Russia 1894-1921

Background: The Russia Tsar Nicolas II Inherited

Russia was ruled by the Tsars for over 300 years, who used the Pillars of Autocracy to support their
authority. The oppressive system left little hope of political change. As a result, revolutionary ideas
began to grow. Nicolas’ Grandfather Alexander II (1855-1881) took over during the Crimean War. The
war exposed Russia as backward, whose industry failed to meet need for munitions and whose
agriculture failed to meet the demand for food. Tsar and nobility owned most of Russia’s arable
land. The peasants (Serfs) worked 3 days for their masters and paid most of the taxes and could
be conscripted for service in the army. As a result of continuous discontentment of the serfs,
Alexander II decided to emancipate 44 million peasants in 1861. They were no-longer forced to
work for the nobels and were given land but had to pay for it. Rapid population increase during
this time meant that Russia could not feed itself. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 because
his reforms failed to satisfy everyone. His Son Alexander III succeeded him in 1881 -1894.
Alexander III was considered as a conservative whose policies and reforms favoured mostly the
nobles. His greatest failure lay in his refusal to modernize Russia socially and politically to fit the
changing realities of a modern, industrializing nation. As a result upon his dead in 1894, his son
Nicolas II inherited a country with both economic and serious political problems. greatest failure
lay in his refusal to modernize Russia socially and politically to fit the changing realities of a
modern, industrializing nation

Describe what Russia was like in 1905:

Difficult to govern Russian Empire covered 1/6th of the worlds land surface Population of
125 million Many different nationalities
Tsar was an autocrat He could make laws and govern as he wished No parliament and political
parties were banned He took advice from a Committee of Ministers
which he chose from the rich nobles
No opposition to the Tsar Newspapers and books were censored The Okhrana (secret police)
removed all opposition groups Opposition groups were sent to prison
camps in Siberia
The Nobles and Middle Class The nobles formed 0.1% of the population but owned over 25% of the
land A middle class (bourgeoisie) began to emerge following
industrialisation They demanded a say in how the country was run
Peasants 80% of the population were peasants Primitive farming methods and
poor crops meant that food shortages were common Living conditions
were terrible – many families lived in a single room
Industrial Workers Conditions for industrial workers were poor Many houses had no
running water or sewage system Workers were employed for long hours
and wages were low Trade unions were banned and strikes were illegal

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Nicholas II (1894-1917)
Explain why the rule of Tsar Nicholas II faced problems

Problems with autocracy The autocratic system needed a forceful and charismatic leader but
Nicholas was weak He was a family man and preferred to spend time
with his wife, the Tsarina, and their five children He knew little about
the people he governed
Son suffered from haemophilia Alexis suffered from a blood disorder He was not expected to reach
adulthood
Religion Nicholas believed that he had been chosen by God to rule Therefore
he thought that no one had the right to challenge him He rejected all
reform

Factors affecting the security of the Tsarist state before 1905

1. Revolutionary ideas: Various opponents advocating for reforms
2. Oppressive Tsarist policies
3. Oppressive state infrastructure
4. Corrupt ministers

All the above made controlling of the state a challenge for Nicolas, whose wife was
anti reform.

Nicolas promised to adhere to principles of autocracy.

Describe the opposition to the Tsar:

1. Liberals – Made up of Middle class people – wanted a parliament (Duma)

2. Social Revolutionaries – Wanted to seize power by revolution. Wanted the land to be taken from
the nobility and given to the peasants

3. Social Democrats – Followed the teachings of Karl Marx. Wanted a revolution to bring about a
communist government. The Mensheviks wanted a big party so that power was spread amongst
many. The Bolsheviks (led by Lenin) believed that power should lay with a core elite

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Tsarist methods of control - state infrastructure

The Tsarist state system had developed over a long period. The Tsar's authority was supported
by several features. These are known as the 'Pillars of Autocracy'.

Autocratic government

This vast, diverse Empire was ruled by a series of Tsars. They ran the country as autocrats. This
meant that the Tsar, and only the Tsar, governed Russia:

Tsars believed that they had a divine right to rule Russia, their position and power had been
given to them by God.

The nobility

The nobility accounted for approximately 10 per cent of the population. This upper class owned
all the land and was dependent on the Tsar. They also dominated the army command and civil
service:

 the civil service helped the Tsar run the Russian Empire
 administrators and officials carried out the instructions of the Tsar and his ministers
 they were appointed and paid by the Tsar
 they owed their position to the Tsar and were very loyal to him
 to oppose him would mean losing power and position

The law

The Tsarist legal system was designed to support autocracy and Tsarist authority. It was also
intended to suppress opposition and increase fear among the population:

A standard punishment for opponents of the Tsar was exile to the remote region of Siberia. Many
thousands of people viewed as enemies of the state were sent to Siberia. They were so far away
that they had little chance of threatening Tsarist power.

The Empire did not have an elected parliament and there were no elections for positions in the
government.

There were no legal or constitutional methods by which Tsarist power could be challenged.

The Okhrana

The Tsar's will was enforced by a large police system that would report suspicious behaviour and
destroy subversive groups:

 the secret police had a vital role in identifying and spying on enemies
 they had the power to arrest potential threats as required.

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  agents of the Okhrana worked undercover, infiltrating ogroups that might present a danger to
the Tsar
 they acted on the Tsar’s behalf, treating citizens how they saw fit
 their methods included torture and murder

The army

The Tsar had a large army that became a very effective means of enforcing his power.

The Tsar was the supreme commander of the army and could deploy units at will. At times of
civil unrest, he would often dispatch elite Cossack cavalry regiments to deal with unruly citizens.
Tsar Nicholas II suppressed strikes in Rostov (1902) and in Odessa (1903) using the Cossacks.

The Orthodox Church

Orthodox priests spread propaganda

The Tsar was the head of the Orthodox Church. The Church reinforced his authority:

Official Church doctrine stated that the Tsar was appointed by God. Any challenge to the Tsar -
the 'Little Father' - was said to be an insult to God.

The Church was very influential among the largely peasant population. It made sure this message
was conveyed regularly to them. Priests explained to their followers that Russia was God’s land
and that he intended for life to be as the peasants found it.

The Church was give financial rewards from the Tsar for this propaganda.

Most of the Russian population was illiterate and had to rely on what they were told by the
Church. It was their only source of education and they tended to believe the teachings of the
priests.

However, priests were often not respected by peasants, who believed they were increasingly
corrupt and hypocritical. The word of the Church became less respected during the rule of
Nicholas II.

Difficulties in governing the Tsarist State

The only genuine limit to the power and influence of the Tsar was the sheer expanse of the
Empire and the scale of corruption and incompetence on the part of his ministers and state
officials.

However, revolutionary ideas were also on the increase.

The size of the Russian Empire

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The far-flung corners of the Empire, some thousands of miles from Moscow, often proved
ungovernable. But the scale of the Empire, the poor infrastructure and the nature of the
population also made it difficult for opposition to the Tsar to grow:

 the bulk of the population were mostly illiterate peasant farmers

 this made it difficult to spread liberal or revolutionary ideas using books or pamphlets
 peasants lived largely in remote, widely dispersed villages
 it was not easy for them to unite in a challenge to the Tsar
 the poor state of the roads and railways made it difficult for ideas to spread

Revolutionary ideas

As a result of the Tsar’s unlimited power the only way to challenge Tsarist autocracy was
through acts of rebellion. Opposition groups began to grow as a consequence of successive
Tsars’ refusal to grant reform and improve living conditions:

Liberals wanted the emerging middle class to have increased political influence. Western
European countries had developed constitutional governments and increased political rights for
their citizens. Many liberal thinkers wanted the same for Russia.

Radical opposition groups often carried out political assassinations. Populism existed in the
universities, while the People’s Will tried to assassinate Alexander III in 1887. 1903-1904
became known as the Years of the Red Cockerel when peasants seized a great deal of land in the
countryside.

Marxist thinking had developed in Russia in the late 1800s. Karl Marx had promoted the idea
that power should be in the hands of the masses. Revolutionary groups which combined Marx’s
aims with their own goals developed.

The Social Revolutionaries adopted a combination of Marxist and Populist beliefs. They wanted
to overthrow the government in favour of giving power to the peasants. Although they were
greatly uncoordinated in their efforts, they carried out approximately 2,000 political
assassinations in the years leading up to the 1905 Revolution.

The Social Democrats' beliefs were based on Marxism. They did not expect the peasants to rise
in revolution. They focused on agitation amongst the workers in the cities. In 1903, the group
split after an ideological disagreement.

The Mensheviks, led by Martov, wanted revolution from below (by the workers) to occur
naturally. However, the Bolsheviks led by Lenin, believed revolution should come as soon as
possible. Power would then be held by a small group (the dictatorship of the proletariat) until the
workers were ready to rule themselves.

Corruption and incompetence

At the turn of the century, the Russian Civil Service can be seen to be backward and selfish:

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  Many civil servants were poorly paid resulting in widespread bribery.
 Persuasive civil servants could easily influence Tsar Nicholas II, who was unsure of himself and
indecisive.
 Promotion relied more on years of service rather than competence.
 Many bureaucrats had little understanding of the importance of industrialisation.
 The vast expanse of the Empire meant that taxation was difficult to organise and police.
 Hence, governmental income was often inadequate.

Tsarist methods of control - policies

Censorship

Censorship was widespread in Russia. Freedom of speech was severely restricted. All books and
newspapers were suppressed so that people would not be influenced by liberal or socialist ideas.
Any material that was thought to be dangerous was banned.

Any person trying to circulate banned books or newspapers ran the risk of being detected by the
Okhrana.

Russification

Russification was the policy of enforcing Russian culture on the vast numbers of ethnic
minorities that lived in the Russian Empire. It greatly affected the Poles, Lithuanians and the
Ukranians

Russian was the official language and all others were suppressed. Poles were banned from
speaking or learning their language in many places.

Russian Orthodoxy was promoted and Catholic monasteries were closed. Often, the Orthodox
Church would take over former Catholic Churches.

During Nicholas II’s reign, the Black Hundreds was formed. This was an extreme nationalist
movement that supported the Tsar. They assassinated pro-democratic politicians and intimidated
the workers in the towns.

Terror and exile

Fear of the Okhrana was widespread as a result of their considerable power and terrifying tactics.
This helped to suppress any opposition to the Tsar.

the Okhrana was able to censor any material it deemed unsuitable

Its network of spies infiltrated political organisations. This made it difficult to tell if a new
recruit was a genuine revolutionary or an Okhrana agent.

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Those suspected of opposing or criticising the state did not have the right to a trial. They were
declared guilty and sentenced immediately. Political prisoners were often exiled to Siberia.

Russian Revolution of 1905

Explain why the 1905 revolution broke out

1. PEASANTS - Growing discontent due to living conditions and were now also badly hit by poor harvests
2. INDUSTRIAL WORKERS – Growing discontent due to working and living conditions. Industrial slump
caused workers to be laid off. This led to strikes and demonstrations
3. MIDDELE CLASS – Wanted a say in how the country was run (democracy)
4. Russo-Japanese war
5. Bloody Sunday

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Long term causes

1. Discontent among peasants

Heavy taxation on peasants, although they were freed by Alexander II in 1861, Nicholas
needed money to pay the landowners.

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As a result, the peasants had to pay this ‘loan’ back to the state in the form of Redemption
Payments. This increased the hardship of peasants. 1903-1904 became known as the Years of
the Red Cockerel when peasants seized a great deal of land in the countryside.

Famine was a common occurrence at the turn of the century. There was widespread
famine in 1901. Even though they did not have enough to feed themselves, peasants
were expected to produce surplus grain for export.

Land hunger was a major issue in the countryside. Although some wealthier peasants
(Kulaks) did own their land, this was often at the expense of the poorer peasants.

The majority of poorer peasants were landless. They had no way of improving their
situation.

The amount of land a single peasant had was declining through the practice of dividing
land among successive generations of a family.

2. Discontent among the workers

Protests and strikes were on the increase in the early 1900s. By 1905 they were
severe and widespread.

With industrialisation, under the guidance of Tsarist advisers Vyshnegradsky and Witte,
came increased urbanisation. The population of Russia’s towns and cities multiplied by
four.

Working conditions were terrible and trade unionism was banned. There was little to
protect the pay or safety of workers. Laws protecting workers brought in under
Alexander III and Nicholas II did little to improve the situation as the working day
remained at 11.5 hours.

Living conditions were horrendous as developers struggled to deal with the demand for
accommodation. Many lived in communal houses similar to army quarters, where
kitchens, toilets and washrooms were shared. Others were forced to sleep in the
factories where they worked, with little in terms of bedding.

3. Long term cause - Political problems

Many were unhappy with the political conditions in Russia:

 Ethnic minorities were greatly oppressed by the policies of Russification

 Jewish people were persecuted by state-sanctioned pogroms
 The influence of Zemstvas (provincial governing bodies) was reduced
 In 1900 officials criticising the government were purged
 Middle class industrialists were unhappy that they had no say in how the country was
governed

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  Increased industrialisation and urbanisation had led to major social and economic
problems for workers and peasants

This discontent provided revolutionary groups with a bed of support that could
potentially be used to create change.

Sources of opposition

Liberals

The provincial Zemstvas were often highly critical of Tsarist policies. They cited famine
and industrial stagnation as major problems that the government was responsible for.

The lack of power they had to influence decision-making at a national level also
frustrated them. They wanted the introduction of a state Duma (Parliament) which would
advise the Tsar.

The Union of Liberation was formed in St Petersburg in 1904 under the guidance of
Liberal politician Peter Struve. The Union pushed for a constitutional monarchy with
enfranchisement (the right to vote) for all men.

Radicals

Radical opposition groups often carried out political assassinations. The People’s Will
tried to assassinate Alexander III in 1887. Populism existed in the universities. The
Narodnik socialist movement tried to persuade the peasants to rise against the Tsar and
take power for themselves.

The development of Marxism

From the 1880s, Marxist ideas began to spread through Russia. Based on the theories
of the German economist Karl Marx, they proposed that the proletariat - the underclass
of society - would rise up in rebellion and seize power from the wealthy ruling class and
establish a fairer society.

Social Revolutionaries

The Socialist Revolutionaries adopted a combination of Marxist and Populist beliefs.

They wanted to overthrow the government in favour of giving power to the peasants.

Although they were greatly uncoordinated in their efforts, they carried out approximately
2,000 political assassinations in the years leading up to the 1905 Revolution.

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Social Democrats

Social Democrat beliefs were based on Marxism. They did not consider that the
peasants would rise in revolution. They focused on agitation amongst the workers in the
cities.

The group split in 1903 after an ideological disagreement. The Mensheviks, led by
Martov, wanted revolution by the workers to occur naturally. The Bolsheviks led by
Lenin, believed revolution should come as soon as possible.

Although not directly involved in the 1905 revolution, these revolutionary groups had
been able to help spread strikes and protests throughout the Empire.

Describe the events of the Russo-Japanese War

1. Russia wanted a quick victory in war to raise morale

2. Both sides fought for control of a place called Manchuria
3. The Russian army was destroyed
4. Defeat was humiliating and Russia lost lots of land
5. The war made conditions worse in Russia. It disrupted food supplies which caused prices to
rise

Short term cause -Defeat in the war with Japan

Between 1904 and 1905, Russia and Japan faught for control of strategic territories in
China. It ended with humiliating defeat for Russia. This brought critical attention to the
Tsar's regime.

Causes of the war

Tsar Nicholas II was advised by Plehve, the Minister of the Interior, that a national
victory would lessen the growing opposition to Tsarist rule. It was an opportunity to
heighten patriotic fervour and national pride.

Japan was also a threat to Russian interests in Asia. Russia benefited from economic
expansion into the Far East and increased access to the Pacific coastline. Japan had
become concerned that Russian expansion of the Trans-Siberian Railway into Chinese
Manchuria could threaten Korea.

China was weak and Japan had an interest in acquiring land for herself. Japanese
negotiations to avoid war were ignored by Tsarist officials and hence the war began.

The course of the war

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In January 1904, the Japanese besieged Port Arthur, a Russian naval base and
attacked the Russian Pacific Fleet.

Russian forces were left without supplies as the Trans-Siberian Railway was unfinished
and there was no effective way of moving troops from the west.

Russian armies suffered heavy losses on the Yalu River and at Mukden as a result of
the vastly superior Japanese forces.

The Russian Baltic fleet was sent to the Pacific in March 1905. However, after arriving
there in May 1905, it encountered the Japanese navy. Over two days of battle, two
thirds of the Russian fleet was destroyed and other ships were captured. Only a small
number of Russian ships escaped.

Impact of the War

The embarrassment of defeat to an Asiatic power added to the view that Tsarist
government was incompetent.

The Tsar had to agree to a humiliating peace treaty with the Japanese after the
destruction of the Baltic Fleet. Defeat in the war led to a mutiny on board the Potemkin
battleship in June 1905.

Resources diverted to the war lessened the already limited supply of grain and fuel.

In 1904 Plehve was assassinated in a terrorist bomb attack.

Summary: Russo-Japanese War 1904-5

 Feb 1904 began

 Sept 1905 ended at Treaty of Portsmouth
 Poor leadership had caused heavy Russian defeats
 High casualties
 Transport system not good enough to supply the military
 Shortage of food in industrial towns

Describe the events of Bloody Sunday

1. Father Gapon led a crowd of 200,000 workers through the streets of St Petersburg to the
Tsar’s Winter Palace
2. They intended to deliver a petition listing their grievances
3. The Tsar was not in his palace
4. The troops panicked and opened fire on the crowd
5. Close to 1000 people died

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Short term cause - Bloody Sunday

In an attempt to quell economic discontent among the workers, Minister of the Interior
Plehve had established a legal trade union in St Petersburg. Called the Assembly of
Russian Factory and Mill Workers, it was led by a Russian Orthodox priest, Father
Georgy Gapon. It was this organisation that would, unwittingly, set the 1905 Revolution
in motion.

In late 1904, four union members at the Putilov Iron Works Plant in St Petersburg were
dismissed. Gapon called for industrial action. Over the coming days over 100 thousand
workers in the city went on strike. Although protests were peaceful, troops were brought
in to support existing forces in the city.

Father Gapon organised a petition complaining about working conditions in the city and
calling for change. It was signed by over 150 thousand people.

On 22 January 1905, Father Gapon led a march to deliver a petition to the Tsar.
Thousands of workers took part in this peaceful protest. The workers were not trying to
overthrow the Tsar. They believed that the Tsar did not know of their plight. Instead they
blamed the Tsarist ministers and officials.

This demonstration of factory workers was brutally put down by Russian soldiers. Up to
1000 people were killed by rifle fire and Cossack charges. This event became known as
Bloody Sunday and is seen as one of the key causes of the 1905 Revolution.

The aftermath brought about a short-lived revolution in which the Tsar lost control of
large areas of Russia. The revolution failed but it served as a serious warning of what
might happen in the future.

Describe the events of the 1905 Revolution

1. Bloody Sunday led to a wave of protests across Russia. 400,000 workers were on strike by the
end of January
2. In some cities workers elected Soviets (Councils) to take over control
3. During June and July peasant uprisings became widespread; they seized land and murdered
landlords
4. In October a general strike paralysed the city. On the 26 October the St Petersburg Soviet was
formed to co-ordinate the strikes. It soon established itself as the real source of power and was
led by Leon Trotsky

Summary: Bloody Sunday 22 January 1905

 Father Gapon (priest) was a government spy sent to work among industrial workers
 SDLP planned an anti-Tsarist demo in the capital St. Petersburg (Jan 1905)
 To stop SDLP getting the credit, Gapon and other agents planned their own

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  Industrial workers and their families set out to march to the palace to present their
petitions complaining about:

1. Long working hours, low wages, poor housing, high prices etc
2. Asked for a parliament
3. Protested their loyalty to the Tsar

 In fear, Nicholas had gone to another palace at Tsarsko Selo

 The guards at the Winter Palace fired at the crowds
 130 were killed and 3,000 wounded

Unrest

 Strikes in industrial towns

 Mutiny on the battleship Potemkin June 1905 – bombarded port of Odessa
 October rail strike in Moscow – became a national strike
 Food not getting to industrial towns
 Trotsky created soviets (workers’ councils) in St Petersburg and Moscow factories
 They were supported by teachers, doctors and lawyers
 Demanded overthrow of the system of government

Short term causes

The first major threat came during the rule of Nicholas II in the form of the 1905
Revolution:  

 Strikes spread across the country and illegal trade unions were widespread.
 Grand Duke Sergei, Nicholas II’s uncle, was assassinated near the Kremlin in
Moscow.
 A mutiny broke out amongst the sailors on the battleship Potemkin.
 There was a general strike in October.

How successful was the 1905 revolution

Successful Not successful

Sergei White convinced the Tsar that the By December most of the troops had returned to
only way to end the crisis was to grant Russia after the war with Japan and this gave the
concessions to the Liberals in order to win Tsar the necessary power to win back control
back their support
On 30 October Nicholas issued the October The Tsar used force to shut down the St Petersburg
Manifesto which set up an elected Soviet and arrested its leaders
parliament (Duma). This action regained
the support of the middle classes
The Tsar announced an end to redemption An armed uprising by the Moscow Soviet was
payments. These were unpopular payments severely put down by the army, 1000 people were

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that peasants had to pay for the land they killed
had previously received
Election for the first Duma resulted in a left-wing
majority critical of the Tsar’s regime. Therefore
the Tsar passed the Fundamental Laws which
restored his autocratic power
After the Fundamental Laws the Duma demanded
a greater say in government. Therefore the Tsar
sent in troops to dissolve it. The second Duma was
also dissolved after the SR’s and SD’s gained their
first seats
Before the third Duma the Tsar changed the voting
system. The richest 1% of Russians would vote for
2/3’s of the representatives. Therefore the Duma
became full of conservatives who generally
supported the Tsar

Attempts to strengthen Tsarism, 1905-1914

The October Manifesto and elected Duma brought political reform. Many Russians were
given more rights. At the same time the army, Okhrana and other groups were used to
suppress revolutionary groups.

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The October Manifesto and the Fundamental Laws
The October Manifesto

Sergei Witte was an influential policy maker. He persuaded the Tsar to pass his October
Manifesto. Issued in 1905, it promised significant political reform, although most of
these promises were open to interpretation:

 A Duma (elected national parliament) was to be set up. No law was to be passed unless
approved by the Duma.
 Censorship would be loosened and more freedom of speech encouraged.
 The people would have more rights to gather together for discussions and meetings

October Manifesto 1905

 Witte was recalled as Chief Minister (he had opposed the war) after the signing of the
Treaty of Portsmouth
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  Tsar promised reforms in a Manifesto:

1. Promised a Duma (parliament)

2. He would make no laws without Duma approval

 The Liberals liked this development

 Many strikers went back to work believing they would get their desired reforms
 Soviets led by SDLP believed it was not enough
 Peasants continued with riots not believing a Duma would help them
 Tsar felt more secure when the army came back from the war against Japan
 Soviet leaders were arrested
 Armed rising by Moscow workers (Dec. 1905)
 This was crushed by force
 Tsar’s advisers knew the concessions would not be enough
 April 1906 new French loans
 Terrorist attacks on reformers carried out by right-wing Russian People’s League
 May 1906 (just before 1st Duma due to meet) Tsar issued The Fundamental Law of the
Empire which declared:

1. As autocracy was ordained by God it could not be subject to the Duma

2. Control of finance would not be left to the Duma
3. Duma would have limited powers to pass new laws

Reaction to the manifesto

Reaction from political groups was varied. Liberals were satisfied with the level of
reform in the Manifesto. Kadets (rich peasants) wanted reform to go further. They
wanted a written constitution and guarantees of a constituent assembly. The Social
Revolutionaries (SRs) were critical of the Manifesto, as were the Bolsheviks and
Mensheviks. It did not give any more power to the peasants or workers.

As a response to the 1905 Revolution, the October Manifesto succeeded in dividing the
opposition, making the Tsar's grip on power more secure.

The new government

As a result of the October Manifesto and the promise of a constitutional monarchy, a

new government structure was adopted. The Tsar remained as head of the government,
but was aided by three permanent political bodies

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The Council of Ministers was the most powerful of these. It was effectively the Tsar's
advisors, elected by and answerable only to him. They created law.

The State Council, chosen by both the Tsar and the Zemstva, approved law created by
the Council of Ministers.

The Duma, voted for by the male electorate would also have to approve laws created.

The Fundamental Laws

Passed in April, 1906, the Fundamental Laws were an edict from the Tsar. They
confirmed the October Manifesto but also asserting the Tsar’s powers over the Duma:

 the right to rule independently of the Duma when it was not in session.
 the right to dissolve (close) the Duma at any point.
 power to change the electoral system.
 power to appoint ministers he wanted to the Council.
 sole commander of the army and navy, giving him military power to crush any uprising

 With the Fundamental Laws, the Tsar regained his position as supreme leader.

The Dumas

Four Dumas were held between 1906 and 1914. The first two featured strong opposition
to Tsarism and quickly dissolved. The next two were less radical and more flexible as a
result of changes to the voting system.

4. Duma would have limited powers to pass new laws

Duma Election of 1906

 Most men allowed to vote in a secret ballot

 Direct elections only held in large towns
 Most reps elected by an indirect system contrive to ensure landowners and non-socialist
peasants were elected
 Aim – elect a conservative Duma loyal to the Tsar

1st Duma May 1906

 Kadets (Liberals) won most seats

 Demanded full control of taxes
 They reminded Tsar of October Manifesto promise  of constitutional government
 Tsar now dismissed the Duma and called fresh elections
 Leading Kadets fled to Viborg in Finland
 They issued a Manifesto calling on voters not to pay taxes or serve in army

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Stolypin and 2nd Duma June 1907

 Peter Stolypin appointed PM as Witte’s successor was a conservative

 Wanted effective reforms and resist and stop revolution
 He refused to allow some candidates to stand for election
 Anti-Tsarist candidates were put in prison
 Many voters were removed from the voting list
 Jews threatened with death if they voted
 But – 2nd Duma was more radical than 1st
 Moderate and constitutional Liberals lost seats
 SDLP won 65 seats
 Stolypin asked the Duma to condemn terrorism – it refused
 Tsar ordered arrest of SDLP for treason – Duma refused and so was dismissed

3rd & 4th Dumas 1907-14

 1907 electoral laws were changed

 SDs could not stand for election
 Potential trouble-makers put in prison
 3rd & 4th Dumas loyal to Tsar and Stolypin

Stolypin’s Reforms

 Revolutionaries remembered Stolypin’s repression

 After 1905 revolution 1500 were executed
 Stolypin’s response was that 4,000 officers had been killed or injured
 Russianisation continued in Finland and elsewhere
 Jews still badly treated
 Elections were rigged and the Duma emasculated
 Many peasants remembered only his reforms:

1. The mir abolished

2. Peasants could own/rent own land without interference from the commune
3. Peasant banks helped them buy land

 Many did – these kulaks (rich peasants) were more go-ahead

 They made their land profitable
 Result – there was enough food for town workers and export
 Another result – kulaks became more loyal to the Tsar and opposed to revolution

Problems

 Stolypin unpopular with many

 Assassinated 1911 in Tsar’s presence in a Kiev theatre

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  The monk Rasputin became a strong influence on the royal family
 Their son had haemophilia and was dying – Rasputin prayed over him and he lived
 By 1912 there were lurid stories about his behaviour with the ladies of the court
 Such scandals reduce loyalty to the Tsar
 July 1914 Russia went to war – it revealed how little hold the Tsar had over his people

Suppressing the 1905 Revolution

Methods of suppression

The army had stayed loyal to the Tsar and was used to crush opposition in the cities. In
December, Tsarist forces moved against workers who had formed Soviets (committees
made up of workers and soldiers) in St Petersburg and Moscow.

Fighting broke out between the army and strikers in Moscow. By the middle of the
month, the army had suppressed the strike and killed over 1,000.

The Union of Russian People was established to fight against the revolutionary groups.
It had the power to arrest, sentence and execute those who committed crimes against
the state.

Terrorist groups such as the Black Hundreds were used to intimidate and attack those
opposed to the Tsar.

During the second Duma, the Okhrana arrested Bolshevik and Menshevik
representatives who were attempting to develop opposition to the Tsarist state within
the army. An uprising would have been potentially threatening for the Tsar - control of
the army was essential in suppressing the revolution.

Impact on revolutionary groups

The Okhrana’s exposure of Bolshevik revolutionary plans forced Lenin into exile in
1907. He would not return for 10 years.

Show trials and summary executions had reduced membership of revolutionary groups
from 100,000 to 10,000 by 1910. ‘Stolypin’s Neckties’, the nickname for the hangman's
noose, became infamous as a method of fear and oppression.

However, revolutionary groups survived underground and continued to attract support.

Revolutionaries managed to assassinate Stolypin in 1911.

Reforms of Stolypin

Agrarian reforms
20
Why was reform introduced?

Stolypin wanted to reform agriculture in order to modernise Russia and make it more
competitive with other European powers.

He hoped that reorganising the land would increase support for the Tsar among
unskilled farmhands. This would reduce the threat of the Social Revolutionaries.
Stolypin believed the key to success was to increase the number of peasant
landowners, which would result in a more invested peasantry.

What changed?

Redemption Payments (loans from the state) were abolished. Loans for peasants to buy
land became available with the introduction of Peasants' Land Banks.

Mirs (communities of peasant farmers) could no longer stop individuals from leaving to
buy private land. Mirs that did not cooperate were to be dissolved. Peasants were also
given financial incentives to move to remote areas of Siberia in an attempt to open up
the countryside.

What were the results of agrarian reform?

Agricultural output increased by a third, while peasant land ownership increased by 30

per cent. The number of Kadets increased dramatically and they were increasingly
supportive of the Tsar.

Industrial progress
It was hoped that agrarian reform would reduce demand for labour in the countryside,
hence increasing urbanisation as people flooded into the towns and cities looking for
work.

Increased output

Heavy industry increased considerably. The production of iron and steel rose by 50 per
cent and by the outbreak of World War One, Russia was the fourth largest producer of
steel, coal and iron.

21
Improved conditions

Protesters in St Petersburg demonstrate against the Lena massacre

The formation of trade unions had been made legal in 1905. In 1912, safety inspectors
were introduced into factories. Workers began to benefit from employee insurance
schemes which provided protection against accidents and illness.

However, a strike at the Lena gold fields in 1912 emphasised that there was still a great
deal of discontent. Hundreds of the protesters were killed by army and police. It was
clear that opposition to the Tsarist state was again on the increase.

22
Political problems
The incompetence of Nicholas II

Tsar Nicholas II was unable to rule effectively. He made poor decisions that led to
worsening relations with the government and increased hardship for civilians and
soldiers alike.

Nicholas refused to accept any reduction in the absolute power he held.

He was detached from the plight of the Russian people and his policies also alienated
ethnic minorities.

23
When the Duma was recalled during World War 1, a group of Octoberists and Kadets
established the Progressive Bloc. This group wanted to have more control over the war.
In response, in 1915, Nicholas closed the Duma. This alienated many liberals.

Nicholas declared himself Commander in Chief of the army and departed for the
Eastern Front to take control of operations.

However, Nicholas was not well educated in the tactics of war. Moreover, his absence
left a weakened government in Petrograd (formerly St Petersburg).

The war and the Tsarina

Tsarina Alexandra and her son, Tsarevich Alexis

As the war continued, the quality and effectiveness of the Russian Empire's government
was called into question.

The departure of Nicholas II to the front left his wife, Tsarina Alexandra, in control.
Alexandra was not hugely popular in Russia. She was reserved and awkward in public.

24
More importantly, she was a German princess and some were suspicious as to where
here loyalties lay in the war.

Alexandra gained increasing influence over the appointment of ministers to the

government. She was determined that no member of the imperial government should
ever be in a sufficiently strong position to challenge the authority of her beloved
husband. She appointed less threatening, sometimes incompetent, ministers to replace
those who knew how to govern.

As a result, members of the government tended to be increasingly weak and ineffective

men. They owed their positions to winning favour with the Tsarina, rather than their
ability and effectiveness.

This would have been bad enough with Russia at peace, but in wartime, it led inevitably
to disaster for the monarchy and for Russia.

Issues with Rasputin

Rasputin

25
The imperial family was brought into disrepute as the Tsarina fell under the influence of
Grigori Rasputin.

Rasputin was a monk from Siberia. He was rumoured to be a Khlyst, member of an

extreme underground sect that had split from the Orthodox Church. He was infamous
for his drunkenness and for womanising.

However he also gained a reputation as a healer, able to perform amazing feats and
miracles.

Rasputin came to the attention of the royal family. In April 1907, Alexandra called on
him to heal her only son, the Tsarevich Alexis. He was suffering from painful bleeding
as a result of an injury. It was not publicly known but Alexis suffered from the blood
disease haemophilia.

After Alexis recovered, Tsarina Alexandra became convinced that Rasputin could
control the young boy's illness.

While there is still debate over the nature of his powers over the health of Alexis, it is
clear that his influence over the Tsarina was considerable. He advised her on
appointments to the government, interfered in important decisions. He could do no
wrong in the eyes of the Tsarina. Excuses were always made for his excessive and
antisocial behaviour.

To the Russian people, Rasputin symbolised everything that was wrong with imperial
government. The court and the royal family became objects of ridicule, to be despised.
Rasputin's murder by royalists at the end of 1916, came too late to undo the damage he
had caused.

Describe the influence of Rasputin

1. The Tsarina heavily relied upon Rasputin particularly in the selection of ministers
2. There were rumours that the pair were German agents seeking to undermine the war effort
3. The Tsar and Tsarina (following Rasputin’s control of their son’s haemophilia) refused to
listen to the stories of his wild lifestyle
4. This weakened the reputation of the Tsar and Tsarina and shocked the nobles.
5. In December 1916 a small group, led by Prince Yusupov, assassinated Rasputin

Revolutionary groups

The membership and influence of revolutionary groups had been severely reduced by
1914, mainly through the repressive tactics of Stolypin and the Okhrana. But radical
opinion was not wholey defeated:

 Revolutionary groups survived underground and continued to attract support.

 Revolutionaries managed to assassinate Stolypin in 1911.
 Pravda, the Bolshevik newspaper, was highly popular amongst workers.

26
Despite the Bolsheviks holding influence over many workers, Lenin had no part in
bringing about the February Revolution. He believed that revolution should be
organised, not developed from unorganised protest.

Impact of World War One

The War brought terrible suffering for soldiers and civilians alike. Best estimates state
that almost two million Russian soldiers were killed. A similar number of civilians also
perished. Morale during this time was very low and the myth of the army as the Russian
‘steamroller’ had been vanquished.

The Russian people looked for someone to hold to account for their suffering. In 1915,
the Tsar had declared himself Commander in Chief of the Army. This made him a
suitable target for this discontent.

Military defeats
World War One was a total disaster for Russia. The Russian army suffered defeat after
defeat at the hands of Germany.

1914

German troops pose with Russian guns captured at the Masurian Lakes

The Russians invaded Eastern Germany with two large armies. They were completely
routed by smaller German forces at the battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes.

1915

Germany turned the full weight of its power against Russia and launched a series of
onslaughts, including the Gorlice-Tarnow Offensive and the 2nd Battle of the Masurian
Lakes.

27
The Germans and Austrians unified their command and were able to successively rout
Russian forces, who lacked modern weaponry or enough supplies. The Russians were
forced into retreat. Large areas of Russian territory including Lithuania and Poland,
were overrun.

1916

For a time, the Russians achieved victory against the Germans and Austrians and
regained some territory. However, the gains were minimal and Russia suffered heavy
defeats late in the year.

Leadership

Nicholas II blesses Russian troops

In 1915, Tsar Nicholas II took personal command of the army. He left St Petersburg and
moved to army headquarters in Russian Poland.

Nicholas II may have believed that, by taking charge, his army would be inspired and
would fight with renewed vigour. Unfortunately, the Tsar knew little about the command
and organisation of large military forces. The series of defeats and humiliations
continued.

The organisation of the Russian army deteriorated and there were massive shortages of
ammunition, equipment, and medical supplies.

Nicholas II's decision to take charge meant that he was increasingly seen by the
Russian people as having personal responsibility for the military disasters inflicted on
Russia.

Economic problems

From the start of the war, Russia's economic problems grew steadily worse. By the
beginning of 1917, the country was facing virtual economic collapse.

28
Industry

Russian industry moved into crisis during the war. Vital raw materials from overseas
could no longer reach Russia. This resulted in shortages of raw materials and finished
goods. The army faced major shortages of supplies and weapons.

Transport

Russia had an underdeveloped railway system. This was taken over by the government
to be used primarily for the war effort. It had to cope with the pressures of moving large
quantities of troops and supplies to the battlefronts. This made it more difficult to keep
the cities supplied with food.

Agriculture

Agricultural methods remained backward and still relied on many peasants being able to
work the land. Millions of peasant farmers were conscripted into the army. This led to a
major shortage of manpower on the farms and a corresponding fall in production.

There were serious shortages of food in the city shops. The price of even the most
basic foods was rising steeply.

By 1916, inflation had reached 200 per cent, the value of the rouble had fallen
substantially and the price of goods was soaring. This made life increasingly difficult,
particularly for poorer people.

Revolution from below

Discontent among peasants

Many of those conscription into the army had come from the Russian peasantry. By
1916 a third had been injured.

As the Russian Army had retreated from Poland and Lithuania in 1915, they had
employed a ‘scorched earth’ policy, destroying a great deal of farmland. Peasant
livelihoods were obliterated.

Shortages in grain during the war resulted in many of the poorer land workers hoarding
what they produced.

Discontent among workers

29
Women take to the streets of Petrograd

The ‘war economy’ had resulted in a steep increase of workers in the cities. City
administrations faced added pressure to provide housing and services.

Unemployment rose in industries that were not directly contributing to the war effort
(these factories could not maintain a supply of raw materials).

Living conditions deteriorated, especially as a result of shortages in the shops. These

were caused by:

 the abandonment of Poland and Lithuania in 1915 had deprived Russia of much
farmland
 peasants hoarded grain for their own use rather than selling it
 the railways were committed to the war effort not transporting supplies to the cities

There was a severe lack of food in Moscow and, in 1917, Petrograd only received half
of the grain required to feed its citizens. These shortages contributed to social unrest.

In January 1917, in commemoration of Bloody Sunday, 140 000 workers went on strike
in Petrograd. In February, rioting broke out in the city. Crowds attacked bakeries in a
desperate search for bread. This was partially in response to the announcement of
bread rationing.

In the following days, strikes and demonstrations took place. Strikers from the Putilov
Engineering Plantith joined the crowds at the celebration of International Women’s Day.
As the number of people on the streets of Petrograd increased, soldiers refused orders
to fire on the crowds. Instead they began to join in the protests.

The Petrograd Soviet was established and issued Order #1, announcing that soldiers
had the right to elect their own officers.

Explain the causes of the February 1917 Revolution (Abdication of the Tsar)

30
 1. Russia was difficult to govern
2. Problems with Tsar Nicholas’ autocratic rule
3. Bloody Sunday 4. Failure of the 1905 Revolution to bring about change
5. Impact of WWI
6. Rasputin
7. Short term causes

Describe the short term causes that led to the February Revolution
1. By February 1917 Russia was in chaos.
2. Food and fuel shortages, together with temperatures of 35 degrees below freezing, led to
growing discontent
3. Strikes became common as workers demanded higher wages and better conditions

Describe the events of the February 1917 Revolution

1. 23rd February – International Women’s Day – Group of women marched through the streets
of Petrograd to protest about the queues for food
2. They were joined by 90,000 strikers and protestors
3. 26 February – 250,000 workers went on strike
4. The Tsar ordered the army to clear the protestors from the streets
5. 27 February – The army refused and mutinied. Instead the army joined the protestors and
demanded that the Duma take control of the government
6. 12 members of the Duma met to take control of the government. They called themselves the
Provisional Government. They intended to rule until elections could take place for a new Duma
7. At the same time representatives of the workers and soldiers met and re-formed the Petrograd
Soviet
8. The Tsar tried to return to Petrograd but soldiers stopped the train he was travelling on
9. The Tsar realised that he had no supporters and signed a decree of abdication
10. The throne passed to his brother Grand Duke Michael but he abdicated 24 hours later

The fall of the Tsar

When informed of these events, Nicholas II dismissed it as a "hooligan movement"
which would soon be over. Even as his regime met total collapse, the Tsar still showed
his inability to face reality.

Nicholas made an attempt to return from the war front to the capital, Petrograd, and
reclaim his authority. But in late February revolutionaries diverted the train to Pskov.
Isolated and powerless without the support of the army, his reign as Tsar was over - the
only option now was abdication.

Nicholas named his brother, the Grand Duke Michael, as his successor. Michael lacked
the support of the people or the military. He refused the position. With that, the
Romanov dynasty surrendered control of Russia.

31
Reasons for the success of the October Revolution,
1917
Weakness of the Provisional Government, economic and social problems and
continuation of the war led to growing unrest and support for the Soviets. Led by Lenin,
the Bolsheviks seized power.

32
33
Weaknesses of the Provisional Government
The establishment of the Provisional Government

Prince Lvov

The Provisional Government was formed on March 1, 1917. It was meant to be a

temporary body that would govern Russia in place of the Tsar until elections could be
held.

Unlike the Petrograd Soviet, the provisional government was unelected. Many saw it as
a dictatorial body of upper class citizens - Prince Lvov was its Prime Minister.

Elections were delayed and the Provisional Government was in power until later that
year.

The Provisional Government took major decisions - Russia continued its military action
in World War One and land reforms were postponed. Both rulings greatly affected the
Russian people. This made the government increasingly unpopular and provided
ammunition for revolutionaries, who called for its dissolution.
34
The establishment of the Soviets

The Soviets were councils elected by workers, soldiers and sailors:

After the February Revolution, the first Soviet appeared in Petrograd. Soon Soviets had
been elected in Moscow and other cities.

They were usually chaotic, rowdy, and disorganised. But they were elected - unlike the
Provisional Government.

Lenin declared "All power to the Soviets", implying that the Soviets should govern
Russia in place of the Provisional Government. This became an extremely effective
Bolshevik rallying cry.

Petrograd Soviet in session

Dual power

The existence of both the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet meant that
power was shared. The Petrograd Soviet accepted that the Provisional Government
would make decisions for Russia until elections could be held.

The existence of two political bodies increased the potential for political disagreement.
This was especially the case as the two bodies held very different views.

The Provisional Government consisted mainly of Octoberists and Kadets. They only
wanted moderate changes to the government of Russia.

Tthe Petrograd Soviet was made up of Social Revolutionaries and

Mensheviks. They wanted to give power to the working classes.
Economic problems

Economic difficulties had played a major role in Nicholas II's fall from power. The
Provisional Government had very limited success in dealing with these problems:

35
  The price of goods continued to increase
 Food was in short supply
 Fuel shortages made living conditions unbearable, especially during the harsh Russian
winter
 The government could not guarantee enough grain, ammunition or weapons for troops
fighting in the war.

The government did not to solve the land issue in the countryside and the desire of
peasants for control of more land was not met. As a result seizures of land from
landowners became widespread.

The continuing economic crisis discredited the Provisional Government and

strengthened the appeal of the Bolsheviks.

Continuation of the war

The Russian people wanted the war to come to an end. However, the Provisional
Government decided to continue Russia’s involvement. They feared that foreign
investment from Britain and France would cease in the event of a Russian withdrawal.

In March, 1917, the Petrograd Soviet declared that it would no longer support an
offensive war against Germany.

The June Offensive

The Provisional Government persisted with military campaigns. Alexander Kerensky,

Minister of War, ordered the June Offensive of 1917, an attempt to push the Austrians
back. However this failed and contributed to protests during July.

The morale of the army declined further and there were huge increases in the level of
desertions. The soldiers became more receptive to Bolshevik propaganda and the
loyalty of a number of units to the Provisional Government was now uncertain.

36
The Petrograd Soviet
The July Days

Factory workers are urged to support the Petrograd Soviet

Following the failure of the June Offensive morale in the army fell rapidly. Increasing
numbers of soldiers deserted. Others lost their loyalty to the government.

Shortages continued and there was widespread unrest in Petrograd between the 3rd
and 6th of July. Sailors from Kronstadt protested in the city. Soldiers joined them. Soon
thousands of protesters awaited instructions from the Petrograd Soviet and the
Bolsheviks.

However, there was little in the form of direction from Socialist Revolutionaries. Lenin
did not take advantage of the situation, perhaps because only small numbers of soldiers
and sailors actively supported the Bolsheviks.

37
The uprising was suppressed by loyal troops who were brought in by the Provisional
Government. A number of Bolshevik leaders, including Trotsky, were arrested. Lenin
fled to Finland.

The Kornilov Revolt

In August 1917, Lavr Kornilova, a Russian General, made an attempt to seize power for
himself. His army advanced on Petrograd. The Provisional Government, now under the
leadership of Alexander Kerensky, seemed powerless to stop him. Kerensky called on
the Petrograd Soviet to defend the city. This meant arming the Soviet - a move that
would not be easy to reverse.

General Kornilov

Under Trotsky's direction, the Red Guards organised the defence of the city. Bolshevik
agents infiltrated Kornilov's troops and encouraged them to desert. The Bolsheviks also
organised strikes by railway workers - disrupting Kornilov's supplies and
communications. By the end of the month, Kornilov had been relieved of his command
and put under arrest.

An important result of the Kornilov Revolt was a marked increase in support for the
Bolsheviks. They were seen to have saved the revolution from a loyal Tsarist general.
By September, the Bolsheviks had gained control of the Petrograd Soviet.

Role of the Bolsheviks

The Bolsheviks were a revolutionary party, committed to the ideas of Karl Marx. They
believed that the working classes would, at some point, liberate themselves from the
economic and political control of the ruling classes. Once they had achieved this, a
genuine socialist society based on equality, could be established.

However, the Bolsheviks differed from the Mensheviks in that they believed that this
revolution should move more quickly as the workers were not ready to rule themselves.

38
Hence, the Bolsheviks would form a Dictatorship of the Proletariat to hold power until
Russia was modernised. The Poletariat were the original supporters of the Bolsheviks
and tended to be industrial workers.

At the time of the February Revolution, which overthrew the Tsar, the Bolsheviks were
still relatively weak. Most of their leaders, including Lenin, were in exile in Switzerland.
The chances of the Bolsheviks ever attaining power in Russia seemed remote.

But in late 1917, Bolshevik leader Lenin decided that the conditions in Russia were ripe
for revolution.

Role of Lenin

Vladimir Ilyich Ulianov, known as Lenin, returns to Petrograd

In April 1917, assisted by Germans, Lenin returned to Russia from Switzerland. At once
he took control and direction over the Bolsheviks. He prepared to seize power using a
clear plan:

 First the Bolsheviks had to gain control of the Petrograd Soviet

 Then they would take power in the name of the Soviet
 The process would then be repeated in other cities

Lenin's energy and drive convinced the Bolsheviks to agree on this course of action.

For the plan to work, it was necessary to increase Bolshevik support within the Soviets.
Lenin developed Bolshevik policies with this aim in mind. These policies were outlined
in his April Theses.

The April Theses

Lenin declared “All power to the Soviets”. This showed that the Bolsheviks did not
believe in the existence of the Provisional Government or an elected national assembly.

39
He also promised “Peace, Land and Bread” to the masses

 Peace -
o Lenin could see that the Russian people wanted an end to the war
o The Bolsheviks declared that they would make peace with the Germans.
 Land -
o Bolsheviks support was concentrated in the cities
o they had very little support among the peasants who made up the vast majority of
the population
o by offering them land, Lenin ensured that the peasants stayed neutral when the
Bolsheviks made their bid for power
 Bread -
o Lenin claimed that the Bolsheviks could solve the food shortages that existed in
the towns and cities

Leon Trotsky

40
However, the influence of the Bolsheviks was limited until Autumn 1917. The Petrograd
Soviet was dominated by Social Revolutionaries and Mensheviks, while the Provisional
Government remained in control of Russia.

Leon Trotsky

Lenin was actively supported by Leon Trotsky. In September, Trotsky became

Chairman of the Petrograd Soviet and was head of the Military Revolutionary
Committee. The MRC was established to protect Petrograd and allowed socialists to
infiltrate the army.

Trotsky had superb organisational and improvisational skills. His position in the Soviet
allowed him to create the Red Guard. This was a Bolshevik militia, formed from armed
factory workers, soldiers and sailors.

Lenin returned to Petrograd in early October, determined to seize power quickly. The
Provisional Government had announced that elections would take place in November
and he was certain that the Bolsheviks would perform poorly.

Trotsky took charge of planning the Bolshevik coup that was intended for the end of
October.

The October Revolution

Led by Trotsky, the Military Revolutionary Committee was able to secure the support of
the Petrograd Garrison and the Kronstadt sailors.

On 24th October, Prime Minister Kerensky tried to limit Bolshevik influence. He ordered
the arrest of many of their leaders. In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee
decided to take action.

The Red Guards and Kronstadt sailors gained control of key infrastructure in the city.
On the night of the 25th, they moved against the Provisional Government.

The Winter Palace was surrounded by the Petrograd garrison, supported by the
Kronstadt sailors who had arrived on board the Aurora battleship.

The Provisional Government members were arrested on the 26th October after the
Winter Palace was stormed by Red Guards.

41
Storming of the Winter Palace

Reasons for the victory of the Reds in the Civil War

In Lenin and Trotsky, the Bolsheviks had strong leaders. They used ruthless tactics and
propaganda to great effect. Geographical position also contributed to the Reds victory in
the Russian Civil War.

42
The Russian Civil War

After seizing control of Russia from the Provisional Government, the Bolsheviks had to
safeguard their fragile grip on the reins of power.

Lenin negotiated peace with Germany and therefore an end to Russia's role in World
War One. However he could not avoid a civil war.

The Russian Civil War raged from 1918 until the start of 1921. During this time, the
Bolsheviks faced massive opposition to their rule in the form of the White Armies, led by
former officers of the Tsarist state, and also from intervention by the forces of foreign
countries. Yet, by the start of 1921, the Bolsheviks had defeated their enemies and
gained a complete victory.

43
Leadership of the Reds

The Bolsheviks were extremely fortunate in the quality of their leadership, particularly in
Lenin and Trotsky. Throughout the Civil War, Lenin provided the energy and drive
needed to inspire success, while Trotsky provided the organisation and charisma.

Role of Leon Trotsky

Trotsky (left) alights from his armoured train

Trotsky became Commissar for War in the Bolshevik government in March 1918. A
brilliant organiser and improviser, Trotsky created the Red Army out of the Red Guards
and from the remnants of the old Tsarist army.

Although the appointment of ex-Tsarist officers was questioned, Trotsky insisted they
would bring expertise essential to winning the Civil War.

Political commissars were drafted into army units to spread socialist ideas and maintain
loyalty to the Bolsheviks.

44
Conscription was established, hundreds of thousands of peasants were drafted into the
Red Army.

Trotsky imposed a very tough system of discipline and control over the Red Army.
Officers found guilty of cowardice or treachery were executed. However, men who
showed initiative and courage were promoted rapidly.

Trotsky travelled in an armoured train to the front lines to encourage troops. At times of
crisis, he readily assumed personal command of areas under threat. He successfully
inspired and encouraged troops to greater efforts, and to eventual victory.

Ruthlessness

Under Lenin's leadership, the Bolsheviks displayed total ruthlessness in making sure
that they did not face rebellion and revolt in the areas they controlled.

The Constituent Assembly had been organised by the Provisional Government, to draw
up a constitution for Russia. When it was elected, the majority of delegates happened to
be Social Revolutionaries. The Bolsheviks feared opposition to their plans and closed
the Assembly.

A Cheka officer interrogates a suspected 'enemy of the people'

Once the Civil War began, the Bolsheviks banned all political parties and arrested their
leaders. They also closed down newspapers that opposed them.

The Cheka, the Bolshevik Secret Police, hunted down and arrested anyone who was
suspected of hostility towards the Bolsheviks. By the end of the Civil War, they had
executed over 100,000 political opponents.

"War communism" was introduced to help supply the war effort. In May 1918 a Food
Dictatorship was established where the Bolsheviks requisitioned grain from the
peasants.

45
Meanwhile, much of Russia’s industry was nationalised, giving the Bolsheviks total
control of goods production.

Propaganda

Lenin's image promotes the Red Army

The Bolsheviks organised a highly effective propaganda campaign in the areas they
controlled:

 Agitprop (agitation propaganda) was used to encourage soldiers.

 Trotsky’s train was fitted with equipment to produce posters and leaflets
 This and other trains contained cinemas where propaganda films were shown
 Speeches, newspapers, and leaflets continually told the people that, through the
Soviets, they were in charge of Russia.

Propaganda told the people that living conditions would improve and wealth would be
distributed more fairly. In contrast they warned that the White Armies and their leaders
would destroy all the achievements of the Revolution, break up the Soviets and bring
back the old system:

46
The Bolsheviks portrayed themselves as a patriotic party who would defend Russia
from imperialists. This was particularly effective since the Whites had support from
Britain, France and the USA.

The Bolsheviks spread the fear that Russia would be taken over by foreign countries
and absorbed into their empires.

Leadership of the Whites

The White Armies appeared to have a number of advantages in the Civil War:

 Their leaders were experienced military commanders

 They controlled huge areas of Russia
 They had the Bolsheviks surrounded
 They had the active support of foreign countries, which intervened in the Civil War on
their behalf.

However, as the Civil War developed, the White Armies began to face major problems
and difficulties in organising their campaigns. Against the drive and ruthless energy of
the Bolsheviks, their campaigns faltered. By the end of 1920, the Bolsheviks were close
to achieving total victory.

White Army weaknesses

The Whites had a number of weaknesses that led to their defeat.

Divided leadership

While the Bolsheviks had Lenin as their leader, no one person was in charge of the
White forces.

The Whites had several leaders - Yudenich, Kolchak, Deniken and Wrangel. All wanted
glory for themselves. While trying to defeat the Reds, they were also often in
competition with each other. They were all ambitious men and each was determined to
take control of Russia for himself.

Deniken and then Wrangel were concentrated in the south, while Admiral Kolchak was
in the north-east and Yudenich in the west. They were so far apart that they were
unable to coordinate attacks.

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As a result, there was virtually no co-operation between the various White Armies. They
fought independently and this made it easier for the Red Army to defeat them
individually.

Brutality and corruption

White Army forces often behaved with great brutality and cruelty in the areas they
controlled. Towns were burned, property destroyed or stolen, and crops and livestock
were taken by force. If civilians objected, they faced torture and execution. Inevitably,
the Whites became hated and feared.

Corruption was widespread in White-controlled areas. White soldiers looted shops and
houses, and were often drunk. A black market was created for goods originally intended
to help fight the war.

Morale

The Bolsheviks were fighting for a very definite cause - the establishment and survival
of a communist Russia.

The Whites, however, had problems motivating their troops and building up support.
Why should soldiers face death simply to make Kolchak or Yudenich master of Russia?

Moreover, some Russians feared that foreign intervention would bring an end to
Russian independence in the event of White victory. As time passed, more and more
soldiers deserted from the White Armies.

Given the choice between the Bolsheviks and the Whites, it was hardly surprising that
Bolshevik support increased dramatically.

Impact of foreign intervention

The impact of foreign countries on the Civil War was minimal for a number of reasons:

 World War One had ended in 1918, resulting in a lack of commitment to Russia
 With the threat of Germany gone, Britain, France and the USA did not feel the need to
supply Russia
 After World War One, foreign powers lacked resources or troops to spare
 Neither the fear of communism, nor the desire to protect Russian autocracy was strong
enough to keep Western powers committed to involvement in Russia

By the end of 1919 most foreign troops had left Russia. But the Reds used the idea of
foreign support for the White armies as propaganda. They claimed that the White
generals were attempting to defeat the Bolsheviks in order to hand Russia over to
foreign imperialists.

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The fear of losing their independence convinced a great deal of Russians to support the
Reds. As a result, the Reds established themselves as the saviours of Russia.

Geographical implications

At the start of the Civil War, the Bolsheviks controlled the key central area of Russia
between Petrograd and Moscow. This gave them a number of advantages.

Most of Russia's railways were in this area. This made communication between the
various battlefronts much easier. Trotsky was able to move troops and supplies quickly
to positions under attack. As Commissar for War, he was able to visit the battlefronts in
an armoured train, and to take personal command.

The large population of the major cities was a key resource for the Bolsheviks. The
cities provided fresh recruitment for the Red Army.

Much of Russia's industry and raw materials was located in this area. This made it
possible for the Bolsheviks to keep their troops supplied and equipped with weapons,
ammunition and supplies.

The sheer size of Russia worked against the White Armies. They had to move their
forces and supplies over huge distances. This made it difficult to maintain effective
control.

The lack of effective railways was an added complication to the existing communication
difficulties between the different White Armies and their leaders.

Victory for the Reds

By the end of the Civil War in 1921 the Bolsheviks had succeeded in securing their grip
on power in Russia.

The White Armies and the foreign powers fighting on Russian soil had been defeated.
Just as importantly, rival political parties had been outlawed. Thanks to the Cheka
secret police, dissenting voices had been silenced.

Lenin had achieved his ultimate goal of steering his small Bolshevik party to total control
of Russia.

February Revolution

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The February Revolution (known as such because of Russia’s use of the Julian
calendar until February 1918) began on March 8, 1917 (February 23 on the Julian
calendar).

Demonstrators clamoring for bread took to the streets of Petrograd. Supported by huge
crowds of striking industrial workers, the protesters clashed with police but refused to
leave the streets.

On March 11, the troops of the Petrograd army garrison were called out to quell the
uprising. In some encounters, the regiments opened fire, killing demonstrators, but the
protesters kept to the streets and the troops began to waver.

The Duma formed a provisional government on March 12. A few days later, Czar
Nicholas abdicated the throne, ending centuries of Russian Romanov rule.

The leaders of the provisional government, including young Russian lawyer Alexander
Kerensky, established a liberal program of rights such as freedom of speech, equality
before the law, and the right of unions to organize and strike. They opposed violent
social revolution.

As minister of war, Kerensky continued the Russian war effort, even though Russian
involvement in World War I was enormously unpopular. This further exacerbated
Russia’s food supply problems. Unrest continued to grow as peasants looted farms and
food riots erupted in the cities.

Bolshevik Revolution
On November 6 and 7, 1917 (or October 24 and 25 on the Julian calendar, which is why
the event is often referred to as the October Revolution), leftist revolutionaries led by
Bolshevik Party leader Vladimir Lenin launched a nearly bloodless coup d’état against
the Duma’s provisional government.

The provisional government had been assembled by a group of leaders from Russia’s
bourgeois capitalist class. Lenin instead called for a Soviet government that would be
ruled directly by councils of soldiers, peasants and workers.

The Bolsheviks and their allies occupied government buildings and other strategic
locations in Petrograd, and soon formed a new government with Lenin as its head.
Lenin became the dictator of the world’s first communist state.

Russian Civil War

Civil War broke out in Russia in late 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution. The warring
factions included the Red and White Armies.

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The Red Army fought for the Lenin’s Bolshevik government. The White Army
represented a large group of loosely allied forces, including monarchists, capitalists and
supporters of democratic socialism.

On July 16, 1918, the Romanovs were executed by the Bolsheviks.

The Russian Civil War ended in 1923 with Lenin’s Red Army claiming victory and
establishing the Soviet Union.

Impact of The Russian Revolution

The Russian Revolution paved the way for the rise of communism as an influential
political belief system around the world. It set the stage for the rise of the Soviet Union
as a world power that would go head-to-head with the United States during the Cold
War.

Sources
The Russian Revolutions of 1917. Anna M. Cienciala, University of Kansas.
The Russian Revolution of 1917. Daniel J. Meissner, Marquette University.
Russian Revolution of 1917. McGill University.

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