Pattern

Sand

Core box Sand mould in two-piece flask

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DEFECTS IN CASTING

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Basic categories of casting defects

1. Metallic projections:

• Fins, flash or projections

2. Cavities

• blow holes, pin holes, shrinkage cavities

3. Discontinuities

• cracks, cold or hot tears

• cold shuts- improper fusion of different streams of metals

• Improper solidification can cause tears

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4. Defective surface
• Surface folds ,laps, scars, adhering sand layers and oxide scales
5. Incomplete casting
• misruns (due to premature solidifications)
• insufficient metal poured
• leaks in the mold
6. Incorrect dimensions
• incorrect allowances
• deformed pattern
• pattern mounting error

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7. Inclusions
• nonmetallic particles usually
• bad for casting - acts as stress raiser
• materials from alloys, crucible,mold etc
• sand particles, ceramic particles,
• Can be avoided using filters, good strong molds etc

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BLOW HOLES

• Appears as small round voids opened to the casting surface.

• Caused by hard ramming and low permeability sands.

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SHRINKAGE DEFECTS

• Caused by inadequate feeding of molten metal.

Riser

B A C
D

(a) (b) (c)

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HOT TEARS

• Appears as external cracks or discontinuities on casting

surface.

• Caused by hard ramming, too much of shrinkage of molten

metal and poor design of casting.

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MISRUNS

• Mould cavity remaining unfilled (casting is too thin or temperature is too

cold)

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• COLD SHUT
• Imperfect fusion of molten metal in the mould cavity.

• POUR SHORT
• Mould cavity is not completely filled for the want of molten material.

• INCLUSIONS
• Foreign material present within the metal of a casting.

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Common Casting defects

Blow Scar Blister Gas holes Pin holes

Porosity Drop Dirt Buckle Scab

Rat tail Penetration Swell Misrun

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Common Casting defects

Shrinkage cavity

Mold shift

Core shift

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 Casting defects

• A crossjoint in a large gray iron

valve body casting produced by
• Inclusions in spheroidal graphite cast iron.
mismatch of top and bottom parts of
the mould • Part of the surface has been machined
away to show the inclusions more clearly

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Flash
Mold Shift Porosity

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 Gas pockets Short Casting
Inclusions

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 Summary of casting defects

Defect Cause Foundry remedy Design remedy

Flash Flow into mold join Lower pouring temperature,
Increase mold box clamping,

Oxide and Entrapment of Increase care and cleanliness

dross foreign material during pouring,
inclusion
Shrinkage Lack of sufficient Promote directional Relocate risers and
cavities feed metal solidification by controlling heat ingates
flow,
Raise pouring temperature,
Misruns Low metal fluidity Raise pouring temperature Reconsider position,
size and number of
ingates and vents

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ADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS

• No restriction on type of metal or alloy.

• No restriction on size of the component that can be casted.

• Economically suitable for batch and mass production.

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DISADVANTAGES OF CASTING PROCESS

• High energy consuming process.

• Highly labor intensive.
• Raw material requirement is quite high.
• For producing 1 ton of steel casting about 2.2 tons of metal, 0.3 tons of facing
sand and 4 tons of baking sand are needed apart from many other materials.
• More time is involved.
• High environmental pollution.

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 SELECTION OF CASTING PROCESS

• Quantity to be produced.
• Requirement of the product in terms of surface finish, accuracy, complexity etc.
• Physical properties of the material.
• Process capability to meet the requirement of point 2 and 3.
• Initial investment required and operational costs.
• Other factors such as environmental pollution, availability of skilled operator (if
required), possibility of automation.

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Crank Shaft

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Impellers

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V6 engine block

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AUDI engine block

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• Example 1 A job shown in the Figure is to be made of steel by casting process.
The mould for this job is made from a wooden pattern. Determine the
dimensions of the wooden pattern. Assume machining allowance of 2 mm on
each side, shrinkage allowance of 2% and a taper allowance of 1 degree.

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 80

20

50

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• Solution It is given that machining allowance of 2 mm on each side is to be given.
Thus, each side is increased by 2 mm resulting in the basic dimension of the
pattern as shown in Figure 11.19(a). The required casting is shown with dotted
lines.
• We decide to cast the job horizontally and use a solid pattern for this casting. For
this design, the draft allowance is to be provided on the vertical sides (24 mm
long). Considering the given taper allowance of 1 degree, the side view of the
pattern would be as shown in Figure 11.19(b).

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 • The taper allowance value x is calculated from the
geometry of the Figure 11.19(b) as
• x = 24 tan 1 = 0.419 mm.

x
84
24 24

54
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(a) (b)
• Thus, the top surface dimension is increased to
provide for draft allowance from 54  84 mm to
54.838  84.838 mm.

• Given shrinkage allowance is 2%. Now, the

dimensions of pattern are increased by 2% on all
sides. That is, dimension 54 mm will become

• The dimension 54.838 will become 55.93

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• Similarly, all other dimensions are calculated and the final
dimensions of the pattern are shown in Figure.
55.9

86.5

85.7
24.5

55.1

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• Example 2 A job shown in Figure is to be made from steel by
casting process. The mold for this job is made from wooden
pattern. Determine the dimensions of the wooden pattern
assuming machining allowance of 3 mm on each side, shaking
allowance of 1 mm on length and width, shrinkage allowance
of 3%

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 40

30 80

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