Mango information kit

Reprint – information current in 1999

REPRINT INFORMATION – PLEASE READ!

For updated information please call 13 25 23 or visit the website www.dpi.qld.gov.au

This publication has been reprinted as a digital book without any changes to the content published in 1999. We
advise readers to take particular note of the areas most likely to be out-of-date and so requiring further research:
• Chemical recommendations—check with an agronomist or Infopest www.infopest.qld.gov.au
• Financial information—costs and returns listed in this publication are out of date. Please contact an adviser or
industry body to assist with identifying more current figures.
• Varieties—new varieties are likely to be available and some older varieties may no longer be recommended.
Check with an agronomist, call the Business Information Centre on 13 25 23, visit our website www.dpi.qld.
gov.au or contact the industry body.
• Contacts—many of the contact details may have changed and there could be several new contacts available.
The industry organisation may be able to assist you to find the information or services you require.
• Organisation names—most government agencies referred to in this publication have had name changes.
Contact the Business Information Centre on 13 25 23 or the industry organisation to find out the current
name and contact details for these agencies.
• Additional information—many other sources of information are now available for each crop. Contact an
agronomist, Business Information Centre on 13 25 23 or the industry organisation for other suggested
reading.
Even with these limitations we believe this information kit provides important and valuable information for
intending and existing growers.
This publication was last revised in 1999. The information is not current and the accuracy of the information
cannot be guaranteed by the State of Queensland.
This information has been made available to assist users to identify issues involved in the production of mangoes.
This information is not to be used or relied upon by users for any purpose which may expose the user or any other
person to loss or damage. Users should conduct their own inquiries and rely on their own independent professional
advice.
While every care has been taken in preparing this publication, the State of Queensland accepts no responsibility for
decisions or actions taken as a result of any data, information, statement or advice, expressed or implied, contained
in this publication.
 Key
Key issues 1

ISSUES
This section contains more detailed information on some of the
important decision-making areas for mango growers. It supplements
the growing and marketing recipe in Section 3. The information covers the
key points that need to be known and understood rather than a complete coverage
of each issue. Where additional information may be useful, we refer you to other
parts of the kit. Symbols on the left of the page will help you make these links.

Understanding the mango tree 2

Propagation 9

Economics 15

Varieties 22

Irrigation management 25

Nutrition 35

Orchard rejuvenation 44

Preventing sapburn & skin browning 48

Controlled ripening 53

Marketing mangoes 62

Exporting 64

Quality management 67

Mango
2 Key issues

Understanding the mango tree

The aim of mango growing is to regularly produce a large crop of high quality fruit. To
achieve this, it is helpful to know what governs flowering, fruit production and quality.

Origin and early history ....................................................... 2

The mango tree ................................................................... 3
Annual growth cycles of bearing trees ................................. 3
Fruit characteristics ............................................................. 6
Implications for crop management ....................................... 7

Origin and early history

The mango (Mangifera indica) belongs to the family Anacardiaceae.
Other cultivated trees in this family include cashew and pistachio.
There are two major sites of evolution for mangoes (Figure 1). One is
in the mild, subtropical, northern Indian/Burmese region where man-
goes have been cultivated for more than 4000 years. This region has
produced varieties that are monoembryonic with greater tolerance to
low temperatures for growth and fruit set. Monoembryonic varieties
produce a single seedling from each seed. Commonly grown
monoembryonic varieties include Keitt, Kent, Palmer, Tommy Atkins
and Irwin.
About 2000 years ago a secondary site of evolution developed in the
hot, humid, tropical areas of south-east Asia. From this region the
polyembryonic varieties have evolved. Polyembryonic varieties pro-
duce several seedlings from each seed. These varieties need higher
temperatures for growth, and fruit set is more susceptible to cold
weather. This group of varieties includes Nam Doc Mai (Thailand)
and Carabao (Philippines). Trade has spread the fruit throughout
every tropical and most subtropical regions of the world.
The polyembryonic variety Kensington Pride was selected from a
group of seedlings grown in the Bowen district during the late 1880s.
At this time shipping between north Queensland and south-east Asia
was common, so it is likely that the seed came into Australia this way.

Mango
Key issues 3

Figure 1. Sites of evolution for mango varieties

The mango tree

The mango tree is a densely foliaged evergreen that grows from 15 to
20 m high. Trees are naturally long-lived.
The tree is well adapted to a monsoonal climate with a long dry season,
followed by a predictable short wet season. To survive and grow in
these conditions the tree has several adaptive features:
• It has a large taproot system that can find underground water 3 m
or more below the surface.
• The feeder roots are tolerant of drying out, so they can regrow
rapidly when the soil is re-wetted.
• The tree has a resin duct system that helps to maintain the water
balance during long periods of drought. The sap that spurts from
the fruit at picking is part of this resin system.
• The leaves are long-lived and have a hard, leathery texture that
minimises water loss when dry and supports efficient photosynthe-
sis when conditions are good.
• Carbohydrate for plant growth and fruiting is stored in the roots,
trunks and branches.
• The tree is able to adjust its crop load through heavy fruit drop.
These adaptations have helped the tree to survive in the wild. In an
T
orchard these features can have a negative impact because they direct
HIN atic energy away from fruit production into survival mechanisms.
g ra mm of a
ia n
A d entatio le is
r e s y c
rep owth c rop
gr t h e C dy
wn
i n han f
Annual growth cycles of bearing trees
sho uction front o
d
pro in the .
e it
Growth events such as vegetative flush and flowering in mango follow
guid this k a predictable pattern throughout the year. This is the growth cycle and
there are four major growth cycle events.

Mango
4 Key issues

Vegetative growth
The mango tree usually has between one and four separate vegetative
flushes during the year. In bearing trees they are synchronised into
fairly uniform flushes and growth generally stops between each flush.
Each vegetative flush starts from the terminal or axillary buds and
develops into an elongation of the growing tip. New leaves are often
red or deep purple and change to green as they harden and mature.
The length of the flush is determined by the vigour of the tree, crop
load and temperature. The number of flushes is dependent on variety,
temperature and tree health.
The most important growth flush is in summer after harvest, also
referred to as the postharvest flush, which in Queensland occurs
between January and April. Growers should try to encourage most of
the branches to flush at the same time, particularly the summer flush,
so that most of the terminals are of similar age and are ready to flower
at the same time.

Flowering
Most varieties flower once a year during winter and early spring. A few
varieties at tropical latitudes can flower more often, giving two crops
a year. Flower initiation is triggered during the dormant period that is
usually brought on by cool night temperatures and dry conditions.
Terminal vegetative buds from the most recent mature shoots turn into
floral buds shortly before flowering begins. If the terminals have been
pruned, flowers can also develop from axillary buds. Flower emergence
continues for four to six weeks and the intensity of flowering is
dependent on the age of the terminals, the season and tree health.
Temperature, geographical region and altitude influence the timing of
flowering. Flowering is earliest for trees along the northern coastal
areas of Queensland. Trees in the Dry Tropics (Burdekin, Bowen)
region flower first, in early July, followed by the Atherton Tableland,
then Central Queensland and Bundaberg/Childers in September and
the drier areas of the Sunshine Coast in late September/October.
Both the timing and intensity of flowering determine the potential
crop. In Kensington Pride, inconsistencies in flowering and fruit set are
major limitations to production.
In the hotter tropical regions, mild winter temperatures during floral
induction often lead to shoot growth at the expense of flowering,
resulting in a low percentage of flowering terminals. Night tempera-
tures between 10° and 12°C promote flower initiation. In tropical
regions, water stressing the trees for two or three months before
flowering also improves floral induction by preventing late summer
shoot growth. This ensures flowering terminals are at least three
months old and mature enough to flower.
In the cooler subtropical regions, the lower temperatures generally
ensure a high percentage of flowering terminals. However, when

Mango
Key issues 5

temperatures regularly fall below 10°C, pollen viability and the number
of hermaphrodite flowers on polyembryonic varieties is reduced. This
usually results in poor fruit set.
Each inflorescence bears several thousand male and hermaphrodite
(bisexual) flowers. Their proportions vary with variety, temperature
during formation and position in the inflorescence. In some seasons,
a low number of hermaphrodite flowers can result in poor yield. The
flowers of most mango varieties are self-compatible, that is they can be
fertilised by their own pollen.

Chemical flower induction

Flowering can be improved by the use of certain chemicals. The
growth regulator Cultar® (paclobutrazol) can be used to reduce
erratic flowering. It will also control vegetative growth and help build
up carbohydrate reserves before flowering. This promotes stronger
flowering, fruit set is increased, and fruit growth is faster when the
crop’s nutrient and water requirements are managed properly. Cultar®
also reduces the alternate bearing habits of some varieties.
Chemicals such as ethepon (Ethrel®) or foliar application of potas-
Growth regulators sium nitrate can also initiate flowering. Their effectiveness is highly
Growing the crop
Section 3
dependent on variety and location. Many trials have shown inconsist-
ent results, though a few varieties will respond well.

Pollination and fruit set

The inflorescences initially set a large number of fruit, but the tree
sheds most of them, leaving on average less than one fruit per terminal
by harvest. Any stress will increase the amount of fruit shed.
Poor fruit set can often be due to poor pollination. Pollen viability is
affected by night temperatures below 15°C. Varieties vary in their
sensitivity to cold, but flowers that open when night temperatures fall
below 10°C are unlikely to set fruit. Although low temperatures
promote strong flowering in mangoes, fruit often fails to set because of
low pollen viability or embryo death in the early stages of fruit
development. This is more common in the polyembryonic group of
varieties, which includes Kensington Pride.
In the cooler subtropics, fruit set can be improved by encouraging late
flowering during warmer weather. This can be achieved by the removal
of early flowers, which then stimulates a later, secondary flowering
from axillary buds.
Wind and insects pollinate mangoes. The most efficient insect
pollinators are wasps, bees and large flies.
Nutrition has an important role in successful fruit set. An adequate
level of boron, is important for pollen germination and normal flower
Boron
development. Adjust boron levels just before floral bud break to
This section page 41 ensure trees are not deficient in this micronutrient during flowering so
that fruit set is optimised.

Mango
6 Key issues

Fruit development
The fruit takes four to five months to mature (80 to 150 days after first
flower bud burst), depending on the growing district. Fruit growth is
faster in the hotter, northern regions of Queensland than in the
subtropical, southern regions. Fruit grows slowly at first, then more
quickly and growth slows again towards maturity.
There is evidence to suggest that fruit maturity can be predicted by
using a heat sum technique. This technique sums a calculated base
Mango Care temperature for each day from inflorescence development. The DPI
newsletters newsletter Mango Care, Issue 28, outlines how growers can calculate
References page 28
heat sums for their area.

Dormancy
There are two dormant periods during the mango growth cycle. After
harvest the tree goes into a short dormancy lasting four to eight weeks
before the summer leaf flush. The second and main dormancy is after
the vegetative growth flushes have matured and the cooler weather
stops tree growth. This period is vital for the induction of flowering.

Fruit characteristics
The shape, size and colour of mango fruit vary greatly with varieties.
Varieties
The fruit has a large seed enclosed in a fibrous coat and the fibres
This section page 22 extend from the seed into the pulp. Most commercial varieties are
selected for low fibre content.

Seed type
Mango trees can have either monoembryonic (produce a single
seedling from each seed) or polyembryonic seeds (produce several
seedlings from each seed) Figure 2.

Monoembryonic seeds
The seed of monoembryonic varieties has two solid cotyledons and on
germination only one plant grows. This seedling is the result of
pollination and the fruit from this new plant will not be the same as the
parent tree. Therefore monoembryonic varieties must be grafted to
maintain trueness-to-type. Most of the recently introduced mango
varieties (Palmer, Keitt, Kent, Irwin and Haden) are monoembryonic.

Polyembryonic seeds
Polyembryonic seeds have segmented cotyledons, all of which are
capable of producing new plants. The cotyledons originate from the
parent tree and any seedling growing from these sections will come
true-to-type. Typically two to four plants will grow from a polyembryonic
seed. Grafting of these seedlings is optional, but there are some
advantages. Kensington Pride, Carabao and Nam Doc Mai are exam-
ples of polyembryonic mangoes.

Mango
Key issues 7

Some of the new hybrid varieties produce seeds that may be either
monoembryonic or polyembryonic. For instance only about two thirds
of R2E2 seedlings come true-to-type so it is advisable to graft trees
when establishing an orchard of this variety .

Figure 2. Monoembryonic seed (left) has two solid cotyledons and on

germination only one plant grows. Polyembryonic seed has segmented
cotyledons, all of which are capable of producing new plants

Colour development
UR
LO Mango skin colour can be separated into ground and blush colour. The
CO ion
K I N for mat nt ground colour is the background colour of the fruit, which when
S r in me
f u rthe evelop Care unripe is generally green, developing into yellow to orange as the fruit
For olour d ango 20,
on c d the M , Issue 3. ripens. The blush colour, an attractive pink to purple, appears on the
rea sletter page 1 shoulders and down the exposed side of the fruit. The variety, crop
new tion 6
Sec nutrition, exposure to light and maturity at harvest influence skin
colour, though postharvest handling (primarily ripening temperature)
also has an important effect.

Flavour
Many components of the fruit pulp contribute to the flavour of
mangoes and different varieties can be distinguished by their unique
flavours. Kensington Pride’s flavour, for example, comes from the
relatively high levels of terpinolene in the fruit pulp. Terpinolene is also
present at lower levels in R2E2. Other varieties such as Keitt have
lower terpinolene but higher carene levels.

Implications for crop management

High performing trees follow a regular annual pattern of shoot growth,
flowering and fruit development. The aim of crop management is to
keep trees within this desired cycle by carefully managing fertilising,
T watering and pruning.
H I N of the
t st
l y mos iliser ju t Fertiliser management, particularly nitrogen fertiliser, is designed to
Ap n fer for bes
p t
ge st produce a strong summer flush after harvest. This flush sets up the
nitro r harve g.
in
a f t e fru ti fruiting wood for the next crop.
Ensure the water supply is adequate, particularly during flowering and
fruit development. Use soil moisture monitoring devices to carefully

Mango
8 Key issues

schedule irrigation to the needs of the tree. Control weeds within the
root zone to remove competition for water and nutrients.
Prevent damage to the main growth flushes and fruit by controlling
pests and diseases and minimising wind and frost damage.
Maximise the production of carbohydrate in the tree by making sure
as much of the leaf canopy as possible is available for photosynthesis.
This means regular pruning to ensure adequate light penetration into
the canopy. Pruning also reduces fruit marking, makes harvesting
easier and ensures more effective spray penetration for pest and disease
control.

Mango
Key issues 9

Propagation
Mangoes can be propagated as seedlings or as grafted trees and their propagation is
fairly straightforward. Here are some notes on how to propagate mango trees.

Seed types ........................................................................... 9

Seedlings or grafted trees ................................................... 10
Growing seedlings ............................................................. 10
Grafting ............................................................................. 11

Seed types
The methods used to propagate trees depend on the seed type of the
Mango seed types
This section page 6 variety to be grown, that is monoembryonic or polyembryonic. Only
seed from polyembryonic varieties will produce true-to-type seedlings.

Figure 3. Monoembryonic (left) and polyembryonic seed, with seedlings.

Only seed from polyembryonic varieties will produce true-to-type seedlings

Mango
10 Key issues

Seedlings or grafted trees

The establishment of an orchard from seedling plants is only an option
with polyembryonic varieties. Although they are easier and cheaper to
propagate, there are several advantages in using grafted trees to
establish an orchard. These are:
• more uniform plant type
• earlier cropping (generally one to two years earlier than seedlings)
• true-to-type (there is generally up to 7% off-types produced from
polyembryonic seeds)
• ability to propagate from a superior selection of the variety.
Even if you are producing grafted trees, you will need to grow seedlings
to use as rootstocks.

Growing seedlings

Seed collection
Collect seed only from true-to-type, highly productive trees. Pick fruit
for seed at the early, green mature stage to reduce the incidence of
mango seed weevil damage to the cotyledons. It is best to use fresh seed
as older seed loses viability.

Seed extraction
To extract seed, remove the flesh and allow the seed to air dry in the
shade for one to two days. Once dry force the husk open with a pair of
electrician’s pliers (pliers in which the jaws open when the handles are
closed). Inspect the exposed cotyledons for mango seed weevil and
keep only undamaged seed. Dip seed into a fungicide solution before
planting into a sandy, germination mixture.

Seed planting and germination

Seeds may be planted into prepared seedbeds or directly into poly
nursery bags. Plant seeds with the convex side upward and just
exposed. They take from two to four weeks to germinate. Place
galvanised iron or similar material about 15 cm under the soil in the
seedbed to prevent the taproot going too deep. If planting directly into
pots, select the strongest seedling and cut off the additional seedlings
that grow.
A polyembryonic seed may produce up to 12 seedlings. When trans-
ferring plants from the seedbed, small or weak seedlings should be
discarded.

Caring for young seedlings

Diseases Apply standard nursery practises of regular irrigation, fertilising and
Problem solver pest and disease control to young mango seedlings. Young trees are
Section 5 particularly susceptible to mango scab and bacterial black spot.

Mango
Key issues 11

Leave plants in the seedbeds until they are about 0.5 m high and then
transplant into pots or poly nursery bags.
Seed germinated in November/December should be ready to field
plant the following March/April. Seed germinated in January/Febru-
ary is generally not ready for planting out until the following spring-
early summer. Once seedlings grown for rootstocks are 0.5 m high, they
are ready for grafting.

Grafting
The primary aim of grafting is to produce plants that are identical to the
parent plant. Grafting is also used to induce earlier maturity and to
achieve a more uniform orchard. After a little practice successful
grafting is easy, if certain basic requirements are met. There are two parts
to a grafted tree. The rootstock, usually a seedling that provides the
tree’s roots, and the scion, which is the variety used for the top of the
tree.

Rootstocks
Kensington Pride and Common mango seedlings are suitable to use as
rootstocks. Both varieties produce genetically uniform, vigorous seed-
lings that are compatible with other varieties. The main requirement
is to have a healthy and vigorous rootstock for grafting. If the rootstock
is not vigorous, do not attempt to graft it. Dwarfing rootstocks are used
in some overseas growing regions but have yet to prove themselves
under Australian conditions.
The ideal rootstock is about 12 months old, about 50 cm tall and 1 cm
wide at a point about 30 cm above ground level.

Scion or budwood
Take the scion from a healthy tree that is true-to-type and that bears
well. Wood from the most recent hardened growth flush is suitable for
grafting. The best terminals to use are those that have prominent eyes
or buds indicating that regrowth is imminent. These terminals are
generally fully mature with good reserves of carbohydrate that assist
the grafting process. All scion wood should be free of pests and
diseases.
Prepare the scion wood by cutting the hardened vegetative flush
(about 10 cm) off the parent tree and trimming the leaves back,
leaving about 1 cm of petiole on the scion. These short petioles protect
the juvenile buds at the base of each tip and terminal. Cut back the
entire leaves and petioles from the lower half of the scion.

Grafting tools
• A special grafting knife that is sharpened on one side only. Always
keep it very sharp and clean. A fine sharpening stone will help keep
the knife sharp.

Mango
12 Key issues

• Special PVC grafting tape, 1.25 cm wide, is available from most

outlets that carry horticultural supplies.
• Clean secateurs for cutting budwood.
• Small plastic bags and brown paper bags to place over the graft will
improve the success rate.

Time of grafting
Only attempt grafting when the rootstocks are vigorous and the buds
on the scion wood are swollen. For best results, graft rootstocks during
warm, humid weather, usually from January to the end of April. Grafts
at other times of the year are successful if temperature and humidity
are increased artificially. Day temperatures of 25° to 30°C, and nights
at 18° to 21° C, are ideal.

Grafting technique
The most suitable height for grafting is about 20 to 30 cm above ground
level. At this point, the rootstock should be straight, at least pencil
thick, and have green bark. If the bark is old, brown or corky avoid the
area. Retain the leaves on the rootstock below the point of grafting.
A wide range of grafts can be used on mangoes, but the two most
common are the whip and the cleft or wedge graft. The whip graft is
used widely by nurseries and other highly experienced operators, while
most other people use the wedge. Both grafts are easy to do after
practice. Provided certain basic steps are followed, the success rate will
be high.
With all grafting, observe the following points:
• Practise good hygiene.
• Have vigorous and healthy rootstocks.
• Have bud activity and health in the scion or budwood.
• Wrap unused budwood in plastic and store in an esky or refrigerator.
• Wherever possible use young, fresh, scion wood.
• Keep the grafting knife clean and sharp. Make only single cuts
when grafting.
• Make sure the area where the graft is to be made is straight and
preferably young, with green bark.
• Always cover the fresh graft with a plastic bag to create a warm,
humid environment.
• If grafting in full sun, cover the plastic bag with a brown paper bag
to prevent excessive build-up of heat.
• Do not over water after grafting.
• Always match the cambium layers on one side when tying the graft.
Don’t worry if both sides are not matching.

Mango
Key issues 13

Hygiene
Maintain a high level of hygiene at all times. Periodically dip grafting
knives and secateurs in methylated spirits to sterilise them. It is also
advisable to spray the stocks and dip the scion wood in a 0.2% solution
of mancozeb fungicide.

Cleft graft
Prepare the scion wood by making two sloping cuts at its base to form
a wedge 2.5 to 3 cm long, depending on the width of the stock. Match
the thickest side of the wedge with the cambium. Cut off the rootstock
20 to 30 cm above soil level and make a clean-edged cut down the
centre of the stem for about 3 cm (Figure 4).
Insert the scion wood wedge into the rootstock cut to match the
cambium on the thick side of the scion. Tie the union firmly with
grafting tape to seal it to prevent moisture loss, and to stop scion
movement (Figure 4).

Whip graft
A whip graft consists of a single, angled-cut through both the root-
stock and the scion wood. This cut would be similar to the first cut used
on the cleft graft, though it need not be as long. Make only one angled
cut on both the rootstock and the scion, preferably about the same
length.
When tying the graft, start taping at the bottom of the graft and finish
above the top. Match the cambium of the scion and the stock on at
least one side during this process.

Figure 4. Cleft (left) and whip grafts

Mango
14 Key issues

Covering the graft

The success rate of grafting is better if the newly completed graft is
covered with a small, plastic bag and tied on the bottom to allow heat
and humidity to build up. Further covering is not needed in a shaded
greenhouse. If grafted rootstocks are in the sun, place a small, brown
paper bag over the plastic bag to prevent excessive heat build-up.

Removing bags and grafting tape

Remove the plastic and paper bags once the graft has started active
growth and is 2 to 3 cm long. This time may vary from two to four
weeks. The new shoot growth is very brittle, so be careful when
handling the plant.
The grafting tape should not be removed until the first new growth has
matured. If the tape is left on too long, it may restrict growth by
becoming too tight at the union area. The time taken for removing the
tape will vary from two to four months. Young trees can be planted out
in the field at this stage.

Figure 5. Cover the new graft with a small plastic bag for best growth

Care after grafting

Over watering of recently grafted plants is the most common fault.
Rootstocks have little leaf surface remaining after grafting and water
loss through transpiration is minimal. Periodically remove sucker
growth that may emerge from the rootstock after grafting.

Mango
Key issues 15

Economics
Producers considering growing mangoes should prepare a thorough economic analysis
to assess the profitability of their investment. As mango production is continuing to
increase, profitability will depend on market expansion and development of new market
opportunities. At certain times the domestic market can be oversupplied, leading to very
low prices for all but outstanding quality fruit. Higher returns at the beginning and end
of the season are still attracting investment.

Analysing horticultural investments .................................. 15

Discounted cash flow analysis ........................................... 16
Variations in mango price and yield ................................... 19
Gross margin analysis ........................................................ 20
Conclusions ...................................................................... 21

Analysing horticultural investments

Several methods can be used to analyse the profitability of a horticul-
tural investment. Two analysis methods have been chosen to give an
overview of the profitability of mango production.

Discounted cash flow analysis

Discounted cash flow analysis is based on the observation that a dollar
T today is worth more than the promise of a dollar in the future. It
HIN cash converts a future sum of money to its present value, using a discount
ted es
is c oun sis giv of
D ly rate. The discount rate represents the decline in present value of a
ana cture f
flow best pi ment o r dollar for each successive year or, alternatively, the ‘real’ return of
the evelop nt ove
d e
the nvestm . capital if it was invested elsewhere. Without discounting, comparisons
i
th e ti e
m between investments would be more difficult and sometimes mean-
ingless. A discounted cash flow analysis includes all the incoming and
outgoing cash flows the orchard is likely to experience over the life of
the crop. It does not take into account financing issues or taxation.

Gross margin analysis

The simplest analysis is a gross margin, which looks at the costs and
returns at a steady state yield. The gross margin is a valuable analysis
and easy to understand, but it does not take into account fixed costs
or capital expenditure. As these are often a large part of expenditure,
growers should also consider an analysis that includes these
components.

Mango
16 Key issues

Discounted cash flow analysis

Background to the analysis

This discounted cash flow analysis examines the profitability of a
hypothetical mango farm in the Mareeba-Dimbulah Irrigation Area.
A farm size of 27 ha (5022 trees) is used. This farm size is chosen as
representative for the region and is considered to be a ‘living area’ for
a family unit.
This analysis allows for the timing of the costs and benefits over the life
of the enterprise, which was assumed as 30 years. Yields and costs for
the model mango farm were determined with the assistance of mango
producers and DPI technical officers.

Assumptions
Several assumptions are made about the farm and its production.
When checking this analysis for your situation, check that these
assumptions are true for you.
• The hypothetical mango farm has 27 ha of Kensington Pride
mangoes under irrigation.
• A planting density of 186 trees/ha is used with 6 m between trees
and rows 9 m apart.
• The yields used are given in Table 1. The maximum yield is
assumed to peak at 12 tray equivalents (7 kg trays) per tree. Tray
equivalents are used because mangoes can be marketed in trays or
in bins (juicing and slicing). Steady-state or full production is
achieved in the eighth year.
Table 1. Mango yield estimates used for the model mango farm

Year Yield (7 kg tray equivalents/tree)

1 0
2 0
3 1
4 3
5 4
6 7
7 10
8+ 12
• Forty per cent of the mangoes produced are sold as first grade, 40%
as second grade, 10% for slicing and the remainder for juicing.
• The prices received are:
• $14/tray for first grade mangoes
• $10.50/tray for second grade mangoes
• $0.54/kg for slicing mangoes
• $0.34/kg for juicing mangoes.
Slicing and juicing prices are net of bin hire costs.
• Based on these price and yield assumptions, the average price per
tray equivalent was $10.42.

Mango
Key issues 17

• First and second grade mangoes are sold to the Sydney market. The
slicing and juicing mangoes are sold for processing in Brisbane.
• A project life of 30 years is used with a discount rate of 6% (real
rate) to calculate the net present value. The productive life of the
orchard was considered to be 30 years because new and better
mango varieties are being released. Although the existing trees
planted are physiologically still growing and producing fruit, tree
obsolescence becomes more important than tree age.

Harvesting and marketing

Harvesting and marketing costs are calculated on a per tray or per tray
equivalent basis. Table 2 shows the harvesting and marketing costs
used in the model mango farm. The total harvesting and marketing
costs vary from year to year due to the different yields. Only the eighth
year figures are presented in Table 2, however, the cost per tray figures
can be applied to the given yields in previous years. The total
harvesting and marketing costs from the eighth year are estimated to
be $12 551/ha.
Table 2. Harvesting and marketing costs in the model mango farm

Item Cost/tray ($) Cost/ha ($)

Picking (casual labour) 1.00 2,232.00
Desapping, sorting, packing, casual labour, etc. 0.59 1,048.29
Dipping 0.12 267.84
Gas 0.06 133.92
Pallet hire 0.05 89.28
Packaging 2.07 3,696.20
Commission (12.5%) 1.30 2,324.85
Levies 0.10 178.56
Freight – Sydney 1.45 2,580.75

Capital costs
An annual capital requirement cost is calculated based on the replace-
ment value of farm assets and the opportunity cost of the land. The
cost represents an annuity or payment of equal instalments for capital
in 1999 dollars. An estimated $48 114/year is required to cover
capital requirements for the model mango farm.
Table 3 summarises the capital equipment requirements for the 27 ha
model farm.

Mango
18 Key issues

Table 3. Capital costs for mango production using the 27 ha model farm

Capital item Value ($) Year of purchase

Tractor – 100HP 72,500 3,13,23
Tractor – 70HP 45,000 0,15
Truck – 4 tonne* 17,500 3,18
Fork-lift* 6,000 3,18
Utility* 15,000 0,10,20
Spray machine 22,000 3
Spray machine pump replacement 8,000 13,23
Boom sprayer 2,750 0,10,20
Herbicide sprayer 2,000 0,10,20
Slasher 5,000 0,10,20
Cool room 30,000 6
Machinery in packing shed 75,000 3
Crates 21,384 3,18
Pruning equipment 1,500 1,18
Pruning equipment (replacement) 825 2,3,4,5...30
Land preparation 31,050 0
Marking planting sites 502 0
Planting labour (casual) 1,575 0
Trees (grown on farm) 10,044 0
Sprinklers/laterals 15,066 0
Sprinklers/laterals (replacement) 600 1,2,3,4,...30
Main lines (irrigation) 44,696 0
Pump 15,000 0,15
Power to pump 15,000 0
Water (nominal allocation) 33,413 0
Filter 3,500 0
Fertigator 800 0
Miscellaneous tools 5,000 0,15
Packing shed 100,000 3
Storage shed 20,000 0
Land** 126,000 0
* Second-hand market values
** The value of land in this discounted cash flow analysis represents the opportunity cost of
the bare land ($4500/ha) which was cleared with access to channel irrigation.

Results
Table 4 details the discounted cash flow for the 27 ha model mango
farm. The farm profit (NPV [Net Present Value] format) was $33 581/
farm/year, $6.69/tree/year or $0.79/tray equivalent/year. Since the
return is positive, the prospect of growing mangoes, based on the
model farm, is considered acceptable and profitable.
Table 4. Summary of economic analysis for mangoes using the 27 ha farm
model

Financial description $/tray equiv. $/tree/yr $/farm/yr

(a) Gross income* 10.42 87.76 440,746
(b) Variable costs
Machinery operations 0.03 0.28 1,395
Pruning & hedging 0.32 2.68 13,475
Fertiliser 0.50 4.21 21,134
Herbicide 0.10 0.87 4,360
Insecticide 0.20 1.71 8,581

Mango
Key issues 19

Financial description $/tray equiv. $/tree/yr $/farm/yr

Fungicide 0.34 2.89 14,498
Irrigation ($42.35/mL) 0.12 1.00 5,033
Harvesting & marketing 5.62 47.39 237,986
(c) Fixed costs
Repairs & maintenance 0.27 2.31 11,589
Fuel & oil** 0.05 0.40 2,000
Electricity 0.19 1.59 8,000
Administration 0.20 1.65 8,300
Owner/operator allowance 0.54 4.52 22,701
(d) Planting & capital requirements 1.14 9.58 48,114
Farm profit (a – b – c – d) $0.79 $6.69 $33,581
Internal rate of return (%) 9.55
Payback period (years) 18
Peak overdraft ($) 765,930
Time of peak overdraft (years) 5
* Achieved from eighth year onwards.
** Used to operate the farm utility and other farm machinery not already covered.

The peak overdraft, which occurred in the fifth year, was $765 930
and the payback period was 18 years. The payback period represents
the time required to recover the initial project outlay.

Variations in mango price and yield

Farm profit is dependent on yield and price. Table 5 shows how profit
varies with changing price and yield. Negative figures indicate that for
the particular price and yield combination it is unprofitable to grow
mangoes on the model farm.
Table 5. Farm profit ($/farm/year) with changes in prices and yields,
respectively.

Price* ($/tray)
1st grade 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00
2nd grade 4.50 6.50 8.50 10.50 12.50 14.50 16.50
Yield**
4 -162526 -142215 -121904 -101593 -81282 -60971 -40660
6 -159199 -128732 -98266 -67800 -47333 -6867 23599
8 -155871 -115250 -74628 -34006 6616 47237 87659
10 -152544 -101767 -50990 -213 50564 101342 152119
12 -149217 -88285 -27352 33581 94513 155446 216378
14 -145890 -74802 -3714 67374 138462 209550 280638
16 -142563 -61320 19924 101167 182411 263654 344898
18 -139236 -47837 43562 134961 226360 317759 409158
20 -135909 -34355 67200 168754 270308 371863 473417
22 -132582 -20872 90838 202547 314257 425967 537677
* The slicing and juicing prices remain constant at $0.54/kg and $0.34/kg
** Tray equivalent per tree at steady-state yield (eighth year onwards).

Based on the prices used for the model farm, the minimum yield
required to be profitable is 12 trays/tree. Similarly, based on the yield
used for the model farm, the minimum prices required to be profitable
are $14.00/tray for first grade mangoes and $10.50/tray for second
grade fruit.

Mango
20 Key issues

The mango farm profitability was price sensitive for first grade prices
and second grade prices below the control prices used in the model
farm. A $4.00 reduction in both first and second grade prices from the
control prices used in the model farm produces a negative farm profit
regardless of any improvement in mango yield. With a $2.00 reduction
in the control prices a yield of 16 trays/tree is required before the model
farm is profitable.
If the prices received increased by $2.00/tray above the control prices
used in the model farm, then a yield of 8 trays/tree would be required
before the model farm was profitable. Such a yield represents a one-
third reduction in the control yield used in the model farm. Similarly,
an increase in both the first and second grade prices by $4.00/tray
would require a yield of at least 8 trays/tree to be profitable.

Conclusion
The establishment cost of the model farm is $662 279. A payback
period of 18 years is required to recover the initial project outlay. The
peak overdraft, which occurs in the fifth year, is $765 930.
Mango production based on the model farm is profitable with farm
profit figures equivalent to $0.79/tray equivalent/year, $6.69/tree/year
or $33 581/farm/year. Included in the fixed costs is an allowance of
$22 701/year for the owner/operator.
Based on the prices used for the model farm the minimum yield
required to be profitable is 12 trays/tree. Similarly, based on the yield
used for the model farm the minimum prices required to be profitable
are $14.00/tray for first grade mangoes and $10.50/tray for second
grade fruit.

Gross margin analysis

The income and expenditures are slightly different in the gross margin
analysis to those shown in the discounted cash flow analysis due to
some differences in the model farm used.

Assumptions
• The farm grows Kensington Pride mangoes with a planting density
of 186 trees/ha.
• A yield of 12 tray equivalents per tree.
• Sales were divided into 60% sold in trays, 30% sold for slicing and
10% sold for juicing.
The gross margin for the model mango farm is shown in Table 6.

Mango
Key issues 21

Table 6. Gross margin calculation

Item Assumptions TOTAL $ / ha

Income
First grade mangoes $14/tray x 60% 18,746.00
Slicing mangoes $0.54/kg x 30% 2,531.09
Juicing mangoes $0.34 x 10% 531.22
(a) Total income 21,808.30
Variable costs
Slashing (fuel & oil) 8 x 0.5hrs/ha x $3.91/hr 15.64
Spraying (fuel & oil) 18 x 0.4hrs/ha x $5.57/hr 40.10
Hand pruning 1 x 55.8hrs/ha x $11/hr 613.80
Contract hedging 1 x 0.36hrs/ha x $200/hr 72.00
Fertiliser 583.28
Growth regulant 433.94
Herbicide 161.48
Insecticide 447.09
Fungicide 745.12
Irrigation & pumping* 5.5ML/ha @ $45.70/ML 251.35
Harvesting & marketing 11,582.96
(b) Total variable costs 14,946.76

GROSS MARGIN (a – b) 6,861.54

* The $/ML is different to the DCF analysis as it is looking at the eighth year only, and is not
an average over the life of the orchard.

Results
Based on the assumptions listed, the gross margin for the model mango
farm is about $6860/ha. This amount does not take into account fixed
costs such as capital expenditure, electricity, administration,
depreciation, etc.

Conclusions
Both the gross margin analysis and the discounted cash flow analysis
suggest that growing mangoes can be profitable under good manage-
ment. However, anyone thinking of investing in mangoes should
undertake a detailed economic analysis.

Mango
22 Key issues

Varieties
Hundreds of named mango varieties are grown throughout the world. India alone has
more than 1000 of them. Mango varieties vary in colour, size, shape and flavour. Some
are fibrous while others have no fibre. Some varieties are eaten green, and some are eaten
green and as a ripe fruit. Choosing which variety to grow is one of the key decisions for
a new grower.

The basis for selecting varieties .......................................... 22

The basis for selecting varieties

Selecting which variety to grow involves several considerations:
• The markets being targeted. Some varieties are more suited to
processing, some to the fresh market and some are dual purpose.
The choice will depend on where you intend to specialise. All
T ty
HIN arie markets, but particularly export markets, require fruit of high
a n go v f the
has
m ho n
eac wn i quality with good shelf life. There is no point in growing varieties
DPI es for es gro
d i
gui variet sland. targeted at the export market in areas where it is difficult to achieve
n
mai Quee
n s in
ere nce fruit of high quality (for example wet coastal areas).
ef 4
he r ge 2
he ck t n 6 pa • The performance and suitability of the variety for the district. In
C ectio
S cooler areas Kensington Pride may have fruit set problems. Wet
windy weather leads to increased bacterial black spot, so avoid
varieties such as Keitt.
• Management requirements. Nam Doc Mai is extremely suscepti-
ble to powdery mildew at flowering and needs constant monitoring
and fungicide applications to achieve good fruit set.
• Variety opportunities. Late maturing and green-eating varieties
can exploit niche markets.
Despite the large number of varieties available, most markets want
only a few of the most well known varieties. The choice of variety to
be grown depends most on the market strategy you will use. Most
Australians prefer the flavour of Kensington Pride and other varieties
in Australia are mainly used to extend the season.
New varieties are becoming available. These include B74 (to be
named), Kensington Red, Honey Gold and Celebration. More new
varieties are likely to be released from the DPI’s mango breeding

Mango
 Key issues 23

program by 2004. As mangoes can be topworked to a new variety,

growers will be able to change the variety they grow if they can see an
advantage for the change.
Table 7 shows the varying maturity times for three varieties grown in
Queensland. Maturity times will vary a little each year.
Table 8 shows the harvest time for Kensington Pride in 12 Australian
growing areas.

Table 7. Approximate maturity times for three mango varieties

Variety Dry Tropics Atherton Central Burnett South

Tableland Queensland Queensland
Kensington Pride (early)
November to Mid December Late December Mid January Mid January
late December to late January to late January to late February to early March
R2E2 (mid)
Early December Late December Early to mid Late January Mid to late
to early January to late February January to mid to mid February February
February
Keitt (late)
Late January Mid February Mid February Early March Mid March
to early March to early March to early March to early May to mid May

Mango
Mango

24
Table 8. Harvest time for Kensington Pride in 12 Australian growing areas

Area Harvest time

September October November December January February March

Kununurra WA

Darwin NT

Katherine NT

Dry Tropics Qld

Broome WA

Tableland Qld

Carnarvon WA

Central Qld

Burnett Qld

Southern Qld

Key issues
Northern NSW

Gingin WA
Key issues 25

Irrigation management
Although mango trees can survive prolonged periods without water, water stress at
critical times in the development of the crop can affect fruit yield and quality. Careful
management of irrigation is important for good orchard performance.

Water requirements of mangoes ........................................ 25

Irrigation essentials ........................................................... 27
Irrigation scheduling .......................................................... 27
Monitoring methods.......................................................... 28
Soil moisture sensors ........................................................ 32
The neutron probe ............................................................. 32
Capacitance probes ........................................................... 33
Evaporation pan ................................................................ 34

Water requirements of mangoes

Water has several roles in the mango plant. It is part of the structure
of the plant as well as providing a transport system for nutrients and
plant products through the tree.
An understanding of the mango growth cycle is important when
planning the irrigation program because the water requirement de-
T - pends on the growth stage of the tree as well as the climate. Each
HIN esenta
r e p r o f growth stage has a specific need for water.
rial timing es is
icto l
A p of the th cyc tion
tion grow roduc The root system of a mango tree has feeder roots and deeper taproots.
go p
man e Crop guide. The feeder roots extend around the tree to within 30 cm of the trunk
h
in t hand y
and are usually active down to 80 cm. To get the best efficiency from
the feeder root system, water must be supplied to all of this area of the
soil. The taproots also supply water to the tree. They have been
recorded accessing water more than 3 m deep.

Flowering and fruit set

The onset of flowering marks a rapid increase in the water needs of the
tree. Large quantities of water are lost due to the large surface area of
the flowers and the small fruit.

Mango
26 Key issues

Water stress during flowering can result in poor flower development

and will limit fruit set. Start watering when most floral buds have
begun to grow. Water requirements fall slightly once flowering is
completed.

Fruit development
As fruit develops, and with the onset of warmer weather, water
requirements increase, reaching a peak three to four weeks before
harvest. Yield will be lost if the tree’s water requirements are not met.
Water stress during fruit development results in increased premature
fruit drop and reduced fruit size. The fruit will be more susceptible to
disease, and have reduced shelf life and storage quality.
Any water stress during the last month of fruit development can
increase the risk of sunburn. To overcome this, irrigation may be
needed during the hottest part of the day.

Preharvest
Reducing irrigation before harvest helps to advance the maturity of
the fruit and increase fruit dry matter content. Irrigation should be
reduced one to two weeks before harvest; however, care is needed as
reducing irrigation too much or too early may result in smaller fruit and
increase the risk of fruit splitting if it rains during this period.
Growth regulators
Growing the crop Postharvest vegetative growth
Section 3 page 29
Restart irrigation immediately after harvest to encourage early shoot
growth. An early, consistent vegetative flush provides a new efficient
canopy that enables the tree to increase its carbohydrate reserves. This
results in a more uniform flowering response. Adequate irrigation
(based on soil moisture monitoring systems) during this period will
improve nutrient uptake and the effectiveness of growth regulators.

Dormancy
Withholding irrigation in the pre-flowering period helps to slow
growth, forcing the tree into a dormant phase. Dormancy is important
for flower induction as it allows the vegetative flush to mature in
readiness for flowering. Cooler weather and low soil moisture usually
bring on dormancy. Irrigation during this period can activate new
vegetative growth that will not mature in time to flower, leading to a
reduction in flowering.
By withholding irrigation during this period you improve the floral
induction stimulus, increase the number of terminals likely to flower
and improve the final yield of the tree. Irrigation is normally withheld
for up to two months after the postharvest flush has matured until
flowering.

Mango
Key issues 27

Irrigation essentials

A suitable water supply

A good water supply is essential. The water supply should have
sufficient volume to be able to irrigate the whole farm with up to
280 000 L of water per hectare per week.
Water quality is also important. Water with more than 2 deciSiemens/
metre salinity may cause leaf tipburning and a reduction in yield.
Other water quality problems can include a high algal content or iron
T
HIN igation bacteria, which will require special filtering systems before the water
rr r
an i plie is used for irrigation.
o n sult nt sup our
C ipme r in y
equ esigne et them
or d and g p an An effective irrigation system
a
are develo plan. The irrigation system should be capable of delivering the required
to tion
a
irrig amounts of water when needed.
Under-tree minisprinklers are best suited for mango irrigation because
water can be kept off the foliage and cover the full root zone. During
the first two years, place one minisprinkler beside each tree and set it
in the micro-spray mode to limit the spread of water. Towards the end
of the second year, change it to the minisprinkler mode to increase the
diameter of watering and encourage the roots to spread.
A mature mango tree with a canopy diameter of 6 m will have a peak
water demand of 1500 to 2000 L of water per tree per week. The
irrigation system should be designed so that you are able to supply this
quantity of water if required.

Irrigation scheduling
Deciding when to start watering and how much water to apply is
referred to as irrigation scheduling. Scheduling methods include:
measuring plant water status, meteorological methods (including pan
evaporation), water budgeting, and soil water monitoring. Using these
techniques is the only way you can be sure that your trees are
adequately supplied with water.
Monitoring soil moisture maximises water use efficiency and provides
environmental benefits by minimising leaching and runoff into the
environment caused by overwatering.
Most of the feeder roots of the mango are in the top 80 cm of the soil,
so soil moisture monitoring devices need to concentrate on this part
of the soil profile.
A range of equipment and techniques is available for monitoring soil
moisture. A brief comparison of the main systems is shown in Table 9.
Consultants can help you set up a sound scheduling system.

Mango
28 Key issues

Table 9. Comparison of main soil moisture monitoring systems

System Advantages Disadvantages

Tensiometers
· Relatively cheap · Labour intensive to collect and
· Easy to install record data
· Can be read by growers · Require regular maintenance
· Allows continuous monitoring · Can be inaccurate in extremely wet
or dry soil
· Less accurate in the top 10 cm of soil
· Not accurate in sandy soils
Capacitance probes
e.g. Enviroscan, · Continuous monitoring · Expensive
Gopher, Diviner · Accurate at all depths and for · Need skill in interpreting data
all soils
· Enables rapid reading and
recording of results
Neutron probe
· Portable, can be moved · Not suitable for continuous
around sites monitoring
· Very reliable and accurate · Equipment is expensive and
radioactive. Use a consultant who
owns the equipment
· Less accurate in the top 10 cm of soil
· Less accurate in sandy soil because
of low sampling frequency
Evaporation pan
· No in-field measurement needed · Requires a good understanding of
as system uses weather data to soil characteristics and regular
predict irrigation need calculations
· Cannot assess the effectiveness
of rainfall received
· Does not assess the effectiveness
of the irrigation system
Soil moisture sensors
e.g. gypsum · Relatively cheap · Labour intensive to collect the data
blocks · Easy to install · Can be inaccurate in very wet
· Can be read by the grower or dry soil
· Continuous monitoring possible · Less accurate in the top 10 cm of soil

Monitoring methods

Tensiometers
Tensiometers measure the force with which soil water is held within
the soil. Irrigation is applied whenever the soil dries to a predetermined
T deficit level. Tensiometers are relatively inexpensive compared with
HIN seful probe systems such as the Enviroscan. Cheaper tensiometers can be
au it
P I has Water ng
D t — us i made and used in conjunction with a Soilspec electronic vacuum
kle n
boo irrigatio —that f gauge (cost $400). This gauge gives greater precision and is particu-
t: rs to
righ iomete rry ou n.
n s
te the w o a io
t larly economical if you want to use several tensiometers.
k e s n g irrig es in
a li c
t edu eren 4. A tensiometer consists of four basic parts—a hollow tube filled with
sch the ref age 2
p
See ction 6 water and algaecide, a ceramic tip, a water reservoir and a vacuum
S e
gauge which reads water tension on a scale of 0 to 100 kPa (Figure 6).
In saturated soil the vacuum gauge displays 0 kPa. As the soil dries over
several days, water moves from inside the instrument, through the

Mango
Key issues 29

porous ceramic tip, into the soil. The gauge reading steadily increases
to a maximum of about 90 kPa. When the soil is re-wet after rain or
irrigation, water moves from the soil back into the tensiometer and
gauge readings fall.

Monitoring sites
Tensiometers are installed at monitoring sites throughout the orchard
after trees are established. They are then left in place. Use at least one
monitoring site for each variety or block. At each site, install two
tensiometers. Put one 30 cm long tensiometer in the major root zone
at a depth of about 15 to 20 cm and install one 90 cm long tensiometer
about 80 cm deep. Place tensiometers on the north-eastern side of
trees, inside the dripline in a position representative of where the soil
is wetted. Placement of tensiometers is shown in Figure 7.

Installation
Assemble tensiometers and fill with good quality water to which
algaecide has been added. Leave them to stand in a bucket of water at
least overnight, but preferably for one to two days. The water does not
need to be pre-boiled. Tensiometers are more reliable if an appropriate
Figure 6. Parts of a standard
tensiometer
vacuum pump is used to remove any air. Top up the tensiometers with
more water if necessary. They are now ready to install.

Figure 7. Placement of shallow and deep tensiometers

Mango
30 Key issues

Carry the tensiometers to the installation site with the tips either in
water or wrapped in wet rags. Provided the ground is moist and well
cultivated, the shallow tensiometer can be pushed 15 to 20 cm deep
into the soil. Don’t push too hard. The tips are strong, but can crack
under excessive pressure. Only experience teaches how hard is too
hard. At $30 per tip, this can turn out to be an expensive lesson. If you
reach a hard soil layer, take the tensiometer out and try somewhere else
or use the deep tensiometer procedure.

Figure 8. Installing deep tensiometers

To install the deep tensiometer, follow these instructions in conjunc-

tion with Figure 8. Make a hole to the required depth, keeping the
excavated soil nearby in a pile. A 50 mm (2 inch) auger is the best tool.
Place the tensiometer in the hole, over to one side. The next step is
critical because good contact between the ceramic tip and the sur-
rounding soil is important.
Take the most crumbly, moist soil from the dirt pile and pack it around
the tip at the base of the hole. A piece of 10 to 15 mm diameter dowel
is useful for packing. Don’t over-compact the soil into plasticine, but
remove any large air gaps. Continue replacing soil until the hole is
filled. It doesn’t matter which soil is used after you have packed the first
5 cm above the tip. Friable topsoil from a few metres away can be used
to create a slight mound around the tensiometer. This minimises water
draining down beside the tensiometer, leading to false readings.
Covers made from silver/blue insulation foil can be placed over the
tensiometers to minimise temperature fluctuations and algal growth.
The gauge can be left exposed for easy reading.
The tensiometers are now ready to operate. Use the vacuum pump to
again remove air bubbles. Tensiometers may take a few irrigation cycles
to settle, so don’t take much notice of the readings for the first few days.
During this period, air gaps may appear in the tensiometer. Simply refill

Mango
Key issues 31

with algaecide-treated water. Within a week of installation, readings

should rise and fall with irrigation/rainfall.
Clearly mark tensiometer locations otherwise tractors and other
equipment may damage them.

Reading
Read tensiometers before 8 a.m. Read at least twice a week but
preferably every day or second day and at the same time of day. Lightly
tap the gauge before reading.
The shallow tensiometer indicates when to water. The deep tensiom-
eter indicates when the right amount of water has been applied.
T
AN
O RT re a
IMP gures a ust Irrigating using tensiometers
i j
se f . Ad
The de only o your . Start watering when the shallow tensiometer reads 20 kPa (in sandy
gui ation t ditions soils) and 30 to 40 kPa (in loam and clay loam soils). Stop watering
irrig g con
in
grow
when the reading on the deep tensiometer falls to 10 kPa. Reposition
tensiometers every second year in winter to the new dripline position.
Once a week, use a vacuum pump to remove accumulated air and
check the gauges are working. Refill tensiometers with clean water.

Troubleshooting tensiometer problems

No water in the tensiometer, gauge reads 0
There is a crack in the ceramic tip or a faulty seal. Fill the tensiometer
with water and apply suction with a vacuum pump. A stream of large
bubbles will indicate the problem area, usually a cracked tip or a
missing o-ring.
Air entering over several days, gauge registering more than 5
There is a hairline crack in the tip or a substantial air gap in the soil
around the tip. Remove the tensiometer. If there are no obvious tip
cracks, re-install it. If the problem persists, replace the tip.
No change in readings over several days
The gauge may be faulty or blocked. Check the gauge is working by:
• applying suction to the tensiometer with a vacuum pump
• removing the gauge, rinsing with clean water and sucking it. If the
needle does not move, the gauge is faulty.
Tensiometer readings increase beyond 80 then fall to 0, accompa-
nied by air in the tensiometer
The soil has become too dry for the tensiometer to operate. After
irrigation, refill the tensiometer and treat as if it had just been installed.
If this happens frequently, consider whether you are under-irrigating.
If you are happy with the irrigation rate, try installing the shallow
tensiometer slightly deeper. This should never be a problem with the
deep tensiometer

Mango
32 Key issues

Soil moisture sensors

Soil moisture sensors consist of gypsum blocks buried in the soil at
strategic points and allowed to assume the same moisture content as
T the surrounding soil. A pair of wires hooked to the blocks is left
HIN seful exposed at the soil surface and a digital ohmmeter is connected to take
au it
P I has Water ng
D t — us i readings (Figure 9). The electrical resistance recorded by the ohmme-
kle n
boo irrigatio —that f ter is measured as water tension in centibars (cb) or kilopascals (kPa).
t: rs to
righ iomete rry ou n.
n s
te the w o a io
t
k e s n g irrig es in Monitoring sites for the blocks are set up in a similar manner to
a li c
t edu eren 4.
sch the ref age 2
tensiometers. Two blocks are placed at each site: one about 15 cm
p
See ction 6 deep and the other about 80 cm deep. Positioning of the blocks and
S e
installation in holes is also similar. Again there must be good contact
between the blocks and the surrounding soil and the hole filled to the
soil surface.

Figure 9. Gypsum blocks. Left: placement. Right: taking readings using an

ohmmeter connected to the exposed wires

Irrigation is similar to that recommended for tensiometers because the

gypsum blocks are recording the same soil tension readings. These
blocks may need replacing in some soils about every three years.

The neutron probe

The neutron probe is a sophisticated device consisting of a probe
containing a neutron source and a detector (Figure 10). Several access
holes are set up in the orchard and the probe is brought to these sites
at regular intervals. The probe is lowered into an access hole and
neutrons from a radioactive source are emitted into the soil profile.
When these fast neutrons collide with hydrogen atoms in water, they
slow down dramatically and are deflected back to the detector, which
only responds to slow neutrons. If the soil is dry, the neutrons do not
slow down and are not detected. Readings are taken at various depths
to provide an overall indication of soil moisture within the profile.

Mango
Key issues 33

The probe is very expensive and is generally used only by consultants

to monitor and provide recommendations for watering. Although
readings are more accurate than those from tensiometers, its value is
dependent on how regularly readings are made.

Capacitance probes
Capacitance probes, such as the Enviroscan (Figure 11), the Gopher
and the Diviner, are continuous moisture monitoring devices based on
capacitance sensors. The sensors are mounted on probes that have
slots every 10 cm to accommodate the snap-in sensors. These probes
are then placed within vertical PVC access tubes installed semi-
permanently in the orchard. The probes are generally left in place for
Figure 10. Neutron probe
recording readings at a site the season and then moved to another tube or site as required.
Sensors are positioned on the probes to provide readings at specific
depths. Measurements from the sensors are relayed at regular intervals
through a cable to a data logger, where they are recorded. Data from
the logger are downloaded to a computer every few days to show water
use and to provide recommendations for watering. Figure 11 shows the
main components.

Figure 11. Diagrammatic representation of an Enviroscan probe

Mango
34 Key issues

Interpretation of the data requires skill. Consultants should be used to

Irrigation consultants set up the system and provide at least the initial advice. Lightning
Section 6 page 7
strikes can be a problem with this equipment.

Evaporation pan
The evaporation pan technique uses evaporation figures from a pan
evaporimeter at a weather station to calculate water requirements.
The calculations are based on the fact that plant water use is directly
related to evaporation. Evaporation figures are usually available from
the Bureau of Meteorology.
These evaporation figures are then used to calculate how much water
the trees have used by multiplying the evaporation figure with a crop
factor. For mangoes this crop factor will vary, depending on growth
stage of the tree. For mangoes this will vary between 0, when the tree
is dormant, to 0.8, when the tree is at peak water demand. The result
will give you a figure in millimetres of water used. You should then
apply that amount of water to the trees. The timing and length of each
irrigation will depend on your soil type. Ask local soil conservation
officers for advice on the water holding characteristics of your soil.
This calculation does not take into account water lost through runoff.

Mango
Key issues 35

Nutrition
Good plant nutrition is one of the vital components of achieving good yields and fruit
quality. Both deficiencies and excesses of plant nutrients can adversely affect fruit yield
and quality. Fertiliser use has to be carefully managed to ensure a balanced supply of
all nutrients is maintained.

Why nutrition needs to be carefully managed .................... 35

The managed approach—monitoring nutrients .................. 36
Leaf and soil analysis ......................................................... 36
How to use leaf and soil analyses ...................................... 37
Understanding the important nutrients ............................. 38
Trace elements (micronutrients) ......................................... 41
Crop nutrient removal ....................................................... 42
Application methods ......................................................... 43

Why nutrition needs to be carefully managed

The simple approach to fertilising mangoes involves applying fertiliser
based on a recipe that states a certain number of grams per year of tree
age or per metre of canopy area. This is a reasonable approach but
without soil testing it can lead to excessively low or high levels of some
nutrients. This can cause several problems that include:
• reduced yields from nutrient imbalance
• excessive vegetative flushing at the wrong time, reducing fruit
quality
• lower fruit quality (green skin at ripe), jelly seed, internal break-
down) from nutrient imbalance
• contamination of the groundwater from excess nutrients being
leached out of the root zone.
Nutrient levels in the soil and tree need to be carefully monitored to
avoid these problems. Nutrient monitoring improves yield and fruit
quality, reduces fertiliser costs and is kinder to the environment.

Mango
36 Key issues

The managed approach—monitoring nutrients

Regular monitoring of soil and leaf nutrient levels will ensure that
nutrient application is related to crop demand. Three monitoring tools
are used:
• Pre-plant soil analysis ensures that soil nutrients are at required
levels before planting. It is particularly important to allow for
adjustment of insoluble nutrients such as phosphorus and calcium,
which are difficult to adjust once trees are in the ground.
• Annual leaf analysis in bearing trees allows the fertiliser program
to be fine-tuned each year to keep all nutrients within the optimum
range. It allows variables such as the season, crop load and the
condition of the tree to be taken into account.
• Regular soil analysis in bearing trees ensures that soil pH is kept
within the desired range. It allows a watch to be kept on the
important balance between pH, calcium, magnesium and potassium.

Leaf and soil analysis

Leaf and soil analysis (Figure 12) is best done in May to July before
floral buds break. Buy leaf and soil sampling kits from the local farm
supply store, follow the sampling instructions and send samples away
for analysis. Leaf samples should be taken from the recently matured
autumn flush on all sides of the tree.
Sample five to ten leaves from each of 10 to 20 trees. Do not sample
leaves that have been sprayed with foliar nutrients. Sample each
variety and block separately. Results of the analyses should be back in
about two weeks. The laboratory will interpret the results and provide
recommendations of appropriate fertilisers and rates to bring the
nutrient levels within the optimum ranges. A guide to optimum leaf
levels for healthy cropping trees is shown in Table 10.

Figure 12. Taking soil samples

Mango
Key issues 37

Table 10. Optimum leaf nutrient ranges for bearing mango trees

Nutrient Optimum range

Nitrogen 1.0 – 1.5%
Phosphorus 0.08 – 0.18%
Potassium 0.3 – 1.2%
Calcium 2.0 – 3.5%
Magnesium 0.15 – 0.4%
Sulphur 0.2 – 0.6%
Iron 70 – 200 ppm
Manganese 60 – 500 ppm
Zinc 20 – 150 ppm
Copper 10 – 20 ppm
Boron 50 – 80 ppm
Sodium <0.20%
Chloride <0.25%

How to use leaf and soil analyses

Leaf and soil analyses taken only once have a limited value. Samples
should be taken each year. The changes in soil and leaf nutrient levels
from the previous year, and from the year before, are as important as
the current levels. Any change that was made in the amount of
fertiliser applied should be reflected in the changed levels of nutrients.
The analyses will also indicate the amount of response in nutrient
status from the change in fertiliser amount.

The adjustment technique

To make leaf and soil analysis information really useful, you must
maintain and record a fertiliser program for several years. The program
should have known rates of fertiliser and a set system of application
times, because this technique is one of adjustment, up or down, based
on long-term trends.
Changing the rate or timing constantly leaves no base line from which
to adjust. The leaf and soil analysis indicates if the amount of fertiliser
applied on a given block should be increased or decreased compared
with the previous year. Without several years of records, the leaf and
soil levels do not indicate the level of fertiliser to apply.
Recommendations based on one analysis are a good starting point but
are only an educated guess based on local experience. They are not as
good as the adjustment technique based on annual soil and leaf
analysis and good records of fertiliser products, rates and timing.
Here is an example of the adjustment technique:
• In the past year you used 1.5 kg of potassium sulphate per tree and
potassium leaf levels were 0.25%. You know you haven’t used
enough because the desired potassium leaf level is between 0.3 and
1.2% (Table 10). How much more potassium do you need?
• Until you have more experience with your soil types and climate,
no exact amount can be recommended. The best approach is to

Mango
38 Key issues

increase the application rate in the coming year by 20% to 1.8 kg

of potassium sulphate per tree.
• If in the next year the leaf sample analysis is 0.3% potassium, you
will know you are near the right level. You could then increase the
rate by say a further 10% to 2 kg per tree in that year. If the leaf
potassium level exceeds 1.2%, drop the application rate by 5%.
Monitoring the nutrient status of the orchard is a valuable decision aid
for fertiliser management. The adjustment technique is most useful in
helping to decide whether to change a fertiliser program and by how
much. It is the only method of gaining a customised fertiliser manage-
ment system for each mango orchard.
Despite the cost of the analysis, the potential savings in costs and gains
in yield and fruit quality are great. The analyses provide valuable
feedback to remedy nutrient deficiencies and imbalances before they
become obvious.

Understanding the important nutrients

Nitrogen
Nitrogen is one of the most important nutrients for mangoes and plays
a significant part in determining their yield and fruit quality. It
determines growth rates and tree size more than any other nutrient,
Nutrient symptoms but it is also a highly soluble nutrient that is easily leached from the soil.
Problem solver Because of its importance in fruit quality and tree growth, getting
nitrogen rates right is one of the most critical operations.
Too much nitrogen can result in excessive vegetative growth, often at
the expense of flowering, and poor fruit quality. This can include an
increased susceptibility to internal disorders such as jelly seed, stem-
end cavity and soft nose, green skin colour at ripe, soft fruit and an
increased susceptibility to postharvest diseases.
Too little nitrogen reduces photosynthesis and leaf growth, causing
reduced flowering and fruit set. A shortage of nitrogen decreases the
plant’s ability to trap energy, resulting in poorer flowering and reduced
yield.
Apply nitrogen according to soil type, the wet season (leaching losses),
and previous crop load. On sandy soils where nitrogen is leached
readily with heavy irrigation or a good wet season, split the total
application rate rather than add extra nitrogen. Total rates depend on
tree size, previous crop load, and leaf and soil analysis.
Since nitrogen requirements vary, rates in any given year must be
determined by either increasing or decreasing the previous year’s rate,
according to variations in leaf analysis, previous crop load and tree
vigour. Keep good records of leaf and soil results and relate them to
cropping levels.

Mango
Key issues 39

Nitrogen is best absorbed in the ammonium form. It can be applied

either on the ground by spreader or through the irrigation (fertigation).
Most nitrogen is applied after harvest to encourage the first postharvest
flush. Additional nitrogen may be needed at flowering/early fruit
growth if the tree is visibly yellow or leaf analysis results indicate a
requirement. Do not add nitrogen too close to harvest because it will
reduce fruit quality.

Potassium
Potassium plays an important role in photosynthesis and food produc-
tion within the plant, in the enzyme action of the plant and in the
plant’s resistance to disease. It is closely associated with fruit quality,
in particular skin colour, flavour and fruit size.
It also plays a role in the regulation of water within the plant cell and
loss of water from leaves through transpiration.
Too little potassium can lead to a reduction in fruit size and quality. Too
much potassium may cause imbalances in calcium and magnesium, as
well as marginal and tipburn in older leaves.
Annual applications of potassium fertiliser are generally required, with
most being applied in the spring during fruit development. The
remainder should be applied during the postharvest vegetative flush.
Potassium is better used if it is applied frequently.
Leaf analysis is vital for managing this nutrient. Rates should be based
on the previous year’s crop load, tree size and the fertiliser history of
the orchard. Best results with potassium are achieved with soil
applications. Evidence suggests the sulphate form will assist the tree
to produce firmer fruit of higher quality than the muriate form. Avoid
using the muriate form where salinity may be a problem.

Phosphorus
Mangoes, like most tree crops, have a low requirement for phosphorus,
particularly in the sandy loam soils where most Queensland mangoes
are grown. As phosphorus is readily available in these soils, deficien-
cies are rare.
Phosphorus is necessary for cell division and growth within the plant.
It is of special importance in root development, inflorescence length,
flower duration, fruit ripening and leaf size. Leaf size can be reduced
if phosphorus is not replenished or is in a form that the plant cannot
use. Large, healthy leaves produce more starch and sugars for fruit
development than leaves that are stunted from deficiencies.
Phosphorus doesn’t move readily through the soil and is best applied
once a year immediately before the postharvest vegetative flush. The
rate should be based on the results of soil analysis and the previous
year’s crop load.

Mango
40 Key issues

Calcium
Calcium, along with nitrogen, is an important nutrient for mangoes.
Calcium plays a key role in cell development within the tree and the
fruit. It affects the firmness and shelf life of the fruit, as well as fruit
ripening.
Low calcium levels can result in a shorter shelf life and the fruit can
take longer to ripen and change colour. Low calcium levels are believed
to be associated with jelly seed (break down of the flesh of ripening
mangoes), soft nose and internal breakdown of Keitt.
Calcium needs to be available when the plant is actively growing, as it
is not readily translocated once it is taken into the plant The critical
periods for the uptake of calcium are during the postharvest flush and
early fruit development. Calcium must be available in the root zone
during these periods.
Calcium is best absorbed through the root system. Foliar calcium
applications to leaves or fruit have not been effective in increasing fruit
levels or improving fruit quality.
Sometimes, even with sufficient calcium in the soil, it may not get into
the fruit. If the tree is vigorous, calcium can be directed into leaves
rather than fruit. A big crop load can assist in calcium uptake by
directing more of the calcium into the fruit rather than the leaves.
Calcium should be applied as part of a managed fertiliser program
because too much calcium can reduce the uptake of magnesium and
potassium, thus reducing fruit quality.
The rate of calcium will depend on soil type, pH and leaf and soil
analysis. If the pH is below 5.0, apply calcium in the form of lime or
dolomite. If the pH is above 5.5, use gypsum.
Calcium is easily leached from sandy soils. It should be applied as a split
application once during the postharvest flush and again before flow-
ering. In heavier soils, calcium can be applied once a year during the
postharvest flush.

Magnesium
Although magnesium is not required in large amounts, it is an
important nutrient in developing the green pigment (chlorophyll) in
leaves and ensuring effective photosynthesis. Magnesium is the only
mineral constituent of chlorophyll and deficiency symptoms show as
pale green or yellow inter-veinal areas that first develop on the older
leaves.
Magnesium has a key role in the transportation of phosphorus through-
out the plant. It can be easily displaced with high rates of calcium and
potassium.
It is best monitored by leaf and soil analysis and corrective action
applied only where results indicate a need. An annual maintenance of
500 g of magnesium sulphate per tree should be adequate where leaf

Mango
Key issues 41

levels are optimum. Where the pH of the soil needs to be raised,

dolomite can be used to apply both magnesium and calcium.

Trace elements (micronutrients)

Boron
Boron is important for pollination and fruit development and is
Nutrient symptoms
Problem solver essential for the uptake and use of calcium. Like calcium, it has an
important role in cell wall strength.
Boron does not easily re-translocate within the tree. There must be a
ready supply available from the soil. If required, foliar sprays can be
effectively applied during flowering.
Deficiencies in boron result in poor flowering and pollination, and
reduced fruit size. New leaves are lop-sided, with a shot hole effect,
and the holes are surrounded by a light green halo. Edges of leaves are
ragged. Inflorescences have a characteristic bend or kink in the tip. In
extreme cases, bark cracking and gummosis (oozing of black gummy
sap from the cracks) will occur.
The most susceptible varieties grown in Queensland are the green
eating type Keow Savoey, and R2E2. Deficiency symptoms are most
evident at flowering, with affected trees producing distorted inflores-
cences. Boron deficiency is most commonly seen on the sandy granite
soils in the Mareeba area.
Extreme care needs to be taken with the rate of boron applied, as the
range between deficient and toxic levels is narrow. Boron toxicity
often results in marginal leaf burn associated with leaf drop, sometimes
for several vegetative flushes.
Boron is best applied as split applications during new shoot growth and
before or at flowering. Use leaf analysis to monitor levels and back this
up with soil analysis about every second year. Boron is best applied to
the soil.
For mature bearing trees, apply boron evenly under the canopy after
harvest and at budbreak. In sandy soils, apply boron up to four times
a year.

Zinc
Zinc is associated with iron and manganese in the formation of
chlorophyll and is essential for protein synthesis. It is part of the
auxins, the compounds that regulate the plant’s growth and develop-
ment. Zinc also plays a regulatory role in the intake and efficient use
of water by plants.
Symptoms of zinc deficiency include retarded terminal growth, small,
sometimes curved leaves on new vegetative flush and an irregular
mottling pattern on the leaves.

Mango
42 Key issues

Both leaf and soil analysis is necessary to determine zinc requirements.

If levels of zinc in the leaf are below optimum, two foliar applications
should be made on the new flushes in January and February.

Iron
Iron is essential for chlorophyll formation, though it is not a constitu-
Nutrient symptoms ent of chlorophyll. The amount of chlorophyll is apparently related to
Problem solver
the readily soluble iron content in the plant. Iron is also part of the
oxidation process that releases energy from sugars and starches, and
reactions that convert nitrate to ammonia in the plant.
In the early stages of deficiency the entire young leaf blade is a
yellowish-green. As the deficiency progresses, the new leaves stop
growing and the stem dies back. In severe cases, branches gradually die
back and the tree may die.
Use leaf analysis to monitor iron levels. If levels are below optimum,
apply a 2% iron solution as a foliar spray.

Crop nutrient removal

Another guide to the fertiliser needs of the tree is calculating the
amount of nutrients removed by the crop.
The mango tree uses fertiliser in several ways. Nutrients are used for
new vegetative growth, root development and fruit growth. Nutrients
are lost from the tree through the harvesting of fruit (fruit removal),
pruning and leaching (from leaves). Fruit removal accounts for a
substantial proportion of the loss of fertiliser. Table 11 shows the
amount of nutrients removed from a tree yielding 200 kg of fruit.
Table 11. Nutrients removed for each 200 kg of fruit

Nutrient Amount removed (g) Fertiliser equivalent

Nitrogen 169 367 g urea
Phosphorus 36 400 g superphosphate
Potassium 257 626 g potassium sulphate
Calcium 230 621 g lime
Magnesium 48 100 g Granomag®
Boron 0.4 2 g Solubor®
Zinc 0.4 1 g zinc sulphate
Iron 1.2 6 g iron sulphate

These figures indicate how much of each nutrient is removed during

the harvest, not nutrient losses from leaching, pruning and vegetative
growth. These losses need to be considered when calculating the
amount of fertiliser to be applied.

Mango
Key issues 43

Application methods

Fertigation
Fertigation relies on a well-designed irrigation system to deliver an
T
HIN igation equal quantity of water and fertiliser to each tree. It is an efficient
rr o
an i t
o n sult sultant sign method, which can be used with readily soluble fertilisers. A good
C m de
con s the f a injection system and a good supply of quality water are essential for
us to
disc d layou r your best results.
an m fo
te .
sys rchard
o
Foliar application
Nutrients can also be applied as a foliar spray, but the absorption rate
can be poor because of the thick, waxy-covered cuticle on leaves and
fruit. Young, soft growth without the thick cuticle will absorb foliar-
applied nutrients better than older leaves.
Sometimes, nutrients applied to older leaves will be absorbed into the
wax layer and can show up as a contaminant in leaf analysis results (for
example, manganese from the application of mancozeb). This can
result in some leaf levels being incorrect.
It is easy to burn fruit and leaves if incorrect rates are applied. As a
general, rule 1% (10 g/L of spray) is the maximum safe concentration
of any nutrient.
If you are unsure, spray a small quantity of the nutrient mixture on a
few trees to check that no damage occurs. Also check the compatibil-
ity of the foliar spray with other chemicals being applied in a tank mix.
Ideally, foliar fertilisers should be applied alone.

Mango
44 Key issues

Orchard rejuvenation
Tree pruning is an important crop management operation in mangoes because it plays
a major role in determining production and fruit quality.

Rejuvenation of old orchards ............................................. 44

Topworking ........................................................................ 46

Rejuvenation of old orchards

Large, old trees are too high for easy harvesting. Productivity is low and
fruit quality is reduced by excessive skin blemish from scratch marks
and an increase in diseases.
There are two main approaches to rejuvenating old orchards:
skeletonising and stumping.

Skeletonising
Skeletonising brings large, old trees back to a manageable height of
4.5 m by removing the tall central branches and reducing the length
of side branches. This operation is best carried out in stages, allowing
one or two branches to remain for a period to shade the newly-exposed
bark of branches that if not protected may sunburn (Figure 13).
1. Stand back and observe the tree’s profile to identify the point of
cutting. Branching usually emerges from distinct whorls and a
suitable height for cutting can be selected.
2. Cut back the tall branches to a point where there is evidence of
strong side branching 3 to 4 m from the ground and reduce the
spread of side branches to encourage new shoot development.
3. After this initial pruning, apply a white water-based or plastic paint
to exposed branches to prevent sunburning.
4. Selectively thin and prune the new shoots that grow following
pruning. The selected branches should be growing sideways and
upwards, at about a 45° angle.
5. Every second flush should be pruned and only two shoots retained.
Repeat this process until the tree settles into a regular bearing
habit.
There will be some reduction in yield for one to two years though
improved fruit quality will partly compensate.

Mango
Key issues 45

Figure 13. Skeletonising old trees

Stumping
With stumping, all major branches are removed and the tree is brought
back to a 1 to 1.5 m stump (Figure 14).
1. Cut off the entire tree about 1 to 1.5 m above ground and let new
shoots grow from the stump. This growth will emerge more rapidly
if the original tree was low branching and two or three branches
were cut.
2. Thin the new shoot growth to leave four or five main branches on
each stump. The selected branches will grow strongly and will need
regular pruning to keep the canopy framework fairly open.
3. At least one of the retained shoots should be located close to the
top of the stump as this will encourage callous tissue to grow rapidly
over the old saw cut. The remaining branches should be spaced
equidistant around the butt of the trunk.
4. The distance between nodes (flushes) will be much greater than
normal for the first year or so of growth. Prune this new growth,
leaving no more than two flushes. Repeat this process until you
achieve a good, low-set framework for the tree.
Cropping will be reduced until about the third year, but fruit quality
will be greatly enhanced. Good quality fruit will be harvested two to
three years after stumping.

Mango
46 Key issues

Figure 14. Trees with all major branches removed and brought back to
a 1 to 1.5 m stump

Topworking
Trees can be topworked to change the original variety over to a new
one when the original tree has been stumped. Two to four shoots are
selected in a similar manner to those chosen in the stumping tech-
Pruning
Section 3 page 18
nique and the excess shoots removed. The selected shoots are then
grafted over to the new variety. Look after these new shoots as you
would severely pruned trees.

Important points about topworking

Cut back whole sections, not alternate trees

When you decide to rejuvenate or topwork an orchard, it is better to
topwork the whole orchard or whole blocks at once. Avoid topworking
alternate trees.
If you cut back in blocks, you retain uniformity in that block. If you cut
back alternate trees, there is too much competition for light between
the pruned and remaining trees. The regrowth from pruned trees will
grow vertically and will be hard to maintain at a manageable height.
Spraying the orchard becomes more difficult because the height of
spray applications will have to be continually changed.
If you want to continue some production from the orchard, it is best
to rejuvenate the orchard in sections over a number of years so that
there are always mature, cropping trees in the orchard.

Cut back to the main trunk

You will get better results and have greater control of new growth if the
tree is cut back to the main trunk and grafting confined to new shoots.
The retention of one small ‘nurse’ branch until after the new grafts
have taken usually improves the grafting success. However, it should
be removed once new grafts begin to grow. If several branches are left

Mango
Key issues 47

on the tree, most of the nutrients will go to these branches and the new
grafts will take longer to establish. The production of new side shoots
will also be slower.

Prevent sunburn
When a tree is cut back, the exposed branches can become sunburnt.
Sunburn damage on the branches rarely heals and rots usually develop
in the damaged area. Paint the upper side of exposed branches with
white water-based or plastic paint immediately pruning is finished
(Figure 15).

Figure 15. Trees that have been recently topworked, with the new grafts
starting to shoot. Exposed branches are painted white to minimise sunburn

Control shoot growth

Shoot growth is always prolific and vigorous after heavy pruning. If this
growth is not controlled, the canopy will become dense and little
advantage will be gained from the pruning.

Improved yields
Yield will be reduced for the first three to four years, except where trees
are only lightly pruned. Severely pruned or regrafted trees may take up
to three years before commercially acceptable yields are attained. The
wait is worthwhile because of the good sized, high quality fruit that
develops.

Mango
48 Key issues

Preventing sapburn and skin browning

Sapburn and skin browning are major quality problems for mangoes. To ensure the
maximum possible returns for fruit, pay careful attention to every part of the harvesting
and handling system.

The problem ...................................................................... 48

Types and causes of skin browning .................................... 49
Solving skin browning ....................................................... 51
Checklist to minimise skin browning ................................. 51

The problem
Mango fruit spurt a highly caustic sap when the stem is first removed
from the fruit. The sap then continues to exude from the stem for up
to two hours. These are referred to as spurt sap and ooze sap.
T
H I N s of Sapburn symptoms range from small, dark spots to large, dark, sunken
ure n
o r pict nd ski e blotches. Sapburn is caused by contact with spurt sap.
F n a k th
bur ec
sap ing, ch olver
n s Skin browning refers to other types of skin damage. It can be caused
brow roblem n 5
P ectio when sap collects in picking crates, on equipment or in dip tanks and
S
is allowed to remain on the skin. Skin browning can also be caused by
fruit sitting in water and detergent, scalding by hot air or water, and
rough handling.
The damage from sapburn and skin browning is not visible immedi-
ately and symptoms develop one to two days after injury. This can
make diagnosis of the cause of the damage difficult. If fruit show signs
of damage, examine all aspects of the handling system from picking to
dispatch to identify potential risk areas. Skin browning can occur in
any handling system.

Characteristics of mango sap

Mango sap consists of two distinct components: an oil portion and a
latex (protein-sugar) portion. The oil portion is the main cause of
sapburn.
Sap composition varies among varieties. The sap oil of Kensington
Pride mangoes contains two major monoterpenes (terpinolene and
carene) as well as several minor monoterpenes, and alkyl resorcinol

Mango
Key issues 49

{5-(12-heptadecenyl) resorcinol}. If terpinolene and alkyl resorcinol

are applied separately, they will cause sapburn and skin browning. For
the variety Keitt, carene is the main monoterpene and Keitt experi-
ences few problems with skin browning.
Sap volume and the percentage of oil in the sap decreases rapidly with
time after destemming. The high oil content in the spurt sap decreases
after the first five seconds. The initial spurt sap contains about 50% oil,
which drops to 3% after 90 seconds. Sap may continue to ooze from the
fruit for up to two hours, but the total amount of sap is reduced if
destemming the fruit after harvest is delayed.
The volume and composition of sap in the fruit is also influenced by
fruit maturity. Both sap volume and the oil levels reduce as the fruit
matures. Rain increases the sap volume as well as creating greater
pressure in the fruit, causing the sap to spurt more when the stem is
removed.

Types and causes of skin browning

Skin browning refers to several different skin blemishes that appear on
mangoes during postharvest handling and marketing. They all cause
brown markings on the skin. There are seven categories of skin
browning based on the type of cell damage. Descriptions of each type
of browning, together with the major causes, are described below.

Etch
Etch appears as light to dark brown flecking in distinct areas on the
skin or over the entire surface. The flecking pattern can easily be seen
using a hand lens. Etch is usually associated with some form of lenticel
damage. Despite this, lenticel damage is not a clear indicator of etch.
The major causes of etch are sap or detergents. It occurs when:
• fruit stays wet with low oil content sap (ooze sap). Contact for more
than one hour will usually cause damage.
• fruit stays wet with detergent/wetting agent solution. Contact for
more than four hours will usually cause damage. Incidence varies
with the type of solution and fruit susceptibility.

Smear, blotch and spot

The cellular damage in smear, blotch and spot is identical, though
their appearance and severity can vary.
Smear appears as uniform, dark brown areas on the skin. Damage is
usually irregular but can be in streaks or rings. Smear can be distin-
guished from etch in that smear injury has a uniform appearance with
distinct margins. In severe cases, smear can resemble sapburn injury.
Blotch appears as numerous, light brown, irregular blotches over the
skin. Damage is much lighter than smear and has less distinct margins.

Mango
50 Key issues

Spot appears as numerous, uniform, light brown spots over the skin,
usually 1 to 3 mm in diameter. It is similar to smear, with the size and
shape of the discolouration being the main distinguishing character-
istic.
The major causes of smear, blotch and spot are sap or long dip times.
Damage occurs when:
• sap with a high oil content (spurt sap) stays wet on the fruit.
T
H I N s of • a detergent is present with the sap, with contact times as short as
ure skin
pict
For rn and ck the one to five minutes.
bu e
sap ing, ch olver • fruit is left in dips for longer than 20 minutes.
n s
brow roblem n 5
P ectio
S
Abrasion
Abrasion appears as fine brown scratches on the skin, sometimes in
conjunction with smear. The risk of browning damage from abrasion
increases during wet weather.
The major causes of abrasion are physical damage from:
• rough handling
• abrasive surfaces and dirty equipment
• worn brushes
• vibration during transport from the paddock to the packing shed
or from the packing shed to market.

Scald
Scald appears as brown or grey discoloured areas anywhere on the fruit
surface. Irregular sunken areas can develop in severe cases. A halo of
undamaged tissue is usually visible around the lenticels.
In severe cases, scald can be difficult to distinguish from extensive
sapburn. A suppression of the degreening process is sometimes asso-
ciated with the damage.
The major cause of scald is heat when:
• fruit is treated above 52°C in hot dips and in heated drying tunnels
and fruit picked during wet weather is damaged at lower tempera-
tures
• heat treatment is applied within four hours of picking.

Resin canal
Resin canal appears as a dark grey or dark brown discolouration in a
finely branched pattern, similar to ‘chickens feet’. It usually develops
on the mid-region or nose of the fruit. Resin canal is the only type of
skin browning that also causes a discolouration of fibres in the flesh
under the skin.
The cause of this type of damage is unknown.

Mango
Key issues 51

Solving skin browning

If skin browning is a problem, first identify the type of skin browning
T
HIN PI i
n on the fruit. A Mango Skin Browning Identification Guide (left), provides
t t h e D of
pies
tac colour photographs and detailed descriptions of the different types of
Con for co wning
A kin bro d
y r skin browning. Identification will help you pinpoint where damage
s n
the uide a es. occurred in the handling system.
g hur
c
bro
Check every step in the handling system for possible causes of skin
damage and make sure staff are trained to handle fruit gently.
A DPI brochure, Mango Skin Browning (left), outlines the causes of
skin browning. It shows where skin browning might occur in handling
systems and details preventative measures for the various mango-
handling systems.

Checklist to minimise skin browning

Several danger areas in the mango postharvest handling system
require particular attention to avoid skin browning.

In the orchard, check for:

❏ Sap build-up in dips and recirculating sprays on harvest aids
❏ Throwing or dropping fruit on the trampoline from a long distance
❏ Sap and dirt collecting on tarpaulins, rollers and belts
❏ Fruit staying wet with sap or detergent in crates and bins, particu-
larly at contact points
❏ Sap contacting the skin after destemming that is not washed off
❏ Fruit left in dips for longer than 20 minutes
❏ Sap on pickers hands
❏ Unpadded hard surfaces in bins and on harvest aids

During transport to the packing shed, check for:

❏ Dirt and sap in picking crates and bins
❏ Fruit bumping and rubbing from rough transport

While destemming to racks or dips, check for:

❏ Sap on hands or gloves of destemmers
❏ Sap contacting mangoes after destemming that is not washed off
❏ Sap build-up in detergent/wetting agent solutions
❏ Sap collecting on racks
❏ Sap build-up in the dip tank
❏ Fruit placed on the packing line with sap still flowing freely from
the stem

Mango
52 Key issues

❏ Fruit left in the dip tank for longer than 20 minutes

❏ Fruit staying wet with sap or detergent after removal from dip

On the packing line, check for:

❏ Sap and dirt collecting on brushes, rollers, belts, cups, packing bins
❏ Worn or coarse brushes
❏ Temperature too high in hot dips and heated drying tunnels
❏ Brushing for longer than one minute
❏ Large drops to hard or abrasive surfaces
❏ Hot spots in dip tanks from poor agitation or equipment design
❏ Heat treatment applied within four hours of picking
❏ Packing fruit still wet with sap, detergent, fungicide or insecticide

During transport to the markets and marketing, check

for:
❏ Rubbing due to loose packing
❏ Ooze sap remaining wet on fruit in plastic inserts when placed in
cool storage
❏ Storage at 10° to 13°C may accentuate prior damage or lead to the
expression of damage not visible

Mango
Key issues 53

Controlled ripening
Most retail buyers want to buy mangoes close to eating ripe, as their customers want fruit
that they can eat immediately. Fruit may need to be ripened on-farm or at the market
before sale to provide retailers with the type of fruit they want.

About controlled ripening ................................................. 53

Requirements for ripening systems .................................... 54
Ethylene injection systems ................................................ 55

About controlled ripening

Controlled ripening is used for several fruits including avocados,
bananas, papaws and tomatoes. It involves surrounding the fruit with
ethylene gas. Fruit produces ethylene gas naturally, but extra gas will
speed the process and ripening will be more uniform.
Mangoes must be mature when picked to ensure they ripen to a
saleable quality. Immature mangoes will not ripen even when sur-
rounded by ethylene. The flesh will soften but skin colour and flavour
will not develop normally. For mature fruit, 24 hours surrounded by
ethylene gas is enough to trigger the ripening process.

Successful control of ripening relies on good temperature manage-

ment, control of humidity and control of ethylene levels. If ripening is
triggered on farm, fruit must be transported at 18° to 20°C so that it
can continue to ripen during transport. Ripening fruit is not suitable
for long distance road or rail transport. Controlled ripening by whole-
sale agents provides more flexibility than on-farm ripening as fruit can
be ripened to meet buyer demand.

Correct ripening temperatures are critical for success. The higher the
temperature, the faster fruit ripens. Mangoes ripen best between 18°
and 22°C. Below 18°C ripening is slow and flavour development is
poor. Above 22°C the flesh softens as the fruit ripens but the skin does
not colour properly. It becomes motley green and yellow and rots
develop more quickly. Control of humidity is also essential as humidity
below 85% causes fruit to lose moisture and shrivel in storage.
Two gases can be used in ripening rooms: pure ethylene and Ripegas®,
which is a mixture of ethylene and carbon dioxide. Ripegas® contains

Mango
54 Key issues

9% by volume ethylene. It is safer than ethylene, which is explosive at

high concentrations or if exposed to naked flames or sparks. About 10
times more volume of Ripegas® will be needed than ethylene.

Requirements for ripening systems

Ripening rooms are specially designed to contain the ethylene gas, but
cool rooms can be modified to work as ripening rooms. The essential
requirements of an ethylene ripening system are:
• reasonably airtight room with insulation
• temperature control system for cooling and/or heating
• air circulation and ventilation system
• humidity control
• ethylene gas injection system
• electrical control circuit.

Room construction and insulation

The main requirements are reasonable airtightness, except for the
ventilation ports in a trickle system, and structural strength. An
airtight door seal of soft rubber, plastic or other material is also
required. Most cool rooms are suitable for ripening.

Temperature control system

The temperature of the ripening room must be maintained within the
recommended range for successful operation. Fruit may be at a higher
or lower temperature when it is placed inside and the ripening room
must have the cooling and heating capacity to bring fruit to the
recommended temperature within 12 hours. Conventional refrigera-
tion equipment with a forced-draught cooling (FDC) unit designed to
operate at 85 to 95% relative humidity is suitable.

Air circulation and ventilation system

The fan in the forced draught cooling unit must provide an airflow rate
of at least one room air volume per minute for adequate air circulation.
Cooling fruit
This airflow rate distributes ethylene gas evenly throughout the room.
Section 3 page 52
To achieve uniform ripening of pallet loads, use a forced-air system as
described in Growing the crop, Section 3. During ripening, the air
volume through the stack of fruit is reduced to about one-third of that
required for forced-draught cooling.

Humidity control
The relative humidity in ripening rooms should be maintained at
about 85 to 95% to minimise moisture loss from the fruit. The
refrigeration system can be designed to provide the correct humidity
or steam or a fine water spray into the room will also work.

Mango
Key issues 55

Safety
Ethylene gas is explosive at high concentrations or if exposed to naked
flames or sparks. The minimum flammable concentration of ethylene
(3.1% or 31 000 ppm) is more than 6000 times the concentration
T on
HIN vice a suggested for ripening of most fruits.
t a d
per n of t
k ex latio ntac
See instal m. Co However, compressed cylinders of ethylene or any gas are potential
the g roo sland y hazards if handled improperly. Handle ethylene gas cylinders carefully
nin en log
ripe he Que echno ne
t t y T b a and store in a dry, well-ventilated and shaded place. All electrical
trici Bris al
Elec ntre in our loc ice. fittings in a gas room should be spark-proof and safety vents should be
Ce ugh y rd off
thro ity boa fitted.
tric
elec

Ethylene injection systems

Two main methods are used to inject ethylene gas into the ripening
room: the ‘shot’ system or the ‘trickle’ system. The two systems differ
in the way that ethylene is injected and how fresh air is ventilated.

Shot system
With the shot system, ethylene is injected at 100 to 200 ppm at
12-hour intervals. If single shot ethylene injection is used, the ripening
room needs to be airtight to prevent the loss of ethylene gas. The room
must be ventilated for five to ten minutes before each shot to clear the
room of carbon dioxide that accumulates from fruit respiration. High
levels of carbon dioxide will slow ripening and can affect fruit.
After triggering with ethylene for 24 hours, mangoes held at 18° to
22°C will ripen in five to nine days, depending on fruit maturity. Flesh
will start to soften and skin to colour after one to three days. The fruit
then takes another four to six days to reach eating-ripe and develop a
full yellow skin.

Calculating ethylene volumes

Ethylene is metered from the cylinder through a calibrated flow meter
equipped with a ‘dead man valve’. This is a spring-loaded, push button
valve, which is held down to inject ethylene. The gauge is calibrated
in litres/minute. A flow volume and injection time is selected to
achieve the desired concentration of ethylene.

Example calculation
A 3 m x 3 m x 3 m room with a volume of 27 cu metres holds
27 000 L of air.
To achieve an ethylene concentration of 200 ppm, you need to inject
1 L of ethylene gas for every 5000 L of air, that is, you need to inject
5.4 L of ethylene (27 000 ÷ 5000).
If, for example, the ethylene gauge is set at 10.8 L/minute, hold the
valve down for 30 seconds to inject the required 5.4 L of ethylene.

Mango
56 Key issues

Trickle system
Trickle ethylene injection is the most commonly used ripening system.
The trickle system involves injecting a continuous flow of ethylene
into the room to maintain a concentration of 10 ppm (10 mg/L).
Fresh air is continually drawn into the room at a rate of 1% of the room
volume per minute to expel stale air containing carbon dioxide. This
prevents the build-up of ethylene gas and carbon dioxide gas produced
by the fruit. Air circulation fans must run continuously with the trickle
system.
The main advantages of the trickle system are:
• The door may be opened at any time to load or unload fruit from
the room. Opening the door will allow ethylene to escape but this
will build up again rapidly. In view of this loss, it is advisable to open
the door only when necessary.
• The room does not have to be aired and re-gassed every 12 hours.
• The system maintains a flow of outside air through the room, which
ensures that carbon dioxide does not build up.
• Active levels of ethylene will be present whenever the room is in
operation, unlike leaky rooms used for the shot system.

Equipment
• ethylene bottle with a pressure regulator
• solenoid valve
• needle valve to adjust ethylene flow
• bubble sight jar, thick walled, clear glass
• clamp comprising four bolts, a metal base and a lid with a soft
rubber seal
• copper pipe, preferably 6 mm outside diameter.
A typical design for a trickle ethylene ripening room with facility for
forced-air ripening is shown in Figure 16. For large rooms (250 cubic
metre volume or greater), 150 mm diameter tubes should be used.

Installation
An inlet port (100 mm diameter PVC tube) is positioned behind the
cooling unit (on the upstream side of the fan) to generate a fresh air
intake of 1% of the room volume per minute.
An outlet port of similar diameter should be fixed in the wall opposite
the inlet port to expel stale air containing carbon dioxide. This
prevents the build-up of ethylene gas and carbon dioxide gas produced
by the fruit. For large rooms (250 cubic metre volume or greater),
150 mm diameter tubes should be used.
Air circulation fans must run continuously during trickle ripening.

Mango
Key issues 57

Figure 16. Diagrammatic outline of a ripening room

Metering ethylene in trickle systems

Ethylene metering for the trickle system is more complex than for the
single shot system and requires a solenoid valve to shut off the system
in case of power failure. Gas is released into the room at a controlled
rate of flow through a pressure regulator and meter (Figure 17).
The outlet gas pressure is adjusted by the gas regulator and the gas flow
rate is adjusted by a fine needle valve. The flow rate is dependent on
the outlet pressure and the adjustment of the needle valve. Very small
flow rates of ethylene gas are required so the needle valve must be
capable of fine adjustment of the flow rate. A low gas outlet pressure
from the regulator makes adjustment of the flow rate easier.
A locked cover should enclose the ethylene gas pressure regulator and
needle valve so that unauthorised people cannot alter the settings.
The flow rate of ethylene gas is calibrated by bubbling gas into the jar
and calculating the volume of gas in each bubble. By counting the
number of bubbles and adjusting the needle valve, the number of
bubbles per minute can be altered to maintain the correct ethylene
concentration into the room.

Mango
58 Key issues

Figure 17. Basic ethylene injection equipment and set-up for a trickle
ethylene ripening room

Operating a trickle system

1. Set the thermostat to 18° to 22°C.
2. Adjust the humidifier to 90% relative humidity.
3. Load the room with fruit, as for a normal operation, and switch on
the fan.
4. Adjust the fresh air intake and exhaust air vents to give a fresh air
intake of 1% of the room air volume per minute.
For 1% fresh air per minute:
Required fresh air intake (cu m/min) = 0.01 x room volume (cu m)
5. Check the actual fresh air intake rate by measuring the average
velocity of air (m/sec) through the intake or outlet vent with an
anemometer and multiplying this velocity by the area of vent
opening (sq m).
Actual fresh air intake (cu m/min) = av. air velocity (m/sec) x area of vent
opening (sq m) x 60
Note: Area of a circle (sq m) = π x (radius [m])2
6. Adjust vent opening to achieve required fresh air intake.
7. Calculate the ethylene gas flow rate required to achieve the final
recommended concentration of ethylene gas in the room air.
Required ethylene gas flow rate (mL/min) = Fresh air intake rate
(cu m/min) x recommended ethylene concentration (ppm)
8. Use a bubble flow meter on the outlet tube to the room when
adjusting the ethylene gas regulator and fine needle valve to give
the correct gas flow rate calculated above.

Mango
Key issues 59

Example calulation
(i) Fresh air intake required = 0.01 x 64.8 = 0.648 cu m/min
(ii) Air velocity required through a 100 mm (0.1 m) internal
diameter intake vent to achieve required fresh air intake:
= Fresh air intake (cu m/min)
Area of vent (sq m)
= 0.648 cu m/min divided by (0.0079 sq m)
= 82.0 m/min (1.4 m/sec)
(iii) Ethylene gas flow rate required (mL/min)
= Fresh air intake (cu m/min) x 10 (ppm)
= 0.648 x 10
= 6.48 mL/min
(iv) Check that the ethylene gas flow rate with the flow meter at the
outlet tube is reading 6.48 L/min. Adjust if necessary.

Mango
60 Key issues

Marketing mangoes
A good understanding of the mango market is important if you want to maximise returns.
This section covers the main points to consider when deciding how you will sell your fruit.

The need for marketing ...................................................... 60

Know what the market wants ........................................... 61
Deliver the product that the market wants ........................ 62
New and improved market opportunities ........................... 62

The need for marketing

Marketing needs to address all of the aspects of delivering your
product to the customer. Mangoes compete in an increasingly global
market place and in an environment where producers are part of the
food industry.
Mangoes have several marketing advantages. They are well-known
and popular with consumers and have potential for market expansion
from current, low consumption levels.
Producers will not be able to capitalise on these advantages, however,
unless the mango is properly marketed. There are two important
points:
• The volume of production is increasing, making the domestic
market tighter and more competitive. To maintain a profitable
margin, growers will need to actively search for new market
opportunities in Australia and overseas and strongly promoting
the fruit to consumers.
• The changing face of marketing has seen supermarkets beginning
to dominate the management and distribution of fruit. This will
move the focus away from the wholesale markets to more direct
buying or brokering arrangements with growers and marketing
groups. This will require significant structural change for growers
in the marketing of their produce.

Mango
Key issues 61

A growing focus on food safety and quality is developing to better

service modern consumer needs. Consumers are becoming more
demanding and are better at communicating their needs to marketers.
Growers need to be in touch with these market needs and gear their
production and marketing system to deliver a product that meets
those needs.
Retailers want ripe, yellow-skinned mangoes with blush. Quality
management is the only way of consistently ensuring your product
meets these market needs.

Know what the market wants

There are two important sources of knowledge and information on
what the market wants.
Market research studies are conducted by industry and research
organisations and published in special reports. Grower organisations,
the Queensland Fruit & Vegetable Growers Association, the Austral-
ian Horticultural Corporation and the Horticultural Research and
Development Corporation are sources of this information.
Marketers who are in close contact with buyers and consumers. For
the domestic market, specialist mango wholesale agents in the major
metropolitan markets are an invaluable source of detailed market
knowledge. Market authorities in each of the major markets can
T provide advice on specialist mango wholesalers. For the export mar-
HIN as
is rice ket, mango exporters are an equivalent source of expert market
lity
Qua nt as p ers knowledge.
or ta um
imp n cons oes.
wh y mang
e Consumers want fruit with the following characteristics:
bu
• medium size—counts of 18 to 20 preferred
• yellow skin with some red blush
• free from disease, internal breakdown, sapburn and skin browning
• good firmness
• good shelf life—five days preferred
• clean appearance and good presentation
• sweet, pleasant flavour.

Know the marketing chain for your fruit

Knowing the marketing chain for your fruit means identifying all the
steps and all the people that link your fruit at the farm gate to particular
groups of consumers. One chain might include a transport company,
an unloading company, wholesale agent, supermarket buyer, grocery
section manager and consumers from a particular region. Knowing
how the chain works is important because you choose some of its
players and each of the players makes decisions about your product
that collectively influence its marketing performance.

Mango
62 Key issues

Visit the markets in which your fruit is sold

There is no substitute for seeing how your fruit is performing in its
markets, but looking at the fruit is not enough. You need to monitor
the physical and financial performance of the fruit and assess the
performance of everyone in the marketing chain. They are working for
you, but they may forget this if you are not interested in them.

Actively seek market information

Apart from visiting the market, actively seek information about each
consignment of fruit. Ask your agent for a report to indicate if the fruit
is acceptable. Growers do not necessarily get feedback unless they set
up a system for it by facsimile or e-mail. Out turn inspections by
independent assessors is another useful way to get information about
your product.

Deliver the product that the market wants

Once you have established what the market wants, the next step is to
gear the production and marketing system to deliver a product with
those specifications. The only way of ensuring this is to have a quality
management system at the farm level.

New and improved market opportunities

To maintain a competitive advantage, you must maintain an active
involvement in researching new and improved market opportunities.
Here are some things you can do:
• Consider value-adding opportunities, for example, growing man-
goes organically. Consumers now are better educated and more
health conscious, and are demanding more convenience in their
foods.
• Support market research proposed by the industry, as it will greatly
benefit future marketing opportunities.
• Support promotional activities implemented by the industry, in-
cluding those aimed at improving fruit handling in the wholesale
and retail markets. These activities will increase sales and potential
returns. Consumers usually have insufficient knowledge about
availability, storage and use of mangoes, and promotion helps to
build their confidence in the product. Mangoes are a luxury
purchase that have to compete with other similar fruit for the
consumer dollar.
• Look for specialist mango wholesalers who present a positive,
enthusiastic impression, particularly when times are tough. Whole-
salers who specialise in seven or eight products normally develop
more expertise in the product and should do a better marketing job

Mango
Key issues 63

than generalists. Keep in regular contact with your wholesaler or

marketer. Get regular feedback on consignments—a fax or e-mail
are invaluable for this.
• If a market is looking for long lines of consistent supply, consider
getting together with other growers to develop group marketing
under a common quality management system. The longer lines of
consistent quality produced under this system give you access to
larger buyers unavailable to most individual growers.
• Groups should consider using a professional marketing coordina-
tor. A coordinator maintains close contact with all of the markets
throughout Australia and overseas. The product can then be
directed to each market based on the coordinator’s intimate
knowledge of how much it can handle before it is oversupplied and
prices fall. The coordinator may also undertake market develop-
ment and promotion on behalf of the group. When the coordinator
handles all of the marketing decisions and problems, growers can
concentrate on what they do best—growing quality fruit.

Mango
64 Key issues

Exporting
Export markets for mangoes have shown a steady increase since the 1980s. Continued
growth in current export markets is predicted in the medium term and new markets are
developing.

Considerations .................................................................. 64
Regulatory requirements .................................................... 65
Transport ........................................................................... 66

Considerations
Export markets for mangoes are well established, though they account
for only 10% of total production. Export is expected to become more
important for two reasons.
• As the volume of production increases, the export market will need
greater development to prevent oversupply and lower prices on the
domestic market.
• Exports provide potential for a wider sales base without significant
extra promotion. They provide economies of scale and may extend
or even out supply during the marketing period.
Current export markets include Hong Kong, Singapore, Japan,
Malaysia, Europe and the Middle East. General preferences are for:
• large fruit—count 16 to 18 or larger (smaller fruit is acceptable but
will probably receive lower prices)
• good colour and brightness (good yellow background with 25% or
more red blush)
• freedom from skin blemish
• firmness
• sound packaging.
Queensland has several strengths in the continuing development of
mango exports.
• It is close to the growing Asian markets.
• It has highly skilled people that can produce good quality fruit with
a clean, green image.

Mango
Key issues 65

• Its production is counter-seasonal to most Northern Hemisphere

producers.
• It is growing varieties with significant export demand.
T
HIN rk e t
o r t ma ality As a result, potential for export growth is sound. The major competi-
p
h ex nt qu k
Eac differe ts. See tion, however, will come from South Africa, The Philippines and
has iremen ce of Brazil.
i
requ e adv before
th ters
or ing.
exp oceed In export markets, Queensland mangoes are regarded as a high quality
pr fruit. This is important because least cost is not a suitable strategy for
our fruit and lower cost competitors are selling in all our export
markets during the Australian mango season. Queensland fruit have
developed a reputation for superior quality and are positioned in the
markets as a premium quality fruit.
On the downside, export marketing has complex and specialised
requirements. These include:
• access to knowledge and intelligence on export market require-
ments
• high levels of quality management and skills to consistently meet
the market requirements
• commitment, as relationships with export markets need to be
developed on a long-term basis
• sufficient volume to provide consistent supply
• in some cases, ability to meet strict quarantine requirements.

Regulatory requirements
Quarantine regulations control the entry of mangoes into many
export markets (Table 12). Work has started to develop disinfestation
treatments to allow access to New Zealand.
Table 12. Access requirements for some mango export markets

Country Permitted Quarantine Import Phytosanitary Duty

treatment permit certificate
Brunei Yes None required Yes Yes Nil
Hong Kong Yes None required No No Nil
Japan Yes Ministry of Agriculture Yes Yes 6%
& Fisheries supervised
vapour heat treatment
Malaysia Yes None required No No 5%
Singapore Yes None required No No Nil
Thailand Yes None required No Yes 60%
Indonesia Yes Fruit fly area freedom or No Yes 30%
disinfestation using cold
storage, methyl bromide
or dimethoate

Mango
66 Key issues

Transport
Queensland’s mango exports have developed by using excess freight
space available on regular passenger aircraft. This is convenient as
flights are regular, frequent and require no major forward commit-
T
H I N oklet ment. Passenger aircraft can handle consignments as small as 1400 kg.
bo oes,
DPI ng g:
The ting ma andlin As mango exports continue to increase, the available freight space is
o r d h s,
Exp or t an issue PI
sp n d D becoming limited. This competition for space is also driving up prices.
tran tions a e from stiga-
op ble fre inve ns Increasing competition from higher value commodities such as chilled
ila ils tio
ava s, deta ight op ts. seafood and cut flowers will also impact on space.
ic e f r e o r
off s into o exp
it on mang
for Charter flights
Charter aircraft can overcome space problems but a forward commit-
ment to supply must be made in advance and the full freight costs paid.
For example, a chartered 747 can carry 100 t of fresh mangoes. In 1997/
98, the cost to Singapore was about $1.10/kg, which would incur a pre-
payment of $110 000

Sea freight
Sea freight is only a practical option if the journey will take ten days or
less. As it takes 11 days to Singapore without allowing for possible
delays in the port, this choice is too risky. Transport time can be
extended using controlled atmosphere sea containers but the risk of
quality deterioration is still high.

Mango
Key issues 67

Quality management
Supermarkets are now requesting that their suppliers have quality management accredi-
tation. An understanding of the principles of quality management will help producers to
decide what type of quality system they need to implement to meet customer require-
ments. This section outlines the principles of quality management and describes the
systems that growers can use.

What is quality management? ........................................... 67

Core principles of quality management .............................. 68
Push for quality management ............................................ 68
What level of quality management do you need? ............... 68
The three levels of quality management ............................. 69

What is quality management?

Quality has been described as the fitness for purpose of a product. It
implies a predictable degree of uniformity and dependability. But
quality goes beyond just the product; it also includes services such as
packing true-to-label and delivering on time. In short, quality includes
all those points that satisfy your customers.
Quality management, then, is the way you run your business to satisfy
customers. This means that growers are constantly engaged in quality
management, perhaps even without being aware of it.
In the past, the suitability of the product for its intended market was
determined by what is called ‘end point inspection’—inspection at the
market level. This system has several important flaws.
• It is expensive to reject product at this late point in its cycle.
• It is difficult to predict product performance during the rest of the
marketing process when its past history is unknown.
• It is often driven more by tradition than by real market needs.
The objective of modern quality management is to build quality right
through the production and marketing process so that there is little or
no need for rejections late in the chain. This system also provides
customers with documented evidence that the product they are
buying will meet their needs.

Mango
68 Key issues

As such, quality management is a marketing tool to achieve repeat

sales, as well as a productivity improvement tool to identify problem
areas, prevent mistakes and reduce wastage. It also helps growers
access markets with quarantine and other barriers to normal entry and
promotes greater trust and cooperation throughout the marketing
chain.

Core principles of quality management

• The customer defines quality, not the grower.
• Quality management has to be planned, organised and managed,
it does not happen by itself.
• Problems are identified at the earliest possible point, not at the end
point.
• Everyone in the business, including workers, is responsible for
quality management; it is not just the responsibility of manage-
ment.
To implement an effective quality management system, growers will
need commitment, good planning, staff involvement and well-organ-
ised documents (including records and product specifications).

Push for quality management

The three major supermarket chains in Australia are now demanding
that all their suppliers have some level of quality management to
assure safety and quality of products. This is in response to consumers
wanting fruit and vegetables that are consistently attractive, nutri-
tious, tasty and safe to eat. People are worried about unsafe food
because of recent outbreaks of food poisoning from other food prod-
ucts. We cannot be complacent about food safety because fruit and
vegetables have been implicated in several food poisoning outbreaks
overseas.

What level of quality management do you need?

The three broad levels of quality management practices being re-
quested by customers are:
• Approved Supplier Program
• Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) Plan
• HACCP-based quality management standard or code.
The level of quality management you need to implement will depend
on the marketing arrangements and the potential risk of the product
causing a food safety problem.
If your product is supplied directly or indirectly to a supermarket, the
minimum levels of quality management needed by different businesses
in your supply chain is shown in Figure 18.

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Key issues 69

Some food service businesses, such as fast food outlets, are requesting
an HACCP plan or specific quality management practices under an
Approved Supplier Program.
Exporters will require some level of quality management, depending
on their customers.

Figure 18. Minimum levels of quality management required for businesses

to supply supermarkets

The three levels of quality management

Approved Supplier Program

An Approved Supplier Program involves suppliers carrying out agreed
practices that will provide assurance to customers that the product is
safe to eat and of acceptable quality. Suppliers will need to keep
sufficient records to demonstrate that the practices are a part of
everyday operations. The customer or someone on behalf of the
customer will periodically check that suppliers are carrying out the
agreed practices.
Direct suppliers to supermarkets need to develop approved supplier
arrangements with their grower suppliers. This could include:
• wholesalers or processors who supply direct to a supermarket
• packers who supply direct to a supermarket
• marketing groups who supply direct to a supermarket. The market-
ing operation within the group would need to have an HACCP-
based quality management standard or code (level 3) and have
T approved supplier arrangements with their growers.
HIN ion is
t
lica I, 80
i s pub m DP Further information about specific practices and documents that may
Th le fro oad, .
ilab R 068 be included in an Approved Supplier Program is contained in the
ava Meiers , Qld 4 5
l y 8
opil 896 96 46 publication Developing an Approved Supplier Program for fresh pro-
oro 3 4
Indo : (07) 3896 9 duce—a guide for customers and suppliers.
Ph (07)
:
Fax

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70 Key issues

HACCP plans
HACCP is an internationally recognised method to identify, evaluate
and control hazards (things that can go wrong) to food products.
HACCP was originally developed to provide assurance that food was
safe to eat, but it is now being used to ensure that customer quality
requirements are met.
HACCP is being requested of some growers who supply products that
are perceived to have a high risk of causing food safety problems or
where the next business in the supply chain demands it.
HACCP relies on prevention to control potential problems. Potential
hazards are assessed for significance and control measures are estab-
lished to eliminate, prevent or reduce the hazard to an acceptable
level.
Typical food safety hazards include excessive chemical residues, mi-
crobes causing sickness, and physical contaminants (glass, sticks) that
may lodge in product.
Some independent auditing companies will certify HACCP plans
according to the Codex Alimentarius Commission guidelines.

HACCP-based quality management standard or code

The quality management standards or codes incorporating HACCP
that are relevant to the horticultural industry are:
• ISO 9002 plus HACCP
• SQF 2000CM SQF 1000CM
• HACCP 9000
• Supermarket quality management standards.
HACCP-based quality management standards or codes are required
where growers or packhouses directly supply supermarket chains or
where the next business in the supply chain demands this requirement.
Check with each supermarket to see what standards or codes they will
accept.
For SQF 2000CM, SQF 1000CM, ISO 9002 and HACCP 9000, an
accredited independent company conducts audits to certify that the
business meets the quality system standard.
For supermarket quality management standards, the supermarket, or
an independent company on their behalf, does the auditing.

ISO 9002
ISO 9002 is the international standard for quality management
systems and the system on which most others are based. It was
developed originally for manufacturing companies and is now used by
many industries. It consists of 20 elements covering all aspects of
producing products and servicing customers. Supermarkets are requir-
ing their direct suppliers to include HACCP in their ISO 9002
systems.

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Key issues 71

SQF 2000CM and SQF 1000CM quality codes

The SQF2000CM and SQF 1000CM quality codes were developed by
AGWEST Trade and Development specifically for small businesses in
the food industry. They are recognised in Australia and in some Asian
countries. The codes have specific requirements that must be ad-
dressed to achieve certification. The codes include HACCP, which
provides assurance that the product is safe and meets customer and
legislative requirements. To achieve certification, a registered, skilled
HACCP practitioner must develop, validate and verify the HACCP
plan.

HACCP 9000
HACCP 9000 is a quality management standard incorporating ISO
9002 and HACCP

Supermarket quality management standards

An example of supermarket quality standards is the Vendor Quality
Management Standard developed by Woolworths Australia for their
direct suppliers. It is aimed at food safety and quality requirements and
is an HACCP-based quality management standard.

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