School of Engineering & Technology

Applied Physics Laboratory

Student Manual
Subject Code: 18BS0PH04
(Common for CSE, ECE, EEE & IT)

Name of the Student

Hall Ticket No.

Branch

Section

Updated by M. SANGEETHA, Asst. Prof of Physics

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 1

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
 Apply the scientific method, to experiments in the laboratory

 Develop procedures and observational skills as data is taken and gain a fundamental understanding

of simple and complex apparatus used in the experiment

 Apply analytical techniques, statistical analysis, graphical analysis, spread sheet data/recording to

the experiments

 Verify the theoretical ideas and concepts covered in lecture by completing a host of experiments

 Take time to discuss the procedure, the data, and the results of the experiment with the lab partner

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 Students will ensure the outcomes after completing the course to

 Possess adequate problem solving, creative reasoning, and critical thinking skills
 Understand the methods of science and the roles of science and technology have in the modern
world
 Provide the academic knowledge and skills successfully in order to meet their higher educational
goals
 Students who successfully complete this course know the subject matter to a level that is
appropriate for the emphasis of their degree

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 PROGRAMME: I-B.Tech DEGREE: UG
COURSE: Applied Physics Lab SEMESTER: I CREDITS: 1.5
COURSE CODE:18BS0PH04 REGULATION:R18 COURSE TYPE: Regular
COURSE AREA/DOMAIN: Physics CONTACT HOURS: 3 hours/Week.
Total no. of Hours: 33

Syllabus:

S.NO NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

1. Determination of energy gap of a semiconductor diode.

2. Determination of fill factor and efficiency of Solar cell.

3. Study of V-I characteristics of light emitting diode.

4. Study of V-I characteristics of Zener Diode.

5. Determination of electrical conductivity, mobility and concentration of

carriers.
6. Determination of resistivity and band gap using Four Probe method

7. Study of V-I characteristics of LASER sources.

8. Determination of Numerical aperture and Bending losses of optical fibers.

9. Determination of Planck`s constant using photocell or light emitting diodes.

10. Study of V-I characteristics of PIN diode.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 3

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 CONTENTS

EXPT. NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT PAGE

NO. NO.
1 Energy gap of semiconductor 9-15

2 Solar cell 16-22

3 Light emitting diode 23-35

4 Zener diode 36-45

5 Optical fiber 46-54

6 Hall effect 55-61

7 Four probe method 62-68

8 Laser diode 69-75

9 Planck‟s constant measurement 76-83

10 PIN photo diode 84-88

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS

1 Laser - single slit diffraction 89-93

2 Hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetic material (m-b curve) 94-99

3 Polarimeter – specific rotation 100-105

4 Study of magnetic field along the axis of a current carrying circular coil 106-111
Stewart & gees method

5 Diffraction grating - Spectrometer 112-116

6 Time constant of an R-C circuit 117-122

7 Dispersive power of the material of a prism 123-131

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 4

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 INSTRUCTIONS TO STUDENTS

1. Attend the Lab sessions in time

2. Switch-off your cell phones when you are in the lab.
3. Bags should be kept on the racks.
4. On lab tables keep only whatever is required for the experiment.
5. Handle the instruments with due care. Note that you are fully responsible for your apparatus in your
lab session and report to the instructor if any damage.
6. In case of electronic experiments, don‟t switch on the circuits unless checked by teacher
7. Record all your lab work in the observation notes. Get it approved & signed by teacher.
8. All graphs are to be plotted in the lab itself. These can be directly attached in the observation notes.
9. All presentations of data, tables, graphs and calculations should be neatly and carefully done.
10. Complete your record work in time. Get it approved & signed by teacher.
11. Complete your practical in regular sessions only. Avoid extra practicals.
12. The experiments are designed to illustrate phenomena in different areas of Physics and to expose
you to measuring instruments. Conduct the experiments with interest and an attitude of learning
13. Work quietly and carefully (the whole purpose of experimentation is to make reliable measurements
and equally share the work with the partners)
14. Be honest in recording and representing the data. Never make up readings or doctor them to get a
better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the measurement carefully
15. Bring necessary graph papers and scientific calculators for each of experiment. Learn to optimize on
usage of graph papers. Graphs should be neatly drawn with pencil. Always label graphs and the axes
and display units
16. If the experiment is finished early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and
drawing graphs. Come equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.
17. Take care of your belongings
18. A Laboratory is an outlining course in physics adapted equally well for the preparation of college
students and to the immediate requirements of everyday life may be regarded as a sign of the times.
It has become recognized in an increasing degree that the fundamental principles of physical science
must be employed not only in the laboratory, but also at home and in the factory.

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iv
Don’t forget to bring following accessories while attending
the lab sessions

i. Lab manual

ii. Observation Notes

iii. Record book

iv. Scientific Calculator

iv. Fully equipped compass box including 2-B Pencil, scale,

sharpener and eraser

v. Minimum three graph papers

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 GUIDELINES FOR WRITING RECORD

 Before coming to the lab, the students should write the experiment number, date, aim, formula,
diagram or circuit diagram, tabular column neatly in the record note book.
 The record note book will be checked in the beginning of the lab class.

RECORD NOTE LAYOUT

1. Title of the Experiment : (Right hand side)

2. Date of Commencement : (Right hand side)

3. Date of Completion and reporting : (Right hand side)

4. Aim of the experiment : (Right hand side)

5. Apparatus required : (Right hand side)

6. Formula in detail : (Right hand side)

7. Diagrams /Circuit diagram : (Left hand side)

8. Procedure : (Right hand side)

9. Tables or observations : (Left hand side)

10. Calculations : (Left hand side)

11. Graphs : (Left hand side)

12. Result(s) : (Right hand side)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 7

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 INDEX

Grade/
S.No. Date Name of the Experiment Page No. Sign.
Marks

10

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 Experiment - 1
ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

Aim: To Study the variation of current with respect to temperature and to determine the energy gap of a
given semiconductor diode (Silicon or Germanium).

Apparatus: Semiconductor diode, ammeter (0 - 100 µA), thermometer, copper vessel, 1.5 V DC
power supply, heater and Bakelite lid.

Description:
The energy gap of a semiconductor is defined as the minimum amount of energy required for an
electron to get exited from valence band to conduction band in a given material. The energy gap value is
zero for the conductors, it is minimum for the semiconductors and it is maximum in the case of
insulators.
The micro board consists of Germanium or silicon diode (OA79), Thermometer, Copper Vessel
connected to a heater coil, a p –n diode inside a copper vessel. Bakelite lid is fixed to the Copper vessel,
a hole is provided on the lid through which the thermometer is inserted into the vessel to note the
temperature in degree centigrade. With the help of heater, the copper vessel is heated till temperature
reaches up to C. The current readings are noted using micro ammeter.

Formula:
The energy gap of a p – n semiconductor diode is calculated using the formula,

= (eV)

Where =

From graph, Slope = =

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 9

Circuit diagram:

Figure 1.1 Arrangements for energy gap measurement

Procedure:
1. Make the required connections as shown in the circuit. Connect the p-n diode in reverse bias.
2. Pour some oil in the copper vessel.
3. Insert thermometer through the hole provided on the bake lite lid into the vessel.
4. Apply the constant voltage (say 1.5 volts) to the given semiconductor.
5. Switch on the heater and heat the oil up to 800 C. Now switch off the heater and then measure the
current values as the temperature is decreasing in steps of 5℃ until it reaches to room temperature.
6. Plot a graph between log10R on Y-axis and 1/T on X-axis which is a straight line. Measure slope by
taking the values of two points where each one of them intersect on the straight line. Substitute the
slope in the given formula and determine the energy gap of a given semiconductor.

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Tabular column:
Applied Voltage, V = 1.5 volts
Temperature Current R=
t T= (t+273) I
( )
( °C ) (K) ( µA ) (K-1 )

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

Model graph: Plot a graph between log10R and 1/T. It is a straight line. Measure slope
by taking the values of two points where each one of them intersect on the straight line as
shown in the figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 log R vs. 1/T

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Calculations:
From graph:
Slope of the straight line = = = ------------

The energy gap of a p – n semiconductor diode is calculated using the formula,

Energy gap, = eV

= ------------------------------------------------- = ------------ eV

Depending upon the doping level of the diode, the energy gap may vary between 0.5 eV to 0.7 eV for
germanium and 1.1 eV for silicon.

Precautions:
1. Do not allow the temperature to rise beyond C.
2. If you switch off the heater at C it will keep on rising for few minutes and may go up to 85 or 90
degrees before stabilizing/falling.

Result:
The variation of current with respect to temperature is studied and the energy gap of given p – n
semiconductor diode is determined. Energy gap value is found to be = --------- eV
(Standard values are 0.72 eV for germanium and 1.1 eV for silicon)

APPLICATIONS
 The band gap measurement is useful to predict electrical properties of materials.
 The concept of band gap is also useful in understanding the interaction of light with matter. The
band gap is a useful predictor of wavelength of light that will be absorbed by the material. The
narrow band gap materials can absorb in the high wavelength visible range due to lower energy
requirement for transition of the electron into the conduction band. The large band gap materials
absorb in the short wavelength UV region due to the high energy required by the valence electrons to
jump across a wide gap to the conduction band.
 Band-gap engineering is the process of controlling or altering the band gap of a material by
controlling the composition of certain semiconductor alloys, such as GaAlAs, InGaAs and InAlAs. It

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 is also possible to construct layered materials with alternating compositions by techniques like
molecular-beam epitaxy. These methods are exploited in the design of heterojunction bipolar
transistors (HBTs), laser diodes and solar cells.

KEY POINTS
i. Valence band: The band which consists of valence electrons of an atom or the highest filled band
in an electron.
ii. Conduction band: The next inner band which is partially filled with electrons is known as
conduction band.
iii. Forbidden energy: The valence band and conduction band are usually separated by certain
forbidden energy region. The separation between top of valence band and bottom of conduction
band is called forbidden energy gap or band gap.
iv. Insulators: These substances do not allow electric current to pass through them. The forbidden
energy gap is too large and the concentration of free electros is very small. It requires the energy
more than 3eV, only when an electric field of 108 volt/meter is applied to an insulator, an electron
in valence band can overcome the forbidden gap and can reach conduction band which is
practically not possible. Examples of insulators are plastic, wood, PVC etc.
v. Conductors: Substance that conduct electricity effectively is known as electric conductor. It
contains plenty of free electrons. In this the valence band and conduction band overlap each other.
The electron can jump to higher energy state with small amount of electric field. The flow of
electrons constitutes the electric current through the conductor. Examples of conductors are
aluminum, copper, silver, iron etc.
vi. Semiconductors: In an element, if the forbidden energy gap is relatively very small, i.e., about
1eV, then that solid is called semiconductor. The electrical properties of semiconductors lie
between those of insulators and good conductors. The concentration of electrons is approximately
1017 electrons per cubic meter. The conductivity of semiconductor depends on temperature; i.e. the
conductivity increases with increase in temperature because the energy gap of it is decreases with
rise in temperature. Examples of semiconductors are graphite, pure germanium and silicon.
Depending upon the relative concentration of charge carriers, semiconductors are again classified
as intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors.
vii. Intrinsic semiconductor: Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. Examples of
intrinsic semiconductors are germanium and silicon and their energy gap values of these are 0.785
eV and 1.21 eV respectively. It behaves as an insulator at 0 K. As the temperature is raised from 0
K to room temperature, some of the electrons from valence band acquire thermal energy greater
than energy gap value and move into the conduction band. As these electrons leave the vacancies
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 13
 in the valence band then holes will be generated. In an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of
electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in valence band are equal.
viii. Extrinsic semiconductor: An extrinsic semiconductor is the one which contains small amount of
impurities doped into the pure semiconductor. Based on the type of impurity, extrinsic
semiconductors are again classified as „p-type‟ and „n-type'.

a) p- type semiconductor: The p-type semiconductor is formed when a small amount of trivalent
impurity such as gallium, indium, aluminum, boron etc are added to the pure semiconductor.
The conduction of electricity in this semiconductor is mainly due to the flow of holes, hence the
majority of charge carriers are holes.
b) n- type semiconductor: The n-type semiconductor is formed when a small amount of
pentavalent impurities such as arsenic, antimony, phosphorous etc, are added to the pure
semiconductor. In this the majority of charge carriers are electrons.

ix Fermi energy level: The average energy of charge carriers is calculated by Fermi energy level.
In pure semiconductors Fermi energy level is at the center of the valence and conduction bands.
In P-type semiconductors Fermi energy level is near to the valence band. In N-type semi
conductors Fermi energy level is near to the conduction band.

x. Doping: It is the process of addition of impurity to a pure semiconductor in order to alter its
conduction properties.

xi. Forward bias: A pn junction is said to be forward biased when p-region is connected to positive
terminal and n-region to the negative terminal of battery.

xii. Reverse bias: A pn junction is said to be reverse biased when p-region is connected to negative
terminal and n-region to the positive terminal of battery.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Why band gap is also called as forbidden gap?
2. What is meant by energy gap of a material?
3. Mention the energy gaps of many semiconductors (elemental as well as compound) as known to you.
4. Why energy gap is treated as a significant property of semiconductor? Enlist the applications
of semiconductors due to their typical band gaps.
5. The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with the temperature, while resistivity of metals
increases with temperature. Why?
6. The diodes made up of germanium and silicon emit heat when forward biased, but the diodes made
up of compound semiconductors such as GaAs, CdS, GaP emit light when forward biased. Why?

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7. “Due to their relatively large band gap as compared to germanium, silicon devices have extra
thermal stability and less leakage current than germanium”. Comment.
8. Draw Energy band diagram of p-type & n-type semiconductors.
9. Where does a Fermi level of p-type and n-type semiconductors lie at zero Kelvin?
10. What is the unit of energy gap?
11. What is valance band?
12. What is conduction band?
13. How energy bands are formed. Explain?
14. What are conductors, insulators and semiconductors?
15. What is doping?
16. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors?
17. What are the charge carriers of n-type and p-type semiconductors?
18. What is meant by forward and reverse bias?
19. Explain effect of temperature on the conductivity of semiconductor.

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 Experiment - 2
SOLAR CELL - CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To plot voltage - current characteristics and determine the fill factor of solar cell.
Apparatus: Solar cell, light bulb, ammeter (0-20 mA), voltmeter (0-20 mV), variable load resistor
(0-1KΩ) and connecting wires.
Theory: Solar cell is an unbiased p-n junction semiconducting device which directly converts solar
energy i.e. Sun light into electrical energy. Input power source is not required. Solar cell works on the
principle of Photovoltaic effect and hence it is also called a „Photovoltaic cell‟. When Sun light
(photons) falls on the solar cell, electrons and holes are created, these charge carriers flow through the
circuit and hence electricity is generated. This device generates power when an electromagnetic
radiation (Sun light) is incident on it.

Working principle of solar cell:

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through very thin
p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create
a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition of the
junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction. Once, the newly
created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction because of barrier
potential of the junction. Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot further
cross the junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the concentration of electrons
becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in
another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A
voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we connect a small load across the junction, there
will be a tiny current flowing through it.

Formula:
Fill factor of a solar cell is determined using the formula

FF = x 100

Where = Maximum Power in watts

= Open circuit voltage and = Short circuit current

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 16
Circuit diagram:

Figure 2.1 Study of Solar cell characteristics

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure 2.1.
2. Switch on the light bulb.
3. Measure the short circuit current ( when load resistance = 0
4. Measure the open circuit voltage when the variable load resistance is maximum.
5. Vary the load resistance slowly and note the corresponding readings of voltage and current.

Tabular column:

S.No. Voltage, V Current, I

( mV) ( mA)

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Model Graph:
1. Plot the V – I curve and indicate and as shown in figure 2.2.
2. Draw a line making an angle with X – axis to meet the curve at a point.
3. Find its coordinates on X-axis and Y-axis respectively.

Figure 2.2 V - I characteristics of solar cell

Observations:
1. Short circuit current, = ----------- mA= ------------- Amps
2. Open circuit voltage, ---------- mV= -------------- Volts
3. Maximum current, = ---------- mA = ------------- Amps
4. Maximum voltage, = ------------ mV = -------------- Volts

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Calculations:
Fill factor (FF) of a Solar cell is given by the formula,

FF = x 100 = ------------------- % = %

Precautions:
1. Light from the lamp should fall normally on the solar cell.
2. A resistance in the cell circuit should be introduced so that the current does not exceed the safe
operating limit.

Result:
1. Voltage – Current characteristics of the given Solar cell are plotted.
2. Fill Factor of the given Solar cell is calculated. It is found to be, FF = ------------- %

(Standard Fill factor value of given solar cell is 45%)

APPLICATIONS
 Solar cells are used to generate electricity. It is a self-generating device.
 It does not require any external power source; hence it is a pollution free energy.
 Used in space satellites as power sources for a long period of time.
 Used in pocket solar calculators, watches, heaters, toys, lights, alarms etc.

KEY POINTS
i. Solar cell: A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
ii. Operation of a solar cell:
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes:
The absorption of light, generating either electron–hole pairs or excitons
The separation of charge carriers of opposite types
The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit

iii. Working principle of solar cell:

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the junction, through very
thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction
to create a number of electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition
of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly come to the n-type side of the
junction. Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of the junction.
Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side, cannot further cross the junction
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 19
 because of barrier potential of the junction. Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-
type side cannot further cross the junction became of same barrier potential of the junction. As the
concentration of electrons becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side of the junction and
concentration of holes becomes more in another side, i.e. the p-type side of the junction, the p-n
junction will behave like a small battery cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If
we connect a small load across the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing through it.

iv. Materials Used in Solar Cell

The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to 1.5ev. Commonly used
materials are:
 Silicon
 GaAs
 CdTe
 CuInSe2

v. Criteria for Materials to be used in Solar Cell

1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev
2. It must have high optical absorption
3. It must have high electrical conductivity
4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the material must be low
5.
vi. Advantages of Solar Cell
1. No pollution associated with it
2. It must last for a long time
3. No maintenance cost
4.
vii. Disadvantages of Solar Cell
1. It has high cost of installation
2. It has low efficiency
3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will not get solar energy
4.
viii. Uses of Solar Generation Systems
1. It may be used to charge batteries
2. Used in light meters
3. It is used to power calculators and wrist watches
4. It can be used in spacecraft to provide electrical energy
ix. A solar panel is a group of electrically connected solar cells, enclosed in a frame, which converts
sunlight into electricity. Switching to solar energy has many advantages, allowing us to save money
while helping the environment, and may have a few limitations connected to the position of the house
and weather conditions.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 20
x. Solar power is one of the cleanest, most sustainable, and most renewable resources in the world.

xi. Solar power does not create any noise pollution; solar panels silently create energy from the Sun‟s
rays.

xii. Coal plants are the largest producers of carbon emissions, which contribute to global warming. Oil
hurts the planet too. Each year in America alone, over one million gallons of petroleum spill into
waterways, oceans, and groundwater. That‟s why solar power is so important-it can reduce pollution
and harm to the environment.

xiii. A household rooftop solar panel system can reduce pollution by 100 tons of CO2. Carbon-di-oxide
in its lifetime and this includes the energy it took to manufacture the solar panels. Solar panels can
improve future air quality for humans as well as the millions of birds, fish, and mammals that are
negatively affected by pollution each year.

xiv. Silicon and germanium are most widely used semiconductor materials although gallium arsenide,
Indium arsenide and Cadmium arsenide are also being used now a day.

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. How does fill factor of a solar cell differ from its efficiency?
2. Does solar cell work on minority carriers or majority carriers?
3. What is the role of electric field across the PN junction in the action of solar cell?
4. Explain what you mean by ISC i.e. short circuit current. Why ISC has to be obtained by extrapolation
method only? Why cannot it be measured in the experiment?
5. Explain what you understand by VOC i.e. open circuit voltage. Why VOC has to be obtained by
extrapolation? Why it cannot be measured in the experiment?
6. Solar cell is basically a PN junction diode. Why, then, the characteristics of solar cell
does not appear like that of diode? What is short circuit current?
7. Give any two advantages and any two disadvantages of solar cell.
8. Give any five applications of solar cell.
9. What type of materials used in fabrication of solar cells?
10. What are the different types of solar cells?
11. Mention any disadvantageous of solar cell.
12. What biasing is applied in solar cell?
13. Explain how a solar cell works.
14. What is the difference between solar cell and LED?
15. Compare solar cell and photodiode
16. What is the criterion of materials used in solar cells?

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 22

 Experiment - 3
STUDY OF LED CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To study the Voltage - Current characteristics of Light Emitting Diodes of different colors
(wavelengths) for given resistance and at different resistances for given color (wavelength) and find the
corresponding knee voltages.
Apparatus: Light emitting diode, variable p o w e r Supply (0 - 5V), Digital voltmeter (0 - 20V),
DC Digital ammeter (0 - 200 mA).

Theory: The electrons are majority carriers in N-type and holes are majority carriers in P-type. The
electrons of N-type are in the conduction band and holes of P-type are in the valence band. In a p-n
junction, charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross from the n-layer to the p-
layer. The minority carrier electrons are in the conduction band on the p-side while minority carrier
holes are in the valence band on the n-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level compared to
the valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole; the difference in energy is given
out in the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium, the energy dissipation is in the form
of heat, whereas in case of gallium-arsenide and gallium phosphide, it is in the form of light. But this
light is in the invisible re gi o n and so this material cannot be used in the manufacture of LED.
Hence gallium–arsenide phosphide which emits light in the visible region is used to manufacture an
LED. The electrons in Silicon and Germanium lose their energy in the form of heat. Thus, they are not
used for LEDs as we want semiconductor in which electrons lose their energy in the form of light.

Formula:
hC
The expression for knee or threshold voltage is given by V 
e

Where h = J-s, C= m/s, e= C

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 Circuit diagram:

Figure 3.1 Study of V - I characteristics of LED

Procedure:
1. Connect the light emitting diode circuit as shown in the figure 3.1
2. Slowly increase supply voltage using variable power supply using coarse and fine knobs.
3. Note down current through the light emitting diode at increasing values of Light emitting diode
voltage of 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20 Volts and so on.
4. Do not exceed current limit of 30 mA else the light emitting diode may get damaged.
5. Plot a graph of light emitting diode current Vs light emitting diode voltage.

Fig. 3.2 Structure of LED and electronic symbol

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 24

Tabular column 1:
Wavelength (λ) = --------------- nm (Fixed), Resistance (RL) = ----------Ω

S.NO. Voltage Current

‘V’ (volts) ‘i’ (mA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 25

Tabular column 2:
Wavelength (λ) = --------------- nm (Fixed), Resistance (RL) = ----------Ω

S.NO. Voltage Current

‘V’ (volts) ‘i’ (mA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 26

Tabular column 3:
Wavelength (λ) = --------------- nm (Fixed), Resistance (RL) = ----------Ω

S.NO. Voltage Current

‘V’ (volts) ‘i’ (mA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 27

Tabular column 4:
Resistance (RL) = ----------Ω (Fixed), Wavelength (λ) = --------------- nm

S.NO. Voltage Current

‘V’ (volts) ‘i’ (mA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 28

Tabular column 5:
Resistance (RL) = ----------Ω (Fixed), Wavelength (λ) = --------------- nm

S.NO. Voltage Current

‘V’ (volts) ‘i’ (mA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 29

Model graphs: Plot graph between voltage on X - axis and current on Y - axis for different
wavelengths (colors) keeping resistance value constant and for different resistances keeping wavelength
(color) constant, as shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 V-I characteristics of LED

Precautions:
1. Make sure that the connections are tight.
2. Take care to apply suitable forward voltages across the LED so that suitable forward currents flow
through the LED. Otherwise the LED may be damaged.

Result:
1. The V-I characteristics of Light Emitting Diodes of different wavelengths (colors) for given
resistance and at different resistances for given wavelength (color) are studied.
2. The corresponding knee voltages are found.

Knee or Threshold voltage

S.No Colour Wavelength ( Volts)
(nm) Experimental Theoretical

1 BLUE 450 - 500 2.5 - 3.7

2 GREEN 500 - 570 1.9 - 4.0

3 YELLOW 570 - 590 2.1 - 2.2

4 RED 610 - 760 1.6 - 2

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 30

APPLICATIONS

 LED display boards are common now these days and are used outdoors like storage signs,
billboards, road signs etc. In sign boards which have multiple languages conveying signals, use
of more LEDs will be beneficial in terms of less power consumption.
 Use of LEDs in automotive industry is growing. With LEDs, energy is saved and there is a
clearer visibility. These are extensively used in back and rear of an automobile for better
accessibility. LED lighting can improve safety of pedestrians and driver as it enhances visibility
when it is ON, OFF and dimmed in any part of the journey.
 With the use of LED, the backlight design of the smart phone can be thinner and be made within
low cost. The price of LED may vary according to the size of the smart phone display. Due to the
lower output voltage, they ensure longer battery life.
 Indicator in AC circuit:
It can be used as an indicator in AC circuit, but the internal resistance of LED is quite small.
Thus, a resistor in series is connected with LED so that the overcurrent can flow through the
resistor and can protect LED from getting damaged.
 Display Panel Indicator:
LEDs are used for displaying information processed by electronics circuits. The display format
of LED is shown in below diagram.
 Digital Watches, Calculators & Multimeters:
The LEDs which emit visible light are used in digital watches and Calculators for indication
purpose.
 Remote Control Systems & Burglar alarm Systems:
Those LEDs which emit invisible infrared light such as GaAs LEDs are used in such
applications.

KEY POINTS

i. The first visible LED was invented in 1962 by Professor Nick Holonyak who then worked for
General Electric.
ii. LEDs are driven by DC (direct current), light bulbs are driven by AC (alternating current)
iii. LEDs don‟t attract as many insects as other traditional light sources as they have very little UV
content.
iv. LEDs are great for horticulture – deep blue (450nm) and hyper red (660nm) provide the light for
photosynthesis, and far red (730nm) controls the plant from germination to vegetative growth and
flowering.
v. More and more councils changing over their streetlights to LED versions, saving energy and
increasing visibility.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 31

 vi. Blue LEDs can help keep food fresh - they have been proved to have a strong antibacterial effect on
major food borne pathogens, and are now being used in fridges.
vii. The Times Square Ball in New York (dropped every New Year) is illuminated with 32,256
individual LEDs!

viii. Characteristics of LED:

LEDs are solid-state devices. The advantages are:
1) Light Generated by LED is Directional

A. LED is all forward directional lighting, not Omni as conventional light bulb.
B. In general, beam angel is around 140 degree.
C. Utilize this directional characteristics and employee optical lens can achieve different light
patterns.

2) LED can Generate Different Light Color

A. Wavelength determinate light color output: red, green, blue, yellow, or purple.
B. RGB light mix or different phosphor mix will create white light.

3) Temperature will Affect LED Efficacy

A. LED itself will generate heat, which will affect efficacy as well as LED life.
B. In general, 10 Degree increase will reduce 5 – 7% lumen output
C. Maintain P-N Junction temperature under 75 degree will enable LED last for over 50,000
hours.

4) Low Energy Consumption

A. 100 lm/W is commercialized, while over 200lm/W is achieved in lab.

B. ILess than 1/5 to 1/10 power consumption of conventional lighting is achieving or 80% to
90% of energy will be saved.

5) Long Life

A. No fragile parts, as conventional light bulb, to be broken.

B. Light will decay lumen output, but rarely burn out or dead.
C. A well-designed luminaire expects over 70% lumen maintenance at 50,000 hours usage.

ix. LED (Light Emitting Diode):

LED is an optoelectronic device which works on the principle of electro-luminance. Electro-
luminance is the property of the material to convert electrical energy into light energy and later

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 32

 it radiates this light energy. In the same way, the semiconductor in LED emits light under the
influence of electric field.

x. Working of LED:

The electrons are majority carriers in N-type and holes are majority carriers in P-type. The
electrons of N-type are in the conduction band and holes of P-type are in the valence band. The
energy level of the Conduction band is higher than the energy level of the Valence band. Thus, if
electrons tend to recombine with holes they have to lose some part of the energy to fall in lower
energy band. The electrons can lose their energy either in the form of heat or light. The electrons
in Silicon and Germanium lose their energy in the form of heat. Thus, they are not used for LEDs
as we want semiconductor in which electrons lose their energy in the form of light.

xi. Advantages of LED:

Temperature Range: It can be operated over a wide range of temperature ranging from 00C -
700C

Switching Time: The Switching time of LEDs is in order of 1ns. Thus, they are useful in dynamic
operations where a large number of arrays are used.

Low Power Consumption: They consume less power and they can be used even if the dc power
supplied is low.

Better Controlling: The radiant power of LEDs is the function of the current flowing in it. Thus,
the light intensity of LED can be controlled easily.

Economical and Reliable: LEDs are cheap and they possess a high degree of reliability.

Small Size and Portability: They are small in size and can be stacked together for the formation
of alphanumeric displays.

Higher Efficiency: The efficiency of LEDs to convert power to light energy is 10-50 times
greater than that of the tungsten lamp. The response time of LED is 0.1nS while in the case of
tungsten lamp it is in tens or hundreds of milliseconds.
x. Disadvantages of LED:

Overvoltage or Overcurrent: The LEDs may get damaged when the current is increased beyond
a certain limit.

Overheating due to radiant power: It gets overheated with an excessive increase in radiant
power. This may lead to damage of LED

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 33

 A list of different LEDs wavelength color range and the material used:
WAVELENGTH COLOUR VF @ 20MA MATERIAL
RANGE (NM)

< 400 Ultraviolet 3.1 - 4.4 Aluminium nitride (AlN)

Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)

400 - 450 Violet 2.8 - 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

450 - 500 Blue 2.5 - 3.7 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)

Silicon carbide (SiC)

500 - 570 Green 1.9 - 4.0 Gallium phosphide (GaP)

Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

570 - 590 Yellow 2.1 - 2.2 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium phosphide (GaP)

590 - 610 Orange / 2.0 - 2.1 Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

amber Aluminium gallium indium phosphide
(AlGaUInP)
Gallium phosphide (GaP)

610 - 760 Red 1.6 - 2.0 Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium phosphide (GaP)

> 760 Infrared < 1.9 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 34

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. How photons are emitted from the light emitting diode and from which section of it?
2. What happens when you provide the forward bias to the LED in terms of conduction band & valence
band in the depletion region?
3. Light emitting diode is always forward biased. Explain why?
4. What are the materials used in Light emitting diode to emit different wavelengths or colours?
5. List the differences between photodiode and LED?
6. Why does not LED start to glow immediately when you provide the forwarding bias to that?
7. Can we achieve the population inversion process in LED's too? If yes what is the condition for that?
If no then why?
8. What is recombination?
9. What is injection electroluminescence?
10. What are direct and indirect band gap semiconductors?
11. What is knee voltage and threshold voltage?
12. What are the characteristics of LED?
13. What are the advantageous of LED?
14. What are the disadvantageous of LED?
15. What are the differences between LED and LASER?
16. What are the applications of LED?
17. What are IR LEDs and mention few applications of IR LEDs.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 35

 Experiment - 4
Zener diode characteristics

Aim: To Study Voltage – Current characteristics and to determine breakdown voltage of Zener Diode.

Apparatus:
S.No. Name of the Component Range
Zener Diodes Z1= 4.7V
1 Z1= 6.2V
Z3=7.5V
2 Resistor 1KΩ
3 DC Ammeter (0-250µA)
4 DC Voltmeter (0-15 V)
5 Regulated Power supply 2A (0-15V)
Semiconductor Trainer
6 -
Kit / Bread Board
7 Connecting Wires -

Theory: A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break
down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. When a PN
junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider. If this reverse biased voltage
across the diode is increased continually, the depletion layer becomes more and more wider. At the
same time, there will be a constant reverse saturation current due to minority carriers. But if the reverse
bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down
Voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device. To avoid high current,
we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting, it maintains almost
constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very low
dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
An electrical breakdown of any material such as the conductor, semiconductor, and insulator can
occur due to two different phenomena known as a) Zener Breakdown b) Avalanche Breakdown. The
main difference between Zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown is their mechanism of
occurrence. Zener breakdown occurs because of the high electric field whereas, the avalanche
breakdown occurs because of the collision of free electrons with atoms. Both these breakdowns can
occur simultaneously.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 36

Zener Breakdown:
When the diode is reverse biased, the kinetic energy of the electrons increases and they move at a high
velocity. The high-velocity electrons collide with other atoms and give rise to free electrons. These free
electrons, in turn, give rise to a high value of reverse saturation current. This is known as Zener
breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown:
The avalanche breakdown occurs when a high reverse voltage is applied across the diode. As we
increase the applied reverse voltage, the electric field across the junction increases. This electric field
exerts a force on the electrons at the junction and frees them from covalent bonds. These free electrons
start moving with high velocity across the junction and collide with the other atoms, thus creating more
free electrons. This results in a rapid increase in net current. Both these breakdowns occur in Zener
diodes.

Circuit diagram:

Figure 4.1 study of V-I characteristics of Zener diode

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 37

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the Figure 4.1
2. The Regulated Power Supply (RPS) is switched on and the voltage is varied in steps.
3. The readings in voltmeter and ammeter are noted in the tabular column.
4. Plot the graph between the voltage (Vz) and current (Iz), considering voltage along X-axis and
current along Y-axis.
5. Find the zener break down voltage from the graph.
6. Repeat the experiment for different zener diodes.
7. Tabulate the zener break down voltage of various diodes.
Tabular column 1:
Resistance (R) = -------------- Ω

Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

S.No.
Vr (Volts) Ir (µA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 38

 Tabular column 2:
Resistance (R) = ----------------- Ω

Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

S.No.
Vr (Volts) Ir (µA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 39

 Tabular column 3:
Resistance (R) = ---------------- Ω

Reverse Voltage Reverse Current

S.No.
Vr (Volts) Ir (µA)

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 40

 Model graph: Plot a graph between reverse voltage on X-axis and reverse current on Y-axis as
shown in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 V-I characteristics of Zener diode

Result:
1. The V-I characteristics of the Zener diode are studied
2. The Zener break down voltage is found and tabulated.

Zener diode Zener Break down Voltage „Vz‟ (Volts)

Theoretical Experimental

Z1

Z2

Z3

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 41

 APPLICATIONS

 Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage
across small circuits.
 Zener diodes are generally employed in multimeters to protect the meter movement against the
damage from the accidental overloads.
 Zener diodes are also used to convert sine wave into square waves.
 Zener diodes are used to modify or shape AC waveform clipping circuits. The clipping circuit limits
or clips off parts of one or both of the half cycles of an AC waveform to shape the waveform or
provide protection.

KEY POINTS
i. Zener diodes are the specially prepared p-n junction diodes with heavy doping and thin depletion
layer.
ii. The device was named after Clarence Melvin Zener, who discovered the Zener effect.
iii. Zener breakdown occurs in Zener diodes with Zener voltage (Vz) less than 6V.
iv. The symbol of Zener diode is similar to the normal p-n junction diode, but with bend edges on the
vertical bar.
v. A heavily doped P-N junction which has a sharp breakdown voltage is called as a zener diode.
vi. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily
doped, the depletion layer will be thin and consequently the breakdown of the junction will occur at
a lower reverse voltage.
vii. Zener breakdown voltage:
When the reverse bias of a zener diode is increased, a critical voltage is reached at which the reverse
current increases sharply to a high value. This critical voltage is called breakdown voltage. If the
reverse potential across the zener diode is increased beyond a certain value, the current increases very
rapidly due to zener breakdown. Zener breakdown occurs when the applied electric field or potential
is so high that the valence band electrons are pulled out to the conduction band in large numbers
resulting in breakdown. Thus, a zener breakdown, direct rupture of covalent bonds take place by
thermally generated carriers having acquired high energy due to strong electric field.
viii. Differences between zener and ordinary diode:
i) A zener diode is like an ordinary diode except that it is properly doped so as to have a sharp break
down voltage
ii) It has a sharp breakdown voltage called zener voltage
iii) When forward biased, zener diode characteristics are just that of ordinary diode
iv) A zener diode is always reverse biased

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 42

ix. Zener diode is always reverse biased, because it utilize reverse characteristics for acting like a
voltage regulator.
x. A zener diode is used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source whose
voltage vary over sufficient range.
xi. Flow of current in zener diode under reverse biasing condition:
In case of reverse biasing condition, the external field is established in a direction such as to help
internal field. Under this biasing the holes in P- region and electrons in N- region are pushed away
from the junction with the result that the depletion or barrier layer is thickened and hence increases
the potential barrier, therefore, the flow of current stops. Only a few thermally generated minority
carriers produce a very small current.
xii. Flow of current in zener diode under forward biasing condition:
In the case of forward biasing condition, the zener diode behaves like an ordinary p-n junction diode.
In this case the external field is established in a direction such as to oppose the internal field. The
external field is much stronger than internal field. In this arrangement holes move along the external
field from p-region to n-region and electrons move opposite to the field from n-region to p-region,
that is, the majority carriers from each side move across the junction. The potential barrier or
depletion layer at the junction wiped out and a substantial current flows depending upon the density
of n- and p -carriers.
xiii. Avalanche breakdown:
When the reverse voltage is made sufficiently high the thermally generated electrons and holes
acquire high energy from the applied potential and make ionizing collisions with the atoms of the
crystal. These collisions produce further electrons, which in turn collide with further atoms. The
commutative effect of such collisions results in the breakdown of the junction. Due to this avalanche
multiplication the reverse current increases abruptly to high value. This is called avalanche
breakdown and may damage the junction.
xiv. Differences between avalanche breakdown and zener breakdown:
In general zener breakdown occurs below 8V and avalanche breakdown occurs at higher voltages
(~20). The Zener breakdown is characterized by the soft knee, whereas avalanche breakdown is hard
knee type. Zener breakdown voltage has a negative temperature coefficient, while the avalanche
breakdown voltage exhibits positive temperature coefficient.
xv. The width of the depletion region in the reverse biased diode varies
i. With the impurity concentration.
ii. As the square root of the impurity concentration.
xvi. The value of potential barrier decreases with heavy amount of doping of the semiconductor.
xvii. Silicon diodes are preferred compare to germanium diodes because of its higher temperature to
current capability.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 43
xviii. A zener diode behaves as an ordinary p-n junction diode when it is used in forward bias
conditions.
xix. Main application of a zener diode: An important application of zener diode is its use as voltage
regulator. The regulating action takes place due to the fact that in reverse breakdown region; a very
small change in voltage produces a very large change in current
xx. Avalanche breakdown voltage vary with temperature:
In lightly doped diode an increase in temperature increases the probability of collisionof electrons
and thus increases the depletion width. Thus the electrons and holes needs a high voltage to cross the
junction. Thus the avalanche voltage is increased with increased temperature.
xxi. Zener breakdown voltage vary with temperature:
In heavily doped diodes, an increase in temperature increases the energies of valence electrons, and
hence makes it easier for these electrons to escape from covalent bonds. Thus less voltage is
sufficient to knock or pull these electrons from their position in the crystal and convert them in to
conduction electrons. Thus zener break down voltage decreases with temperature.

Fig. V-I characteristics of Zener diode with Zener break down voltage and Avalanche break down
voltage

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 44

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Explain the difference between an ordinary diode and a Zener diode?
2. What do you mean by Zener break down and explain how it is achieved?
3. What is breakdown voltage?
4. On what factor(s) does the breakdown voltage of a Zener diode depend?
5. Zener diode is always reverse biased. Explain the reasons.
6. If the impurity concentration is increased, how is the depletion width affected?
7. Why Zener diode used as voltage generator and in which region Zener diode can be used as a
regulator?
8. Give some important applications of Zener diode.
9. What are advantages of Zener diode over ordinary p-n diode?
10. Explain the flow of current in forward bias of a zener diode?
11. Explain the flow of current in reverse bias of a zener diode?
12. What do you mean by avalanche break down?
13. Write the differences between zener break down and avalanche break down
14. How does the avalanche breakdown voltage and zener break down voltage vary with temperature?
15. How the width of the depletion region in the reverse biased diode varies with the impurity
concentration?
16. How the value of the potential barrier depends on the amount of doping of the semiconductor?
17. Why the silicon diode is preferred compare to germanium diode?
18. Under what condition a zener diode behaves like an ordinary p-n junction diode?

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 45

 Experiment - 5
a) OPTICAL FIBER – MEASUREMENT OF NUMERICAL APERTURE

Aim: To determine the numerical aperture (NA) and acceptance angle (ɵmax) of the optical fiber.

Apparatus: Fiber optic trainer module, Numerical Aperture measurement jig, One or three meters
length optical fiber cable with proper connectors, digital multimeter, connecting wires and D.C. Power
supply.

Theory: The numerical aperture of an optical fiber system is a measure of the light collected by an
optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium and the sine of the
maximum ray angle.

Numerical aperture (N.A) ….. (1)

For step-index fiber, the N.A. is given by:

⁄ Figure 5.1 Geometrical representation of (NA)

.….. (2)

Light from the fiber end “A” falls on the screen BD. Let the diameter of the light falling on the screen,
BD = W and the distance between the fiber end and the screen, AO=L.

⁄ ⁄
( )
From geometry, ( ) =

Formulae:

1. Numerical aperture,
⁄

2. Acceptance angle,
өmax in degrees

Where W – Diameter of the ring and L - Distance between the fiber end and the screen

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 46

Description: The schematic diagram of the fiber optic trainer module is shown in figure below. The
circuit comprises of three parts:

1. Electrical to optical (E/O) converter: It converts an input voltage to an optical output by driving
the fiber optic LED current linearly using a negative feedback operational amplifier circuit. Direct
current LED current setting is done by rotating the knob ⁄ . The optical power is coupled to
the optical fiber through the connector. The LED current can be measured by monitoring the voltage
with a digital multimeter. A.C. input is given to the ⁄ gives the LED current in
milliamperes.
2. Optical to electrical (O/E) converter: It accepts the input power from the optical fiber
connected through the connector and provides an output voltage . This is directly proportional
to . For D.C. measurements a multimeter may be used. For A.C. measurements an oscilloscope is
required.
3. Optical power meter: The optical power meter converts the optical power coupled to it through and
SMA terminated optical fiber and facilitates display of power in dB. The optical power in dB is
given by the (multimeter reading/10) in dB referred to 1mW.

Experimental setup:

Figure 5.2 Arrangement for numerical aperture measurement

Procedure:
1. Connect one end of the Fiber optic cable to and the other end to N.A.jig as shown in figure.
2. The A.C. main is switched ON. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the N.A. jig to
ensure proper coupling is made or not. Turn the ⁄ knob in clockwise direction to get maximum
intensity light through fiber.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 47

 3. A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is kept vertically at a certain distance. Now
adjust the distance between optical fiber end and the screen so that the light (or) Red spot completely
fills the 10 mm diameter concentric circle on the screen and note the distance „L‟.
4. The experiment is repeated for the subsequent diameter of the circles by adjusting the length „L‟.

Tabular column 1:
Length of the optical fiber = 1 meter

S.No. W (mm) L (mm) ɵmax = Sin-1(NA)

⁄

Tabular column 2:
Length of the optical fiber = 3 meters

S.No. W (mm) L (mm) ɵmax = Sin-1(NA)

⁄

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 48

Calculations:

Result:
1. The average value of numerical aperture (N.A). of Optical fiber = ___________
(Standard value for given fiber is 0.45)
2. The average value of Acceptance angle (ɵmax ) of Optical fiber ____________
(Standard value for given fiber is 26045‟)

APPLICATIONS
 In telecommunications, LANs, control systems and fiber optic sensors.
 In remote sensors and in transducers.
 In industrial, medical and scientific fields.
 In fiber optic endoscopes and to diagnose the diseases.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 49

 b) OPTICAL FIBER – STUDY OF MACRO BENDING LOSSES

Aim: To study the macro bending losses in optical fibers in the visible and infrared regions.

Apparatus: Fiber optic trainer module, one or three meters of a step-index optical fiber, digital
multimeter, mandrel, connecting wires, D.C. Power supply.

Theory: As in the case of any transmission medium, an optical fiber also suffers from transmission
loss as signal propagates through it. Losses in an optical fiber is a result of a number of effects, like fiber
to fiber joints, splicing due to axial displacement of fibers, angular displacement of fibers, mismatch of
core diameters of fibers, macro and micro bending losses, connector losses etc. however, in present
experiment, we confine to the study of the attenuation in a fiber due to macro bending of fiber and the
adaptors connecting the two fiber patch cords.

Formula:
Bending losses in dBm = dBm

Conversion factor o/p power in dBm is calculated as

Output power in dBm = - 10 log [ ]

Where = Output power in dBm without bending and = Output power in dBm with bending

Diagram:

Figure 5.3 Apparatus for bending losses measuremement

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 50

Procedure:
 The schematic diagram of the OFC is shown in the figure 5.3.
 Adjust the input power knob up to maximum.
 Connect the OFC one end (1m or 3m) to Red LED (Transmission kit) and the other end to the Photo
diode detector (Receiving kit). Adjust the switch in Red LED mode. Initially adjust OFC of 1m or
3m linearly without any bends and measure the output Power in microwatts. Convert this value into
decibel meter and note as in dBm.
 Make OFC to undergo bending by wounding the cable for 3 or 4 turns around the cylindrical
mandrel, now measure the optical power in micro watts, and convert it in dBm and note it as P1 in
dBm.
5. Repeat this procedure for Infrared LED also and readings are noted. Do calculations as shown in the
tabular column.

Tabular column: Bending losses of optical fiber in dBm

Name Length Output Output Output Output Bending

of the of the power power power power loss
LED optical without without With with =
fiber bending bending bending bending (dBm)
(m) (µW) (µW)
(dBm) (dBm)

Infra-Red 3

Red 3

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Calculations:

Precautions:
1. Don‟t look directly into laser beam.
2. Optical source should be properly aligned with the cable.
3. While bending the fiber, handle the fiber with care.
Result: The macro bending losses in optical fiber are found to be

1. For Infra red LED = --------- dBm in 1m cable and -------- dBm in 3m cable
2. For Red LED = --------- dBm in 1m cable and --------- dBm in 3m cable

APPLICATIONS
 In telecommunications, LANs, control systems and fiber optic sensors.
 In remote sensors and in transducers.
 In industrial, medical and scientific fields.
 In fiber optic endoscopes and to diagnose the diseases.

KEY POINTS
i. Total internal reflection: When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium and angle
of incidence is greater than critical angle then light reflects back into same medium this
phenomenon is called Total internal reflection. Through this phenomenon light propagation takes
place in optical fiber.
ii. Types of optical fiber: There are two types of fiber (i) step index fiber (ii) graded index fiber.
iii. Fractional refractive index: It is the ratio of difference of the refractive indices of core and
cladding to the refractive index of core.
iv. Types of signal losses in fiber: There are four types of fiber losses
(a) Absorption losses (b) Scattering losses (c) dispersion losses (d) bending losses
v. Numerical aperture: It is a measure of light collecting (gathering) capacity of the fiber. It is a

dimensionless quantity and is less than unity, typical values ranging from 0.14 to 0.5.

vi. Important specifications of an optical fiber:

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 (i)Numerical aperture (NA)
(ii) Core diameter
(iii) V-number
(iv) Material of the fiber
(v) Attenuation
(vi) Core refractive index profile (step index or graded index)

vii. Graded index fiber: If the refractive index of the core in a fiber is made to vary as a function of the
radial distance from the centre of the fiber, it is called graded index fiber. i.e., refractive index decreases
as distance increases

viii. Step index fiber: If the refractive index of the core in a fiber constant or uniform as a function of
the radial distance from the centre of the fiber, it is called step index fiber.

ix. The propagation of light energy in an optical fiber takes place at distinct angles of propagation called
the modes of propagation or modes.

x. Internal quantum efficiency of an LED:

The internal quantum efficiency in the active region is the function of electron-hole pairs that recombine
radioactively. If the radiative recombination rate per unit volume is RT, and nonradiative recombination
rate is Rnr, , the internal quantum efficiency η is the ratio of the radiative recombination rate to the total
recombination rate. η = Rr/(Rnr + Rr)

xi. Intermodal dispersion: Dispersion caused by the delay between different modes. Typically, it is the
delay between the shortest path (zero mode) and the longest path (critical mode).

Intramodal dispersion: Dispersion that is independent of modes, related to the line width of the source
and caused by variations in the refractive index as a function of wavelength.

xii. Dispersion: Dispersion is defined as the pulse spread as function of wavelength. The effect, that
causes the output pulse to be wider than the input pulse.

xiii. Causes of intramodal dispersion:

Material dispersion occurs because the index of refraction varies as a function of the optical
wavelength. And Waveguide dispersion

xiv. Acceptance angle: It is the maximum angle of a ray (against the fiber axis) hitting the fiber core
which allows the incident light to be guided by the core.

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Explain the necessity of cladding for an optical fiber.
2. What is the principle involved in working of optical fibers?
3. List different types of optical fibers based on material and refractive index profile.
4. Describe total internal reflection? And Define acceptance angle.
5. Is refractive index maximum or minimum at the central axis of the graded index optical fiber core?
6. Mention the mechanisms that are responsible for attenuation in optical fibers.
7. What will happen if the core refractive index is either equal or less than the cladding refractive
index?
8. What is the condition for total internal reflection?
9. Which materials we will be used in the preparation of optical fibers?
10. Numerical Aperture (NA) is dimensionless, what information we get from it?
11. State and explain Snell‟s law.
12. If there are two optical fibers one have NA=0.23 and second have NA=0.52 which have more
capacity to carry a large number of optical signals?
13. What is the basic structure of a modern optical fiber?
14. What are the two principal photo detectors used in a fiber optic line?
15. What are the important specifications of an optical fiber?
16. Which are the different types of fibers?
17. What is a graded index fiber and step index fiber?
18. What is meant by modes?
19. Define internal quantum efficiency of an LED?
20. What is the difference between intermodal and intramodal dispersion?
21. What are the two main causes of intramodal dispersion ?
22. What is dispersion? How does material dispersion occur?
23. What is attenuation?
24. Explain types of optical power loss in fibers.
25. Mention applications of optical fibers.
26. What are the advantageous of optical fiber?

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 Experiment - 6
HALL EFFECT

Aim: To determine
(i) The Hall Coefficient RH
(ii) The concentration of charge carriers (n or p)
(iii) Mobility of charge carriers ()
Apparatus: Electromagnet with 50mm diameter pole pieces, Digital Power supply for
electromagnet (0 - 6Amp), Digital Gauss meter (0 - 20 Kilo Gauss), Gauss probe, constant current
power supply, p or n type Germanium semiconductor (on PCB).

Theory: E. H. Hall observed that when an electrical current passes through a sample placed in a
magnetic field, a potential proportional to the current and to the magnetic field is developed across
the material in a direction perpendicular to both the current and to the magnetic field. This effect is
known as the Hall Effect. It is useful technique for characterizing the electrical transport properties of
metals and semiconductors.

Formulae:

1. Hall coefficient of a given semiconductor is =

Where = Hall voltage in milli volts

t = thickness of the semiconductor in meters

I = current passed in the semiconductor in milli amperes
B = Magnetic flux density in Tesla.
2. Carrier concentration of electrons, n=

[Units: No. of charge carriers/m3]

Where charge of electron. e =

Mobility of charge carriers ( = σ m2/volt-sec

Where „σ‟ is conductivity of the sample

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Experimental Setup:

Figure 6.1 Hall Effect experimental set up

Procedure:
1. Connect the width wise contacts of the Hall probe (Germanium crystal) to the terminals
marked “Voltage” and length wise contacts to terminals marked “Current”.
2. Switch on the Hall Effect set up and adjust current Ix (say few mA).
3. Switch over the display to voltage side. There may be some voltage reading even outside the
magnetic field is generally known as the „Zero field potential‟. This is due to imperfect
alignment of four contacts of germanium crystal, in case its value is comparable to Hall
voltage it should be subtracted from the Hall voltage reading.
4. Switch on the power supply of electromagnet and measure the magnetic field.
5. Now place the probe in the magnetic field, adjust the current to any desired value.
6. Rotate the Hall probe (germanium crystal) till it becomes perpendicular to magnetic field and
Hall voltage will be maximum in this adjustment.
7. Increase the current Ix in equal steps through the specimen gradually and note corresponding
value of Hall voltages VH . Then plot a graph between VH and Ix.
8. The entire process can be repeated for different values of magnetic flux density. Find the mean
of different RH values.

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Observations:

Thickness of the specimen (t) = ----------- mm = ----------------- meters

Magnetic flux density (B) = ----------- Gauss = ----------------- × 10-4 Tesla
Conductivity of semiconductor (σ) = 0.1 coulomb volt -1 sec -1 cm-1
Resistivity ( ) 10 Ω cm
Reading of constant current power supply (I) = -------------- mA = ------------ × 10-3Amp.
Tabular column:

S.No. Current, Hall Voltage Hall Coefficient

I (mA) (mV) =

Mean RH = ----------------
Model graph: Plot a graph between Hall voltage and current as shown in figure 6.2.

Figure 6.2 Hall voltage vs Current

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Calculations:
Slope of graph = tanθ = =

1. Hall coefficient RH = tan θ x

2. Carrier Concentration (n or p) = = --------------- charge carriers/m3

3. Mobility of charge carriers ( = σ = ------- m2/volt-sec

Precautions:
1. Before starting the experiment, check the gauss meter is showing zero value.
For this put the probe in separate place and switch on the gauss meter, it will show zero meter.
2. Ensure that the specimen is located at the centre between the pole faces and is exactly
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3. To measure the magnetic flux, the Hall probe should be placed at the center of the pole faces,
parallel to the crystal.

Result:

1. Hall Coefficient, RH = ……………………

(Standard value for given sample is 1.55 × 10-2 m3/C)
2. Carrier Concentration, n = ……………………. charge carriers/m3
(Standard value for given sample is 4.03 × 1020 /m3)
3. Mobility of charge carriers = ------------------------
(Standard value for given sample is 1.55 × 10-3m3/V-S)

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APPLICATIONS
 To determine the type and sign of charge carriers.
 To determine whether the given semiconductor is P-type or N-type.
 Using Hall coefficient, the type of given semiconductor, carrier concentration and mobility in the
semiconductor can be determined.
 In order to properly inspect items such as pipes or tubes, Hall Effect probes work with something
called magnetic flux leakage. This is a way of testing such items, and being able to spot potential
corrosion, erosion, or pitting. This is specifically used in steel items, and can give important
information about lifespan or safety.
 A Hall Effect probe can be used in bicycle wheels, speedometers in the automotive world, electronic
types of ignition systems, and gear teeth.
 Basically any device which needs to be tested for its power input can be done by a Hall Effect probe.
 Position and motion sensors – This is mainly used in a DC motor, often the brushless type.

KEY POINTS
i. Hall Effect was discovered in 1879 by the U.S. physicist Edwin Herbert Hall.
ii. The Hall Effect is a conduction phenomenon which is different for different charge carriers. In most
common electrical applications, the conventional current is used partly because it makes no
difference whether you consider positive or negative charge to be moving. But the Hall voltage has a
different polarity for positive and negative charge carriers, and it has been used to study the details
of conduction in semiconductors and other materials which show a combination of negative and
positive charge carriers.

iii. The Hall Effect can be used to measure the average drift velocity of the charge carriers by
mechanically moving the Hall probe at different speeds until the Hall voltage disappears, showing
that the charge carriers are now not moving with respect to the magnetic field. Other types of
investigations of carrier behavior are studied in the quantum Hall effect.

iv. Principle of the Hall Effect: When we place a current-carrying semiconductor specimen in the
presence of a uniform magnetic field, a potential difference creates between the two faces. For

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 example, If the current is flowing along the +X direction, the magnetic field is along the Y-direction,
then the potential difference will be along the Z-direction.

v. Lorentz’s force: When a charged particle is placed or moving in the presence of the electric and
magnetic field, the total forces due to these fields on the charged particle known as Lorentz force

vi. Hall co-efficient: It is numerically equal to Hall electric field induced in the specimen crystal by
unit current when it is placed perpendicular in a magnetic field of 1 weber/(meter*meter).

vii. Mobility: It is the ratio of average drift velocity of charge carriers to applied electric field.

viii. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule: Stretch thumb, first finger, middle finger at right angles to each other
such that fore finger points in the direction of magnetic field, middle finger in the direction of
current then thumb will point in the direction of the force acting on it.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define Fleming‟s Left Hand Rule and Hall Effect.

2. What is Hall Coefficient and how is it related to carrier concentration?
3. If Hall coefficient of a material is negative, what does it indicate?
4. Why Hall potential is developed on application of magnetic field?
5. Explain the significance of Hall Effect and Hall coefficient.
6. Which type of magnet is used in the experiment, temporary or permanent?
7. What understanding did you build from Hall Effect experiment?
8. What are the practical applications based on the theory and outcome of this experiment?
9. Why Hall voltages differ for different types of charge carriers?
10. List the important applications of Hall Effect.
11. Express the relation between electrical conductivity and Hall coefficient.
12. What is the principle of the Hall effect?
13. What Hall Effect experiment signifies?
14. What do you understand from Lorentz‟s force?
15. What is Fleming‟s Left-Hand Rule?
16. Which material (Conductor, Semiconductor and insulator) has been used to explain the Hall Effect?

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17. The direction of current X-axis, Magnetic field direction is Z-axis, how do you will determine the
Hall voltage by the help of majority charge carrier?
18. When a charge passes through the magnetic field, a force act on it. What is the formula of that?
19. Similarly in the presence of electric field a force act on the charged particle, what is that formula?
20. Does Hall Voltage can be created with the conductor and insulator too?
21. Can you determine the type of semiconductor and concentration of charge carriers with the help of
Hall Coefficient?
22. What Hall Coefficient signifies in the Hall Effect experiment?
23. Define mobility.
24. What happens to the hall coefficient when number of charge carriers is decreased?

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 Experiment - 7

DETERMINATION OF BANDGAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR BY FOUR PROBE METHOD

Aim: To find the resistivity and band gap of Semiconductor material by four - probe method

Apparatus: Semiconducting crystal, four probe arrangement, oven, thermometer, Four probe
Voltage and current measuring set up.
Formulae:
1) Resistivity of the semiconductor sample is

Where ( )is the correction factor, ( ) = 5.89 for = 0.25

2) Energy gap Eg = 2K x Slope = ------------- (eV)

Where K is the Boltzmann‟s constant = 8.6x10-5 eV/deg

Theory:

Many conventional methods for measuring resistivity are unsatisfactory for semiconductors because
metal-semiconductor contacts are usually rectifying in nature. Also there is generally minority carrier
injection by one of the current carrying contacts. An excess concentration of minority carriers will
affect the potential of other contacts and modulate the resistance of the material.

The method described here overcomes the difficulties mentioned above and also offers several
other advantages. It permits measurements of resistivity in samples having a wide variety of shapes,
including the resistivity of small volumes within bigger pieces of semiconductor. In this manner the
resistivity of both sides of p-n junction can be determined with good accuracy before the material is
cut into bars for making devices. This method of measurement is also applicable to silicon and other
semiconductor materials.

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In order to use this four probe method in semiconductor crystals or slides it is necessary to assume
that:

1. The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.

2. If there is minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current - carrying electrodes
most of the carriers recombine near the electrodes so that their effect on the conductivity is
negligible. (This means that the measurements should be made on surfaces which have a high
recombination rate, such as mechanical lapped surfaces).

3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.

4. The four probes used for resistivity measurements contact the surface at points that lie in a straight
line.

5. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor should be small
compared to the distance between probes.

6. The boundary between the current-carrying electrodes and the bulk material is hemispherical and
small in diameter.

7. The surfaces of the semiconductor crystal may be either conducting or nonconducting.

(a) A conducting boundary is one on which a material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor
(such as copper) has been plated.

(b) A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the crystal is in contact with an
insulator.

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Diagram:

Figure 7.1 Schematic Diagram of 4-contact probe with semiconductor sample

Figure 7.2 Experimental setup of Four probe method

Procedure:
1. This experimental set up basically consists of 4 contact probes attached with the semiconducting
sample as shown in figure 7.1 and 7.2.

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 2. A constant current is passed through the outer probes connecting it to the constant current source
of the set-up. The voltage developed across the middle two probes is measured using a digital
milli-voltmeter.

3. Put the sample on the base plate of four – probe arrangement. Screw the pipe holding four probes
rest on the middle of a sample.
4. Apply a very gentle pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe for the continuity between the
probes for electrical contacts.
5. Connect the outer pair of probes leads to the constant current power supply and inner pair to the
voltage terminals.
6. Place the probe arrangement in the oven and fix the thermometer in the oven through the hole
provided.
7. Before starting the experiment, the room temperature is noted, say for example T=300C.
8. Switch on the ac mains of four probe set up, adjust the current to a desired value say 5mA.
9. Connect the oven power supply; rate of heating may be selected with the help of a switch Low or
High as desired.
10. For different temperatures, up to 2000 C, the voltage developed is noted and tabulated in Table
during increase and decrease the temperature.

Observations:
Variation of Voltage with Temperature

1) Distance between probes (S) = 0.2 cm

2) Thickness of the crystal (W) = 0.5 cm
3) Current (I) = 5 mA (fixed)

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Tabular column:
S.No. Temperature Avg.
Voltage (mV)
Voltage 0.213
t T 
While While V
(oC) = (273 +t) increasing decreasing Ω-cm
(K) -1
(K ) (mV)

1. 30
2. 40
3. 50
4. 60
5. 70
6. 80
7. 90
8. 100
9. 110
10. 120
11. 130
12. 140
13. 150
14. 160
15. 170
16. 180
17. 190
18 200

Model graph: Plot a graph between on X-axis and log10 ( on Y-axis as shown in figure 7.2.

Figure 7.3 Variation of log10 (ρ) with temperature 1000/T

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Calculations:
1. Resistivity

Where x 2πs and G7 (W/S) is the correction factor, = 5.89 for = 0.25

Hence, Resistivity = (Ω-m)

2. Energy gap of semiconductor

Eg= 2K x Slope (eV)

Where K is the Boltzmann‟s constant = 1.38 ×10-23 J/K and the slope of the curve in the graph which
is given by

Slope =

Precautions:
1. Make sure that all the four probes touch the sample surface.
2. The contacts between the probes and crystal should be tight.
3. It should be ensured that proper terminals of the probes are connected to the current source and
voltmeter.

Result:
1. Resistivity of the sample at room temperature = _________ (Ω-m)
(Standard value for given sample is 0.46 Ω-m)
2. Resistivity of the sample at temperature (say 150 or 200oC ) = ________ (Ω-m)
(Standard value for given sample is 0.27 Ω-m)
3. Energy gap of the sample = _____________ (eV)
(Standard value for given sample is 0.72 eV)

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APPLICATIONS
 Remote sensing areas
 Resistance thermometers
 Induction hardening process
 Accurate geometry factor estimation

KEY POINTS
i. Four Point Probing is a method for measuring the resistivity and band gap of a substance.
ii. To measure very low resistance value this method is used. The resistance value of probe will not be
added to the device under test. Two wires are to inject current in the resistance and another two
wires are to measure the drop against the resistance.
iii. Resistivity is a particularly important semiconductor parameter because it can be related directly to
the impurity content of a sample.
iv. The purity of a substance is an important factor when it comes to manufacturing or engineering
certain projects.

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Why is Four-Probe method preferred over other conventional methods for measuring resistivity?
2. Current is kept constant for measuring the resistivity of a semiconductor using four probes at two
different temperatures. Why?
3. What is the equation giving the variation of conductivity/resistivity of a semiconductor with
temperature?
4. How do the conductivities of metals and semiconductor depend on temperature?
5. Mention the values of forbidden band gaps for Silicon and Germanium?
6. How does the band gap of a semiconductor vary with temperature?
7. What is the advantage of Four Probe method over the other conventional methods?
8. Can we use an ordinary milli voltmeter instead of electronic milli voltmeter or potentiometer to
measure the inner probe voltage why?
9. Explain the behaviour of the log10ρ vs. 1/T curve.
10. Why a semiconductor behaves as an insulator at zero degree kelvin.

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 Experiment – 8

STUDY OF LASER CHARACTERISTICS

Aim: To study the Voltage - Current characteristics of laser diode at different load resistances and to
determine the corresponding threshold voltages.

Apparatus: Laser diode, variable Supply (0 - 5V), Digital voltmeter (20V), DC Digital ammeter
(0 – 200 mA), photo detector, power meter (0 - 20 mW)

Theory: A laser diode is a laser where the active medium is a semiconductor similar to that found
in a light-emitting diode. The most common and practical type of laser diode is formed from a p-n
junction and powered by injected electric current. When an electron and a hole are present in the same
region, they may recombine or "annihilate" with the result being spontaneous emission i.e., the
electron may re-occupy the energy state of the hole, emitting a photon with energy equal to the
difference between the electron and hole states involved.
Spontaneous emission gives the laser diode below lasing threshold similar properties to an LED.
Spontaneous emission is necessary to initiate laser oscillation, but it is one among several sources of
inefficiency once the laser is oscillating.
In the absence of stimulated emission (e.g. lasing) conditions, electrons and holes may coexist
in proximity to one another, without recombining, for a certain time, termed the "upper- state
lifetime" or "recombination time" (about a nanosecond for typical diode laser materials), before they
recombine. Then a nearby photon with energy equal to the recombination energy can cause
recombination by stimulated e m i s s i o n . This generates a n o t h e r photon of the same frequency,
travelling in the same direction, with the same polarization and phase as the first photon. This
means that stimulated emission causes gain in an optical wave (of the correct wavelength) in the
injection region, and the gain increases as the number of electrons and holes injected across the
junction increases. The spontaneous and stimulated emission processes are vastly more efficient in
direct band gap semiconductors than in indirect band gap semiconductors; therefore silicon is not a
common material for laser diodes.

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Circuit diagram:

Figure 8.1 Laser diode characteristics

Procedure for V-I characteristics:

1. Connect the Laser diode circuit as shown in the figure 8.1
2. Slowly increase supply voltage using variable Power supply using coarse and fine knobs.
3. Note down current through the laser diode at increasing values of Laser diode voltage of 0.5, 1.0,
1.5, 2.0 volts and so on.
4. Do not exceed current limit of 30 mA else the laser diode may get damaged.
5. Plot a graph of Laser diode voltage Vs Laser diode current as shown in the figure 8.2
Tabular column 1:
Resistance (R) = -----------------------Ω
S.NO. Voltage ‘V’ volts Current ‘i’ mA

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Tabular column 2:
Resistance (R) = ----------------------- Ω

S.NO. Voltage ‘V’ volts Current ‘i’ mA

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Model Graph: Plot a graph is between voltage on X-axis and current on Y-axis as shown in
figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2 Current vs Voltage characteristics

Precautions:
1. Don‟t look at the laser directly when it is turned ON.
2. It is extremely damaging to apply a large reverse bias (10 µA) to a laser diode

Result:
1. The V-I Characteristics of LASER has been studied at different load resistances.
2. The threshold voltage is determined and is given by ________ volts
(Standard value for red colour of wavelength 660 nm is 1.88V)

APPLICATIONS
 Laser diodes are used in laser pointers.
 Laser diodes are used in fiber optic communications.
 Laser diodes are used in barcode readers.
 Laser diodes are used in laser printing.
 Laser diodes are used in laser scanning.
 Laser diodes are used in range finders.
 Laser diodes are used in laser absorption spectrometry.

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 KEY POINTS
i. A laser diode is a semiconductor that uses p-n junction for producing coherent radiation with the
same frequency and phase which is either in the visible or infrared spectrum. It is also called an
injection laser diode and, the technology is similar to that found in LED.
ii. A laser diode is an optoelectronic device, which converts electrical energy into light energy to
produce high-intensity coherent light. In a laser diode, the p-n junction of the semiconductor diode
acts as the laser medium or active medium.
iii. The working of the laser diode is almost similar to the light emitting diode (LED). The main
difference between the LED and laser diode is that the LED emits incoherent light whereas the laser
diode emits coherent light.
iv. Laser diodes play an important role in our everyday lives. They are very cheap and small. Laser
diodes are the smallest of all the known lasers. Their size is a fraction of a millimeter.
v. Laser diodes are also known as semiconductor lasers, junction lasers, junction diode lasers or
injection lasers. Before going into laser diodes, let us first look at diode itself.
vi. Types of Laser Diodes
The following are the types of laser diodes:
 Double hetero structure laser diode:
Hetero structure is a material that is sandwiched between two n-type and p-type materials.
Because of the presence of hetero structure material, this type of laser diode is called a double
hetero structure (DH) laser diode. The main advantage of this diode is that the active region is
used for better optical amplification.
 Quantum well laser diode:
The quantum well is a very thin middle layer in the diode. The quantum energy is used for
converting the electrons from higher energy to lower energy and is responsible for better
efficiency.
 Separate confinement hetero structure laser diode:
There are two additional layers along with three layers. These layers have a lower refractive
index and the emission of light is also improved.
 Vertical cavity surface-emitting laser diode:
n this type of laser diode, the optical cavity is along the axis of current flow.

vii. Characteristics of Laser Diode

The laser diode is characterized as follows:

 Monochromatic: An insubstantial width of radiated narrow light containing only a single color.

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  Well-directed: In this type, the light is will be directed in a narrow beam. It is easy to launch
through an optical fiber.
 Coherent: A light with a single wavelength emitted by LED with a wide wavelength.
 The important characteristic of a laser diode is its approach or the threshold. The laser diode
doesn‟t operate until a minimum power is applied. If the light is below its energy, then the
emission is weaker than the threshold compared to the full energy.

viii. Advantages of Laser Diode

The following are the advantages of laser diode:

 When laser diode is compared with other light-emitting devices, the operational power is less in
the laser diode.
 The handling of these diodes is easy as they are small.
 The light generated by these diodes is of high efficiency.

ix. Disadvantages of Laser Diode

The following are the disadvantages of laser diode:

These diodes are expensive when compared to other light-emitting devices.

 The light generated by these diodes adversely affects the eyes.
x. Applications of a Laser Diode

Laser Diode modules are used in all major areas of electronics ranging from

 Consumer Electronics: CD/DVD players, Laser printers, Fiber Optic Communication, Barcode
Readers etc.
 Medical Machines: Laser diodes are used in machines used to remove unwanted tissues,
eliminating cancer cells, non-invasive and cataract surgeries etc.
 Autonomous Vehicles: Laser diode technology is used in making LIDAR systems implemented
for autonomous driving
 Scientific Instrumentation: Lasers are used in devices used for remote contactless
measurements, spectrometry, range finders etc.
 Industrial Applications: Laser Diodes are used as a source of high intensity laser beam for
precise cutting of materials. They are also used in 3D printing to soften the substrate.

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define spontaneous emission and stimulated emission.

2. Distinguish between Light Emitting Diode and LASER Diode?
3. What do you mean by population inversion and how is it achieved?
4. Discuss the importance of pumping.
5. How many types of pumping are there? List them.
6. What are differences between ordinary light and laser beam?
7. List the important characteristics of laser beam.
8. Discuss the importance of optical cavity in a laser source.
9. List the important applications of lasers in various fields.
10. Justify Laser has significant properties than LED and ordinary light.
11. What is the working principle of Laser?
12. Is Laser is two level or three level system and why?
13. Mention different types of Laser systems.
14. How a laser diode works?
15. What is Lasing action?
16. When lasing voltage starts. Explain?

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 75

 Experiment - 9
DETERMINATION OF PLANCK’S CONSTANT USING PHOTO CELL

Aim: i) To study the Voltage - Current characteristics of photo cell for three different wavelengths.

ii) To determine the Planck‟s constant using photocell.

Apparatus: Photo cell, 1V DC power supply, micro ammeter (0 - 200µA), voltmeter (0 - 2V), optical
filters, Light source etc.
Theory: Photo cell consists of one electrode made of photoelectric metal and another electrode of
ordinary metal sealed in an evacuated glass bulb. When suitable monochromatic light falls on the
photoelectric metal, electrons are ejected from its surface.

When potential applied between cathode and anode, the photoelectrons are attracted by the anode and
the photoelectric current flows. Light hits an object, only a part of its energy is absorbed by the object
and turned into heat; the rest becomes the energy of electrons inside the object, enabling the electrons to
escape to the surface. This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect. In this process, light shows its
nature as particles.

Figure 9.1 A schematic of a vacuum Phototube and V-I curve

Einstein explained photoelectric effect quantum theory of radiation, a part of energy of three incident
photon hʋ is spent in releasing the electron from the surface of the metal called work function ( W0), and
the remaining energy of photon imparts kinetic energy to the photo electron.
( = ℎ𝜐− 0 ------------------------------------- (i)

This relation is known as Einstein‟s photoelectric equation.

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The maximum energy of the photo electrons emitted when light of particular frequency falls on the cell
can be found by applying negative voltage to the anode just large enough to stop the entire electrons
reaching it (i.e. photo current zero). This particular external voltage is called stopping potential ( ).

Thus, 𝑥 = .

= ℎ𝜐− 0

The above equation is in the form of y = mx + c.

Therefore, Slope =

Formula:
Planck‟s constant ℎ =

Where e = electronic charge

C= velocity of light

V1 = stopping potential corresponding to wavelength 1

V2 = stopping potential corresponding to wavelength 2

Circuit diagram:

Figure 9.2 Planck's constant circuit diagram

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 77

Procedure:
1. Make the circuit connections as shown in circuit diagram 9.2 and 9.3.
2. Keep the left hand side switch on the panel towards sensitive side and right hand side switch
towards 1.0 V side.
3. Switch on the Apparatus, now set the A reading to zero with the help of potentiometer marked
with zero adjust.
4. The light is allowed to fall on the tube from light source. The distance between tube and light
source is adjusted such that there is a deflection about 50 A to 80 A.

Figure 9.3 Planck's constant measurement set up

5. Now a suitable filter say green of known wave length is placed in the path of light (the slit
provided) say it is with wavelength .
6. A deflection is observed in the ammeter. This deflection corresponds to the zero-anode potential.
7. A small negative potential is applied on the anode. This voltage is recorded with the help of
voltmeter provided (1.0 volt range).The negative anode potential is gradually increased in steps
and each time corresponding deflection is noted till the micro-ammeter deflection reduces to zero
and this is stopping potential V2 corresponding to filter with wavelength .
8. The experiment is repeated after replacing the green filter with blue and red filters say with wave
length and respectively and stopping potentials V1 and V3 are noted.
9. Plot a graph is between voltage on X-axis and current on Y-axis as shown in the figure 9.4

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For photocell characteristics
 Keep the left hand side switch towards normal and right hand side switch towards 50 volts side.
 The circuit connections are made as shown in the diagram.
 Light is allowed to fall on the tube.
 A small positive potential is applied on the anode and corresponding reading of micro ammeter is
noted.
 The potential is gradually increased in steps and each time corresponding reading in micro ammeter is
noted.
 In V- Ip graph, as „V‟ is increased `Ip‟ increases and as `V‟ is decreased Ip decreases as shown in
graph 1. But in reverse direction of applied voltage, even for zero voltage, there exists Ip.
 In order to get zero Ip , increases the applied voltage still in reverse direction such that Ip becomes
zero. Then the corresponding applied voltage is called stopping potential (Vs).This stopping potential
is different for different frequencies of light.
 Plot a graph by taking V on x-axis and Ip on y-axis.

 Draw the graph between ʋ and Vs , you will get straight line shown in graph 3.Then find the slope of
this straight line which is equal to ( h/e). Therefore, h = Slope (e)

Tabular column 1:

Current
S.No. Voltage IP (mA)
‘V’ (Volts)
Green filter Blue filter Red filter

λ = 5265 A0 λ= 5645 A0 λ= 6143 A0

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Model graph: Plot a graph is between voltage on X-axis and current on Y-axis as shown in figure 9.2.

Figure 9.4 Characteristics of photo cell

Observations:
Standard values of „e‟, C and wavelengths of standard filters are

Electric charge, e = 1.602 x 10-19 Coulombs

Velocity of light C = 3x108 m/sec

Wavelength of blue filter, = 5265x 10-10 meters

Wave length of green filter, = 5645x 10-10 meters

Wave length of orange filter, = 6143x 10-10 meters

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Tabular column 2:

S.No. Color of the filter Wavelength (λ) Frequency Stopping

(A0) (ʋ ) potentials (Vs)

1. Green 5265

2. Blue 5645

3. Orange 6143

Calculations:

Planck‟s constant (ℎ) = Joule-Second

Precautions:
1. Filters are very sensitive and can be broken down due to mishandling. So, you must handle this
component with care.
2. Instrument should be protected from external electric field, magnetic field and outside vibrations.
3. While studying the V-I characteristic increase the voltage slowly till the reach saturation.
4. When applying the negative potential, do ot very slowly until you get zero current.

Result:
1. The V-I characteristics of photo cell are studied for three different wavelengths.
2. The value of Planck‟s constant value is determined as h= ……………………… J-S
(Standard value = 6.626 × 10-34 J-S)

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APPLICATIONS

 The Planck‟s constant is the basis of a fundamental natural law. The Planck constant was derived
from a relation that Max Planck devised. This equation is
E=hv
 Using the Planck‟s constant, the speed of light in a vacuum (186,383 miles per second), and the
gravitational constant, the Planck length can be determined.
 Planck's relation and the application of the Planck constant to create the various Planck units was an
advance in science that helped us to understand the fundamentals of Quantum Physics and the origin
of the Universe.

KEY POINTS
i. A photocell is a device for converting light energy into electrical energy by using photoelectric
effect.
ii. At high vacuum photocell consists of an evacuated cylindrical bulb (B) which is made of glass for
use with visible light. It consists of semi- cylindrical plate of large surface area which is called the
cathode (C) of the cell. A straight wire placed along the axis of the cylinder acts as anode (A).
iii. To get a profuse supply of electrons the cathode surface is coated with photo-sensitive material like
cesium and silver oxides, antimony-cesium alloy, etc. Ordinarily the photocurrent is a small order of
a few micro-amperes only.
iv. For higher current, gas-filled photocells are sometimes used.

Applications of Photocells:
 Photocells are used in automatic lights to activate whenever it gets dark, and the
activation/deactivation of streetlights mainly depends on the day whether it is day or night.
 These are used as timers in a running race to calculate the runner‟s speed.
 Photocells are used to count the vehicles on the road.
 These are used instead of photovoltaic cells & variable resistors.
 These are used in lux meters to decide the light intensity.
 These are used as switches as well as sensors
 These are used in burglar alarms to protect from a thief.
 These are used in robotics, wherever they direct robots to hide from view in the dark, otherwise to
follow a beacon or line.
 These are used in exposure meters which can be used with a camera for knowing the correct time of
exposure to get a good photo.
 Photocells are used in the sound reproduction which can be recorded on a movie film.
 These are used in Dusk-to-Dawn lights.

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A systematic study of the photoelectric phenomenon revealed the following:

1. For any given material there is a minimum light frequency (maximum wavelength) below which
electrons are not emitted. This frequency is called the photoelectric threshold frequency. Though all
metals exhibit the effect, each metal has its own characteristic threshold frequency. The alkali metals
(lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, etc.) have the lowest threshold frequencies. For these metals the
threshold frequencies are in the range of visible light. For other metals, such as those used in the early
experiments (copper, nickel, zinc) the threshold frequencies are in the ultraviolet.

2. For a given surface, the number of photoelectrons emitted per unit time (i.e., the photoelectric current)
is directly proportional to the intensity of the light.

3. For a given metal surface, the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons depends only on the frequency
of the light, and is independent of the intensity of the light.

VIVA QUESTIONS

1) Describe the purpose of using a photocell in this experiment?

2) Explain the significance of the Planck‟s constant in physics?
3) What information we get from the Planck's constant, and how one can say that radiation is in
discrete form of energy?
4) What is the standard value of Planck‟s constant?
5) Explain the concept of stopping potential in semiconductor diode V-I Characteristics?
6) What is photocell? Explain the principle of photocell.
7) What is meant by photo electric effect? What is a photo metal?
8) Can laser beam produce photo electric effect?
9) State and explain Einstein‟s photo electric equation.
10) Define work function? What is the standard value of Planck constant?
11) Define threshold frequency?
12) If the incident radiation possesses lesser frequency than the threshold frequency, what will
happen?
13) If the intensity of radiation increases, what is the effect on the kinetic energy of electron?

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 Experiment - 10
CHARACTERISTICS OF PIN PHOTODIODE

Aim: To study the characteristics P-I-N photodiode at different load resistances for various voltages.

Apparatus: PIN diode characteristic study kit, milliammeter (0-200mA) / micro ammeter

(0-2000µA), Voltmeter (0 - 20V), Variable power supply (0 - 5V)

Theory: p-n diode and Avalanche Photo Diode (APD) are the most common devices used to convert
the light at the output of a fiber in to an electric current which can be subsequently processed in an
electrical receiver. They work on the principle of photoelectric effect.
A PIN diode is a type of diode having undoped intrinsic semiconductor region placed between
two regions called p-type semiconductor and the n-type semiconductor region. These two regions are
primely heavily doped as they find applications for ohmic contacts. A PIN photodiode includes an
intrinsic layer of semiconductor material placed in between the P and N type materials. A PIN diode can
be operated with an external bias voltage (15V DC). This is called photoconductive mode, where
optically generated charge carriers are swept out of the device as a current under the influence of the
externally applied field. Whereas, in a photo voltaic Mode no external bias is applied and the carriers are
swept out of the device to form an external current by the internal depletion field in the device.
The PIN must be reverse biased due to the high resistivity of the intrinsic layer. The PIN diode
has large depletion region, which allows more electron - hole pairs to develop at lower capacitance.
When a photon enters the intrinsic region a charge carrier is created and the reverse bias sweeps out the
carrier resulting in a small current. This current is amplified by a wide band amplifier. The illumination
window of a PIN diode is on the p side of the diode, because, the mobility of electrons is greater than
holes which results in better frequency response.
For fiber optic applications, the photo detectors (PIN or APD) work at standard wavelengths of 850 nm,
1330nm and 1550 nm in either case the operating wavelength determines the material used. For example
Si is employed at 800 - 900nm. GaAs and InP etc., are used at 1330 nm. In these devices the reverse
current is altered by absorption of light at the correct wavelengths.

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Photo detectors are used in various different applications, such as radiation detection, smoke detection,
and flame detection. They are also used in switching the street lights "on" or "off', depending on the
surrounding light.

Characteristics of Pin Diode

Some of the PIN Diode characteristics are given in the points below.

 The capacitance of PIN diode is independent of bias level as the net charge is said to be very less
in the intrinsic layer
 PIN diode possesses very low reverse recovery time
 The Diode obeys standard diode equation for all the low-frequency signals.
 This diode appears like a resistor than any other non- linear devices and is said to produce no
distortion or rectification.

Circuit diagram:

Figure 10.1 PIN Photodiode- circuit diagram

Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 10.1.
2. Fix the voltage at say 1 Volt.
3. Take the light bulb and increasing or decreasing the distance from PIN diode with 1 cm, 2cm, 3cm
so on and note down the respective current values.
4. Repeat the above steps for different fixed voltages, say 2Volts, 3Volts ….
5. Plot graph for distance Vs current as shown in the figure 10.2.

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Model graph: Plot a graph between distance and current as shown in figure 10.2.

Figure 10.2 Current vs Distance

Tabular column 2:
Resistance (R) =------------------- Ω

Fixed Voltage
1 Volt 2 Volts 3 Volts
S.No
Distance Current Distance Current Distance Current
(cm) (µA) (cm) (µA) (cm) (µA)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

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Tabular column 3:
Resistance (R) = ------------------- Ω
Fixed Voltage
1 Volt 2 Volts 3 Volts
S.No
Distance Current Distance Current Distance Current
(cm) (µA) (cm) (µA) (cm) (µA)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Precautions:
1. While giving the connections, the continuity of the wires is to be checked using multimeter.
2. Make sure that the light from bulb is directly pointing at the photodiode.

Result: The characteristics of PIN diode at different load resistances for various voltages are studied.

APPLICATIONS
 High voltage rectifier: The PIN diode can be used as a high voltage rectifier. The intrinsic region
provides a greater separation between the p and n regions, allowing higher reverse voltages to be
tolerated.
 RF switch: The PIN diode makes an ideal RF switch. The intrinsic layer between the p and n
regions increases the distance between them. This also decreases the capacitance between them,
thereby increasing he level of isolation when the diode is reverse biased.
 Photodetector: As the conversion of light into current takes place within the depletion region of a
photodiode, increasing the depletion region by adding the intrinsic layer improves the performance
by increasing he volume in which light conversion occurs.

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KEY POINTS
i. Dark current is the leakage current that flows in the photodiode in the absence of light. The dark
current in the photodiode increases when temperature increases. The material used to construct the
photodiode also affects the dark current.
ii. A photodiode material should be chosen with a band gap energy slightly less than the photon energy
corresponding to the longest operating wavelength of the system.
iii. Germanium photodiodes have relatively large dark currents due to their narrow band gaps in
comparison to other semiconductor materials. This is a major shortcoming with the use of
germanium photodiodes, especially at shorter wavelengths (below 1.1 m).
iv. Direct-band gap III-V compound semiconductors can be better material choices than germanium for
the longer wavelength region. Their band gaps can be tailored to the desired wavelength by changing
the relative concentrations of their constituents (resulting in lower dark currents). They may also be
fabricated in hetero-junction structures (which enhances their high-speed operations).

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. Explain the principle and working of photodiode.
2. Distinguish between photovoltaic mode and photoconductive mode of operation of photodiode.
3. What type of material is used in the detector for regions 800 – 900 nm and 1100 -1600 nm?
4. List out the differences between photodiode and Light emitting diode.
5. Explain how PIN photodiode is useful as a light sensor?
6. List the performance parameters of photo diode?
7. Define quantum efficiency and Responsivity of a detector.
8. Discuss briefly about Avalanche Photo Diode.
9. How many layers are there in PIN diode?
10. Why the width of intrinsic region is large?
11. What is the reason to operate PIN diode in reverse bias?
12. What are the applications of PIN diode?
13. Distinguish between PIN diode and LED?
14. Compare PIN diode and Zener diode.
15. Mention difference between PIN diode and solar cell.
16. What are the Characteristics of Pin Diode?

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 Additional Experiments
1. LASER - SINGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION

Aim: To determine the wave length of the given Laser source using a single slit by forming diffraction
pattern.

Apparatus: Laser, single slit, magnifying glass, travelling microscope, screen.

Description: The laser consists of a P – N diode semiconducting material maintained in forward bias to
emit light of high intensity, monochromatic, coherent, parallel beam of rays. The working principle of
Laser is Stimulated emission of radiations. Laser light under goes diffraction when it is incident on slit
and if and only if the wavelength of laser is approximately equal to width of a slit.

Theory:

The single slit may be treated as a large number of equally spaced point source and each point on the slit
is source of Huygens‟s secondary wavelets, which interfere with the wavelets emanating from other
points. The secondary wavelets travelling with the wavelets travelling in the direction parallel to the slit
comes to focus on the screen at a point. Since all the rays are at the same phase, diffraction pattern is a
point of maximum intensity. The secondary waves travelling in a direction make an angle ө converge to
some other point on the screen. The intensity of this point will be maximum or minimum depending
upon the path difference between the secondary waves orienting from the corresponding wave fronts.

The path difference is given by

a sin (or)

Units: cm (or)

Where „n‟ is order of diffraction

„λ‟ is wavelength of the source

„a‟ is the slit width and „ө‟ is the angle of diffraction = ϴ = Y/L

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If the path difference is odd multiple of wavelength then it is given by

a sin ……………..(2)

If the path difference is odd multiples of half the wavelength, the

a sin ⁄ ……………..(3)

The formula given below is derived using the small angle approximation.

Experimental set up:

Figure: Experimental set up of Laser single slit diffraction

Procedure:

Place the single slit parallel to the laser source such that the rays are incident on the slit width. Adjust
the slit width such that we see clear diffraction of the slit on the diffraction of the slit on the screen or the
wall. Measure the distance of the slit from wall let it be „L‟ and the distance between the maxima is „Y‟.
Take the readings on left and right side. Vary the slit distance from the screen i.e. take the reading at
different „L‟. The corresponding „L‟ is to be measured. Measure the slit width (a) by travelling
microscope.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 90

Observation table:

Order ‘Y’ cm

of L cm left Right mean Y/L = Y/L

minima(n) cm (or)

n=1

n=2

n=3

n=4

Average value of wavelength ------------- cm = -------------

Here width of the slit „a‟ is measured by travelling microscope.

To find Width of the slit (a):

Least count of travelling microscope = L.C. =

L.C. = ----------------------- cm

Position of slit Total reading = {MSR + (VC Slit width

a=
Left side =

Right side =

Result: The wavelength of a given laser is _________ A0.

APPLICATIONS:

1. To determine the wave length of given laser source.

2. It proves the practical evidence of wave nature of laser light.

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 3. The phenomenon of diffraction of X-rays is used to explain the structure of crystals.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

Coherence: when the electronic transitions taking place in an orderly way and the light waves emitted
have a consistent phase relation which doesn‟t change with time. This is called coherence. Because of
coherence, tremendous amount of power of the order of watts can be concentrated in a narrow
space of linear dimension of m.

Mono chromaticity: The band width of an ordinary laser is of the order of 10 and for a high quality
laser it is only at 6000 . This narrow band width of a laser light is called high
monochromacity. The spreading of wavelength about the wavelength of maximum intensity is called
band width. The phenomena of single color or single wavelength of laser is known as monochromacity.

Intensity: intensity of a wave is the energy per unit time flowing through a unit normal area. The light
from an ordinary light source spreads out uniformly in all directions and forms spherical wave fronts
around it. If we look at 100 watts lamp filament from a distance of 30 cm, the power entering in to the
eye is less than 1/1000 of a watt. In case of laser light, energy is emanated in a small region of space and
in wave length range and hence is said to be greater intensity.

If we look directly along the beam from a laser, then all the power in the laser would enter the eye. Thus
even 1 watt of laser would appear many thousand times more intense than 100 watt ordinary lamp.

Life time: The time in which an electron exists in a particular excited state is known as life time.

VIVA VOCE

1) What is full form of LASER?

2) What is the advantage of using laser light instead of sodium light?
3) Is laser light monochromatic?
4) What type of diffraction is involved in this experiment?
5) What is the principle used in laser?
6) Define stimulated absorption.

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7) Define Spontaneous emission.
8) Define Stimulated emission.
9) Define lifetime.
10) Define Meta stable state?
16) What are the differences between the spontaneous emission and stimulated emission?
17) What is coherence?
18) What is the exact difference between laser light and ordinary light?
19) What is the basic principle involved in laser?
20) Define spatial coherence and temporal coherence.
21) What is diffraction?
22) Explain the condition of diffraction to occur.
23) Explain the types of diffraction.

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 2. HYSTERISIS LOOP FOR A FERROMAGNETIC MATERIAL
(M-B CURVE)

Aim: 1. To study the magnetization (M) of a ferromagnetic material in the presence of a

magnetic field (B) and to plot the Hysteresis (M vs. B) curve.
2. To calculate the Retentivity and Coercivity of the material.

Apparatus: Two solenoid coils S and C, ferromagnetic specimen rod, reversible key (R), ammeter,
magnetometer, battery, solenoid, rheostat and transformer for demagnetizing set up.
Basic methodology:
A ferromagnetic rod is magnetized by placing it in the magnetic field of a solenoid. The magnetized rod
causes a deflection (θ) in a magnetometer. The deflection (θ) is recorded as the current in the solenoid
(I) is varied over a range of positive and negative values.
Introduction:
The magnetic field of a solenoid at a point on its axis is B=µ0nI------ (1)
Where µ0= 4π x 10-7 Nm2/A2 is the magnetic permeability of vacuum, n is the number of turns per unit
length in the solenoid and I is the current in the solenoid.
The specimen rod is placed along he axis of the solenoid acquires a magnetization M along its
axis. (Magnetization is defined as the magnetic dipole moment per unit volume).
The magnetic dipole moment „m‟ of the rod is m=M (lα) ----------- (2)
Where l= length of the rod α= cross –sectional area of the rod.
The magnetic field produced by the rod at the position of the magnetometer (r) is

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 The apparatus is aligned so that the horizontal component of the earth‟s magnetic field Be, which
is along South- North direction, is perpendicular to the axis of the rod (which is along the East-West
direction). The magnetometer needle aligns along the resultant magnetic field making an angle θ with
as in fig 2.

Clearly

using equations 2, 3 & 4we can write

M=

Hence M ∞ Tan θ .Also from eq1, B∞I. Therefore a plot of Tan θ vs. I reproduces the features of M vs.
B curve.

Hysteresis:

A ferromagnetic material whose atoms behave like magnetic dipoles produced by the spins of unpaired
electronics. Domains form in the interior of the material with in which the dipoles align in a given
direction but the domains themselves randomly oriented. (Fig3)

Figure: Representation of domains and Hysteresis loop of a ferro magnetic material

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 In the presence of an external magnetic field the different domain moments tend to align
producing a net magnetization in the direction of the magnetic field.

The variation of the magnetization M as the magnetic field B is varied gives rise to a characteristic curve
called the hysteresis loop. Figure 4 shows a typical curve obtained. (The axes are taken to be Tan θ & I
as is to be done in the experiment). As the magnetic field is increased the magnetization of the sample
increases as more and more domains align along the direction of the magnetic field. With further
increase in B, the magnetization M saturates to a maximum value (point b).If the current I (field B) is
decreased the magnetization M decreases.

When the current is made zero (point c) the magnetization M however does not fall to zero. At
this point the material has a residual magnetization and behaves like a permanent magnet. To make the
magnetization zero (point d) requires a non-zero current in the reverse direction. As „I‟ is increased in
the reverse direction, M saturates to a maximum negative value (point e). Further increase in the current
brings the magnetization to zero (point g) and eventually to saturation (point b).

Retentivity and Coercivity:

Retentivity is the residual magnetization in the sample when the external magnetic field is zero.
This is calculated as θ
α

Where c and f are the points in the graph, fig 4.----- (7)

Coercivity is the external magnetic field required to reduce the residual magnetization in the sample
to zero.

Where „d‟ and „g‟ are the points in the graph.

Set up and procedure:

Complete the wiring of the apparatus according to the circuit diagram shown in the fig. below.

Rotate the dial of the magnetometer until 00-00 position is aligned with the axis of the solenoid. Rotate
the wooden arm, containing the solenoid, magnetometer and compensating coil, until the magnetic
pointer coincides with the 00-00 position. In this position the wooden arm is along the E-W position. The
horizontal component of earth‟s magnetic field (along S-N direction) is then perpendicular to the
wooden arm.

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 Complete the wiring of the demagnetizing apparatus according to the circuit fig, insert specimen
rod in the solenoid and vary the AC current in the solenoid using rheostat. This procedure should take 2-
5 minutes.

Pass current (say 1A) through the coils S&C. vary the position of C along the wooden arm until
the deflection of the needle is zero. Fig.

The magnetic field of solenoid S is then nullified (at the position of magnetometer) by the magnetic field
of C.

Measurements: to begin with, the current in the solenoid should be switched off. Insert specimen rod so
that its leading tip is at the edge of the solenoid. (note: there should be no deflection of the needle at this
point. If deflection is observed, repeat for demagnetizing rod).

Keep the reversing key R in a position so that current flows in a given direction. The rheostat position
should correspond to maximum resistance.

Switch on the current, vary the current using the rheostat from 0A-1.5A and back 1.5A-0A
insteps of 0.1A and note the deflections for each setting of current. Note: to get strictly zero
current you will have to switch off the battery.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 97

 Reverse the position of the reversible key R and vary the current in the reverse direction 0A-
1.5A and back 1.5A-0A. Note the deflections

Reverse the position of the key R and vary the current from 0-1.5A. again note the deflections

Observations:

1) Distance, r: ___________m
2) Length of specimen, l: ___________m.
3) No. of turns per unit length of solenoid, n=1600turns/m.
4) Area of cross-section of rod, S=1.84x10-15m2.
5) Horizontal component of earth‟s magnetic field, 𝑥

Calculations:

1) Attach the graph of tanθ vs. I______.

2) Cf=________________________.
3) Dg=________________________.
4) Calculation of retentivity:
5) Calculation of coercivity:

Retentivity: Coercivity:

Current Deflection (forward Deflection (reverse Deflection (forward

I(A) current) degree current)degree current)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.4
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 98
 1.3
1.2
1.1
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5

Result: i) To study the magnetization (M) of a ferromagnetic material in the presence of

a magnetic field (B) and to plot the hysteresis (M vs. B) curve.
ii) To calculate the retentivity and coerceivity of the material.

VIVA VOCE

1) Define paramagnetic, diamagnetic and ferromagnetic substances. Give one example of each.
2) Why the M vs. B curve called the hysteresis curve?
3) Derive equation θ
α
4) What is the need to align the solenoid along the E-W direction?
5) Will the hysteresis curve be different if this alignment were not done? If yes why?
6) How does the demagnetization setup demagnetize the rod?
7) It is said that dropping the specimen rod on a hard surface also serves to remove any small
residual magnetization. Is it true? If so give reason.
8) Draw a small figure showing how the hysteresis curve would develop over many cycles of the
current.
9) How would the retentivity and coercivity change with temperature? Do you think that they
should depend on the geometry of the sample?
10) Identify the main sources of error in your experiment?

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 99

 3. POLARIMETER – SPECIFIC ROTATION

Aim: To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution with the help of polarimeter.
Apparatus: Polarimeter, a common balance, measuring cylinder, beaker, source of light
and polarimeter tube.
Formula: The specific rotation of the plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in water can be
determined by the following formula,

Specific rotation = S=

Units: degree/dm/kg/m3
But C= concentration of sugar solution

C= = ----------- gm / c.c = ---------- Kg / m3

Where,  = rotation produced in degrees.

L = length of tube in decimeter (dm).

m = mass of sugar in grams which is dissolved in water.
V = volume of solution.

Experimental arrangement:

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 100
Procedure:
 If the polarimeter is employing a half shade device, a monochromatic source should be used and
if bi quartz device is used then white light can be used.
 Take the polarimeter tube and clean well both the sides such that it is free from dust. Now fill
the tube with pure water and see that no air bubble is enclosed it. Place the tube in its position
inside the Polarimeter.
 Switch on the source of light and look through the eyepiece. Two halves of unequal intensity is
observed. Rotate the analyzer until two halves of the field appears equal bright. Take the reading
of main scale as well as vernier scale and find out the total reading.
 Prepare the sugar solution of unknown strength. The procedure for preparing it can be seen
under the heading observations.
 Take the polarimeter tube and remove the pure water and fill it with the prepared sugar solution
and again place it in the polarimeter.
 Rotate the analyzer to obtain the equal intensity position, first in clockwise direction and then in
anti-clockwise direction.
 [When the tube containing sugar solution is placed in the path of the polarized light, the plane of
polarization is rotated which disturbs the previous position.]
 Note down the position of the analyzer on main and vernier scales in the two directions. Find the
mean reading. The difference between this and previous reading gives the specific rotation.
 Repeat the experiment with the sugar solutions of different concentrations.
 Measure the length of the tube in centimeters and change it in decimeters.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 101
Observations:

(A) Preparation of sugar solution:

Mass of watch glass = ----------- gm = ----------- kg
Watch glass + sugar = ------------gm = ------------ kg
Therefore mass of sugar taken m = ---------- gms = ---------- kg
Volume of the solution V = --------- gm = ---------- kg

Concentration of the solution C = = ----------- gm / c.c = ---------- Kg / m3

(B) Length of the polarimeter tube L = ----------- decimeter = ------------- dm

Room temperature = ------------ degree centigrade

(C) Table for the specific rotation:

Value of one division of the main scale = ---------
No. of divisions of vernier scale = ------------

Least count of polarimeter = = ------------

Analyzer reading with pure water

Clockwise Anticlockwise
A= (X+Y)/2
Total Total
M.S. V.S. M.S. V.S. degree
‘X’ deg ‘ Y’ deg

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 102
 Analyzer reading with sugar solution
Concentration Clockwise Anticlockwise
of Total Total B = (X'+Y')/2
 =A~B
sugar solution M.S. V.S. ‘X' M.S. V.S. ‘Y’ d degree
degree egree

(m/V)

(m/2V)

(m/3V)

Calculations:
The specific rotation of the plane of polarization of sugar dissolved in water can be determined by the
following formula,

Specific rotation = S= degree/dm/kg/m3

But C= concentration of sugar solution

C= = ----------- gm / c.c = ---------- Kg / m3

From table  = --------------- degrees

S= = --------------- degree/dm/kg/m3

Precautions:
 The polarimeter tube should be well cleaned.
 Whenever solution is changed, rinse the tube with the new solution under examination.

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  The position of analyzer should be set accurately.
 The temperature and wavelength of light used should be stated.
 Reading should be taken when halves of the field of view becomes equally illuminate.

Result:
The specific rotation for cane sugar at a room temperature using monochromatic light is found to be S =
----------- degree/dm/kg/m3

% ERROR =

VIVA VOCE

Ques 1 . What do you mean by polarization?

Ans. The lack of symmetry about the direction of propagation of light is known as the polarization of
light.

Ques 2. What are optical rotations?

Ans . The rotations produced by a decimeter long column of the liquid containing 1 gm of active
substance in 1 cc of the solution.

Ques 3. What is Brewster‟s law of polarization?

Ans. The tangent of the polarizing angle is mathematically equal to the refractive index of the material
i.e µ = tan (ip)

Ques 4. Define plane of vibration and plane of polarization.

Ans. The plane of polarization is that plane in which no vibrations occur and the plane in which
vibrations occur is known as plane of vibration. The vibrations occur at the right angle to the plane of
polarization.

Ques 5. What do you mean by double refraction?

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Ans. When a ray of light is refracted by a crystal of calcite it gives two refractive rays .this phenomenon
is known as double refractions.

Ques 6. What is nicol prism?

Ans. It is an optical device which is made by calcite crystal to produce and analyze the plane polarized
light .

Ques 7. What do you mean by Snell‟s law?

Ans. The sine of the angle of incidence to sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the refractive index
of the material.

Ques 8.What is mean by plane polarized and unpolarized light?

Ans. The plane polarized light is the light in which the vibrations take place only along one straight line
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light while in unpolarized light vibrations take place
along all possible straight lines perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 105
 4. STUDY OF MAGNETIC FIELD ALONG THE AXIS OF A
CURRENT CARRYING CIRCULAR COIL
Stewart & Gees Method

Aim: To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current.

Apparatus: Stewart & Gees type of tangent galvanometer, a battery, plug key, Rheostat, ammeter,
commutator and connecting wires.

Description:

The apparatus consists of a circular frame made up of non magnetic substance. An insulated copper wire
is wound on the frame. The ends of the wire are connected to the terminals, and two tapings from the
coil are connected to the other two terminals. By selecting a pair of terminals the number of turns used
can be changed. The frame is fixed to a long base B at the middle in a vertical plane along the breadth
side. The base has leveling screws. A rectangular non-magnetic metal frame is supported on the
uprights. The plane of the frame contains the axis of the coil and this frame passes through the circular
coil. A magnetic compass like that one which is used in deflection magnetometer is supported on a
movable platform. This platform can be moved on the frame along the axis of the coil. The compass is
so arranged that the center of the magnetic needle always lies on the axis of the coil. The apparatus is
arranged so that the plane of the coil is on the magnetic meridian. The frame with compass is kept at the
center of the coil and the base is rotated so that the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic needle in
the compass. The compass is rotated so that the aluminum pointer reads . Now the rectangular
frame is along East-West directions.

Theory: When current flows through the coil the magnetic field produced is in perpendicular direction
to the plane of the coil. The magnetic needle in the compass is under the influence of two magnetic
fields:

The magnetic field „B‟ due to the coil carrying current given is given by,

(Or) Weber/ m2

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 106
Where n = Number of turns in the coil
i = Current passed through the coil
a = Radius of the circular coil
x = Distance of magnetic compass from the center of coil.
And, the other is earth‟s magnetic field „Be‟, which is perpendicular to „B‟. The needle deflects through
an angle satisfying the tangent law:

ℎ , Tesla.

Procedure:
The magnetometer is kept at the center of the coil and rotated so that the aluminum pointer reads
. Two terminals of the coil having proper number of turns are selected and connected to the two
opposite terminals of the commutator. A battery, key, ammeter and a rheostat are connected in series
with the other two terminals of the coil. The rheostat is adjusted so that the deflection is . The
ammeter reading „i‟ is noted. The two ends of the aluminum pointer are read ( . Then the current
through the coil is reversed using commutator and the two ends of aluminum pointer are read ( .
The average deflection is calculated. The magnetometer is moved towards east in steps of 2 cm each
time and the deflections before and after reversal of current are noted, until the deflection falls to .
The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards West from the centre of the coil in
steps of 2 cm and each time deflections are noted before and after the reversal of current.

Circuit diagram:

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 107
Model graph:

A graph is drawn between the distance (x) and the Magnetic field (or) tan . This gives the variation of
the magnetic field.

Observations:

n = Number of turns in the coil = 50

i = Current passed through the coil = 0.2amp

a = Radius of the circular coil = 0.1035mt
x = Distance of magnetic compass from the center of coil.

ℎ , Tesla.

=4 H/m = Permeability of free space.

Calculations:

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 108
 Precautions:

1. Galvanometer should not be disturbed while

making primary adjust
2. ents.
3. Ferromagnetic materials must be kept away.
4. All the measurements must be in SI units.

Result: The variation of Magnetic field along a current carrying circular coil is studied and it is found
that as distance increases on either sides of coil, the magnetic field gradually decreases.

APPLICATIONS:

1. Tangent galvanometer is used to measure the magnitude of horizontal Component of

the Geomagnetic field.

2. The principle can be used to compare the galvanometer constants.

3. I t is used to compare to magnetic moments.

4. It is used for verification of the inverse square law.

5. It is used for the comparison of the earth‟s magnetic inductions.

6. It is useful in determining the horizontal component of earth‟s magnetic induction.

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POINTS TO REMEMBER

Deflection magnetometer: It consists of a compass box and graduated wooden plank. The compass
box consists of a short magnetic needle pivoted on frictionless point support at its centre, so as to rotate
freely in a horizontal plane. The center of the needle coincides with the center of the circular scale
graduated in degree and divided into four quadrants. A long aluminum pointer is attached perpendicular
to the magnetic needle at its center. The aluminum pointer rotates along with the magnetic needle over
the circular scale. A plane mirror is placed below the pointer which helps to note the deflection without
parallax error.

The system is enclosed in an evacuated brass case with a glass top. This compass box is placed at the
center of a wooden plank. The graduated wooden planks on both sides of the compass box permit the
measurements of distances from the centre of the magnetometer box. The two sides of the plank with
respect to the compass are known as the arms of the deflection magnetometer. It works on the principle
of tangent law.

Tangent law: let B and be the two magnetic fields of induction which are perpendicular to each
other. When a freely suspended magnetic needle is placed in these fields the needle comes to rest in the
resultant direction. If the needle makes an angle „θ‟ with the uniform field of magnetic induction ,
then

This is called tangent law. It is that when a magnetic needle is acted upon by two magnetic fields at right
angles to each other, the magnetic needle will be deflected through an angle „θ‟ Such that the tangent of
angle of deflection is equal to the ratio of the field.

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VIVA VOCE

1) What is tangent law?

2) What is tan A position?
3) What is tan B position?
4) What is Bio-Savart‟s Law?
5) What are the S.I units of magnetic induction B and magnetic field strength?
6) What is the direction of magnetic field at any point on the axis passing through the coil?
8) What is magnetic induction or magnetic flux density?
9) What is Magnetic field and magnetic field intensity?
10) What is magnetic Susceptibility and Intensity of magnetization?
11) What is Tangent galvanometer?
12) What is use of commutator in this experiment?

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 111
 5. DIFFRACTION GRATING - SPECTROMETER

Aim: To determine the wavelength of a given source of light by using the diffraction grating and
Spectrometer in Minimum deviation position.

Apparatus: Plane diffraction grating, spectrometer, spirit level, reading lens, sodium vapor lamp.

Description:

A plane diffraction grating consists of a parallel-sided glass plate with equidistant and fine parallel lines
drawn very closely upon by means of a diamond point. The number of lines drawn is about 15,000 per
inch. (The gratings used in the laboratory are exact replicas of the original gratings on cellulose film).

Theory:

Minimum Deviation method:

⁄
Then the wavelength of radiation is given by,

Units: Centimeters (or)

Note: 1 cm
Where D = Angle of minimum deviation
n = Order of diffraction
N = Grating constant = No. of lines on grating.
For example if N = 15000 Lines per inch. {One inch = 2.54 cm.}
Hence N =
( ⁄ )
Therefore ( )

Procedure:

Measurement of :

Minimum deviation method:

The usual initial adjustments of the spectrometer are done. (Refer experiment: Dispersive power of
prism). The least count of the vernier of the spectrometer is found. The direct image of the slit is
observed through the telescope. The point of intersection of the cross wires is set on the sharp image of
the slit. The vernier table is fixed and the reading on the circular scale is noted.
APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 112
 Figure: Diffraction grating in minimum deviation position

The prism table is released from the vernier table. The telescope is turned to one side, (say right) and the
first order diffracted image is observed. The prism table is slowly rotated to the right. As it is slowly
rotated towards right side, the image first moves towards left, reaches a limiting position and then
retraces its path. In this limiting position, the telescope is fixed such that the point of intersection of the
cross wires is on the line and the reading on the circular scale is taken. The difference between the
direct reading and this reading gives the angle of minimum deviation for the line in the first order
spectrum. Similarly the angle of minimum deviation for the line of the first order found.

Next, the angle of minimum deviation for and lines in the second order spectrum is found
similarly. The results are tabulated in the table below:

Note:

The experiment can be performed towards left side also. If the readings are taken on both sides then
average of the readings should be done. However it is enough to take the readings on one side.

Observations:

Minimum Deviation method:

= =

Note: { = or = }

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 113
Total reading of spectrometer is taken using general formula: {MSR+ (VC × LC)}

Direct ray readings: =, =

Reading of
spectrometer in
Angle of diffraction(ϴ)=
minimum
deviation position
(Direct ray reading) - (Reading of
the spectrometer in minimum
{MSR+ (VC ×
Order of deviation position)
LC)}
spectrum Line
( ⁄ )
(n) ( )
Mean
Vernier Vernier
) )

First order

( n=1)

Second
order

( n=2)

Precautions:

1. Always the grating should be held by the edges. The ruled surface should not be touched.
2. Light from the collimator should be uniformly incident on the entire surface of the grating.

Result: The wavelength of given source of light using Diffraction grating for:

Sodium λ= cm or λ=

Sodium λ= cm (Or) λ=

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 114
Standard values of :

For Sodium λ = 5890 m (Or) λ =

For Sodium λ = 5896 cm (Or) λ = 5896

APPLICATIONS:

1. The spectrum of colors produced by a diffraction grating can be observed by a

Spectrometer. This technique has led to a wide variety of devices such as the

Spectrograph, Spectrophotometer and Colorimeter.

2. The phenomena of diffraction of X-rays, diffraction of electrons, neutrons and

diffraction of sound waves is well known.

3. This phenomenon is used in explaining the structure of crystals.

4. Diffraction gratings are often used in monochromators, spectrometers, wavelength

division multiplexing devices, optical pulse compressing devices, and many other
optical instruments.
5. Diffraction gratings are also present in nature. For example, the iridescent colors of
peacock feathers, mother-of-pearl, butterfly wings, and some other insects are caused
by very fine regular structures that diffract light, splitting it into its component color

VIVA VOCE

1) What is meant by diffraction of light? What are the conditions for diffraction?
2) How many types of diffraction are there?
3) In the present experiment what type of diffraction does occur and how?
4) What is plane transmission grating?
5) What is reflection grating?

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6) What type of grating do you use in the present experiment?
7) What is the effect of increasing number of lines per cm on grating?
8) What will happen if the rulings of the grating are not parallel and the distance between
two consecutive rulings is not constant?
9) How many orders do you get here? Why?

10) What is main difference between a prism spectrum and a grating spectrum?

11) Why is the prism spectrum more intense than the grating spectrum?

12) What is grating constant or grating element?

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 116
 6. TIME CONSTANT OF AN R-C CIRCUIT

Aim: To study the exponential decay of charge in R-C Circuit and to determine the value of time
constant and to verify theoretical and graphical values of time constant.

Apparatus: Source of e.m.f (battery eliminator), resistors, capacitors, Ammeter, stop clock, tap key,
connecting wires.

Formula:

1. The theoretical value of time constant of given RC circuit can be found using the

Formula,

Where R = Resistance in Ohms, C = Capacitance in micro Farads.

2. The graphical value of time constant in RC circuit can be found as given below;

 Plot the graph between Time taken on X-axis and Current on Y-axis
 Choose the maximum current, let it be
 Make , i.e. 0.3678 × .
 Point or indicate the value of along Y- axis then cut the curve. The time taken that is
observed along X – axis is the time constant found graphically.

----------------- Sec.

Theory:

While charging:

When a capacitor C is charged through a resistance R, then the charge in capacitor increases with respect
to time as an exponential function. If q is the instantaneous charge at time t, we have,

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 117
 ⁄
, Where q is the charge in the time t, is the maximum charge

The product‟ RC‟ is called time constant of the circuit. It is the time taken to establish

(1- ) part of the maximum charge in the condenser. It is equal to the time taken to establish 0.632
part of the total charge. This is while charging the RC circuit.

2. While discharging:

When a condenser is discharged through a resistance, the charge falls in accordance with the formula,
⁄

The time constant in this case is equal to the time, taken to decrease the charge of „e‟ part of the
maximum charge. It is equal to the time taken to discharge to a value of 0.368 part of maximum charge.
Thus we can observe that: smaller is the time constant, more rapid is the discharge of the capacitor.

Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

The circuit is connected as shown in figure, taking one set of R and C. The capacitor „C‟ is charged for a
short time till the deflection in the galvanometer is maximum, but within the scale. Now note down the
maximum current. Let it be then the tap key is released for discharging. The capacitor now starts
discharging through the resistor R. The deflection decreases steadily. The stop clock is started and
readings are noted down for every five seconds.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 118
The experiment is repeated for the other sets of R and C and observations are tabulated in the table
below:

Observations:

1.

56 × Ω, Farad

2.

× Ω, 2200 Farad

3.

× Ω, 1000 Farad

Combination Combination Combination

Time
Discharging Discharging Discharging
in seconds

Current in micro amps Current in micro amps Current in micro amps

0
60
120
180
240
300
360
420

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 119
Model Graph:

The graph is drawn between the time „T‟ seconds on x-axis and current „I‟ in micro amps on y-axis.

From this plot find the time for which the deflection falls to 0.3678 of starting value i.e. in the case of
discharging. It is equal to time constant.

Calculations

The theoretical value of time constant of given RC circuit can be found using the formula,

1. In

Time constant theoretically, = ) seconds

= 263 sec.

From graph:

= --------------- amp, = ---------- amp

Time constant graphically, = 264 sec

2. In

Time constant theoretically, = seconds

= sec.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 120
From graph:

= --------------- amp, = ---------- amp

Time constant graphically, = sec

3. In

Time constant theoretically, = ) seconds

= sec.

From graph:

= --------------- amp, = ---------- amp

Time constant graphically, = sec

Precautions:

1. There should not be any leakage of charge.

2. Connecting wires used to the condenser must be short.

Result:

The time constant of theoretical and graphical values of various sets of RC circuit is calculated and
verified. It is tabulated as follows:

Time Constant in seconds

RC - combination

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APPLICATIONS:
1. When a is charged by a DC voltage, the accumulation of charge on its plates is a
method of storing energy which may be released at different rates.
2. An example of the energy storage application is the photoflash capacitor used in flash
guns of photographic cameras.
3. The charging and discharging time is calculated for a RC circuit and is connected to a
series of decorative bulbs. Accordingly the bulb glows for a known time and switches.
4. RC circuits can be used to filter a signal by blocking certain frequencies and passing
others. The two most common RC filters are the high-pass filters and low-pass filters;

band-pass filters and band-stop filters.

VIVA VOCE
1) Define resistance.
2) Define Capacitance.
2) Define time constant of RC circuit.
3) What is the SI unit of RC time constant?
4) What would happen if the capacitance of given capacitor is very small?
5) What would happen if the capacitance of the given capacitor is very large?
6) What is ohm‟s law?
7) It ohm‟s law applicable to both capacitance and resistance?
8) What is an electrolyte capacitor?
9) What is an ordinary capacitor?
10) Define potential difference.
11) What are applications of resistors and capacitors.
12) State different types of capacitors.
13) State the factors affecting capacitance.
14) In what way the charging and discharging of capacitor occur over time?

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 122
 7. DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE MATERIAL OF A PRISM

Aim: To determine the dispersive power of the material of a Prism by using spectrometer.

Apparatus: 1) Spectrometer 2) Mercury Vapor lamp 3) Flint glass Prism 4) Reading lens

Principle:

The dispersive power of the material of the given prism is expressed by the relation,

B  R

 1

B  R
Where „  R ‟ and „  B ‟ are the refractive indices of two colors and   . Usually the colors
2
chosen are blue and red .Any two different colors can be chosen.

Description:

The spectrometer mainly consists of a) Collimator 2) Telescope c) Prism table d) Circular scale and
Vernier scale. This is shown in figure 1 below.

APPLIED PHYSICS LAB MANUAL (R18) GURUNANAK INSTITUTIONS TECHNICAL CAMPUS 123
 a. The Collimator: The Collimator consists of a convex lens fitted to the inner end of
a hollow tube, fixed to the instrument. It has another hollow tube which exactly fits into the fixed
tube and can be moved in or out by means of a rack and pinion screw. The Collimator is fixed to
the instrument and can‟t be rotated. The Collimator is used to obtain a parallel beam of light from
a given source.
b. The Telescope: This is an astronomical telescope whose objective is fitted to the inner end of a
hollow tube. In this tube there is another hollow tube which can be moved. At the outer end, the
tube carries the Ramsden‟s eye piece with Cross-wires. The distance of the cross-wires from the
eye-piece can be altered by pushing in or drawing out the eye-piece.
The telescope can be turned about an axis coinciding with the axis of rotation of the prism
table and can be clamped on any position with the given screw. The angle of rotation can be
measured, on a circular scale which is fixed to the telescope and moves along with it. The
telescope is used to receive the parallel beam of light from the collimator.

c. Prism table: It is a small circular table provided with three leveling screws and is used for keeping
the prism on it. The prism table can be raised or lowered and clamped in any position by a screw.
By means of another screw it can be fixed to the vernier table and the two will then turn together.
d. The circular scale: This is a circular metal plate attached to the telescope and rotates along with it.
Determination of Angle of the prism (A):

Figure: 2 Position of prism to find its angle (A)

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Procedure:

Determination of Angle of Prism:

The primary adjustments of the spectrometer are to be done. The prism is placed at the centre of the
prism table such that both the refracting edges of the prism face the collimator symmetrically. Then the
prism is fixed. The telescope is released and rotated to observe reflected image of the prism from one
face. Adjust up to the reflected image coincides with the cross wires. The reading of the two verniers is
to be noted. The telescope is rotated such that the reflected image of the second face is focused. Then
readings of the both the vernier is to be noted. Then the difference of the readings gives the value of 2A
from which refracting angle (A) can be calculated.

Determination of Angle of minimum deviation (Dm):

Figure: 3 Position of prism in minimum deviation to find Dm

The vernier table is clamped and the prism table is released. The prism is clamped centrally on the prism
table such that the surface of the ground glass is almost parallel to the axis of the collimator and the light
from collimator incident on the polished surface of the prism emerges out from the other polished
surface.

Looking at the image, the prism table is slowly turned such that the image moves towards the direct
position. The telescope is also moved so as to keep the image of the slit in the field of view. At certain
stage it will be found that the image changes its direction of motion even though the prism is continued
to move in the same direction.

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The position of the prism is fixed when refracted image of the slit just retraces its path, which is the
position of minimum deviation. The telescope is focused such that the image coincides with the vertical
cross wires. The readings of two vernier scales are noted.

The prism is removed and the telescope is rotated such that the direct image of the slit coincides with
cross wires. Readings of the two vernier scales are noted. The difference between the respective
readings of the vernier gives the angle of minimum deviation of the prism (Dm), and then the readings
are tabulated.

Observations:

Note: { = or = }

Total reading T.R. = {M.S.R + (VC×LC)}. Note: Angle of prism, A =

Direct readings from vernier 1 and vernier 2 are noted as = =

Readings of Angle of
Telescope in Difference minimum Refractive
Color of Minimum in Vernier readings deviation index
S.N the deviation position (Dm) A  Dm
{M.S.R + (VC×LC)} Sin
o. spectral  2
line = A
Sin
~ ~ 2

1 Violet

Indigo
2

3 Blue

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 4 Green

5 Yellow

6 Red

Refractive index of the given prism can be calculated by using the formula,

A  Dm
Sin
 2
A
Sin
2

Dispersive power of the prism:

The usual adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The refractive angle of the prism is found, and then
the prism is mounted on the prism table such that the light (spectrum) from the mercury vapor lamp is
observed through the telescope. The prism is deserved and set in minimum deviation position. In the
spectrum, it is sufficient if one color is adjusted for minimum position.

The telescope is now fixed for the violet line and the tangent screw is slowly operated until the point of
intersection of the cross wire exactly coincides on the violet line. The readings on the vernier scales I &
II are to be noted. The telescope is now fixed for remaining colors using tangent screw and the readings
are noted and tabulated.

Next, the telescope is released and the prism is removed from the prism table. The telescope is now
focused on the direct ray (undeviated ray) and the vertical cross wire is coincided with the slit. The
direct ray readings of vernier scales I & II are noted.

The difference between the direct ray readings and deviated individual color ray readings gives the angle
of minimum deviation of their respective colors. The readings are tabulated. By knowing the values for
any two colors, the dispersive power of the material of the prism is determined from this formula.
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Calculations:

B  R
For blue and red spectral lines, Dispersive power of prism  =
 1

Similarly for violet and green spectral lines =

Average value of dispersive power of prism for a set of blue – red and violet - green spectral lines is

Precautions:
1. The prism should be adjusted for each color separately.
2. The optical adjustments must be done carefully before starting the experiment.
3. The prism must be set symmetrically on the prism table.
4. Reading on the both vernier scales is taken.
5. The polished surfaces of the prism should not be touched. It should be handled by its edges.
Result: Dispersive power of the material of a prism is =

APPLICATIONS:

1. The brilliance of a diamond is due to its large dispersion.

2. In recent years synthetic crystal of titanium oxide and strontium titanate, with about 8 times the
dispersion of diamond, has been produced.

3. The dispersion of light in optical fibers.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

Dispersive power: The separation of white light into its constituent colors.

When light under goes dispersion, the band of colors obtained is known as spectrum.

Angular dispersion of two colors‟ is the difference between the angle of deviation of two colors. The
angular dispersion of red and violet is equal to - .

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The ratio of angular dispersion of two extreme colors‟ to their mean deviation is known as the dispersive
power of the material of a prism and it is denoted by „ω‟.

Ramsden’s eye piece:

1) Its field lens and eye lens are of same focal length. They have separated by a distance of 2/3f.
2) Curved surfaces face each other.
3) The image due to objective is at a distance of f/4 from the eye lens in front of it. So, it is called
positive eye piece.
4) It reduces spherical aberration. By making each lens an achromatic doublet, chromatic aberration
can be reduced.
5) It can be used for measurements.

Huygens’s eye piece:

1) Its field lens is of focal length 3f and eye lens is of focal length „f‟. They are separated by a
distance 2f.
2) Curved surface of field lens faces the objective and the curved surface of eye lens faces the field
lens.
3) The image due to objective would have formed at a distance of 3f/2 in the absence of field lens.
The image is behind the field lens. So it is called negative eye piece.
4) It minimizes spherical and chromatic aberrations.
5) It can‟t be used for measurements.

Aberrations: The defects and imperfections developed in images are known as aberrations.

Chromatic aberration: The aberration formed by a lens with white light or composite light producing
colored images is called chromatic aberrations.

Spherical aberration: The formation of line image along the principle axis when a point object is
placed on the principle axis is called spherical aberration. It is due to large aperture of lens.

Monochromatic aberrations are of five types,

1) Spherical aberration
2) Coma
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 3) Astigmatism
4) Curvature
5) Distortion

Prism: A transparent medium like glass bounded by two triangle and three rectangular smooth surfaces.
And angle of Prism is the angle between two refracting surfaces of the prism.

Refractive index: The ratio of sine of angle of incidence in the first medium to the sine of angle of
refraction in the second medium.

Dispersion of Light: When the light is allowed to fall on one of the refracting surfaces of a prism , it is
split into its constituent colors. This splitting of light into its constituent colors by refraction through
prism is called Dispersion of light.

Main optical action of the prism: The main optical action of a prism is to disperse white light into its
component parts. Dispersion of light is minor optical action of prism, but main effect of a prism is to
deviate a beam of light.

VIVA VOCE

1) What is dispersion of light?

2) What is dispersive power of a prism?
3) What is the function of a collimator?
4) What is meant by angle of prism?
5) What is the pure spectrum?
6) What is meant by impure spectrum?
7) What kind of image is produced by the telescope in this experiment?
8) Is the dispersion produced by a flint glass prism greater than that by a crown glass prism of the same
angle? If so why?
9) What is meant by angle of deviation and angle of minimum deviation?
10) What is angular dispersion?
11) What do you mean by refractive index?

12) Does the angle of minimum deviation vary with the color of light?

13) How μ vary with wavelength?

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14) Can you not use a monochromatic source (sodium lamp)?

15) What is the construction of mercury lamp?

16) What is an eyepiece?

17) What is the construction of Huygens‟s eyepiece?

18) Which color in the spectrum is having maximum and minimum refractive index?
19) What is the function of Collimator?
20) What type of material prism is used in this experiment?
21) What type of light do you use in this experiment?

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