INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY ROORKEE

Learning
Introduction to Psychology

Ram Manohar Singh

Learning

v Learning:
Ø Any relatively permanent change in behaviour (or behaviour
potential) resulting from experience.

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Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
v Learning takes place
Ø by trial and error
Ø Learning by selection of the successful variant

v Thorndike’s Puzzle Box

v Thorndike’s conclusions about (trial and error) learning
Ø Learning is incremental.
§ That is, it occurs a little bit at a time rather than all at once.
§ With each successful escape, subsequent escapes were made more
quickly.
Ø Learning occurs automatically.
§ It is not mediated by thinking.
Ø The same principles of learning apply to all mammals.
§ Humans learn in the same manner as all other mammals.

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Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)

v Law or Readiness
Ø Learning takes place when an action tendency’ is aroused through
preparatory adjustment, set or attitude

v Law of Effect
Ø Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the
connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain leads to
the weakening or stamping out of the connections.

v Law of Exercise
Ø Law of use
Ø Law of disuse

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Learning & association

v Association is crux of learning

v Conditioning is the process of learning associations

Ø Classical conditioning
Ø Operant conditioning

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Classical conditioning
Phase I: Before Conditioning

Presented to dog
Meat Powder Salivation
(UCS) (UCR)

Presented to dog
Bell Ringing No salivation
(Neutral Stimulus) (UCR)

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Classical conditioning
Phase II: Process of Conditioning

Presented to dog
Bell is rung just before
presenting meat (repeatedly) Salivation
NS + UCS (UCR)

Phase III: After Conditioning has occurred

Bell Ringing Presented to dog

Salivation
(Conditioned
Stimulus) (CR)

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Classical conditioning (terminology)

v Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

Ø In classical conditioning, a stimulus that can evoke an
unconditioned response the first time it is presented.
v Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Ø In classical conditioning, the response evoked by an unconditioned
stimulus.
v Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Ø In classical conditioning, the stimulus that is repeatedly paired with
an unconditioned stimulus.
v Conditioned Response (CR)
Ø In classical conditioning, the response to the conditioned stimulus.

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Classical conditioning
Phase I: Before Conditioning

Meat Powder Presented to dog Salivation

(UCS) (UCR)

Bell Ringing Presented to dog No salivation

(NS) (UCR)
Phase II: Process of Conditioning Acquisition

Bell is rung just before Presented to dog

presenting meat (repeatedly) Salivation
NS + UCS (UCR)

Phase III: After Conditioning has occurred

Bell Ringing Presented to dog Salivation

(CS) (CR)
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Stages of conditioning

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Stages of conditioning

v Acquisition:
Ø The process by which a conditioned stimulus acquires the ability to elicit a
conditioned response through repeated pairings of an unconditioned
stimulus with the conditioned stimulus.
v Extinction:
Ø The process through which a conditioned stimulus gradually loses the
ability to evoke conditioned responses when it is no longer followed by
the unconditioned stimulus.
v Spontaneous Recovery:
Ø Following extinction, return of a conditioned response upon rein-
statement of CS–UCS pairings.

v Reconditioning:
Ø The rapid recovery of a conditioned response to a CS–UCS pairing
following extinction.

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Stimulus Generalization

Presented to dog
Bell Ringing Salivation
(CS) (CR)

v The tendency of stimuli similar to a conditioned stimulus to

evoke conditioned responses
Ø Learned responses to similar situations
Ø Phobia – Irrational fear to neutral objects

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Stimulus Discrimination

Presented to dog
Bell Ringing Salivation (?)
(CS) (CR)

v The process by which organisms learn to respond to

certain stimuli but not to others
Ø Your response to your parent’s mood

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Significance of classical conditioning

v Subjective feelings are learned behaviours

Ø Smiling face

v Social behaviors are conditioned

Ø Hard work /Cheating
Ø Coding / Mathematical rigor
Ø Our behavior towards social groups

v Conditioned behavior is resistant to change

v Conditioning may be adaptive as well as mal-adaptive

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Operant Conditioning

v A process through which organisms learn to repeat

behaviors that yield positive outcomes or permit them to
avoid or escape from negative outcomes.
v Reinforcement
Ø The application or removal of a stimulus to increase the strength of
a specific behavior.

Ø Positive Reinforcers:
§ Stimuli that strengthen responses that precede them.
§ Primary reinforcers are innate and natural
• include food when we are hungry, water when we are thirsty
§ conditioned reinforcers acquire their capacity to act as positive
reinforcers through association with primary reinforcers
• money, status, grades, trophies, and praise from others.

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Operant conditioning

v Negative Reinforcers:
Ø Stimuli that strengthen responses that permit an organism to avoid
or escape from their presence.

v Punishment:
Ø The application or removal of a stimulus so as to decrease the
strength of a behavior.
Ø an unpleasant outcome follows the (undesired) behaviour

Ø Positive punishment
§ behaviours are followed by aversive stimulus events (punishers).
Ø Negative punishment
§ the rate of a behaviour is weakened or decreased by the aversiveness
of loss of potential reinforcements

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Operant conditioning

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Shaping and Chaining

v Shaping
Ø A technique in which closer and closer approximations of desired
behavior are required for the delivery of positive reinforcement.
v Chaining
Ø A procedure that establishes a sequence of responses, which lead
to a reward following the final response in the chain.

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Schedules of Reinforcement

v Rules determining when and how reinforcements will be

delivered.
Schedules of
Reinforcement

Continuous Partial (Intermittent)

Reinforcement Reinforcement

Ratio Reinforcement Interval Reinforcement

Schedule Schedule

Fixed Variable Fixed Variable

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Fixed interval

v A schedule of reinforcement in which a specific interval of

time must elapse before a response will yield
reinforcement.

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Variable-Interval Schedule

v A schedule of reinforcement in which a variable amount of

time must elapse before a response will yield
reinforcement.

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Fixed-Ratio Schedule

v A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement

occurs only after a fixed number of responses have been
emitted.

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Variable-Ratio Schedule

v A schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement is

delivered after a variable number of responses have been
emitted.

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