STUDYPIVOT.

COM

(3) Distance of a point from co-ordinate axes : Let

Three Dimensional Geometry P(x, y, z) be any point in the space. Let PA, PB and PC be the
perpendiculars drawn from P to the axes OX, OY and OZ
respectively. Z
Co-ordinates of a point in space Then, PA = (y 2 + z 2 ) C
P(x,y,z)
(1) Cartesian co-ordinates : Let O be a fixed point, known 2 2
PB = (z + x )
as origin and let OX, OY and OZ be three mutually perpendicular
A
O X
lines, taken as x-axis, y-axis and Z PC = ( x 2 + y 2 ) B
z-axis respectively, in such a way that Y N
C E Section formula
they form a right-handed system.
k
The planes XOY, YOZ and F j P(x, y, z) (1) Section formula for internal or external division :
O Y Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2 ) be two points. Let R be a point
ZOX are known as xy-plane, B
i
on the line segment joining P and Q such that it divides the join of
yz-plane and zx-plane respectively. A D
X P and Q internally or externally in the ratio m1 : m2 .
Also, OA =x,OB = y, OC = z.
Then the co-ordinates of R are
The three co-ordinate planes (XOY, YOZ and ZOX) divide  m1 x 2  m2 x1 m1y 2  m2 y1 m1 z 2  m2 z1 
 , , .
space into eight parts and these parts are called octants.  m m m1  m2 m1  m2 
 1 2

Sign of co-ordinates of a point : The signs of the co- (2) Co-ordinates of the general point : The co-ordinates
ordinates of a point in three dimension follow the convention that of any point lying on the line joining points P(x1, y1, z1) and
all distances measured along or parallel to OX, OY, OZ will be  kx + x1 ky 2 + y1 kz 2 + z1 
Q(x2, y2, z2 ) may be taken as  2 , , ,
positive and distances moved along or parallel to OX, OY, OZ
 k +1 k +1 k + 1 
will be negative. which divides PQ in the ratio k : 1. This is called general point on
(2) Cylindrical co-ordinates : If the rectangular cartesian the line PQ.
co-ordinates of P are (x, y, z), then those of N are (x, y, 0) and we
Triangle and tetrahedron
can easily have the following relations : x = u cos, y = u sin
and z = z. Z Y (1) Co-ordinates of the centroid
 P(x, y, z) (i) If (x1, y1, z1), (x2, y2, z2 ) and (x3 , y3 , z3 ) are the vertices of
Hence, u2 = x 2 + y 2
(u, , z) a triangle, then co-ordinates of its centroid are
 r (r, , )
and  = tan−1(y / x) .  x1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z 2 + z3 
O  , , 
X  X 3 3 3
Cylindrical co-ordinates of   
u
(ii) If (xr , yr , zr ) ; r = 1, 2, 3, 4, are vertices of a tetrahedron,
P  (u, , z) Z N

Y then co-ordinates of its centroid are
 (x, y, 0)
(3) Spherical polar co-ordinates : The measures of
 x1 + x 2 + x 3 + x 4 y1 + y 2 + y3 + y4 z1 + z 2 + z 3 + z 4 
quantities r, ,  are known as spherical or three dimensional polar  , , 
 4 4 4 
co-ordinates of the point P. If the rectangular cartesian co-ordinates
of P are (x, y, z) then z = r cos, u = r sin. (2) Area of triangle : Let A(x1, y1, z1) , B(x2, y2, z2 ) and
 x = u cos = r sin cos, y = u sin = r sin sin and z = r cos C(x3 , y3 , z3 ) be the vertices of a triangle, then
2 2
u x +y y y1 z1 1 x1 z1 1
Also, r 2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 and tan  = = ; tan  = .
z z x 1 1
x = y2 z2 1 , y = x2 z2 1 ,
2 2
y3 z3 1 x3 z3 1

x1 y1 1
Distance formula 1
z = x2 y2 1
2
(1) Distance formula: The distance between two points x3 y3 1
A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2 ) is given by
Now, area of ABC is given by the relation  = 2x + 2y + 2z .
AB = [(x 2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z 2 − z1 )2 ] .
(3) Condition of collinearity: Points A(x1, y1, z1 ),
(2) Distance from origin : Let O be the origin and P(x, y, z)
B(x 2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C(x3 , y3 , z3 ) are collinear,
be any point, then OP = ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) .
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x1 − x 2 y − y2 z − z2 Projection of PQ is PQ = PQ cos

If = 1 = 1 .
x 2 − x 3 y2 − y3 z 2 − z 3 = (x 2 − x1 ) cos + (y2 − y1) cos  + (z2 − z1 ) cos 
(4) Volume of tetrahedron : If vertices of tetrahedron be = (x2 − x1)l + (y2 − y1)m + (z2 − z1)n .
x1 y1 z1 1 For x-axis, l = 1, m = 0, n = 0.
1 x 2 y2 z 2 1 Hence, projection of PQ on x-axis = x2 – x1.
(xr , yr , zr ) ; r = 1, 2, 3, 4; then V = .
6 x 3 y3 z 3 1 Similarly, projection of PQ on y-axis = y2 – y1 and projection
x 4 y4 z 4 1 of PQ on z-axis = z2 – z1.

Angle between two lines

Direction cosines and direction ratios
Let  be the angle between two straight lines AB and AC
(1) Direction cosines : If , ,  be the angles which a given whose direction cosines are l1, m1, n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 respectively, is
directed line makes with the positive direction of the x, y, z co- given by cos = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 .
ordinate axes respectively, then cos, cos, cos are called the If direction ratios of two lines a1, b1, c1 and a 2 , b2 , c 2 are
direction cosines of the given line and are generally denoted by l,
given, then angle between two lines is given by
m, n respectively.
a1a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2
cos  = .
Thus, l = cos  , m = cos  and n = cos  , l 2 + m2 + n2 = 1 . a1 + b12 + c12 . a 22 + b22 + c 22
2

By definition, it follows that the direction cosine of the axis of Particular results: We have, sin 2  = 1 − cos2 
x are respectively cos 0o , cos 90o , cos 90o i.e., (1,0,0). Similarly
= (l12 + m12 + n12 )(l22 + m22 + n22 ) − (l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 )2
direction cosines of the axes of y and z are respectively (0,1,0) and
(0, 0, 1). = (l1m2 − l 2 m1 ) 2 + (m1n2 − m2 n1 ) 2 + (n1l 2 − n2 l1 ) 2
(2) Direction ratios: If a, b, c are three numbers  sin  =  (l1m2 − l 2m1 )2 , which is known as Lagrange’s
proportional to direction cosines l, m, n of a line, then a, b, c are
called its direction ratios. They are also called direction numbers or identity.
direction components. The value of sin can easily be obtained by,
Hence by definition, l1 m1
2
m n n l
2 2

a b c sin  = + 1 1 + 1 1
l= ,m =  ,n =  l 2 m2 n2 n2 n2 l2
a2 + b2 + c 2 a2 + b2 + c 2 a2 + b2 + c 2
If a1, b1, c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 are d.r.’s of two given lines, then
where the sign should be taken all positive or all negative.
(a1b2 − a2b1 )2
Direction ratios are not unique, whereas d.c.’s are unique. angle  between them is given by sin  =
i.e., a 2 + b 2 + c 2  1 . a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c 22
(3) D.c.’s and d.r.’s of a line joining two points : The
direction ratios of line PQ joining P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2 ) Condition of perpendicularity : If the given lines are
are x2 − x1 = a , y2 − y1 = b and z2 − z1 = c , (say). perpendicular, then  = 90 i.e., cos = 0
Then direction cosines are,  l1l 2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0 or a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0
(x 2 − x 1 ) (y 2 − y1 ) (z 2 − z 1 )
l= , m= , n=
(x 2 − x 1 ) 2
(x 2 − x 1 ) 2 (x 2 − x 1 ) 2 Condition of parallelism : If the given lines are parallel,
l m n
x 2 − x1 y − y1 z − z1 then  = 0o i.e., sin = 0  1 = 1 = 1 .
i.e., l = ,m = 2 ,n = 2 . l 2 m2 n2
PQ PQ PQ
a1 b1 c1
Similarly, = = .
Projection a 2 b2 c 2

Projection of a line joining the points P(x1, y1, z1) and

Q(x2, y2, z2) on another line whose direction cosines are l,
m and n : Let PQ be a line segment where P  (x1, y1, z1) and
Q  (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and AB be a given line with d.c.’s as l, m, n. If the
line segment PQ makes angle  with the line AB, then
Q
Z
K M 
P
N Q
P
N
M K
O X A B
P Q

Y
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Step IV : To obtain the co-ordinates of the point of

Line intersection, substitute the value of  (or ) in the co-ordinates of
general point (s) obtained in step I.
Straight line in space
Every equation of the first degree represents a plane. Two Foot of perpendicular from a point to the line
equations of the first degree are satisfied by the co-ordinates of every Foot of perpendicular from a point A(, , ) to the
point on the line of intersection of the planes represented by them. x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
line = = : If P be the foot of perpendicular,
Therefore, the two equations of that line ax + by + cz + d = 0 l m n
and ax + by + cz + d = 0 together represent a straight line. then P is (lr + x1, mr + y1, nr + z1) . A(,  , )

(1) Equation of a line passing through a given point Find the direction ratios of AP
and apply the condition of
Cartesian equation of a straight line passing through a fixed perpendicularity of AP and the
point (x1, y1, z1) and having direction ratios a, b, c is given line. This will give the value
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 of r and hence the point P, which P x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
= = . l m n
a b c is foot of perpendicular.
Length and equation of perpendicular : The length of the
(2) Equation of line passing through two given points
perpendicular is the distance AP and its equation is the line joining
If A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2 ) be two given points, the equations two known points A and P.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 The length of the perpendicular is the perpendicular distance
to the line AB are = = .
x 2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1 of given point from that line.
P
Reflection or image of a point
Changing unsymmetrical form to symmetrical form in a straight line : If the perpendicular
PL from point P on the given line be
A B
The unsymmetrical form of a line ax + by + cz + d = 0, produced to Q such that PL = QL, then L
ax + by + cz + d = 0 can be changed to symmetrical form as Q is known as the image or reflection of
P in the given line. Also, L is the foot of
bd − bd da − da the perpendicular or the projection of P
Q(image)
x− y−
a b  − a b ab − ab = z on the line.
follows : = .
bc  − bc ca − c a ab − ab
Shortest distance between two straight lines
Intersection of two lines
(1) Skew lines : Two straight lines in space which are neither
Determine whether two lines intersect or not. In case they parallel nor intersecting are called skew lines.
intersect, the following algorithm is used to find their point of Thus, the skew lines are those lines which do not lie in the
intersection. same plane.
Algorithm: Q
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Let the two lines be = = …..(i) l2
a1 b1 c1 Line of shortest
x − x 2 y − y2 z − z 2 distance
and = = …..(ii)
a2 b2 c2 l1
P
Step I : Write the co-ordinates of general points on (i) and
(ii). The co-ordinates of general points on (i) and (ii) are given by (2) Line of shortest distance : If l1 and l 2 are two skew
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x 2 y − y2 z − z 2 lines, then the straight line which is perpendicular to each of these
= = =  and = = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2 two non-intersecting lines is called the “Line of shortest distance.”
respectively. i.e., (a1 + x1, b1 + y1 + c1 + z1 ) There is one and only one line perpendicular to each of lines
l1 and l 2 .
and (a2  + x 2 , b2  + y2 , c 2  + z 2 ) .
(3) Shortest distance between two skew lines
Step II : If the lines (i) and (ii) intersect, then they have a
common point. x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Let two skew lines be, = =
a1 + x1 = a2  + x 2 , b1 + y1 = b2  + y2 l1 m1 n1

and c1 + z1 = c 2  + z 2 . x − x2 y − y2 z − z2
and = =
l2 m2 n2
Step III : Solve any two of the equations in  and  obtained
in step II. If the values of  and  satisfy the third equation, then Therefore, the shortest distance between the lines is given by
the lines (i) and (ii) intersect, otherwise they do not intersect.
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x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 (8) Equation of plane passing through the intersection

l1 m1 n1 of two planes : Equation of plane through the intersection of two
planes P = a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and Q = a2 x + b2y + c2z + d2 = 0
l2 m2 n2
d= . is P + Q = 0 , where  is the parameter.
(m1n2 − m2n1 )2 + (n1l 2 − l1n2 )2 + (l1m2 − m1l 2 )2
Equation of plane passing through the given point
Plane (1) Equation of plane passing through a given point :
Equation of plane passing through the point (x1, y1, z1) is
Definition of plane and its equations A(x − x1 ) + B(y − y1 ) + C(z − z1 ) = 0 , where A, B and C are d.r.’s
of normal to the plane.
If point P(x, y, z) moves according to certain rule, then it may (2) Equation of plane through three points : The
lie in a 3-D region on a surface or on a line or it may simply be a equation of plane passing through three non-collinear points
point. Whatever we get, as the region of P after applying the rule,
x y z 1
is called locus of P. Let us discuss about the plane or curved
surface. If Q be any other point on it’s locus and all points of the x1 y1 z1 1
(x1 , y1 , z1 ) , (x 2 , y2 , z 2 ) and (x3 , y3 , z3 ) is = 0 or
straight line PQ lie on it, it is a plane. In other words if the straight x 2 y2 z 2 1
line PQ, however small and in whatever direction it may be, lies x 3 y3 z 3 1
completely on the locus, it is a plane, otherwise any curved surface.
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
(1) General equation of plane : Every equation of first
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0 .
degree of the form Ax + By + Cz + D = 0 represents the equation
of a plane. The coefficients of x, y and z i.e., A, B, C are the x 3 − x1 y3 − y1 z 3 − z1
direction ratios of the normal to the plane.
(2) Equation of co-ordinate planes : XOY-plane : z = 0, Foot of perpendicular from a point A(,  , ) to a
YOZ -plane : x = 0, ZOX-plane : y = 0 given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0.
(3) Equation of plane in various forms : If AP be the perpendicular from A to the given plane, then it is
(i) Intercept form : If the plane cuts the intercepts of length parallel to the normal, so that its equation is
x y z x − y −  z −
a, b, c on co-ordinate axes, then its equation is + + = 1 . = = = r , (Say)
a b c a b c
Any point P on it is (ar + , br +  , cr +  ) . It lies on the given
(ii) Normal form : Normal form of the equation of plane is
plane and we find the value of r and hence the point P.
lx + my + nz = p , where l, m, n are the d.c.’s of the normal to the
(1) Perpendicular distance : The length of the perpendicular
plane and p is the length of perpendicular from the origin. from the point P(x1, y1, z1) to the plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
(4) Equation of plane in particular cases : Equation of
ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d
plane through the origin is given by Ax + By + Cz = 0 . .
a2 + b2 + c 2
i.e, if D = 0, then the plane passes through the origin.
Distance between two parallel planes Ax + By + Cz + D1 = 0
(5) Equation of plane parallel to co-ordinate planes or
D2 ~ D1
perpendicular to co-ordinate axes and Ax + By + Cz + D2 = 0 is .
(i) Equation of plane parallel to YOZ-plane (or perpendicular A2 + B2 + C 2
to x-axis) and at a distance ‘a’ from it is x = a. (2) Position of two points w.r.t. a plane : Two points
P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2 ) lie on the same or opposite sides of
(ii) Equation of plane parallel to ZOX-plane (or perpendicular
to y-axis) and at a distance ‘b’ from it is y = b. a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 according to ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d and
ax2 + by2 + cz2 + d are of same or opposite signs. The plane
(iii) Equation of plane parallel to XOY-plane (or perpendicular
to z-axis) and at a distance ‘c’ from it is z = c. divides the line joining the points P and Q externally or internally
according to P and Q are lying on same or opposite sides of the
(6) Equation of plane perpendicular to co-ordinate
plane.
planes or parallel to co-ordinate axes
(i) Equation of plane perpendicular to YOZ-plane or parallel Angle between two planes
to x-axis is By + Cz + D = 0 .
(ii) Equation of plane perpendicular to ZOX-plane or parallel Angle between the planes is defined as angle between normals
to y-axis is Ax + Cz + D = 0 . to the planes drawn from any point. Angle between the planes
(iii) Equation of plane perpendicular to XOY-plane or parallel a1 x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2y + c 2 z + d2 = 0 is
to z-axis is Ax + By + D = 0 .  
 a1a 2 + b1b2 + c1c 2 
(7) Equation of plane parallel to a given plane : Plane cos −1  
parallel to a given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is  (a12 + b12 + c12 )(a 22 + b22 + c 22 ) 
 
ax + by + cz + d = 0 , i.e. only constant term is changed.
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(i) If a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0 , then the planes are perpendicular The equation of the plane containing them is
to each other. x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x 2 y − y2 z − z2
a b c l1 m1 n1 = 0 or l1 m1 n1 = 0 .
(ii) If 1 = 1 = 1 , then the planes are parallel to each other.
a2 b2 c 2 l2 m2 n2 l2 m2 n2

Equation of planes bisecting angle between two

Line and Plane
given planes
Equations of planes bisecting angles between the planes Equation of plane through a given line
a1 x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2 x + b2y + c 2 z + d = 0 are (1) If equation of the line is given in symmetrical form as
a1 x + b1y + c1 z + d1 a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
=  . = = , then equation of plane is
(a12 + b12 + c12 ) (a 22 + b22 + c 22 ) l m n
a(x − x1) + b(y − y1) + c(z − z1) = 0 .....(i)
(i) If angle between bisector plane and one of the plane is less than
o
45 , then it is acute angle bisector, otherwise it is obtuse angle bisector. where a, b, c are given by al + bm + cn = 0 .....(ii)
(ii) If a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 is negative, then origin lies in the (2) If equations of line is given in general form as
acute angle between the given planes provided d1 and d2 are of a1x + b1y + c1z + d1 = 0 = a2 x + b2y + c2z + d2 , then the equation
same sign and if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 is positive, then origin lies in of plane passing through these line is (a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 )
the obtuse angle between the given planes. +(a 2 x + b2 y + c 2 z + d 2 ) = 0 .
(3) Equation of plane through a given line parallel to
Image of a point in a plane another line : Let the d.c.’s of the other line be l2 , m2 , n2 . Then,
Let P and Q be two points and let  be a plane such that since the plane is parallel to the given line, normal is perpendicular.
(i) Line PQ is perpendicular to the plane , and  al2 + bm2 + cn2 = 0 ……(iii)
(ii) Mid-point of PQ lies on the plane . x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
Then either of the point is the image of the other in the plane . Hence, the plane from (i), (ii) and (iii) is l1 m1 n1 = 0.
To find the image of a point in a given plane, we l2 m2 n2
proceed as follows
(i) Write the equations of the line passing through P and Intersection point of a line and plane
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
normal to the given plane as = = . Algorithm for finding the point of intersection of a line
a b c
P(x1,y1,z1) and a plane
Step I : Write the co-ordinates of any point on the line in
ax+by+cz+d=0
terms of some parameters r (say).
Step II : Substitute these co-ordinates in the equation of the
R
plane to obtain the value of r.
 StepIII : Put the value of r in the co-ordinates of the point in step I.
(x1+ar,y1+br,z1+cr) Q
(ii) Write the co-ordinates of image Q as
Angle between line and plane
(x1 + ar, y1, + br, z1 + cr) . x − y −  z −
The angle  between the line = = , and the
(iii) Find the co-ordinates of the mid-point R of PQ. l m n
(iv) Obtain the value of r by putting the co-ordinates of R in plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 , is given by
the equation of the plane. al + bm + cn
(v) Put the value of r in the co-ordinates of Q. sin  = .
(a + b + c 2 ) (l 2 + m2 + n2 )
2 2

Coplanar lines a b c
(i) The line is perpendicular to the plane if and only if = = .
l m n
Lines are said to be coplanar if they lie in the same plane or a
plane can be made to pass through them. (ii) The line is parallel to the plane if and only if al + bm + cn = 0 .
Condition for the lines to be coplanar: (iii) The line lies in the plane if and only if al + bm + cn = 0
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y2 and a + b + c + d = 0 .
If the lines = = and = =
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2
Projection of a line on a plane
x 2 − x1 y 2 − y1 z 2 − z1
z − z2 If P be the point of intersection of given line and plane and Q be
are coplanar, then l1 m1 n1 =0.
n2 the foot of the perpendicular from any point on the line to the plane
l2 m2 n2
then PQ is called the projection of given line on the given plane.
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x − x 1 y − y1 The centre M of the circle is the point of intersection of the

Image of line about a plane: Let line is = = plane and line CM which passes through C and is perpendicular to
a1 b1
the given plane.
z − z1
, plane is a2 x + b2y + c2z + d = 0 . Centre : The foot of the perpendicular from the centre of the
c1 sphere to the plane is the centre of the circle.
Find point of intersection (say P) of line and plane. Find (Radius of circle)2 = (Radius of sphere)2 – (Perpendicular from
image (say Q) of point (x1, y1, z1) about the plane. Line PQ is the centre of spheres on the plane)2
reflected line. Great circle : The section of a sphere by a plane through the
centre of the sphere is a great circle. Its centre and radius are the
Sphere same as those of the given sphere.

Condition of tangency of a plane to a sphere

A sphere is the locus of a point which moves in space in such
a way that its distance from a fixed point always remains constant. A plane touches a given sphere if the perpendicular distance
The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is from the centre of the sphere to the plane is equal to the radius of
called the radius of the sphere. the sphere. The plane lx + my + nz = p touches the sphere

P(r)
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ,
If (ul + vm + wn − p) 2 = (l 2 + m2 + n2)(u2 + v2 + w2 − d) .
C (a)
Intersection of straight line and a sphere
Let the equations of the sphere and the straight line be
General equation of sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 ……(i)
x − y −  z −
The general equation of a sphere is and = = = r , (say) …..(ii)
l m n
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 with centre (–u, –v, –w) Any point on the line (ii) is ( + lr,  + mr,  + nr) .
i.e., (–(1/2) coefficient of x, –(1/2) coefficient of y, –(1/2) coefficient If this point lies on the sphere (i) then we have,
of z) and, radius = u2 + v2 + w2 − d . ( + lr)2 + ( + mr)2 + ( + nr)2 + 2u( + lr) + 2v( + mr)
+2w( + nr) + d = 0
Equation in sphere in various forms
or, r 2[l  + m2 + n2 ] + 2r[l(u +  ) + m(v +  )] + n(w +  )]
(1) Equation of sphere with given centre and radius : + ( 2 +  2 +  2 + 2u + 2v + 2w + d) = 0 ……(iii)
The equation of a sphere with centre (a, b, c) and radius R is
This is a quadratic equation in r and so gives two values of r
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 + (z − c)2 = R2 ……(i) and therefore the line (ii) meets the sphere (i) in two points which may
If the centre is at the origin, then equation (i) takes the form be real, coincident and imaginary, according as root of (iii) are so.
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = R2 , which is known as the standard form of the If l, m, n are the actual d.c.’s of the line, then
equation of the sphere. l 2 + m2 + n 2 = 1 and then the equation (iii) can be simplified.
(2) Diameter form of the equation of a sphere : If
(x1, y1, z1) and (x2 , y2 , z2 ) are the co-ordinates of the extremities Angle of intersection of two spheres
of a diameter of a sphere, then its equation is If the angle of intersection of two spheres is a right angle, the
(x − x1)(x − x2 ) + (y − y1)(y − y2 ) + (z − z1)(z − z2 ) = 0 . spheres are said to be orthogonal.
Condition for orthogonality of two spheres :
Section of a sphere by a plane
Let the equation of the two spheres be
Consider a sphere intersected by a plane. The set of points x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 .....(i)
common to both sphere and plane is called a plane section of a
2 2 2
sphere. The plane section of a sphere is always a circle. The and x + y + z + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 .....(ii)
equations of the sphere and the plane taken together represent the If the sphere (i) and (ii) cut orthogonally, then
plane section. 2uu + 2vv + 2ww = d + d, which is the required condition.
C • If the spheres x 2 + y2 + z 2 = a2 and x2 + y2 + z2
+2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 cut orthogonally, then d = a 2 .
P
M
Q • Two spheres of radii r1 and r2 cut orthogonally, then the
Let C be the centre of the sphere and M be the foot of the r1r2
radius of the common circle is .
perpendicular from C on the plane. Then M is the centre of the r12 + r22
circle and radius of the circle is given by PM = CP 2 − CM 2 .
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x−0 y−0 z−0

z-axis : = = or x = 0 and y = 0.
0 0 1

 Skew lines are non-coplanar lines.

 Parallel lines are not skew lines.

 The number of lines which are equally inclined to the
 If two lines intersect, the shortest distance (SD) between
co-ordinate axes is 4.
them is zero.
 If l, m, n are the d.c.’s of a line, then the maximum value
1  Shortest distance between two skew lines is perpendicular
of lmn = . to both the lines.
3 3

 The co-ordinates of a point on xy-plane is (x, y, 0), on yz-  Division by plane: The ratio in which the line segment
plane is (0, y, z) and on zx-plane is (x, 0, z). PQ, joining P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2), is divided by plane
 ax + by1 + cz1 + d 
 The co-ordinates of a point on x-axis is (x, 0, 0), on y-axis ax + by + cz + d = 0 is, −  1 .

 ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d 
is (0, y, 0) and on z-axis is (0, 0, z).

 If P is a point (x1, y1, z1), then projection of OP on a line  If ax + by + cz + d = 0 be the plane, then the points
whose direction cosines are l, m, n, is l1x1 + m1y1 + n1z1, where (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and (x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ) lie on the same side or opposite
O is the origin.
ax 1 + by1 + cz1 + d
side according as  0 or  0 .
 If l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2 are the d.c.’s of two concurrent ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + d
lines, then the d.c.’s of the lines bisecting the angles between
them are proportional to l1  l2, m1  m2, n1  n2.  Division by co-ordinate planes : The ratio in which the
line segment PQ, joining P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) is
 The angle between any two diagonals of a cube is
divided by co-ordinate planes are as follows :
1
−1 
cos   .
3 x1
(i) By yz-plane : −
x2
 The angle between a diagonal of a cube and the diagonal
 2 y1
of a faces of the cube is cos −1  . (ii) By zx-plane : −
 3 y2
 

 If the edges of a rectangular parallelopiped be a, b, c, then the z1

(ii) By xy-plane : −
  a2  b2  c 2  z2
angles between the two diagonals are cos−1  2 2 2 
.
 a + b + c 
 When two spheres touch each other the common tangent
 Since x, y and z-axes pass through the origin and have plane is S1 − S2 = 0 and when they cut in a circle, the plane of
direction cosines 1, 0, 0; 0, 1, 0 and 0, 0, 1 respectively. the circle is S1 − S2 = 0 ; coefficients of x 2, y 2, z 2 being unity

Therefore, the equations of x-axis : in both the cases.

x −0 y−0 z−0 (i) The plane cuts the sphere in a circle, iff p < r and in
= =
1 0 0
this case, the radius of circle is r 2 − p2 .
or y = 0 and z = 0.
(ii) The plane touches the sphere, iff p = r .
x−0 y−0 z−0
y-axis : = = or x = 0 and z = 0;
0 1 0 (iii) The plane does not meet the sphere, iff p > r.

 Equation of concentric sphere : Any sphere concentric

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with the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 is

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz +  = 0 , where  is some real

which makes it a sphere.