Bioinstrument

Sahand University of Technology

Lecture 2
BASIC SENSORS AND PRINCIPLES

Dr. Shamekhi
Summer 2016
 Basic Sensors And Principles

• Transducer: a device that converts energy from one form to

another
• Sensor: converts a physical parameter to an electric output
• Actuator: converts an electric signal to a physical output

• Measurements:
– Displacement Measurements
– Temperature Measurements
– Optical Measurements

Dr. Shamekhi, Sahand University of Technology 2

 Displacement Measurements

• Purpose:
– The physician and biomedical researcher are interested in
measuring the size, shape, and position of the organs and tissues
of the body.
– Variations in these parameters are important in discriminating
normal from abnormal function.
• Displacement Sensors:
– Direct (exp. Determine the change in diameter of blood vessels
and the changes in volume and shape of cardiac chambers)
– Indirect (exp. used to quantify movements of liquids through
heart valves)

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 Displacement Measurements –p2

• Methods:
– Resistive
– Inductive
– Capacitive
– Piezoelectric

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 Displacement Meas.
Resistive Sensor
• Potentiometers
– These potentiometers produce a linear output (within 0.01%
of full scale) as a function of displacement, provided that the
potentiometer is not electrically loaded.

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 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p2

• Strain Gages
– When a fine wire (25 μm)is strained within its elastic limit,
the wire's resistance changes because of changes in the
diameter, length, and resistivity.
– measure extremely small displacements on the order of
nanometers
• Equations:

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 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p3

• Equation: Poisson's ratio μ relates the change in diameter

ΔD to the change in length,
Substituting this:

Changes in the
lattice structure
of the material,

Gage Factor:

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Dr. Shamekhi, Sahand University of Technology 8
 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p5

• Notes:
– Note that the gage factor for semiconductor materials is
approximately 50 to 70 times that of the metals. Also note
that the gage factor for metals is primarily a function of
dimensional effects.
– For most metals, μ= 0.3 and thus G is at least 1.6, whereas
for semiconductors, the piezoresistive effect is dominant.

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 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p6

• Classification of Strain gages:

– Unbonded
– Bonded
– Unbonded

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 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p7
• Unbonded (electrical Circuit)
Wheatstone bridge with four active elements.

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 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p8

• Bonded
– consisting of a metallic wire, etched foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the strained surface

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 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p9

• method of temperature compensation for the natural

temperature sensitivity of bonded strain gages: a second
strain gage as a dummy element that is also exposed to the
temperature variation, but not to strain
• Elastic-resistance strain gages are extensively used in
biomedical applications, especially in cardiovascular and
respiratory dimensional and plethysmographic (volume-
measuring) determinations.
• These systems normally consist of a narrow silicone-rubber
tube (0.5 mm ID, 2 mm OD) from 3 to 25 cm long and filled
with mercury or with an electrolyte or conductive paste. The
ends of the tube are sealed with electrodes (amalgamated
copper, silver, or platinum).

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 Displacement Meas. - Resistive Sensors – p10

• Unbonded uniformly

• Intergrated Pressure Sensor

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 Displacement Meas.
Inductive Sensor
• An inductance L can be used to measure displacement by
varying any three of the coil parameters:

• Each of these parameters can be changed by mechanical

means.
• Types :
– Self-inductance
– Mutual Inductance
– Differential Transformer

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 Displacement Meas. – Inductive Sensors – p2

• Self-Inductance

• Changing the geometric form factor

or the movement of a magnetic core
within the coil
• The change in inductance for this device is not
linearly related to displacement.
• These devices have low power requirements and
produce large variations in inductance makes them
attractive for radiotelemetry applications.

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 Displacement Meas. – Inductive Sensors – p3

• Mutual-inductance:
– employs two separate coils and
uses the variation in their mutual
magnetic coupling to measure
displacement.
– Measures cardiac dimensions, monitoring infant
respiration, and ascertaining arterial diameters.
– Measures changes in dimension of internal organs (kidney,
major blood vessels, and left ventricle).

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 Displacement Meas. – Inductive Sensors – p4

• The induced voltage in the secondary coil is a function of the

geometry of the coils (separation and axial alignment), The
number of primary- and secondary turns, and the frequency
and amplitude of the excitation voltage.
• The induced voltage in the secondary coil is a nonlinear
function of the separation of the coils.
• In order to maximize the output signal, a frequency is selected
that causes the secondary coil (tuned circuit) to be in
resonance.
• The output voltage is detected with standard demodulator
and amplifier circuits.

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 Displacement Meas. – Inductive Sensors – p5

• Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

• widely used in physiological research
and clinical medicine to measure pressure,
displacement, and force
• composed of a primary coil (terminals
a-b) and two secondary coils (c-e and d-e) connected in series.
• The two secondary coils are connected in opposition in order
to achieve a wider region of linearity.
• The primary coil is sinusoidally excited, with a frequency
between 60 Hz and 20 kHz.
• A change of phase by 180 degree when the core passes
through the center position, and saturation on the ends.
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 Displacement Meas. – Inductive Sensors – p6

• Notice:
(a) As x moves through
the null position, the
phase changes 180°,
while the magnitude of
Vo is proportional to the
magnitude of x.

(b) An ordinary rectifier-

demodulator cannot
distinguish between (a)
and (b), so a phase-
sensitive demodulator is
required. Dr. Shamekhi, Sahand University of Technology 20
 Displacement Meas.
Capacative Sensor (Basic)
• The capacitance between two parallel plates of area A
separated by distance x is:

• In principle it is possible to monitor displacement by changing

any of the three parameters. However, the method that is
easiest to implement and that is most commonly used is to
change the separation between the plates.
• The sensitivity K of a capacitive sensor to changes in plate
separation Δx is found by differentiating
• Note that the sensitivity increases as the
plate separation decreases.

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 Displacement Meas. – Capacitive Sensors – p2

• Equations: (Capacitance sensor for measuring dynamic

dsiplacement changes)

or Typically, R is 1 MΩ
or higher,

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 Displacement Meas.
Piezoelectric Sensor
• used to measure physiological displacements and record heart sounds.

• Principle:
– Piezoelectric materials generate an electric potential when mechanically
strained, and conversely an electric potential can cause physical
deformation of the material.
– The principle of operation is that, when an asymmetrical crystal lattice is
distorted, a charge reorientation takes place, causing a relative
displacement of negative and positive charges. The displaced internal
charges induce surface charges of opposite polarity on opposite sides of
the crystal.
– Surface charge can be determined by measuring the difference in
voltage between electrodes attached to the surfaces.

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Piezoelectric Sensors – p2

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 Displacement Meas. – Piezoelectric Sensors – p3

• Modeling:
– we assume infinite leakage resistance.
– the total induced charge q is directly proportional to the
applied force f

– where k is the piezoelectric constant, C/N

– The change in voltage can be found by assuming that the
system acts like a parallel-plate.

– Notice: Piezoelectric materials have a high but finite

resistance.

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 Displacement Meas. – Piezoelectric Sensors – p4

• Equivalent circuit of piezoelectric sensor,

where Rs = sensor leakage resistance, Cs = sensor capacitance, Cc =
cable capacitance, Ca =amplifier input capacitance, Ra = amplifier
input resistance, and q = charge generator.
• This circuit has a charge
generator q defined by:

where:
K = proportionality constant, C/m
x = deflection

The circuit may be simplified by converting the charge generator to a current generator

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 Displacement Meas. – Piezoelectric Sensors – p5

• Modified circuit:
• Combined elements
• Assuming that the amplifier current = Zero

• The output decays exponentially because of the finite

internal resistance of the piezoelectric material.
• At time equal to T the force is released, and a displacement restoration results that is
equal and opposite to the original displacement.
• This causes a sudden decrease in voltage of magnitude Kx/ C, with a resulting
undershoot equal to the decay prior to the release of the displacement.
• The decay and undershoot can be minimized by increasing the time const, τ = RC.
• The simplest approach to increasing τ is to add a parallel capacitor.

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 Displacement Meas. – Piezoelectric Sensors – p6

• Example:
A piezoelectric sensor has C = 500 pF. The sensor leakage resistance is 10
GΩ. The amplifier input impedance is 5 MΩ. What is the low corner
frequency?

• Answer:
• We may use the modified equivalent circuit of the piezoelectric sensor
given in Figure 2.9(b) for this calculation.

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 Temperature Measurements
• A patient's body temperature gives the physician important information about
the physiological state of the individual
• A drop in the big-toe temperature is a good early clinical warning of shock.
• Infections, on the other hand, are usually reflected by an increase in body
temperature, with a hot, flushed skin and loss of fluids
• Increased ventilation, perspiration, and blood flow to the skin result
• high fevers destroy temperature-sensitive enzymes and proteins & Etc….
• Types
– Thermocouples
– Thermistor
– Radiation Thermometry
– Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors
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Temperature Measurements: Examples

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 Temperature Measurements
Thermocouples
• Principles:
– Thermoelectric thermometry is based on the discovery of Seebeck in
1821. He observed that an electromotive force (emf) exists across a
junction of two dissimilar metals.
• Effects:
– Net Peltier emf:
• The first effect, discovered by Peltier, is an emf due solely to the contact
of two unlike metals and the junction temperature. The net Peltier emf is
roughly proportional to the difference between the temperatures of the
two junctions.
– Net Thomson emf (Lord Kelvin):
• The second effect, credited to Thomson (Lord Kelvin), is an emf due to the
temperature gradients along each single conductor. The net Thomson emf
is proportional to the difference between the squares of the absolute
junction temperatures.

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 Temperature Meas. – Thermocouples p2

• Empirical Calibration:
– data are usually curve-fitted with a power series expansion that yields the
Seebeck voltage:
– where T is in degrees Celsius and the reference junction is maintained at 0 °C.
– A thermocouple circuit with two dissimilar metals,
– In the practical situation, one junction is held
at a constant known temperature
(by an ice bath or controlled oven or
a electronic cold junction)

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 Temperature Meas. – Thermocouples p3

• Empirical thermocouple laws:

– Homogeneous circuits: States that in a circuit
composed of a single homogeneous metal, on
cannot maintain an electric current by the
application of heat alone.
– Intermediate metals: states that the net emf in a
circuit consisting of an interconnection of a number
of unlike metals, maintained at the same
temperature, is zero.
– Successive or intermediate temperatures:
States that emf E1 is generated when two dissimilar
metals have junctions at temperatures T1 and T2
and emf E2 results for temperatures T2 and T3. It
follows that an emf E1 + E2 results at c-d when the
junctions are at temperatures T1 and T3

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 Temperature Meas. – Thermocouples p4

• Thermoelectric sensitivity α (also called the thermoelectric

power or the Seebeck coefficient):
– is found by differentiating
– with respect to T
• Thermometers in series: Sensitivity Increased
All of them measuring the same temperature and using the same
reference junction.
• Thermopile:
An arrangement of multiple-junction thermocouples is referred
to as a thermopile.
• Parallel combinations:
May be used to measure average temperature.

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 Temperature Meas. – Thermocouples p4

• Advantages:
– fast response time (time constant as small as 1 ms)
– small size (down to 12 μm diameter)
– Ease of fabrication
– Long-term stability.
• Disadvantages:
– Small output voltage
– Low sensitivity
– The need for a reference temperature.
• Note: Thermocouples can be made small in size, so they can be inserted
into catheters and hypodermic needles.

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 Temperature Measurements
Thermistors
• Thermistors are semiconductors made of ceramic materials that
are thermal resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient.
• That is opposite to the way metals react to such changes.
• The resistivity of thermistor semiconductors used for biomedical
applications is between 0.1 and 100 Ωm.
• The empirical relationship between the thermistor resistance Rt
and absolute temperature T in kelvins (K) is:

• The temperature coefficient can be found by differentiating with

respect to T and dividing by Rt. Thus

• That α is a nonlinear function of temperature.

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 Temperature Measurements – Thermistors p2

• Advantages:
– These devices are small in size (they can be made less than 0.5
mm in diameter)
– Have a relatively large sensitivity to temperature changes
– Excellent long-term stability characteristics (±0.2% of nominal
resistance value per year).
• Disadvantages:
– Time delays from milliseconds to several minutes are possible
with thermistor circuits.
– Nonlinear characteristic (Various circuit schemes for linearizing
the resistance-versus-temperature characteristics of thermistors
are necessary) Question

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 Temperature Meas. – Radiation Thermometry

• Principle:
– The basis of radiation thermometry is that there is a known
relationship between the surface temperature of an object and its
radiant power.
– This principle makes it possible to measure the temperature of a body
without physical contact with it.
– Medical thermography is a technique whereby the temperature
distribution of the body is mapped with a sensitivity of a few tenths of
a kelvin

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 Temperature Meas. – Radiation Thermometry p2

• Every body that is above absolute zero radiates electromagnetic power, the
amount being dependent on the body's temperature and physical
properties.
• A blackbody is an ideal thermal radiator
• The radiation emitted from a body is given by Planck's law multiplied by
emissivity ε. This expression relates the radiant flux per unit area per unit
wavelength Wλ at a wavelength λ (μm) and is stated as:

• Wien's displacement law gives the

wavelength for which Wλ is a maximum.
• λm is inversely related to T
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 Temperature Meas. – Radiation Thermometry p3

• λm is inversely related to T

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 Temperature Meas. – Radiation Thermometry p5

• Infrared detectors and instrument systems must be designed with a

1
high sensitivity because of the weak signals.
• These devices must have a short response time and appropriate
wavelength-bandwidth requirements that match the radiation source. 2
• Suitable instrumentation must be used to amplify, process, and display
these weak signals from radiation detectors.
3
• Most radiometers make use of a beam-chopper system to interrupt the
radiation at a fixed rate (several hundred hertz).
4
• Allows the use of high-gain ac amplifiers without the inherent
problems of stability in dc amplifiers.
• Comparison of reference sources and techniques of temperature
compensation are more applicable to ac-instrumentations

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 Temperature Meas. – Radiation Thermometry p6
• Stefan-Boltzmann law:
where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

• Typical chopped-beam radiation-thermometer system

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 Radiation Thrm. p6 - Chopped-Beam Radiation-Thermometer

• A mirror focuses the radiation on the detector (a blackened

chopper interrupts the radiation beam at a constant rate)
• The output of the detector circuit is a series of pulses with
amplitude dependent on the strength of the radiation
source.
• This AC signal is amplified, while the mean value, which is
subject to drift, is blocked.
• A reference-phase signal, used to synchronize the phase-
sensitive demodulator, is generated in a special circuit
consisting of a light source and detector.
• This signal is then filtered to provide a dc signal proportional
to the target temperature.
• This signal can then be displayed or recorded.
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 INFRARED THERMOMETRY
• An instrument that determines the internal or core body
temperature of the human by measuring the magnitude of
infrared radiation emitted from the tympanic membrane and
surrounding ear canal.

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 INFRARED THERMOMETRY

• It detects emitted energy that is proportional to the actual temperature

of the subject. (not the sensor temperature)
• It has a response time in the order of 0.1 s and an accuracy of
approximately 0.1 °C and requires a calibration target in order to maintain
their high accuracy.
• Independent of user technique and degree of patient activity or
cooperation

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 FIBER-OPTIC TEMPERATURE SENSORS p1
• GaAs semiconductor temperature prob

• A small prism-shaped sample of single-crystal GaAs is

epoxied at the ends of two side-by-side optical fibers
• These can be quite small, compatible with biological
implantation after being sheathed.
• One fiber transmits light from a light-emitting diode
source to the sensor, where it is passed through the GaAs
and collected by the other fiber for detection in the
readout instrument.
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 Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors- p2

• Notes:

1
• Some of the optical power traveling through the

2
semiconductor is absorbed, by the process of raising
valence-band electrons, across the forbidden energy
gap into the conduction band. Because the forbidden
energy gap is a sensitive function of the material’s
3 temperature, The amount of power absorbed
increases with temperature.

• Suited for temperature measurement in the strong

electromagnetic heating fields
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 Optical Measurements p1

• In the clinical-chemistry lab

• Analyze samples of blood and tissues removed from the body
• Measure the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin and to measure
cardiac output
• Usual optical instrument has a source, filter, and detector.

• A common arrangement of components.

• The function of source, filter,

sample, and detector may be
accomplished by solid-state
components
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 Radiation Source - p1- Tungsten Lams
– The most commonly used sources of radiation.
– Radiant output varies with temperature and wavelength, as
given by

– For higher temperatures, λm, the maximal wavelength of the

radiant-output curves, shifts to a shorter wavelength,

– Low temperatures, then, yield a reddish color (infrared

lamps), whereas high temperatures yield a bluish color
(photoflood lamps).
– The total radiant power Wt can be found by:
– Filaments are usually coiled to increase their emissivity and
efficiency. For use in instruments, short linear coils may be
arranged within a compact, nearly square area lying in a single
plane.
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 Radiation Source - p3- LASER

(Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)

• The end faces that are perpendicular to the p-n junction are
polished to serve as partial mirrors, thus forming a resonant
optical cavity.
• Stimulated emission: The forward current pumps a large
population of the molecules to an excited energy level.
Radiation incident on the molecules causes the production of
additional radiation that is identical in character.
• Laser output is highly monochromatic, collimated (parallel),
and phase-coherent.
• p-n junction lasers are not widely used because they operate
in the infrared and require current densities of 1000A/cm2 or
more

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 Radiation Source – p4- LASER

• Commonly used:
Type Wavelength Application Power

He-Ne 633 nm red region 100 mW

Argon 515 nm diabetic retinopathy. highest

continuous-
power levels (1-
15 W)
CO2 10600 nm cutting plastics, 50-500 W of CW
rubber, and metals up
to 1 cm thick
Ruby 693 nm red region (l-mJ)

(Nd: YAG) 1064 nm infrared High

yttrium region (2-W/mm)
aluminum
garnet
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 Geometrical and Fiber Optics-p2- Fiber Optics

• Fiber optics are an efficient way of transmitting

radiation from one point to another
• Transparent glass or plastic fiber with a refractive
index n1 is coated or surrounded by a second
material of a lower refractive index n2. By Snell's law,

• where θ is the angle of

incidence shown in Figure

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 Geometrical and Fiber Optics-p3- Fiber Optics

• Because n1 > n2, sinθ2> sinθ1, so sinθ2= 1.0 for a value of θ1

that is less than 90°.
• For values of θ1 greater than this, sin θ2 is greater than unity,
which is impossible, and the ray is internally reflected.
• The critical angle for reflection (θic) is found by setting sin θ2=
1.0, which gives

• Rays entering the end of the fiber at larger angles (θ4) are not
transmitted down the fiber; they escape through the walls.
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 Geometrical and Fiber Optics-p4- Fiber Optics

• Fiber-optic (FO) sensors are replacing some conventional

sensors for measuring a variety of electrical, electronic,
mechanical, pneumatic, and hydraulic variables
• Types:
– Noncoherent bundles (called light guides),
• No correlation between a fiber's spatial position at the input and at the
output,
• useful only for transmitting radiation
– Coherent-fiber bundles,
• The fibers occupy the same relative position at both end faces.
• An image at one end is faithfully transmitted to the other end.

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 Optical Filters - p1

• Filters are frequently inserted in the optical system to control

the distribution of radiant power or wavelength.
• When glass is partially silvered, most of the power is reflected
and the desired fraction of the power is transmitted.
• When carbon particles are suspended in plastic, most of the
power is absorbed and the desired fraction of the power is
transmitted.
• Two Polaroid filters may also be used to attenuate the light

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 Optical Filters – p2

• Color filters transmit certain wavelengths and reject others.

– Gelatin filters are the most common type of absorption filters
(An organic dye is dissolved in an aqueous gelatin solution, and a thin film is
dried on a glass substrate.)
– Glass filters, made by combining additives with the glass itself in
its molten state, are extensively used
– Interference filters are formed by depositing a reflective stack
of layers on both sides of a thicker spacer layer. (reduce heat within
the optical system without sacrificing the useful light)
– Diffraction gratings are widely employed to produce a
wavelength spectrum in the spectrometer.
• Plane gratings are formed by cutting thousands of closely spaced
parallel grooves in a material.

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Dr. Shamekhi, Sahand University of Technology 57
 Radiation Sensors - p1

• Radiation sensors may be classified into two general

categories:
– Thermal sensors

– Quantum sensors

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 Radiation Sensors – p2 – Thermal Sensors

• The thermal sensor absorbs radiation and transforms it into

heat, thus causing a rise in temperature in the sensors. (Typical Types:
the thermistor and the thermocouple)
– The sensitivity of such a sensor does not change with(is flat with)
wavelength, and the sensor has slow response
• The pyroelectric sensor absorbs radiation and converts it into heat.
– rise in temperature changes the polarization of the crystals, which
produces a current proportional to the rate of change of
temperature.
– As it is for the piezoelectric sensor, dc response is zero, so a chopper
is required for dc measurements.

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 Radiation Sensors – p3 – Quantum Sensors

• Quantum sensors absorb energy from individual

photons and use it to release electrons from the
sensor material
• Typical quantum sensors are the eye, the phototube,
the photodiode, and photographic emulsion.
• Such sensors are sensitive over only a restricted
band of wavelengths; most respond rapidly.
• Changes in ambient temperature cause only a
second-order change in sensitivity of these sensors.

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 Radiation Sensors – p4 – Photoemissive Sensors
• Photoemissive sensors (exp. Phototube) have photocathodes
coated with alkali metals.
Sufficient
energy
• Photomultiplier
– is a phototube combined with an electron multiplier
– Each accelerated electron hits the first dynode with enough energy to
liberate several electrons by secondary emission.
– These electrons are accelerated to the second dynode, where the
process is repeated, and so on.
– Time response is less than 10 ns and are the most sensitive
photodetectors.

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 Radiation Sensors - p4 - Photojunction Sensors

• Photojunction sensors are formed from p-n

junctions and are usually made of silicon
Sufficient
energy

– If the junction is reverse-biased,

the reverse photo current flowing
from the cathode to the anode
increases linearly with an
increase in radiation.
– He resulting photo diode
responds in about 1 μs
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 Radiation Sensors – p5 - Photojunction Sensors

• Photovoltaic Sensors
– The same silicon p-n junction can be used in the
photovoltaic mode
– There is an open-circuit voltage when the junction receives
radiation.
– The voltage rises logarithmically from 100 to 500 mV as
the input radiation increases by a factor of 10000.
– This is the principle of the solar cell that is used for direct
conversion of the sun's radiation into electric power.

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