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CHAPTER

Semiconductor
Diodes 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION
It is now some 50 years since the first transistor was introduced on December 23,
1947. For those of us who experienced the change from glass envelope tubes to the
solid-state era, it still seems like a few short years ago. The first edition of this text
contained heavy coverage of tubes, with succeeding editions involving the important
decision of how much coverage should be dedicated to tubes and how much to semi-
conductor devices. It no longer seems valid to mention tubes at all or to compare the
advantages of one over the other—we are firmly in the solid-state era.
The miniaturization that has resulted leaves us to wonder about its limits. Com-
plete systems now appear on wafers thousands of times smaller than the single ele-
ment of earlier networks. New designs and systems surface weekly. The engineer be-
comes more and more limited in his or her knowledge of the broad range of advances—
it is difficult enough simply to stay abreast of the changes in one area of research or
development. We have also reached a point at which the primary purpose of the con-
tainer is simply to provide some means of handling the device or system and to pro-
vide a mechanism for attachment to the remainder of the network. Miniaturization
appears to be limited by three factors (each of which will be addressed in this text):
the quality of the semiconductor material itself, the network design technique, and
the limits of the manufacturing and processing equipment.

1.2 IDEAL DIODE

The first electronic device to be introduced is called the diode. It is the simplest of
semiconductor devices but plays a very vital role in electronic systems, having char-
acteristics that closely match those of a simple switch. It will appear in a range of ap-
plications, extending from the simple to the very complex. In addition to the details
of its construction and characteristics, the very important data and graphs to be found
on specification sheets will also be covered to ensure an understanding of the termi-
nology employed and to demonstrate the wealth of information typically available
from manufacturers.
The term ideal will be used frequently in this text as new devices are introduced.
It refers to any device or system that has ideal characteristics—perfect in every way.
It provides a basis for comparison, and it reveals where improvements can still be
made. The ideal diode is a two-terminal device having the symbol and characteris- Figure 1.1 Ideal diode: (a)
tics shown in Figs. 1.1a and b, respectively. symbol; (b) characteristics.

1
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Ideally, a diode will conduct current in the direction defined by the arrow in the
symbol and act like an open circuit to any attempt to establish current in the oppo-
site direction. In essence:
The characteristics of an ideal diode are those of a switch that can conduct
current in only one direction.
In the description of the elements to follow, it is critical that the various letter
symbols, voltage polarities, and current directions be defined. If the polarity of the
applied voltage is consistent with that shown in Fig. 1.1a, the portion of the charac-
teristics to be considered in Fig. 1.1b is to the right of the vertical axis. If a reverse
voltage is applied, the characteristics to the left are pertinent. If the current through
the diode has the direction indicated in Fig. 1.1a, the portion of the characteristics to
be considered is above the horizontal axis, while a reversal in direction would require
the use of the characteristics below the axis. For the majority of the device charac-
teristics that appear in this book, the ordinate (or “y” axis) will be the current axis,
while the abscissa (or “x” axis) will be the voltage axis.
One of the important parameters for the diode is the resistance at the point or re-
gion of operation. If we consider the conduction region defined by the direction of ID
and polarity of VD in Fig. 1.1a (upper-right quadrant of Fig. 1.1b), we will find that
the value of the forward resistance, RF, as defined by Ohm’s law is
VF 0V
RF      0  (short circuit)
IF 2, 3, mA, . . . , or any positive value
where VF is the forward voltage across the diode and IF is the forward current through
the diode.
The ideal diode, therefore, is a short circuit for the region of conduction.
Consider the region of negatively applied potential (third quadrant) of Fig. 1.1b,
VR 5, 20, or any reverse-bias potential
RR         (open-circuit)
IR 0 mA
where VR is reverse voltage across the diode and IR is reverse current in the diode.
The ideal diode, therefore, is an open circuit in the region of nonconduction.
In review, the conditions depicted in Fig. 1.2 are applicable.
VD Short circuit
+ – ID

I D (limited by circuit)

(a)
0 VD

VD Open circuit
– +

ID = 0

(b)

Figure 1.2 (a) Conduction and (b) nonconduction states of the ideal diode as
determined by the applied bias.

In general, it is relatively simple to determine whether a diode is in the region of

conduction or nonconduction simply by noting the direction of the current ID estab-
lished by an applied voltage. For conventional flow (opposite to that of electron flow),
if the resultant diode current has the same direction as the arrowhead of the diode
symbol, the diode is operating in the conducting region as depicted in Fig. 1.3a. If

2 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

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the resulting current has the opposite direction, as shown in Fig. 1.3b, the open-
circuit equivalent is appropriate.

ID ID Figure 1.3 (a) Conduction

and (b) nonconduction states of
(a)
the ideal diode as determined by
the direction of conventional
current established by the
ID = 0 network.
ID
(b)

As indicated earlier, the primary purpose of this section is to introduce the char-
acteristics of an ideal device for comparison with the characteristics of the commer-
cial variety. As we progress through the next few sections, keep the following ques-
tions in mind:
How close will the forward or “on” resistance of a practical diode compare
with the desired 0- level?
Is the reverse-bias resistance sufficiently large to permit an open-circuit ap-
proximation?

1.3 SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIALS

The label semiconductor itself provides a hint as to its characteristics. The prefix semi-
is normally applied to a range of levels midway between two limits.
The term conductor is applied to any material that will support a generous
flow of charge when a voltage source of limited magnitude is applied across
its terminals.
An insulator is a material that offers a very low level of conductivity under
pressure from an applied voltage source.
A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level some-
where between the extremes of an insulator and a conductor.
Inversely related to the conductivity of a material is its resistance to the flow of
charge, or current. That is, the higher the conductivity level, the lower the resistance
level. In tables, the term resistivity (, Greek letter rho) is often used when compar-
ing the resistance levels of materials. In metric units, the resistivity of a material is
measured in -cm or -m. The units of -cm are derived from the substitution of
the units for each quantity of Fig. 1.4 into the following equation (derived from the
basic resistance equation R  l/A):
RA ()(cm2)
     ⇒ -cm (1.1)
l cm
In fact, if the area of Fig. 1.4 is 1 cm2 and the length 1 cm, the magnitude of the
resistance of the cube of Fig. 1.4 is equal to the magnitude of the resistivity of the
material as demonstrated below: Figure 1.4 Defining the metric
units of resistivity.
l (1 cm)
R        ohms
A (1 cm2)
This fact will be helpful to remember as we compare resistivity levels in the discus-
sions to follow.
In Table 1.1, typical resistivity values are provided for three broad categories of
materials. Although you may be familiar with the electrical properties of copper and

1.3 Semiconductor Materials 3

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TABLE 1.1 Typical Resistivity Values

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

  106 -cm   50 -cm (germanium)   1012 -cm

(copper)   50  103 -cm (silicon) (mica)

mica from your past studies, the characteristics of the semiconductor materials of ger-
manium (Ge) and silicon (Si) may be relatively new. As you will find in the chapters
to follow, they are certainly not the only two semiconductor materials. They are, how-
ever, the two materials that have received the broadest range of interest in the devel-
opment of semiconductor devices. In recent years the shift has been steadily toward
silicon and away from germanium, but germanium is still in modest production.
Note in Table 1.1 the extreme range between the conductor and insulating mate-
rials for the 1-cm length (1-cm2 area) of the material. Eighteen places separate the
placement of the decimal point for one number from the other. Ge and Si have re-
ceived the attention they have for a number of reasons. One very important consid-
eration is the fact that they can be manufactured to a very high purity level. In fact,
recent advances have reduced impurity levels in the pure material to 1 part in 10 bil-
lion (110,000,000,000). One might ask if these low impurity levels are really nec-
essary. They certainly are if you consider that the addition of one part impurity (of
the proper type) per million in a wafer of silicon material can change that material
from a relatively poor conductor to a good conductor of electricity. We are obviously
dealing with a whole new spectrum of comparison levels when we deal with the semi-
conductor medium. The ability to change the characteristics of the material signifi-
cantly through this process, known as “doping,” is yet another reason why Ge and Si
have received such wide attention. Further reasons include the fact that their charac-
teristics can be altered significantly through the application of heat or light—an im-
portant consideration in the development of heat- and light-sensitive devices.
Some of the unique qualities of Ge and Si noted above are due to their atomic
structure. The atoms of both materials form a very definite pattern that is periodic in
nature (i.e., continually repeats itself). One complete pattern is called a crystal and
the periodic arrangement of the atoms a lattice. For Ge and Si the crystal has the
three-dimensional diamond structure of Fig. 1.5. Any material composed solely of re-
peating crystal structures of the same kind is called a single-crystal structure. For
semiconductor materials of practical application in the electronics field, this single-
crystal feature exists, and, in addition, the periodicity of the structure does not change
significantly with the addition of impurities in the doping process.
Let us now examine the structure of the atom itself and note how it might affect
the electrical characteristics of the material. As you are aware, the atom is composed
of three basic particles: the electron, the proton, and the neutron. In the atomic lat-
tice, the neutrons and protons form the nucleus, while the electrons revolve around
the nucleus in a fixed orbit. The Bohr models of the two most commonly used semi-
Figure 1.5 Ge and Si conductors, germanium and silicon, are shown in Fig. 1.6.
single-crystal structure. As indicated by Fig. 1.6a, the germanium atom has 32 orbiting electrons, while
silicon has 14 orbiting electrons. In each case, there are 4 electrons in the outermost
(valence) shell. The potential (ionization potential) required to remove any one of
these 4 valence electrons is lower than that required for any other electron in the struc-
ture. In a pure germanium or silicon crystal these 4 valence electrons are bonded to
4 adjoining atoms, as shown in Fig. 1.7 for silicon. Both Ge and Si are referred to as
tetravalent atoms because they each have four valence electrons.
A bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is called cova-
lent bonding.

4 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

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Figure 1.6 Atomic structure: (a) germanium; Figure 1.7 Covalent bonding of the silicon
(b) silicon. atom.

Although the covalent bond will result in a stronger bond between the valence
electrons and their parent atom, it is still possible for the valence electrons to absorb
sufficient kinetic energy from natural causes to break the covalent bond and assume
the “free” state. The term free reveals that their motion is quite sensitive to applied
electric fields such as established by voltage sources or any difference in potential.
These natural causes include effects such as light energy in the form of photons and
thermal energy from the surrounding medium. At room temperature there are approx-
imately 1.5  1010 free carriers in a cubic centimeter of intrinsic silicon material.
Intrinsic materials are those semiconductors that have been carefully refined
to reduce the impurities to a very low level—essentially as pure as can be
made available through modern technology.
The free electrons in the material due only to natural causes are referred to as
intrinsic carriers. At the same temperature, intrinsic germanium material will have
approximately 2.5  1013 free carriers per cubic centimeter. The ratio of the num-
ber of carriers in germanium to that of silicon is greater than 103 and would indi-
cate that germanium is a better conductor at room temperature. This may be true,
but both are still considered poor conductors in the intrinsic state. Note in Table 1.1
that the resistivity also differs by a ratio of about 10001, with silicon having the
larger value. This should be the case, of course, since resistivity and conductivity are
inversely related.
An increase in temperature of a semiconductor can result in a substantial in-
crease in the number of free electrons in the material.
As the temperature rises from absolute zero (0 K), an increasing number of va-
lence electrons absorb sufficient thermal energy to break the covalent bond and con-
tribute to the number of free carriers as described above. This increased number of
carriers will increase the conductivity index and result in a lower resistance level.
Semiconductor materials such as Ge and Si that show a reduction in resis-
tance with increase in temperature are said to have a negative temperature
coefficient.
You will probably recall that the resistance of most conductors will increase with
temperature. This is due to the fact that the numbers of carriers in a conductor will

1.3 Semiconductor Materials 5

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not increase significantly with temperature, but their vibration pattern about a rela-
tively fixed location will make it increasingly difficult for electrons to pass through.
An increase in temperature therefore results in an increased resistance level and a pos-
itive temperature coefficient.

1.4 ENERGY LEVELS

In the isolated atomic structure there are discrete (individual) energy levels associated
with each orbiting electron, as shown in Fig. 1.8a. Each material will, in fact, have
its own set of permissible energy levels for the electrons in its atomic structure.
The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the higher the energy state,
and any electron that has left its parent atom has a higher energy state than
any electron in the atomic structure.

Energy
Valance Level (outermost shell)
Energy gap
Second Level (next inner shell)
Energy gap
Third Level (etc.)
etc.

Nucleus

(a)

Energy Energy Energy

Electrons
Conduction band "free" to
establish
Conduction band
conduction
The bands Conduction band
overlap
E g > 5 eV Eg
Valence band
Valence
electrons
Valence band
bound to
Valence band the atomic
stucture

E g = 1.1 eV (Si)
E g = 0.67 eV (Ge)
Figure 1.8 Energy levels: (a) E g = 1.41 eV (GaAs)
discrete levels in isolated atomic
structures; (b) conduction and Insulator Semiconductor Conductor
valence bands of an insulator,
semiconductor, and conductor. (b)

Between the discrete energy levels are gaps in which no electrons in the isolated
atomic structure can appear. As the atoms of a material are brought closer together to
form the crystal lattice structure, there is an interaction between atoms that will re-
sult in the electrons in a particular orbit of one atom having slightly different energy
levels from electrons in the same orbit of an adjoining atom. The net result is an ex-
pansion of the discrete levels of possible energy states for the valence electrons to
that of bands as shown in Fig. 1.8b. Note that there are boundary levels and maxi-
mum energy states in which any electron in the atomic lattice can find itself, and there
remains a forbidden region between the valence band and the ionization level. Recall

6 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

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that ionization is the mechanism whereby an electron can absorb sufficient energy to
break away from the atomic structure and enter the conduction band. You will note
that the energy associated with each electron is measured in electron volts (eV). The
unit of measure is appropriate, since

W  QV eV (1.2)

as derived from the defining equation for voltage V  W/Q. The charge Q is the charge
associated with a single electron.
Substituting the charge of an electron and a potential difference of 1 volt into Eq.
(1.2) will result in an energy level referred to as one electron volt. Since energy is
also measured in joules and the charge of one electron  1.6  1019 coulomb,
W  QV  (1.6  1019 C)(1 V)
and 1 eV  1.6  1019 J (1.3)

At 0 K or absolute zero (273.15°C), all the valence electrons of semiconductor

materials find themselves locked in their outermost shell of the atom with energy
levels associated with the valence band of Fig. 1.8b. However, at room temperature
(300 K, 25°C) a large number of valence electrons have acquired sufficient energy to
leave the valence band, cross the energy gap defined by Eg in Fig. 1.8b and enter the
conduction band. For silicon Eg is 1.1 eV, for germanium 0.67 eV, and for gallium
arsenide 1.41 eV. The obviously lower Eg for germanium accounts for the increased
number of carriers in that material as compared to silicon at room temperature. Note
for the insulator that the energy gap is typically 5 eV or more, which severely limits
the number of electrons that can enter the conduction band at room temperature. The
conductor has electrons in the conduction band even at 0 K. Quite obviously, there-
fore, at room temperature there are more than enough free carriers to sustain a heavy
flow of charge, or current.
We will find in Section 1.5 that if certain impurities are added to the intrinsic
semiconductor materials, energy states in the forbidden bands will occur which will
cause a net reduction in Eg for both semiconductor materials—consequently, increased
carrier density in the conduction band at room temperature!

1.5 EXTRINSIC MATERIALS—

n- AND p-TYPE
The characteristics of semiconductor materials can be altered significantly by the ad-
dition of certain impurity atoms into the relatively pure semiconductor material. These
impurities, although only added to perhaps 1 part in 10 million, can alter the band
structure sufficiently to totally change the electrical properties of the material.
A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the doping process is
called an extrinsic material.
There are two extrinsic materials of immeasurable importance to semiconductor
device fabrication: n-type and p-type. Each will be described in some detail in the
following paragraphs.

n-Type Material
Both the n- and p-type materials are formed by adding a predetermined number of
impurity atoms into a germanium or silicon base. The n-type is created by introduc-
ing those impurity elements that have five valence electrons (pentavalent), such as an-
timony, arsenic, and phosphorus. The effect of such impurity elements is indicated in

1.5 Extrinsic Materials—n- and p-Type 7

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– – –
– Si – – Si – – Si –
– – –
Fifth valence
electron
of antimony
– – – –
– Si – – Sb – – Si –
– – –
Antimony (Sb)
impurity
– – –
– Si – – Si – – Si –
– – – Figure 1.9 Antimony impurity
in n-type material.

Fig. 1.9 (using antimony as the impurity in a silicon base). Note that the four cova-
lent bonds are still present. There is, however, an additional fifth electron due to the
impurity atom, which is unassociated with any particular covalent bond. This re-
maining electron, loosely bound to its parent (antimony) atom, is relatively free to
move within the newly formed n-type material. Since the inserted impurity atom has
donated a relatively “free” electron to the structure:
Diffused impurities with five valence electrons are called donor atoms.
It is important to realize that even though a large number of “free” carriers have
been established in the n-type material, it is still electrically neutral since ideally the
number of positively charged protons in the nuclei is still equal to the number of
“free” and orbiting negatively charged electrons in the structure.
The effect of this doping process on the relative conductivity can best be described
through the use of the energy-band diagram of Fig. 1.10. Note that a discrete energy
level (called the donor level) appears in the forbidden band with an Eg significantly
less than that of the intrinsic material. Those “free” electrons due to the added im-
purity sit at this energy level and have less difficulty absorbing a sufficient measure
of thermal energy to move into the conduction band at room temperature. The result
is that at room temperature, there are a large number of carriers (electrons) in the
conduction level and the conductivity of the material increases significantly. At room
temperature in an intrinsic Si material there is about one free electron for every 1012
atoms (1 to 109 for Ge). If our dosage level were 1 in 10 million (107), the ratio
(1012/107  105) would indicate that the carrier concentration has increased by a ra-
tio of 100,0001.

Energy

Conduction band
E g = 0.05 eV (Si), 0.01 eV (Ge)

E g as before Donor energy level

Valence band

Figure 1.10 Effect of donor impurities on the energy band

structure.

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p-Type Material
The p-type material is formed by doping a pure germanium or silicon crystal with
impurity atoms having three valence electrons. The elements most frequently used for
this purpose are boron, gallium, and indium. The effect of one of these elements,
boron, on a base of silicon is indicated in Fig. 1.11.

Figure 1.11 Boron impurity in

p-type material.

Note that there is now an insufficient number of electrons to complete the cova-
lent bonds of the newly formed lattice. The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is
represented by a small circle or positive sign due to the absence of a negative charge.
Since the resulting vacancy will readily accept a “free” electron:
The diffused impurities with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.
The resulting p-type material is electrically neutral, for the same reasons described
for the n-type material.

Electron versus Hole Flow

The effect of the hole on conduction is shown in Fig. 1.12. If a valence electron ac-
quires sufficient kinetic energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void created
by a hole, then a vacancy, or hole, will be created in the covalent bond that released
the electron. There is, therefore, a transfer of holes to the left and electrons to the
right, as shown in Fig. 1.12. The direction to be used in this text is that of conven-
tional flow, which is indicated by the direction of hole flow.

Figure 1.12 Electron versus

hole flow.

1.5 Extrinsic Materials—n- and p-Type 9

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Majority and Minority Carriers

In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons in Ge or Si is due only to those few
electrons in the valence band that have acquired sufficient energy from thermal or
light sources to break the covalent bond or to the few impurities that could not be re-
moved. The vacancies left behind in the covalent bonding structure represent our very
limited supply of holes. In an n-type material, the number of holes has not changed
significantly from this intrinsic level. The net result, therefore, is that the number of
electrons far outweighs the number of holes. For this reason:
In an n-type material (Fig. 1.13a) the electron is called the majority carrier
and the hole the minority carrier.
For the p-type material the number of holes far outweighs the number of elec-
trons, as shown in Fig. 1.13b. Therefore:
In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.
When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom, the atom remaining
acquires a net positive charge: hence the positive sign in the donor-ion representation.
For similar reasons, the negative sign appears in the acceptor ion.
The n- and p-type materials represent the basic building blocks of semiconductor
devices. We will find in the next section that the “joining” of a single n-type mater-
ial with a p-type material will result in a semiconductor element of considerable im-
portance in electronic systems.

Donor ions Acceptor ions

+ –– + – + – Majority +
+ + – carriers + – –
– + +–
– + – + + – –+ +
– – – +
+ + + + – + – + + –
+ – Minority Majority + – +
– + – – + carrier carriers – + – + –
Minority
n-type p-type carrier

(a) (b)

Figure 1.13 (a) n-type material; (b) p-type material.

1.6 SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE

In Section 1.5 both the n- and p-type materials were introduced. The semiconductor
diode is formed by simply bringing these materials together (constructed from the
same base—Ge or Si), as shown in Fig. 1.14, using techniques to be described in
Chapter 20. At the instant the two materials are “joined” the electrons and holes in
the region of the junction will combine, resulting in a lack of carriers in the region
near the junction.
This region of uncovered positive and negative ions is called the depletion re-
gion due to the depletion of carriers in this region.
Since the diode is a two-terminal device, the application of a voltage across its
terminals leaves three possibilities: no bias (VD  0 V), forward bias (VD 0 V), and
reverse bias (VD
0 V). Each is a condition that will result in a response that the
user must clearly understand if the device is to be applied effectively.

10 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

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Figure 1.14 p-n junction with

no external bias.

No Applied Bias (VD  0 V)

Under no-bias (no applied voltage) conditions, any minority carriers (holes) in the
n-type material that find themselves within the depletion region will pass directly into
the p-type material. The closer the minority carrier is to the junction, the greater the
attraction for the layer of negative ions and the less the opposition of the positive ions
in the depletion region of the n-type material. For the purposes of future discussions
we shall assume that all the minority carriers of the n-type material that find them-
selves in the depletion region due to their random motion will pass directly into the
p-type material. Similar discussion can be applied to the minority carriers (electrons)
of the p-type material. This carrier flow has been indicated in Fig. 1.14 for the mi-
nority carriers of each material.
The majority carriers (electrons) of the n-type material must overcome the at-
tractive forces of the layer of positive ions in the n-type material and the shield of
negative ions in the p-type material to migrate into the area beyond the depletion re-
gion of the p-type material. However, the number of majority carriers is so large in
the n-type material that there will invariably be a small number of majority carriers
with sufficient kinetic energy to pass through the depletion region into the p-type ma-
terial. Again, the same type of discussion can be applied to the majority carriers (holes)
of the p-type material. The resulting flow due to the majority carriers is also shown
in Fig. 1.14.
A close examination of Fig. 1.14 will reveal that the relative magnitudes of the
flow vectors are such that the net flow in either direction is zero. This cancellation of
vectors has been indicated by crossed lines. The length of the vector representing hole
flow has been drawn longer than that for electron flow to demonstrate that the mag-
nitude of each need not be the same for cancellation and that the doping levels for
each material may result in an unequal carrier flow of holes and electrons. In sum-
mary, therefore:
In the absence of an applied bias voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.

1.6 Semiconductor Diode 11

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The symbol for a diode is repeated in Fig. 1.15 with the associated n- and p-type
regions. Note that the arrow is associated with the p-type component and the bar with
the n-type region. As indicated, for VD  0 V, the current in any direction is 0 mA.

Reverse-Bias Condition (VD

0 V)
If an external potential of V volts is applied across the p-n junction such that the pos-
Figure 1.15 No-bias conditions itive terminal is connected to the n-type material and the negative terminal is con-
for a semiconductor diode. nected to the p-type material as shown in Fig. 1.16, the number of uncovered posi-
tive ions in the depletion region of the n-type material will increase due to the large
number of “free” electrons drawn to the positive potential of the applied voltage. For
similar reasons, the number of uncovered negative ions will increase in the p-type
material. The net effect, therefore, is a widening of the depletion region. This widen-
ing of the depletion region will establish too great a barrier for the majority carriers to
overcome, effectively reducing the majority carrier flow to zero as shown in Fig. 1.16.

Figure 1.16 Reverse-biased

p-n junction.

The number of minority carriers, however, that find themselves entering the de-
pletion region will not change, resulting in minority-carrier flow vectors of the same
magnitude indicated in Fig. 1.14 with no applied voltage.
The current that exists under reverse-bias conditions is called the reverse sat-
uration current and is represented by Is.
The reverse saturation current is seldom more than a few microamperes except for
high-power devices. In fact, in recent years its level is typically in the nanoampere
range for silicon devices and in the low-microampere range for germanium. The term
saturation comes from the fact that it reaches its maximum level quickly and does not
change significantly with increase in the reverse-bias potential, as shown on the diode
characteristics of Fig. 1.19 for VD
0 V. The reverse-biased conditions are depicted
in Fig. 1.17 for the diode symbol and p-n junction. Note, in particular, that the direc-
Figure 1.17 Reverse-bias
tion of Is is against the arrow of the symbol. Note also that the negative potential is
conditions for a semiconductor
diode. connected to the p-type material and the positive potential to the n-type material—the
difference in underlined letters for each region revealing a reverse-bias condition.

Forward-Bias Condition (VD 0 V)

A forward-bias or “on” condition is established by applying the positive potential to
the p-type material and the negative potential to the n-type material as shown in Fig.
1.18. For future reference, therefore:
A semiconductor diode is forward-biased when the association p-type and pos-
itive and n-type and negative has been established.

12 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

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Figure 1.18 Forward-biased p-n

junction.

The application of a forward-bias potential VD will “pressure” electrons in the

n-type material and holes in the p-type material to recombine with the ions near the
boundary and reduce the width of the depletion region as shown in Fig. 1.18. The re-
sulting minority-carrier flow of electrons from the p-type material to the n-type ma-
terial (and of holes from the n-type material to the p-type material) has not changed
in magnitude (since the conduction level is controlled primarily by the limited num-
ber of impurities in the material), but the reduction in the width of the depletion re-
gion has resulted in a heavy majority flow across the junction. An electron of the
n-type material now “sees” a reduced barrier at the junction due to the reduced de-
pletion region and a strong attraction for the positive potential applied to the p-type
material. As the applied bias increases in magnitude the depletion region will con-
tinue to decrease in width until a flood of electrons can pass through the junction, re-
ID (mA)

20
19
Eq. (1.4) Actual commercially
18
available unit
17
16
15
14
13
12
Defined polarity and
11 direction for graph
10 VD
+ –
9
8 ID
7 Forward-bias region
6 (V
VD > 0 V, II D > 0 mA)
5
4
3
2
Is 1

–40 –30 –20 –10 0 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 V D (V)

– 0.1 µ
uA
– 0.2 µ
uA No-bias
Reverse-bias region (VD = 0 V, ID = 0 mA)
(VD < 0 V, ID = –Is ) – 0.3 µ
uA
– 0.4 µ
uA Figure 1.19 Silicon semiconductor
diode characteristics.

1.6 Semiconductor Diode 13

 p n

sulting in an exponential rise in current as shown in the forward-bias region of the

characteristics of Fig. 1.19. Note that the vertical scale of Fig. 1.19 is measured in
milliamperes (although some semiconductor diodes will have a vertical scale mea-
sured in amperes) and the horizontal scale in the forward-bias region has a maximum
of 1 V. Typically, therefore, the voltage across a forward-biased diode will be less
than 1 V. Note also, how quickly the current rises beyond the knee of the curve.
It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state physics that the general char-
acteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the following equation for the
forward- and reverse-bias regions:

ID  Is(ekVD/TK  1) (1.4)

where Is  reverse saturation current

k  11,600/ with   1 for Ge and   2 for Si for relatively low levels
of diode current (at or below the knee of the curve) and   1 for Ge
and Si for higher levels of diode current (in the rapidly increasing sec-
tion of the curve)
TK  TC  273°
A plot of Eq. (1.4) is provided in Fig. 1.19. If we expand Eq. (1.4) into the fol-
lowing form, the contributing component for each region of Fig. 1.19 can easily be
described:
ID  IsekVD/TK  Is
For positive values of VD the first term of the equation above will grow very
quickly and overpower the effect of the second term. The result is that for positive
values of VD, ID will be positive and grow as the function y  ex appearing in Fig.
1.20. At VD  0 V, Eq. (1.4) becomes ID  Is(e0  1)  Is(1  1)  0 mA as ap-
pearing in Fig. 1.19. For negative values of VD the first term will quickly drop off be-
low Is, resulting in ID  Is, which is simply the horizontal line of Fig. 1.19. The
break in the characteristics at VD  0 V is simply due to the dramatic change in scale
from mA to A.
Note in Fig. 1.19 that the commercially available unit has characteristics that are
shifted to the right by a few tenths of a volt. This is due to the internal “body” resis-
tance and external “contact” resistance of a diode. Each contributes to an additional
voltage at the same current level as determined by Ohm’s law (V  IR). In time, as
production methods improve, this difference will decrease and the actual characteris-
Figure 1.20 Plot of e x. tics approach those of Eq. (1.4).
It is important to note the change in scale for the vertical and horizontal axes. For
positive values of ID the scale is in milliamperes and the current scale below the axis
is in microamperes (or possibly nanoamperes). For VD the scale for positive values is
in tenths of volts and for negative values the scale is in tens of volts.
Initially, Eq. (1.4) does appear somewhat complex and may develop an unwar-
ranted fear that it will be applied for all the diode applications to follow. Fortunately,
however, a number of approximations will be made in a later section that will negate
the need to apply Eq. (1.4) and provide a solution with a minimum of mathematical
difficulty.
Before leaving the subject of the forward-bias state the conditions for conduction
(the “on” state) are repeated in Fig. 1.21 with the required biasing polarities and the
resulting direction of majority-carrier flow. Note in particular how the direction of
conduction matches the arrow in the symbol (as revealed for the ideal diode).

Zener Region
Figure 1.21 Forward-bias
conditions for a semiconductor Even though the scale of Fig. 1.19 is in tens of volts in the negative region, there is
diode. a point where the application of too negative a voltage will result in a sharp change

14 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n

Figure 1.22 Zener region.

in the characteristics, as shown in Fig. 1.22. The current increases at a very rapid rate
in a direction opposite to that of the positive voltage region. The reverse-bias poten-
tial that results in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential
and is given the symbol VZ.
As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region, the velocity
of the minority carriers responsible for the reverse saturation current Is will also in-
crease. Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy (WK  12mv2) will be
sufficient to release additional carriers through collisions with otherwise stable atomic
structures. That is, an ionization process will result whereby valence electrons absorb
sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. These additional carriers can then aid the
ionization process to the point where a high avalanche current is established and the
avalanche breakdown region determined.
The avalanche region (VZ) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasing
the doping levels in the p- and n-type materials. However, as VZ decreases to very low
levels, such as 5 V, another mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will contribute to
the sharp change in the characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong electric field
in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and
“generate” carriers. Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a significant contrib-
utor only at lower levels of VZ, this sharp change in the characteristic at any level is
called the Zener region and diodes employing this unique portion of the characteristic
of a p-n junction are called Zener diodes. They are described in detail in Section 1.14.
The Zener region of the semiconductor diode described must be avoided if the re-
sponse of a system is not to be completely altered by the sharp change in character-
istics in this reverse-voltage region.
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the
Zener region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV
rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating).
If an application requires a PIV rating greater than that of a single unit, a num-
ber of diodes of the same characteristics can be connected in series. Diodes are also
connected in parallel to increase the current-carrying capacity.

Silicon versus Germanium

Silicon diodes have, in general, higher PIV and current rating and wider temperature
ranges than germanium diodes. PIV ratings for silicon can be in the neighborhood of
1000 V, whereas the maximum value for germanium is closer to 400 V. Silicon can
be used for applications in which the temperature may rise to about 200°C (400°F),
whereas germanium has a much lower maximum rating (100°C). The disadvantage
of silicon, however, as compared to germanium, as indicated in Fig. 1.23, is the higher

1.6 Semiconductor Diode 15

 p n

Figure 1.23 Comparison of Si

and Ge semiconductor diodes.
forward-bias voltage required to reach the region of upward swing. It is typically of
the order of magnitude of 0.7 V for commercially available silicon diodes and 0.3 V
for germanium diodes when rounded off to the nearest tenths. The increased offset
for silicon is due primarily to the factor  in Eq. (1.4). This factor plays a part in de-
termining the shape of the curve only at very low current levels. Once the curve starts
its vertical rise, the factor  drops to 1 (the continuous value for germanium). This is
evidenced by the similarities in the curves once the offset potential is reached. The
potential at which this rise occurs is commonly referred to as the offset, threshold, or
firing potential. Frequently, the first letter of a term that describes a particular quan-
tity is used in the notation for that quantity. However, to ensure a minimum of con-
fusion with other terms, such as output voltage (Vo) and forward voltage (VF), the no-
tation VT has been adopted for this book, from the word “threshold.”
In review:

VT  0.7 (Si)
VT  0.3 (Ge)
Obviously, the closer the upward swing is to the vertical axis, the more “ideal” the
device. However, the other characteristics of silicon as compared to germanium still
make it the choice in the majority of commercially available units.
Temperature Effects
Temperature can have a marked effect on the characteristics of a silicon semicon-
ductor diode as witnessed by a typical silicon diode in Fig. 1.24. It has been found
experimentally that:
The reverse saturation current Is will just about double in magnitude for
every 10°C increase in temperature.

16 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n

Figure 1.24 Variation in diode

characteristics with temperature
change.

It is not uncommon for a germanium diode with an Is in the order of 1 or 2 A

at 25°C to have a leakage current of 100 A  0.1 mA at a temperature of 100°C.
Current levels of this magnitude in the reverse-bias region would certainly question
our desired open-circuit condition in the reverse-bias region. Typical values of Is for
silicon are much lower than that of germanium for similar power and current levels
as shown in Fig. 1.23. The result is that even at high temperatures the levels of Is for
silicon diodes do not reach the same high levels obtained for germanium—a very im-
portant reason that silicon devices enjoy a significantly higher level of development
and utilization in design. Fundamentally, the open-circuit equivalent in the reverse-
bias region is better realized at any temperature with silicon than with germanium.
The increasing levels of Is with temperature account for the lower levels of thresh-
old voltage, as shown in Fig. 1.24. Simply increase the level of Is in Eq. (1.4) and
note the earlier rise in diode current. Of course, the level of TK also will be increas-
ing in the same equation, but the increasing level of Is will overpower the smaller per-
cent change in TK. As the temperature increases the forward characteristics are actu-
ally becoming more “ideal,” but we will find when we review the specifications sheets
that temperatures beyond the normal operating range can have a very detrimental ef-
fect on the diode’s maximum power and current levels. In the reverse-bias region the
breakdown voltage is increasing with temperature, but note the undesirable increase
in reverse saturation current.

1.7 RESISTANCE LEVELS

As the operating point of a diode moves from one region to another the resistance of
the diode will also change due to the nonlinear shape of the characteristic curve. It
will be demonstrated in the next few paragraphs that the type of applied voltage or
signal will define the resistance level of interest. Three different levels will be intro-
duced in this section that will appear again as we examine other devices. It is there-
fore paramount that their determination be clearly understood.

1.7 Resistance Levels 17

 p n

DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will re-
sult in an operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time.
The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found simply by finding the
corresponding levels of VD and ID as shown in Fig. 1.25 and applying the following
equation:

VD
RD    (1.5)
ID

The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the resistance
levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the characteristics. The resistance lev-
els in the reverse-bias region will naturally be quite high. Since ohmmeters typically
employ a relatively constant-current source, the resistance determined will be at a pre-
set current level (typically, a few milliamperes).

Figure 1.25 Determining the dc

resistance of a diode at a particu-
lar operating point.

In general, therefore, the lower the current through a diode the higher the dc
resistance level.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of Fig. 1.26 at
(a) ID  2 mA
(b) ID  20 mA
(c) VD  10 V

Figure 1.26 Example 1.1

Solution
(a) At ID  2 mA, VD  0.5 V (from the curve) and
VD 0.5 V
RD      250 
ID 2 mA

18 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n

(b) At ID  20 mA, VD  0.8 V (from the curve) and

VD 0.8 V
RD      40 
ID 20 mA
(c) At VD  10 V, ID  Is  1 A (from the curve) and
VD 10 V
RD      10 M
ID 1 A
clearly supporting some of the earlier comments regarding the dc resistance levels of
a diode.

AC or Dynamic Resistance
It is obvious from Eq. 1.5 and Example 1.1 that the dc resistance of a diode is inde-
pendent of the shape of the characteristic in the region surrounding the point of inter-
est. If a sinusoidal rather than dc input is applied, the situation will change completely.
The varying input will move the instantaneous operating point up and down a region
of the characteristics and thus defines a specific change in current and voltage as shown
in Fig. 1.27. With no applied varying signal, the point of operation would
be the Q-point appearing on Fig. 1.27 determined by the applied dc levels. The des-
ignation Q-point is derived from the word quiescent, which means “still or unvarying.”

Figure 1.27 Defining the

dynamic or ac resistance.

A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig.
1.28 will define a particular change in voltage and current that can be used to deter-
mine the ac or dynamic resistance for this region of the diode characteristics. An ef-
fort should be made to keep the change in voltage and current as small as possible
and equidistant to either side of the Q-point. In equation form,

Vd
rd   where  signifies a finite change in the quantity. (1.6)
 Id

The steeper the slope, the less the value of Vd for the same change in  Id and the
less the resistance. The ac resistance in the vertical-rise region of the characteristic is
therefore quite small, while the ac resistance is much higher at low current levels.
In general, therefore, the lower the Q-point of operation (smaller current or Figure 1.28 Determining the ac
lower voltage) the higher the ac resistance. resistance at a Q-point.

1.7 Resistance Levels 19

 p n

EXAMPLE 1.2 For the characteristics of Fig. 1.29:

(a) Determine the ac resistance at ID  2 mA.
(b) Determine the ac resistance at ID  25 mA.
(c) Compare the results of parts (a) and (b) to the dc resistances at each current level.

I D (mA)

30

25 ∆ Id

20
∆Vd

15

10

5
4
2 ∆ Id

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 VD (V)
∆Vd Figure 1.29 Example 1.2

Solution
(a) For ID  2 mA; the tangent line at ID  2 mA was drawn as shown in the figure
and a swing of 2 mA above and below the specified diode current was chosen.
At ID  4 mA, VD  0.76 V, and at ID  0 mA, VD  0.65 V. The resulting
changes in current and voltage are
 Id  4 mA  0 mA  4 mA
and Vd  0.76 V  0.65 V  0.11 V
and the ac resistance:
Vd 0.11 V
rd      27.5 
Id 4 mA
(b) For ID  25 mA, the tangent line at ID  25 mA was drawn as shown on the fig-
ure and a swing of 5 mA above and below the specified diode current was cho-
sen. At ID  30 mA, VD  0.8 V, and at ID  20 mA, VD  0.78 V. The result-
ing changes in current and voltage are
Id  30 mA  20 mA  10 mA
and Vd  0.8 V  0.78 V  0.02 V
and the ac resistance is
Vd 0.02 V
rd      2 
Id 10 mA

20 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n

(c) For ID  2 mA, VD  0.7 V and

VD 0.7 V
RD      350 
ID 2 mA
which far exceeds the rd of 27.5 .
For ID  25 mA, VD  0.79 V and
VD 0.79 V
RD      31.62 
ID 25 mA
which far exceeds the rd of 2 .

We have found the dynamic resistance graphically, but there is a basic definition
in differential calculus which states:
The derivative of a function at a point is equal to the slope of the tangent line
drawn at that point.
Equation (1.6), as defined by Fig. 1.28, is, therefore, essentially finding the deriva-
tive of the function at the Q-point of operation. If we find the derivative of the gen-
eral equation (1.4) for the semiconductor diode with respect to the applied forward
bias and then invert the result, we will have an equation for the dynamic or ac resis-
tance in that region. That is, taking the derivative of Eq. (1.4) with respect to the ap-
plied bias will result in
d d
(ID)  [Is(ekVD /TK  1)]
dVD dV
dID k
and   (ID  Is)
dVD TK
following a few basic maneuvers of differential calculus. In general, ID  Is in the
vertical slope section of the characteristics and
dID k
  ID
dVD TK
Substituting   1 for Ge and Si in the vertical-rise section of the characteristics, we
obtain
11,600 11,600
k      11,600
 1
and at room temperature,
TK  TC  273°  25°  273°  298°
k 11,600
so that     38.93
TK 298
dID
and   38.93ID
dVD
Flipping the result to define a resistance ratio (R  V/I) gives us
dVD 0.026
  
dID ID

26 mV
or rd   (1.7)
ID
Ge,Si

1.7 Resistance Levels 21

 p n

The significance of Eq. (1.7) must be clearly understood. It implies that the dynamic
resistance can be found simply by substituting the quiescent value of the diode cur-
rent into the equation. There is no need to have the characteristics available or to
worry about sketching tangent lines as defined by Eq. (1.6). It is important to keep
in mind, however, that Eq. (1.7) is accurate only for values of ID in the vertical-rise
section of the curve. For lesser values of ID,   2 (silicon) and the value of rd ob-
tained must be multiplied by a factor of 2. For small values of ID below the knee of
the curve, Eq. (1.7) becomes inappropriate.
All the resistance levels determined thus far have been defined by the p-n junc-
tion and do not include the resistance of the semiconductor material itself (called body
resistance) and the resistance introduced by the connection between the semiconduc-
tor material and the external metallic conductor (called contact resistance). These ad-
ditional resistance levels can be included in Eq. (1.7) by adding resistance denoted
by rB as appearing in Eq. (1.8). The resistance r d, therefore, includes the dynamic re-
sistance defined by Eq. 1.7 and the resistance rB just introduced.

26 mV
r d    rB ohms (1.8)
ID

The factor rB can range from typically 0.1  for high-power devices to 2  for
some low-power, general-purpose diodes. For Example 1.2 the ac resistance at 25 mA
was calculated to be 2 . Using Eq. (1.7), we have
26 mV 26 mV
rd      1.04 
ID 25 mA
The difference of about 1  could be treated as the contribution of rB.
For Example 1.2 the ac resistance at 2 mA was calculated to be 27.5 . Using
Eq. (1.7) but multiplying by a factor of 2 for this region (in the knee of the curve
  2),

   
26 mV 26 mV
rd  2   2   2(13 )  26 
ID 2 mA
The difference of 1.5  could be treated as the contribution due to rB.
In reality, determining rd to a high degree of accuracy from a characteristic curve
using Eq. (1.6) is a difficult process at best and the results have to be treated with a
grain of salt. At low levels of diode current the factor rB is normally small enough
compared to rd to permit ignoring its impact on the ac diode resistance. At high lev-
els of current the level of rB may approach that of rd, but since there will frequently
be other resistive elements of a much larger magnitude in series with the diode we
will assume in this book that the ac resistance is determined solely by rd and the im-
pact of rB will be ignored unless otherwise noted. Technological improvements of re-
cent years suggest that the level of rB will continue to decrease in magnitude and
eventually become a factor that can certainly be ignored in comparison to rd.
The discussion above has centered solely on the forward-bias region. In the re-
verse-bias region we will assume that the change in current along the Is line is nil
from 0 V to the Zener region and the resulting ac resistance using Eq. (1.6) is suffi-
ciently high to permit the open-circuit approximation.

Average AC Resistance
If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as indicated in
Fig. 1.30, the resistance associated with the device for this region is called the aver-
age ac resistance. The average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance deter-

22 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n

I D (mA)

20

15

∆ Id 10

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 VD (V)
∆Vd

Figure 1.30 Determining the average ac resistance between indicated limits.

mined by a straight line drawn between the two intersections established by the max-
imum and minimum values of input voltage. In equation form (note Fig. 1.30),

Vd
rav  
 Id  pt. to pt.
(1.9)

For the situation indicated by Fig. 1.30,

Id  17 mA  2 mA  15 mA
and Vd  0.725 V  0.65 V  0.075 V
Vd 0.075 V
with rav      5 
Id 15 mA
If the ac resistance (rd) were determined at ID  2 mA its value would be more
than 5 , and if determined at 17 mA it would be less. In between the ac resistance
would make the transition from the high value at 2 mA to the lower value at 17 mA.
Equation (1.9) has defined a value that is considered the average of the ac values from
2 to 17 mA. The fact that one resistance level can be used for such a wide range of
the characteristics will prove quite useful in the definition of equivalent circuits for a
diode in a later section.
As with the dc and ac resistance levels, the lower the level of currents used to
determine the average resistance the higher the resistance level.

Summary Table
Table 1.2 was developed to reinforce the important conclusions of the last few pages
and to emphasize the differences among the various resistance levels. As indicated
earlier, the content of this section is the foundation for a number of resistance calcu-
lations to be performed in later sections and chapters.

1.7 Resistance Levels 23