Safety and health

in opencast mines
 contents

Safety and health

in opencast mines

Second (revised) edition

ILO code of practice contents

Safety and health

in opencast mines

Second (revised) edition

INTERNATIONAL LABOUR OFFICE • GENEVA

Copyright © International Labour Organization 2018
First published 1991
Second (revised) edition 2018
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ILO code of practice: Safety and health in opencast mines. International Labour Office,
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ISBN 978-922-131709-8 (print)
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Also available in French: La sécurité et la santé dans les mines à ciel ouvert. Recueil
de directives pratiques du BIT, ISBN 978-92-2-231120-0 (print); ISBN 978-92-2-
231121-7 (web pdf); and in Spanish: Seguridad y salud en las minas a cielo abierto:
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Preface

The ILO Code of practice on safety and health in opencast

mines was adopted by a Meeting of Experts held in Geneva
from 16 to 20 October 2017, in accordance with a Governing contents

Body decision at its 329th Session (March 2017). This code of

practice replaces an earlier code that was adopted in 1990. The
meeting was attended by 22 experts and their advisers - eight
experts nominated by the Governments of Canada, Chile,
Germany, Indonesia, Mongolia, Namibia, Russian Federation
and Zambia; seven nominated by the Employers’ group of the
Governing Body; and seven nominated by the Workers’ group
of the Governing Body. Expert observers from other govern-
ments, and observers from intergovernmental and non-govern-
mental organizations, also attended the meeting.
The good spirit of cooperation among all participants paved
the way for developing consensus on a new, comprehensive and
practical code that will help to raise the profile of safety and
health issues in opencast mines in all parts of the world, and
contribute to the health, morale and well-being of workers in
the industry.
The text of the code was approved for publication by the
Governing Body of the ILO at its 332nd Session (March 2018).

Alette van Leur

Director
Sectoral Policies Department

v
Sectoral codes of practice

ILO Sectoral codes of practice are reference tools setting out

principles that can be reflected in the design and implementa-
tion of policies, strategies, programmes, legislation, adminis- contents

trative measures and social dialogue mechanisms in particular

economic sectors or clusters of sectors. Sectoral codes of practice
are adopted by Meetings of Experts comprising governments,
employers and workers. They can be implemented progressively
to take into account different national settings, cultures, and
social, economic, environmental and political contexts.
Sectoral codes of practice draw their principles from the
ILO’s international labour standards (Conventions and
Recommendations) and other sources, including Declarations,
codes of conduct and other policy guidance adopted and endorsed
by the International Labour Conference or the ILO Governing
Body. They also draw on other international agreements and
policy in the sector concerned, as well as on relevant trends and
developments in regional and national law and practice.
Sectoral codes of practice focus on the issues that are priorities
for governments, employers and workers, and that are unique to
particular economic sectors and industries. While international
labour standards normally deal with more general principles of
labour law and practice, Sectoral codes of practice specify the
principles and processes that could be implemented to promote
decent work in particular workplaces or contexts. They benefit
from the expertise of practitioners in the relevant sectors to cap-
ture good industry practices and innovations.
Sectoral codes of practice are not legally binding. They are not
subject to ratification or supervisory mechanisms established

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Safety and health in opencast mines

under the ILO’s international labour standards. Sectoral codes

of practice can therefore be aspirational in scope and expand
on principles laid down in international labour standards and
other international agreements and policy, all the while recog-
nizing that they can be adapted to different national systems
and circumstances. As such, ILO standards and other tools or contents
guidance adopted and endorsed by the International Labour
Conference and/or the Governing Body form the foundation
on which Sectoral codes of practice build further. It is therefore
understood that Sectoral codes of practice are based on the full
principles, rights, and obligations set out in international labour
standards, and nothing set out in these codes of practice should
be understood as lowering such standards.

viii
Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Sectoral codes of practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii contents

Abbreviations and definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1. General provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1. Purpose ...................................... 3
1.2. Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3. Application. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4. Reference to other ILO instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. General duties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1. Cooperation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2. Competent authority. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2. Inspectorates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3. Employers’ responsibilities and rights . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4. Workers’ rights and responsibilities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.5. General responsibilities of suppliers,
manufacturers and designers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6. General responsibilities and rights
of contractors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. Safety and health committees. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.1. Safety and health committees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.2. Industry tripartite committees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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Safety and health in opencast mines

4. Occupational safety and health management

systems; reporting, recording and notification
of work-related injuries and diseases, ill health
and dangerous occurrences; occupational health
services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.1. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 contents

4.2. OSH management systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4.3. Reporting, recording and notification
of work-related injuries and diseases,
ill health and dangerous occurrences. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.4. Occupational health services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5. Hazard identification, risk assessment and control . . . 27
5.1. General principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2. Hazard identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.3. Risk assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.4. Risk control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.5. Evaluation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6. Management of change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.1. Managing change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.2. Non-routine work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7. Life-cycle approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
8. Emergency response plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.1. General emergency provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.2. Fire protection and firefighting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8.2.1. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8.2.2. Precautions against fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.2.3. Provision of fire protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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8.2.4. Firefighting and rescue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

8.3. First-aid and emergency medical services. . . . . . . . . 42
8.3.1. First-aid requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
8.3.2. First-aid training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9. Specific hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 contents

9.1. Hazardous substances and atmospheres. . . . . . . . . . 45

9.1.1. Chemicals in the workplace. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
9.1.2. Inhalable and respirable substances. . . . . . . 50
9.1.3. Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.2. Electric and magnetic fields. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9.3. Stored energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.3.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.3.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.3.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.4. Noise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.4.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.4.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
9.4.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.5. Vibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.5.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.5.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.5.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
9.6. Heat and cold stress. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.6.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
9.6.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9.6.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.7. Fatigue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.7.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
9.7.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.7.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9.8. Work at high altitudes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 contents

9.8.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

9.8.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
9.8.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.9. Tailings dams and lagoons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.9.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.9.2. Assessment of risks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.9.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.10. Tips or spoil dumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.10.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.10.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.10.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
9.11. High walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.11.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
9.11.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
9.11.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
9.12. Inundation or flooding of workings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.12.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.12.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.12.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
9.13. Dredges and other floating installations. . . . . . . . . . 110
9.13.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

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9.13.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

9.13.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
9.13.4. Emergency provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9.13.5. Other matters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
9.14. Surface buildings and structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 contents

9.14.1. Safety of buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9.14.2. Safe means of access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.14.3. Provision of emergency lighting. . . . . . . . . . 117
9.15. Management of falling hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.15.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.15.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.15.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.16. Falls from height and falling objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.16.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.16.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.16.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9.17. Confined spaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.17.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
9.17.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
9.17.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.18. Machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.18.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
9.18.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
9.18.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.19. Tyre and rim safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
9.19.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.19.2. Risk assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

9.19.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
9.20. Fires on large machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.20.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.20.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 contents

9.20.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

9.21. Automated machinery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.21.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
9.21.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
9.21.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
9.22. Electrical equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.22.1. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.22.2. Insulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.22.3. Control devices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.22.4. Distribution boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.22.5. Earthing systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.22.6. Overload and earth leakage protection. . . . 142
9.22.7. Transformers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.22.8. Conductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
9.22.9. Switchboards and switchgear. . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9.22.10. Protection of portable, transportable
and mobile machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.22.11. Miscellaneous safety procedures . . . . . . . . 147
9.23. Transport and material handling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.23.1. Mobile equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
9.23.2. Rail transport hazards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

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9.23.3. Aerial ropeways. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156

9.23.4. Conveyors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
9.23.5. Conveyor bridges, stacking conveyors
and overburden spreaders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.23.6. Stockpiles, bins and storage silos. . . . . . . . . . 159 contents

9.23.7. Mobile and travelling cranes. . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

9.24. Transportation of hazardous goods to
and from site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.25. Traffic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.25.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
9.25.2. Risk management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.25.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
9.26. Multiple people carriers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.26.1. Hazard description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.26.2. Assessment of risk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
9.26.3. Control strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.27. Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.27.1. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.27.2. Storage of explosives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9.27.3. Transport of explosives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.28. Shotfiring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.28.1. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.28.2. Misfires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.28.3. Electrical firing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.29. Drilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
9.29.1. General safety precautions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.29.2. Drilling rigs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

9.30. Excavation and loading. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.30.1. Excavation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9.30.2. Single-bucket excavators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
9.30.3. Multi-bucket and rotary excavating contents

machines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
9.30.4. Scrapers and bulldozers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9.30.5. Loading and dumping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10. General controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.1. Surveyors and plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.1.1. Competent surveyor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
10.1.2. Responsibilities of the mine surveyor . . . . . 189
10.1.3. Plans: General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.1.4. Plans: Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.1.5. Faulty plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.1.6. Abandonment plans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.2. Mine registration and record-keeping. . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.2.1. Commencement and cessation
of mining operations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.3. Records and returns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.4. Mine design and methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.4.1. Design requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.4.2. Stripping of overburden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.4.3. Mining methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.5. Competence, education and training. . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
10.5.1. General provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

xvi
 Contents

10.5.2. Qualifications of managers and

supervisory officials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.5.3. Qualifications, training and skills
testing of workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
10.5.4. Qualifications of contractors and others
working at the mine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 contents

10.6. Personal protective equipment (PPE). . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

10.6.1. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
10.6.2. Head protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.6.3. Face and eye protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
10.6.4. Upper and lower limb protection. . . . . . . . . 208
10.6.5. Respirators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.6.6. Hearing protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
10.6.7. Protection from falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.6.8. Work clothing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
10.7. Ergonomics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.7.1. Musculoskeletal injuries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
10.7.2. Safety signs, alarms and
communication. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
10.8. General precautions for frozen soil
and permafrost. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
11. Work organization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.1. Job safety analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.2. Work teams. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.3. Persons working alone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.4. Admission of outside persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.5. Small-scale artisanal mining activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

xvii
Safety and health in opencast mines

12. Special protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223

12.1. General welfare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.2. Personal hygiene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.3. Alcohol and drug use. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.4. HIV and AIDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 contents

Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Appendices
I Workers’ health surveillance (adapted from ILO
Technical and ethical guidelines for workers’
health surveillance, Geneva, 1998) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
II Surveillance of the working environment
(based on the Occupational Health Services
Recommendation, 1985 (No. 171)). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
III Occupational exposure limits for hazardous substances,
heat, noise and vibration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
IV Supplementary measures relating to boilers
and pressure vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

xviii
Abbreviations and definitions

In this code of practice (“code”), the following terms are used

in the meaning assigned to them below:
Accepted standard: A national or international standard contents

accepted and promulgated by a nationally recognized standards

organization.
Approved: Accepted or permitted by a competent authority
for a specific purpose under national laws.
Authorized person: A person authorized by the employer in
charge of the mine and who is competent for the work they are
required to perform.
Berm: A pile or mound of material placed for the purpose
of effectively restraining a vehicle or catching falling rocks or
material.
Competent authority: A ministry, government department
or other public authority with the power to issue regulations,
orders or other instructions having the force of law. Under
national laws or regulations, competent authorities may be
appointed with responsibilities for specific activities, such as to
monitor and regulate the various aspects of safety and health in
opencast mines.
Competent person: A person with suitable training and suffi-
cient knowledge, experience and skills for the safe performance
of the specific work.
Dangerous occurrence: Readily identifiable event, as defined
under national laws and regulations, with potential to cause
injury or disease to people at work or the general public.
Dredge: A water-borne craft fitted with an excavator, which
breaks up the material to be won, in or under water.

xix
Safety and health in opencast mines

Dump: see Tip.

Electrical equipment: Includes electric cables and any part of
any machinery, equipment or appliance being a part designed
for the generation, conversion, storage, transmission or utiliza-
tion of electricity.
Employer: The term employer means any physical or legal contents

person who employs one or more workers in a mine and, as the

context requires, the operator, the principal contractor, con-
tractor or subcontractor.
Excavator: A machine which may be further identified as
a single or a multi-bucket, fitted with devices for breaking up,
loading, transporting and dumping materials without lateral
movement of the whole machine.
Explosive: Any substance or blasting agent which may be
defined as such by national laws or classified as such by a com-
petent authority.
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations.
Hazard: The inherent potential to cause illness or injury.
IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency.
Insulated: Separated from other conducting surfaces by a die-
lectric substance permanently offering a high resistance to the
passage of current and to disruptive discharge through the sub-
stance; for purposes of the present definition, it is to be under-
stood that the manner of insulation is such that it is suitable for
the conditions to which it will be subjected under normal usage.
Isolated: Disconnected from the normal source of energy.
Live: Electrically energized.
Machinery code: The ILO code of practice Safety and health
in the use of machinery (Geneva, ILO, Programme on Safety and
Health at Work and the Environment, 2013).

xx
 Abbreviations and definitions

Mill: Includes any ore mill, sampling works, concentrator,

and any crushing, grinding or screening plant used at, and in
connection with, an opencast mine.
Mined material: Material removed from the earth to directly
produce a saleable product, not including overburden.
Misfire: An occurrence in relation to the firing of shots where contents

testing before firing reveals broken continuity which cannot be

rectified, or a shot or any part of a shot fails to explode when an
attempt is made to fire it.
National laws: Includes laws of federated states, regulations
and administrative instruments made under those laws.
OECD: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development.
OSH: Occupational safety and health.
Occupational safety and health management system: A set of
interrelated or interacting elements to establish occupational
safety and health policy and objectives and to achieve those
objectives.
Opencast mine: Includes surface mines, open-cut mines,
open-pit mines and strip mines. It denotes a place where rock or
other material is removed from its natural place of formation or
deposition while working on the surface. It includes infrastruc-
ture directly related to such removal, treatment and handling
for transport. A surface mine also includes any building, con-
struction, dump, dam, machinery and appliance situated at or
near the mine and used for any purpose necessary or incidental
to the winning and subsequent treatment of the products of the
mine. The waste material emanating therefrom is considered to
form part of such mine unless a line of demarcation excluding
any part has been agreed by the competent authority. The term
excludes facilities for oil and gas production. The competent

xxi
Safety and health in opencast mines

authority may make laws to define places which are to be con-

sidered to be opencast mines and to which laws relating to safety
and health at mines apply.
Overburden: The rock, earth, together with other unconsoli-
dated material or other matter lying on or interspersed with the
material to be won. contents

PAHO: Pan American Health Organization.

PPE: Personal protective equipment.
Risk: A combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a
hazardous occurrence and the severity of injury or damage to
the health of people caused by that occurrence.
Risk assessment: The process of identifying, analysing and
evaluating risks to safety and health arising from hazards at
work for the purpose of control.
Rock: Any portion of the earth’s crust, whether consolidated
or not.
SDS: Safety data sheet.
Small mine: For the purposes of this code, a small mine is a
formally operating mine which employs few people, with low
levels of output and investment of capital, or as defined by the
competent authority. To denote miners working in informal
small-scale mines, typically characterized by low levels of mech-
anization and labour-intensive production processes, the term
“artisanal and small-scale miners” (ASMers) is used in this code.
Tip: Any heap, pile or other location used for the disposal
of solid discard material from an opencast mine or the plant
and rock or soil from overburden removal. This includes waste
dumps, but does not include tailings dams or lagoons (slurry
ponds).
Training: Either training or education or a combination of
the two. In specific areas, certification or licensing as evidence

xxii
 Abbreviations and definitions

of having received the necessary education and training may be

a requirement.
Wheel assembly: Comprises a rim base, flanges, bead seat
band, lock ring and wheel disc or nave plate welded to the rim
base.
WHO: World Health Organization. contents

Worker representative: In accordance with the Workers’

Representatives Convention, 1971 (No. 135), any person who is
recognized as such by national law or practice, whether they are:
(a) trade union representatives, namely, representatives
designated or elected by trade unions or by members of such
unions; or
(b) elected representatives, namely, representatives who are
freely elected by the workers of the organization in accordance
with provisions of national laws or regulations, or of collective
agreements, and whose functions do not include activities which
are recognized as the exclusive prerogative of trade unions in the
country concerned.
Working: A part of an opencast mine which is in the course
of being excavated, and a part that has been excavated, whether
abandoned or not.

xxiii
Introduction

1. In accordance with the decision taken by the Governing

Body of the ILO at its 329th Session in March 2017, a Meeting
of Experts on Safety and Health in Opencast Mines (“the contents
Meeting”) was convened in Geneva from 16 to 20 October 2017
to review and adopt a revised code of practice Safety and health
in opencast mines. The Meeting was composed of eight experts
appointed following consultations with Governments, seven
experts appointed following consultations with the Employers’
group and seven experts appointed following consultations with
the Workers’ group of the Governing Body.
2. The original code of practice Safety and health in open-
cast mines was published in 1991. This revised code reflects the
many changes in the industry, its workforce, the roles of the
competent authorities, employers, workers and their organiza-
tions, and the development of new ILO instruments on occupa-
tional safety and health (OSH), including the Safety and Health
in Mines Convention, 1995 (No. 176). To this effect, the new
code is based on the principles of the Convention, including
risk assessment, addresses issues such as the interaction between
large-scale and small-scale artisanal miners and also comprises a
section on automated machinery, a development that has great
potential to change the work carried out by nearly all workers in
opencast mines worldwide.
3. Codes of practice are primarily designed as a basis for
prevention, and protective and corrective measures and are
considered as ILO technical standards in OSH. They contain
general principles and specific guidance which concern in par-
ticular the surveillance of the working environment and of
workers’ health; education and training; record-keeping; the

1
Safety and health in opencast mines

role and duties of the competent authority, employers, workers,

manufacturers and suppliers; and consultation and cooperation.
4. The first chapter of this code provides an overview of
the code’s purpose, objectives and use. The general duties of the
stakeholders are outlined in the second chapter. Chapter 3 com-
prises guidance on the setting up of safety and health commit- contents

tees in mines, as well as industry tripartite committees on the

national level. Chapters 4–8 outline fundamental principles,
including on risk assessment and management, and the setting
up of OSH management systems and emergency response. The
code’s Chapter 9 comprises descriptions of specific hazards, pro-
vides input into assessing risks and describes respective control
measures. Chapter 10 deals with general controls; Chapter 11
with work organization. It is followed by Chapter 12 on special
protection, which addresses issues including general welfare and
HIV and AIDS.

2
1. General provisions

1.1. Purpose
contents
5. The practical recommendations of this code are intended
for the use of all those, in both the public and private sectors,
who have rights, responsibilities and duties regarding safety and
health in opencast mines.
6. The code addresses most of the currently identified haz-
ards and risks associated with opencast mines; however, changes
in the industry or at specific operations may alter the risk profile
of an operation. For this reason, the code cannot be assumed to
address every hazard or risk.
7. The purpose of this code is to provide practical guid-
ance in support of the application and implementation of the
provisions of the Safety and Health in Mines Convention,
1995 (No. 176), and its accompanying Recommendation, 1995
(No. 183). The code is not a legally binding instrument and is
not intended to replace national laws, regulations and accepted
standards.
8. While the code contains detailed provisions, its use
should not inhibit the development of new technologies,
better practice or the adoption of alternative measures that
provide effective protection to all persons involved in opencast
mining.
9. The provisions of this code should be read in the con-
text of the conditions in the country proposing to use the guid-
ance it contains, the scale of operation involved and technical
possibilities.

3
Safety and health in opencast mines

1.2. Objectives
10. This code should contribute to:
(a) protecting workers in opencast mines from workplace
hazards and preventing or reducing work-related injuries and
diseases, ill health and dangerous occurrences;
(b) assisting and facilitating the improved management of contents

OSH issues at each workplace;

(c) promoting effective consultation and cooperation
between governments, employers, workers and their organiza-
tions in the improvement of OSH in opencast mines;
(d) improved safety and health in the context of sustainable
development; and
(e) the health and safety of local communities.
11. This code should assist in:
(a) establishing a coherent national policy and principles on
OSH and the welfare of workers in opencast mines and on the
protection of the general working environment;
(b) establishing the respective duties and responsibilities
for occupational safety and health of the authorities, employers,
workers and others involved and making arrangements for a
structured cooperation between them;
(c) improving knowledge and competence; and
(d) promoting the implementation and integration of con-
sistent OSH management systems with a view to improving
working conditions.
12. This code provides practical guidance on the role and
obligations of the competent authorities and the responsibili-
ties, duties and rights of employers, workers and all other par-
ties involved, with regard to workplace hazards. In particular it
covers:

4
 1.  General provisions

(a) the setting up of legal, administrative and effective

frameworks for the prevention and reduction of hazards and
risks;
(b) the aims of any mechanisms for identifying, elimi-
nating, minimizing and controlling hazards;
(c) the assessment of risks and hazards to the safety and contents

health of workers and the measures that need to be taken;

(d) the surveillance of the working environment and
workers’ health;
(e) emergency procedures and first aid;
(f) the provision of information and training to workers;
and
(g) the establishment of a system to record, report and
monitor occupational accidents and diseases, and dangerous
occurrences.
1.3. Application
13. This code, which is applicable to all opencast mines,
should provide guidance, in accordance with the provisions of
national laws and regulations, to:
(a) all government authorities, workers’ and employers’
organizations and industry associations, whether having legis-
lative or advisory roles and whose activities influence the safety,
health and welfare of workers in opencast mines;
(b) all those individuals at the level of the mine, that is,
employers, persons in control of premises, and workers and con-
tractors, as appropriate to their duties and responsibilities for
safety and health.
14. A number of OSH measures implemented to protect
workers’ health and safety in opencast mines may have an effect,

5
Safety and health in opencast mines

directly or indirectly, on the general environment. This rela-

tionship should be taken into account by both the competent
authorities and employers in designing and implementing their
respective policies and programmes.
15. The provisions of this code are not intended to replace
applicable laws, regulations or accepted standards. More strin- contents

gent applicable requirements have priority over the provisions

of this code. In the absence of national laws and regulations on
a particular OSH issue, guidance should be drawn from this
code, as well as from other relevant nationally and internation-
ally recognized instruments.
16. The code contains references to those institutions
responsible for the delivery and award of vocational qualifica-
tions. Such institutions are urged to review existing curricula
in the light of the code’s recommendations for training and the
allocation of worksite responsibilities.
1.4. Reference to other ILO instruments
17. In the establishment, implementation and review of
policies and programmes on OSH in opencast mines under this
code, competent authorities and employers’ and workers’ organ-
izations should take into account ratified international labour
standards and that the fundamental principles and rights at
work apply to all workers and employers. They should also take
account of the provisions of other relevant ILO instruments,
including Conventions, Recommendations, codes of practice
and guidelines. A list of these is contained in the bibliography
at the end of this code.

6
2. General duties

2.1. Cooperation
18. This code recognizes that effective safety and health contents
systems require joint commitment between the competent
authority, employers, workers and their representatives. The par-
ties should cooperate in a constructive manner to ensure that
the objectives of this code are achieved.
19. Measures for cooperation should be taken relating to
the identification of hazards and the elimination or control of
risks to safety and health from opencast mines. These measures
should include the following:
(a) employers, in discharging their responsibilities, should
cooperate as closely as possible with workers and/or their repre-
sentatives, including providing relevant information about safety
and health from the employer’s suppliers and manufacturers;
(b) workers should cooperate as closely as possible with
their fellow workers and their employers in the discharge by the
employers of their responsibilities, and should comply with all
prescribed procedures and practices; and
(c) manufacturers and suppliers should on request provide
employers with all necessary information as is available and
required for the evaluation of any hazards or risks to safety and
health that might result from a particular hazardous factor.
2.2. Competent authority
2.2.1. General provisions
20. The competent authority, in the light of national
conditions and practice and the provisions of this code, in

7
Safety and health in opencast mines

consultation with the most representative organizations of

employers and workers concerned, should:
(a) develop, maintain and control the application of laws
and regulations on occupational safety and health in opencast
mines and identify and incorporate accepted standards into
these; contents

(b) devise and maintain a national policy on OSH, including

the promotion of a systematic approach to OSH through OSH
management systems in accordance with national laws and reg-
ulations; and
(c) consider making new, or updating existing, statutory
provisions for the identification of hazards and the elimination
or control of risks in opencast mines.
21. Statutory provisions should include national laws or
regulations, codes of practice, exposure limits, standards of
competency and training for all workers, and establish a pro-
cess for consultation with and dissemination of information to
employers, workers and their representatives.
22. The competent authority should establish, in accord-
ance with the provisions of relevant ILO Conventions and
taking into account the need to harmonize such systems
internationally:
(a) systems, including criteria, for classifying substances
that may be hazardous to health;
(b) systems and criteria for assessing the relevance of the
information required to determine whether a substance is
hazardous;
(c) requirements for marking and labelling substances.
Substances for use in opencast mines should be marked and
labelled according to these requirements;

8
 2.  General duties

(d) criteria for the information contained in the substance

safety data sheets received by employers; and
(e) systems and criteria for identifying safety hazards and
appropriate risk control measures relating to structures, facil-
ities, machinery, equipment, processes and operations used in
opencast mines. contents

23. The competent authority should set out the necessary

rules to determine these criteria and requirements, but is not
necessarily expected to undertake technical tasks or laboratory
tests itself.
24. The competent authority should ensure the enforce-
ment of national laws and regulations concerning the policy
mentioned above through an adequate and appropriate system
of inspection. The system of enforcement should be devel-
oped through a consultative process involving employers’ and
workers’ representatives.1 The system of enforcement should
provide for corrective measures and adequate penalties for vio-
lations of national laws and regulations concerning the policy.
25. If justified on safety and health grounds, the competent
authority should:

1
In accordance with the Workers’ Representatives Convention, 1971 (No.
135), any person who is recognized as such by national law or practice, wheth-
er they are:
(a) trade union representatives, namely, representatives designated or elected by
trade unions or by members of such unions; or
(b) elected representatives, namely, representatives who are freely elected by the
workers of the organization in accordance with provisions of national laws or
regulations, or of collective agreements, and whose functions do not include
activities which are recognized as the exclusive prerogative of trade unions in
the country concerned.

9
Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) prohibit or restrict the use of certain hazardous prac-

tices, processes or substances; or
(b) require advance notification and authorization before any
such restricted practices, processes and substances are used; or
(c) without discrimination, specify categories of workers
who, for reasons of safety and health, are not allowed to use contents

specified processes or substances, or are allowed to use them but

only under conditions prescribed in accordance with national
laws or regulations.
26. The competent authority should ensure that guidance
is provided to employers and workers to help them comply
with their legal obligations under the policy. The competent
authority should provide assistance to employers, workers and
their representatives.
2.2.2. Inspectorates
27. Inspectorates designated by the competent authority
should, in a manner prescribed by national laws and regulations:
(a) enforce all relevant laws and regulations at opencast
mines;
(b) periodically carry out inspections in the presence of the
employers’ and workers’ representatives, and monitor compli-
ance with all relevant laws and regulations;
(c) assist employers, workers and their representatives with
respect to their OSH responsibilities, duties and rights;
(d) monitor the safety and health requirements and perfor-
mance of comparable national or international opencast mines
to provide feedback for further development and improvement
of safety measures; and
(e) participate, in cooperation with the recognized organi-
zations of employers and workers, in formulating and updating

10
 2.  General duties

safety rules and measures to be adopted at the national, enter-

prise and mine levels.
28. Inspectors should, in a manner prescribed by national
laws and regulations:
(a) be competent to deal with the safety and health issues
associated with opencast mines and be able to provide support contents

and advice;
(b) have the authority to investigate fatal and serious acci-
dents, dangerous occurrences and opencast mine disasters;
(c) notify the employer, the workers concerned and their
representatives, as well as safety and health committees, of the
findings of inspections and the required remedial action;
(d) have the authority to remove workers from situations
involving an imminent and serious danger to life or health;
(e) periodically determine whether an existing OSH man-
agement system or OSH elements are in place, adequate and
effective;
(f) have authority to suspend or restrict mining activities
on safety and health grounds, until the condition giving rise to
the suspension or restriction has been corrected; and
(g) have access to all worker training records.
29. The authority, rights, procedures and responsibilities of
inspectors should be communicated to all affected parties.
2.3. Employers’ responsibilities and rights
30. In taking preventive and protective measures (control
measures), subject to national laws and regulation, the employer
should identify the hazard and assess the risk and deal with it in
the following order of priority:
(a) eliminate the hazard;

11
Safety and health in opencast mines

(b) control the risk at source;

(c) minimize the risk by means that include the design of
safe work systems; and
(d) in so far as the risk remains, provide for the use of per-
sonal protective equipment (PPE),
having regard to what is reasonable, practicable and feasible,
contents

and to good practice and the exercise of due diligence.2

31. Employers should take all reasonable, practicable and
feasible measures to eliminate or minimize the risks to safety
and health in opencast mines under their control, and in
particular:
(a) ensure that the mine is designed, constructed and
provided with electrical, mechanical and other equipment,
including a communication system, to provide conditions for
safe operation and a healthy working environment;
(b) ensure that the mine is commissioned, operated, main-
tained and decommissioned in such a way that workers can
perform the work assigned to them without endangering their
safety and health or that of other persons;
(c) take steps to maintain the stability of the ground in
areas to which persons have access in the context of their work;
(d) ensure the monitoring, assessment and regular inspec-
tion of the working environment to identify the various hazards
to which the workers may be exposed and to assess their level of
exposure;

2
As required in Article 6 of the Safety and Health in Mines Convention, 1995
(No. 176).

12
 2.  General duties

(e) in respect of zones susceptible to particular hazards,

draw up and implement an operating plan and procedures to
ensure a safe system of work and the protection of workers;
(f) take measures and precautions appropriate to the nature
of a mine operation to prevent, detect and respond to the start
and spread of fires and explosions; contents

(g) ensure that, when there is serious danger to the safety

and health of workers, operations are stopped and workers are
evacuated to a safe location; and
(h) ensure that, when managers or supervisors observe
non-compliance with safety and health regulations or codes of
practice by any person, they should take corrective action imme-
diately. If such action is unsuccessful, the problem should be
referred to a higher level of management immediately.
32. The employer should prepare an emergency response
plan, specific to each mine, for reasonably foreseeable industrial
incidents and natural disasters.
33. Where workers are exposed to physical, chemical or bio-
logical hazards, the employer should:
(a) inform the workers, in a comprehensible manner, of the
hazards associated with their work, the health risks involved
and relevant preventive and protective measures;
(b) take appropriate measures to eliminate or minimize the
risks resulting from exposure to those hazards;
(c) where adequate protection against risk of accident
or injury to health, including exposure to adverse conditions,
cannot be ensured by other means, provide and maintain at no
cost to the worker suitable protective equipment, clothing as
necessary and other facilities defined by national laws or regula-
tions; and

13
Safety and health in opencast mines

(d) provide workers who have suffered from an injury or

illness at the workplace with first aid, appropriate transpor-
tation from the workplace and access to appropriate medical
facilities.
34. The employer should ensure that:
(a) adequate training and retraining programmes and com- contents

prehensible instructions are provided for workers, at no cost

to them, on safety and health matters, as well as on the work
assigned;
(b) adequate supervision and control are provided on each
shift to secure the safe operation of the mine;
(c) a system is established so that the names of all persons
who are at the mine can be accurately known at any time, as
well as their probable location;
(d) all accidents, occupational illnesses and dangerous
occurrences are investigated and appropriate remedial action is
taken; and
(e) a report, as specified by national laws and regulations,
is made to the competent authority on accidents and dangerous
occurrences.
35. On the basis of general principles of occupational health
and in accordance with national laws and regulations, the
employer should ensure the provision of regular health surveil-
lance of workers exposed to occupational health hazards specific
to opencast mining.
36. Whenever two or more employers undertake activities
at the same mine, the employer in charge of the mine should
coordinate the implementation of all measures concerning the
safety and health of workers and shall be held primarily respon-
sible for the safety of the operations. This should not relieve

14
 2.  General duties

individual employers from responsibility for the implementa-

tion of all measures concerning the safety and health of their
workers.
37. Multinational enterprises should maintain the highest
standards of safety and health, in conformity with national
requirements, bearing in mind their relevant experience within contents

the enterprise as a whole, including any knowledge of special

hazards. They should also make available to the representatives
of the workers, and upon request, to the competent authorities
and the workers’ and employers’ organizations in all countries
in which they operate, information on the safety and health
standards relevant to their local operations, which they observe
in other countries. In particular, they should make known to
those concerned any special hazards and related protective
measures associated with new products and processes. They, like
comparable domestic enterprises, should be expected to play a
leading role in the examination of causes of industrial safety and
health hazards and in the application of resulting improvements
within the enterprise as a whole.

2.4. Workers’ rights and responsibilities

38. National laws and regulations should provide for that
workers have the following rights and responsibilities:
(a) to report accidents, occupational illnesses, dangerous
occurrences, near-miss events and hazards to the employer and
to the competent authority;
(b) to request and obtain, where there is cause for concern
on safety and health grounds, inspections and investigations to
be conducted by the employer and the competent authority;
(c) to know and be informed of workplace hazards that
may affect their safety or health;

15
Safety and health in opencast mines

(d) to obtain information relevant to their safety or health,

held by the employer or the competent authority;
(e) to remove themselves from any location at the mine
without fear of repercussion or disciplinary measures when cir-
cumstances arise which appear, with reasonable justification, to
pose a serious danger to their safety or health; and contents

(f) to collectively select safety and health representatives.

39. National laws and regulations should provide for that
safety and health representatives have the following rights and
responsibilities:
(a) to represent workers in the exercise of their rights;
(b) to:
(i) participate in inspections and investigations con-
ducted by the employer and by the competent
authority at the workplace; and
(ii) monitor and investigate safety and health matters;
(c) to have recourse to advisers and independent experts;
(d) to consult with the employer in a timely fashion on
safety and health matters, including policies and procedures;
(e) to consult with the competent authority; and
(f) to receive, relevant to the area for which they have been
selected, notice of accidents and dangerous occurrences.
40. Workers and safety and health representatives should
be entitled to exercise their rights without discrimination or
retaliation.
41. National laws and regulations should provide for that
workers have the duty, in accordance with their training:
(a) to comply with prescribed safety and health measures;

16
 2.  General duties

(b) to present themselves at work in a fit for work state and to

inform the employer of any change in their fitness for work state;
(c) to take reasonable care for their own safety and health
and that of other persons who may be affected by their acts or
omissions at work, including the proper care and use of protec-
tive clothing, facilities and equipment placed at their disposal contents

for this purpose;

(d) to report forthwith to their immediate supervisor any
situation which they believe could present a risk to their safety
or health or that of other persons, and which they cannot prop-
erly deal with themselves; and
(e) to cooperate with the employer to permit compliance
with the duties and responsibilities placed on the employer,
and to participate with the safety and health committee in the
development and implementation of the occupational safety
and health management system of the mine.
2.5. General responsibilities of suppliers,
manufacturers and designers
42. Measures, including national laws and regulations,
should be taken to ensure that those who design, manufacture,
import, provide or transfer machinery, equipment or substances
for use in opencast mines:
(a) ensure that the machinery, equipment or substances do
not entail dangers for the safety and health of those using them
correctly, and ensure that they meet appropriate and applicable
standards or certification requirements; and
(b) make available:
(i) information concerning their requirements for the
correct set up, use and maintenance of machinery
and equipment and the correct use of substances;

17
Safety and health in opencast mines

(ii) information concerning the hazards of machinery

and equipment, including the dangerous parts of
machinery and hazardous components or equip-
ment, the dangerous properties of hazardous sub-
stances and physical agents or products; and
(iii) information on how to eliminate or control risks contents

arising from the identified hazards associated with

the products.
Further information: ILO code of practice Safety and health
in the use of machinery (2013).
2.6. General responsibilities and rights of contractors
43. Contractors should comply with the arrangements
established by the employer in charge of the mine, which should:
(a) include the contractor performing a risk assessment, estab-
lishing risk controls for their work and submitting a workplan to
the employer. The contractor should comply with the workplan
and risk controls, and inform the employer of any changes;
(b) include OSH criteria in procedures for evaluating and
selecting contractors;
(c) establish effective ongoing communication and coordi-
nation between appropriate levels of the mine and the contractor
prior to commencing work, which should include provisions for
identifying hazards and the measures to eliminate and control
risks;
(d) include arrangements for reporting work-related inju-
ries and diseases, ill health and dangerous occurrences among
the contractor’s workers while performing work for the mine;
(e) provide relevant workplace safety and health hazard
awareness and training to contractors or their workers prior to
commencing work and as work progresses, as necessary;

18
 2.  General duties

(f) regularly monitor OSH performance of contractor

activities on-site; and
(g) ensure that on-site OSH procedures and arrangements
are followed by the contractor(s).
44. When using contractors, the employer in charge of the
mine should ensure that: contents

(a) contractors develop a safety and health plan in accord-

ance with the mine OSH management system that is approved
by the employer in charge of the mine prior to commencing
work;
(b) the requirements of the OSH management system of
the mine, including training requirements, apply to the con-
tractors and their workers as they do to the workers in the
establishment, including procedures to investigate accidents,
occupational illnesses and dangerous occurrences;
(c) where required, only such contractors are used that have
been duly registered or hold licences; and
(d) contracts specify safety and health requirements as
well as sanctions and penalties in case of non-compliance.
Contracts should include the right for supervisors mandated
by the employer in charge of the mine to inspect work and to
stop work whenever a risk of serious injury is apparent and to
suspend operations until the necessary remedies have been put
in place.

19
3. Safety and health committees

3.1. Safety and health committees

45. At every mine, a safety and health committee consisting contents

of representatives of workers and the employer should be estab-

lished and should meet regularly and whenever necessary to dis-
cuss all aspects of safety and health at the mine.
46. The employer should provide the safety and health com-
mittee with the facilities, training and assistance necessary to
perform its functions, including all necessary safety and health
information required for committee representatives, and to edu-
cate workers: (i) on their right to refuse unsafe work without
fear of reprisals, (ii) their right to participate in all aspects of
their safety and health, and (iii) their right to know how their
work activities may affect their safety and health.
47. The employer should notify the safety and health
committee:
(a) as soon as practicable, of any occupational accident,
occupational disease or dangerous occurrences at the mine; and
(b) in good time of any inspection or investigation by the
competent authority at the mine regarding which the employer
has received advance notice.
48. National laws or regulations should specify the powers
and functions of safety and health committees.
3.2. Industry tripartite committees
49. In accordance with national laws and regulations, a
tripartite committee should be established, consisting of repre-
sentatives of employers, workers and the competent authority,

21
Safety and health in opencast mines

which should meet regularly to consider all aspects of mining

safety and health.
50. The tripartite committee should:
(a) consider relevant safety and health trends, technology
developments and scientific and medical research at both the
national and international levels; contents

(b) advise the competent authority on safety and health in

mines;
(c) promote a national preventive safety and health culture,
which is one in which the right to a safe and healthy working
environment is respected at all levels, where governments,
employers and workers actively participate in securing a safe
and healthy working environment through a system of defined
rights, responsibilities and duties, and where the principle of
prevention is accorded the highest priority. Building and main-
taining a preventive safety and health culture requires making
use of all available means to increase general awareness, knowl-
edge and understanding of the concepts of hazards and risks
and how they may be prevented or controlled; and
(d) recommend action on any safety or health matter which
gives it cause for concern.
51. The competent authority should provide the tripartite
committee with the necessary information required to perform
its functions.
52. The powers and functions of the tripartite committee
should be determined by agreement between the competent
authority, employees and workers’ representatives, or by national
laws or regulations.

22
4. Occupational safety and health
management systems; reporting,
recording and notification of work-
related injuries and diseases,
ill health and dangerous occurrences; contents

occupational health services

4.1. Introduction
53. Numerous other principles contained in existing ILO
instruments, too lengthy to reproduce in this text, are relevant
to OSH in opencast mining. These address: OSH management
systems; reporting, recording and notification of work-related
injuries and diseases, ill health and dangerous occurrences; and
occupational health services.
4.2. OSH management systems
54. The process of improving working conditions in open-
cast mines should be approached systematically. With a view
to achieving acceptable and environmentally sound OSH con-
ditions, it is necessary to invest in permanent structures for
their continuous review, planning, implementation, evaluation
and action. This should be done through the implementation
of OSH management systems. The systems should be specific
to the mine and appropriate to its size and the nature of its
activities.
55. Typically, an OSH management system should com-
prise the following main elements:
(a) OSH policy;

23
Safety and health in opencast mines

(b) necessary conditions for the executing organization,

that is, establishment of responsibility and accountability, com-
petence and training, documentation, communication and
information;
(c) worker participation;
(d) hazard identification, risk assessment and control, plan- contents

ning and implementation of OSH activities; and

(e) assessment and evaluation of OSH performance,
including the collection of data, and developing actions for
improvement.
56. Their design and application at national and mine levels
should be guided by the ILO Guidelines on occupational safety
and health management systems, ILO–OSH 2001.
4.3. Reporting, recording and notification of work-related
injuries and diseases, ill health and dangerous
occurrences
57. It should be the obligation of the employer to notify
the competent authority of all serious work-related injuries, dis-
eases, ill health and dangerous occurrences in a timely manner,
as specified by the competent authority.
58. Similarly, in the establishment, review and applica-
tion of systems for the reporting, recording and notification
of work-related injuries and diseases, ill health and dangerous
occurrences, the competent authority should take account of
the Employment Injury Benefits Convention, 1964 (No. 121),
and its Schedule I, as amended in 1980, the ILO Protocol of
2002 to the Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981
(No. 155), the List of Occupational Diseases Recommendation,
2002 (No. 194), the ILO List of Occupational Diseases (revised
2010), and the ILO code of practice Recording and notification

24
 4.  Occupational safety and health management systems

of occupational accidents and diseases (1996). The competent

authority should establish a nationally consistent approach to
collecting and reporting statistics on occupational accidents,
injuries and diseases.
59. Reporting, recording, notification and investigation
of work-related injuries and diseases, ill health and dangerous contents

occurrences are essential for reactive monitoring and should be

undertaken to:
(a) provide reliable information about occupational acci-
dents, dangerous occurrences and occupational diseases at mine
and national levels;
(b) identify major safety and health problems arising from
opencast mining activities;
(c) define priorities of action;
(d) evolve effective methods for dealing with occupational
accidents and diseases; and
(e) monitor the effectiveness of measures taken to secure
satisfactory levels of safety and health.
4.4. Occupational health services
60. Consistent with the Occupational Health Services
Convention, 1985 (No. 161), and Recommendation, 1985 (No.
171), the competent authority should make provision for the
establishment of occupational health services:
(a) by laws or regulations;
(b) by collective agreements or as otherwise agreed upon by
the employers and workers concerned; or
(c) in any other manner approved by the competent
authority after consultation with the representative organiza-
tions of employers and workers concerned.

25
5. Hazard identification, risk assessment
and control

5.1. General principles

contents
61. The employer should have a system in place to, in con-
sultation with workers and their representatives, identify haz-
ards and assess risks to safety and health and apply control
measures in the following order of priority:
(a) eliminate the hazard;
(b) control the risk at source, such as substitution (for
example, replacing hazardous equipment or substances with less
hazardous equipment or substances) or engineering controls;
(c) minimize the risk by means that include the design of
safe work systems; and
(d) in so far as the risk remains, provide for the use of PPE,
having due regard to what is reasonable, practicable and feasible,
and to good practice and the exercise of due diligence.
62. In giving effect to the above, the employer should estab-
lish, implement and maintain documented procedures to ensure
that the following activities take place:
(a) hazard identification;
(b) risk assessment;
(c) control of risks; and
(d) a process to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of
these activities.
5.2. Hazard identification
63. The identification of hazards in the workplace should
take into account:

27
Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) the situation or events or combination of circumstances

that have the potential to give rise to injury or illness;
(b) the nature of potential injury or illness relevant to the
activity, product or service;
(c) past injuries, dangerous occurrences and illness;
contents
(d) the way work is organized, managed, carried out and
any related changes;
(e) the design of workplaces, work processes, materials,
plant and equipment;
(f) the fabrication, installation and commissioning and
handling and disposal of materials, workplaces, plant and
equipment;
(g) the purchasing of goods and services;
(h) the contracting of plant, equipment, services and labour,
including contract specification and responsibilities in relation
to and of contractors; and
(i) the inspection, maintenance, testing, repair and replace-
ment of plant and equipment.
5.3. Risk assessment
64. Risk assessment is a process used to determine the level
of risk of injury or illness associated with each identified hazard,
for the purpose of control. All risks should be assessed and have
control priorities assigned, based on the assessed level of risk. The
priority for control increases as the assessed level of risk rises.
65. The risk-assessment process should take account of the
likelihood and severity of injury or illness from the identified
hazard. There are many established and recognized methods
and techniques that can be implemented for the purpose of risk
assessment.

28
 5.  Hazard identification, risk assessment and control

5.4. Risk control

66. Unless a particular hazard or exposure to the hazard is
removed, the risk associated with such a hazard can never be
completely eliminated. In such cases such a risk should be con-
trolled following the order of priority described in Section 2.3,
paragraph 30. contents

67. The employer should plan the management and control

of those activities, products and services that can or may pose a
significant risk to safety and health.
5.5. Evaluation
68. The processes of hazard identification, risk assessment
and control should be subject to a documented evaluation of
effectiveness and modified as necessary, to establish an ongoing
process for continual improvement.
69. Evaluations should take into consideration advances
in technology, knowledge and experiences nationally and
internationally.
70. Practical examples and guidance can be found in A 5
STEP GUIDE for employers, workers and their representatives on
conducting workplace risk assessments (ILO, 2014) and Training
Package on Workplace Risk Assessment and Management for
Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (ILO, 2013).

29
6. Management of change

6.1. Managing change

71. The impact on OSH of internal changes (for example, contents

in staffing or due to new processes, working procedures, organ-

izational structures or acquisitions) and external changes (for
example, as a result of amendments of national laws and reg-
ulations, organizational mergers and developments in OSH
knowledge and technology) should be evaluated and appro-
priate preventive steps taken prior to the introduction of
changes.
72. A workplace hazard identification and risk assessment
should be carried out before any modification or introduction
of new work methods, materials, processes or machinery.
6.2. Non-routine work
73. While much of what happens at a mine site should be
covered by established controls developed through the risk-man-
agement process, there will always be situations that may not
be adequately covered by those arrangements. This gives rise
to a need to develop and implement processes to identify such
“non-routine” work, or instances where established procedures
are seen as inadequate.
74. Such non-routine work might include:
(a) a type of work that has never been performed before at
the site;
(b) work that is only performed infrequently;
(c) work that is outside normal duties;
(d) work that does not have a documented procedure;

31
Safety and health in opencast mines

(e) work that must be performed in a different way to a

documented procedure (including instances where a procedure
is identified as inadequate); and
(f) “routine” tasks that carry a particular risk and warrant
oversight before proceeding.
75. The key to managing the risks of such work is to halt the contents

ongoing operation to allow for an established degree of assess-

ment before proceeding. This provides an opportunity for situ-
ational awareness to be improved before proceeding.
76. Responses to the identification of non-routine work
might include:
(a) discussion with a supervisor;
(b) performance of an “on the job” assessment to an estab-
lished standard before proceeding;
(c) performance of a more formal job safety analysis to an
established standard prior to the work proceeding;
(d) development or redevelopment of a documented proce-
dure to cover the work;
(e) conduct of a formal risk assessment and development of
appropriate controls; or
(f) implementation of an established permit-to-work system
(this is commonly the case for work such as work at heights, or
work in a confined space).
77. Arrangements to support this approach should be in
place very early on in the development and operation of a mine
site. It should be made clear, and accepted, that an unacceptable
response to non-routine work is to “do nothing”.

32
7. Life-cycle approach

78. In pursuing improvements in OSH, it is useful to con-

sider the entire life cycle of a facility or mine. This is so for two
reasons: contents

(a) risk management is generally most effective if applied

early in the life cycle, as it allows for the adoption of generally
more effective and less costly control measures, since less-effec-
tive retro-engineering is avoided; and
(b) the nature of risk changes throughout the life cycle,
necessitating reassessment of those risks.
79. The main stages in an opencast mine’s life cycle are the
concept, the design, the development/acquisition, the commis-
sioning/implementation, the operation, the maintenance/mod-
ification, the decommissioning and the disposal phases. Specific
activities take place at each of the following stages and require
specific attention.
Concept
80. Even at this early stage, decisions are made that can have
a significant impact on the safety and health implications of a
proposed facility. Examples are the choice of inherently more
safe or healthy technologies, or the placement of a facility in
relation to neighbouring communities.
Design
81. At this stage, safety engineering concepts should be
applied such as the use of the hierarchy of controls and the use
of backup or redundancy for critical controls. In addition, ergo-
nomic principles should be applied to maximize the operability
and maintainability of plant. The design phase also provides an

33
Safety and health in opencast mines

opportunity to ensure that a facility will be compatible with

existing or other proposed facilities.
Development/acquisition
82. This typically comprises a building phase in which per-
sonnel may be exposed to a variety of hazards. This is especially
of concern for on-site assembly where a mine operator may share contents

the overall responsibility for safety and health. The acquisition

of facilities also falls in this phase in which an important con-
sideration is adequate specification of safety and health require-
ments and their communication to suppliers. Of particular
concern at this phase is the acquisition of after-market, or sec-
ond-hand, facilities. While this may be economically attractive,
care should be taken that second-hand facilities meet safety and
health requirements, to avoid “importing problems”.
Commissioning/implementation
83. At this stage, adequate procedures for new facilities
should be implemented along with training and the assessment
of the competence of workers. Facilities should be systematically
commissioned while monitoring for performance in design
intent. In particular, the effective operation of critical controls
should be evaluated at this stage.
Operation
84. During operation, information should be gath-
ered about the safety and health performance of the facility.
Employers should actively seek feedback from workers closely
involved in operations. Data thus gathered should be used as
input into maintenance planning, as well as input into future
design, development and acquisition processes. The guidance
in Sections 10.1.3 to 10.1.6 on the development of mine plans,
their updating and the recording of all relevant changes is par-
ticularly important in this phase.

34
 7.  Life-cycle approach

85. Parts of the mine that are no longer in operation should

at this stage be closed or put into care and maintenance until
decommissioned, if practicable.
Maintenance/modification
86. This phase involves both routine maintenance and mod-
ifications in the light of issues arising during operation. Routine contents

maintenance should be risk-based and particular care should be

taken to isolate or dissipate stored energy sources (for example,
accumulators, hydraulic circuits, capacitive elements or springs
with stored mechanical energy). Modification of facilities or
equipment is a form of non-routine work and should be treated
as such.
Decommissioning
87. This phase involves the transition of facilities to a
benign state through processes such as disassembly, demolition,
draining, filling and dissipation of hazardous energies.
Disposal
88. The remains of facilities should be disposed of respon-
sibly and in accordance with national laws and accepted stand-
ards. Particular attention should be paid to the disposal of such
items as radioactive material, chemicals (including PCBs) and
asbestos-containing materials.

35
8. Emergency response plan

8.1. General emergency provisions

89. An emergency response plan, specific to an opencast contents
mine, should be established by the employer in charge of the
mine, in cooperation with workers, external emergency services
and other relevant bodies, for reasonably foreseeable industrial
incidents and natural disasters. Risk assessment may be an
appropriate means to identify relevant potential industrial inci-
dents and natural disasters.
90. The emergency response plan should incorporate the fire
and emergency procedures, the first-aid and medical services,
and the emergency plan (under Section 10.1) suggested by this
code. Where an opencast mine has one or more tailings dams,
the emergency response plan for the mine should be extended
to incorporate relevant provisions (see in particular Section
9.9.3.6).
91. In developing an emergency response plan, the fol-
lowing might be considered:
(a) establishing an emergency response team or brigade;
(b) the chain of command along with appropriate backups
and control structures, including roles and responsibilities, in
the case of an emergency;
(c) the establishment of a command and communication
centre (which may be separate from normal work areas), where
a full working copy of the emergency response plan is available,
including emergency contact details;
(d) the triggers for declaring an emergency (emergencies
may be of different classes depending on their severity);

37
Safety and health in opencast mines

(e) who should initiate an emergency response and by what

means;
(f) escape procedures and escape routes, including signings
and markings indicating escape routes to be used;
(g) means to account for all persons after evacuation;
(h) procedures for the shutdown of the critical facility when contents

necessary;
(i) means of ensuring that external emergency services are
notified when necessary;
(j) means of ensuring that competent authorities are noti-
fied as required;
(k) rescue and medical roles for those who will perform
them;
(l) the implementation of site security arrangements
(including management of media and bystanders);
(m) the protection of vital records, in whatever form (for
example, secure off-site backup or fireproof storage);
(n) the training and appropriate retraining of all workers at
an opencast mine and any person who may be involved in an
emergency; and
(o) any other provisions relevant to the site.
92. Where external emergency services (for example, mine
rescue, fire and ambulance services) form part of the emergency
response plan, the provisions and infrastructure of the plan
should, as far as practicable, be compatible with those services.
External emergency services should be made familiar with rele-
vant parts of the opencast mine’s emergency response plan.
93. Small mines should consider arrangements with other
mines and external emergency service providers to ensure an
adequate emergency response.

38
 8.  Emergency response plan

94. Regular testing of the emergency response plan should

be undertaken (for example, by conducting exercises) and
workers’ representatives should be involved in exercise planning,
conduct and debriefing.
95. A competent authority should monitor the development
and implementation of emergency response plans at opencast contents

mines within their jurisdiction.

96. Where more than one competent authority is involved,
they should liaise and make a coordinated response when
informed of an emergency at an opencast mine.
8.2. Fire protection and firefighting
8.2.1. General provisions
97. Efficient means of fire protection and firefighting
should be available at all times in all buildings and at all
points in or about an opencast mine where a fire hazard has
been identified.
98. The means of fire protection and firefighting should be
in conformity with national laws and accepted standards.
99. The employer in charge of the mine should assign a
competent and experienced person to:
(a) prepare a fire precaution plan showing all locations
in the mine where a fire hazard exists, the nature of the
hazard, and the location and type of firefighting equipment
provided;
(b) make a regular check of all the strategic points in or
about the mine and of the firefighting equipment and keep a
durable record of these checks; and
(c) make the records of fire equipment checks available to
workers’ representatives.

39
Safety and health in opencast mines

8.2.2. Precautions against fire

100. All storage tanks and piping containing flammable or
combustible liquids should be:
(a) so designed and constructed as to be capable of resisting
the working pressures and stresses, and made of suitable mate-
rial for any projected contents; contents

(b) marked to warn all persons that these contain flam-

mable or combustible liquids;
(c) maintained such that leakage is prevented; and
(d) isolated or separated from ignition sources and combus-
tible material.
101. All storage tanks containing flammable or combustible
liquids should be:
(a) vented or otherwise constructed to prevent develop-
ment of pressure or vacuum as a result of filling, emptying or
atmospheric temperature changes; and
(b) contained within structures capable of holding in excess
(for example, 110 per cent) of the contents of the largest tank.
8.2.3. Provision of fire protection
102. Based on a risk assessment, fire protection equipment
(for example, fire extinguishers) should be specifically provided,
inspected, maintained and tested in accordance with manufac-
turers’ recommendations and regulations:
(a) where combustible and flammable material is stored;
(b) at haulage terminals or vehicle stops;
(c) at engine rooms, boiler houses, locomotive or vehicle
garages, workshops, kitchen facilities, living quarters, offices or
warehouses;
(d) on vehicles;

40
 8.  Emergency response plan

(e) at refuelling points for vehicles;

(f) in electrical switch rooms and at distribution points; and
(g) in any other place in an opencast mine where a fire
hazard exists as determined by the risk assessment.
103. Flammable liquids, which are not in storage tanks, contents
should be stored in purpose-designed flammable liquid storage
cabinets.
104. Covered metal containers or their equivalent should be
provided wherever waste combustible materials, including liq-
uids, may temporarily accumulate.
105. These containers should be emptied regularly and their
contents disposed of in a safe and responsible manner.
8.2.4. Firefighting and rescue
106. Firefighting and rescue procedures should be established
together with a fire alarm system to give a prompt warning to
persons who may be endangered by a fire.
107. The employer in charge of the mine should provide for
the establishment of a team or teams of trained persons, com-
patible with the size of the mine and the number of persons
employed, to be deployed in case of fire.
108. Mobile or portable firefighting equipment and, where
appropriate, fire hydrants, should be kept available and main-
tained at an easily accessible location for use at any time.
109. Where an external firefighting organization may be
relied upon, uniform fittings or readily available adaptors
should be provided for all hydrants.
110. Provisions should be made to ensure all relevant infor-
mation, including mine rescue plans, is provided in a readily
accessible place to external emergency services.

41
Safety and health in opencast mines

111. Suitable rescue equipment, including self-contained

breathing apparatus, should be kept easily available; persons
who may need to use it should be properly instructed and regu-
larly trained in its use.
8.3. First aid and emergency medical services
contents
8.3.1. First-aid requirements
112. First-aid equipment and facilities should as a minimum
meet the requirements of national laws and accepted standards.
113. The following arrangements for first aid and emergency
treatment in case of accident should be provided at any opencast
mine:
(a) suitable, regularly replenished and properly maintained
first-aid kits should be maintained at the mine for use in case of
accident;
(b) sufficient first-aid attendants should be on duty at all
times when the mine is in operation and their contact details
should be easily available;
(c) appropriate, sterile dressings and disinfectant should be
made available at all points where mining operations are per-
formed; and
(d) a conveniently sited and suitably accessible first-aid
room which permits the transfer of patients by stretcher should
be set aside for the sole use of first aid, medical examination and
ambulance work. This room should be maintained to a suitable
level of hygiene and condition.
114. Unless there is a hospital or other suitable medical
facility nearby and conveniently accessible to the mine and
a suitable ambulance properly maintained and available at all
times during working hours, a convenient location should be
provided, furnished with a sufficient number of beds, together

42
 8.  Emergency response plan

with the necessary equipment and supplies, for the preliminary

treatment of injuries or illness and suitable for the temporary
use of persons injured at the mine.
115. A first-aid register should be kept at the mine for
recording the names of persons to whom first aid has been ren-
dered and particulars of injuries and treatment. The register contents

should only be accessible to authorized persons. The register

may be made available, excluding confidential information, to
a competent authority and the safety and health committee for
the purposes of incident and injury analysis.
8.3.2. First-aid training
116. Based on a risk assessment and in compliance with
national laws, there should be a suitable number of first-aid
attendants holding recognized and valid first-aid certificates in
every mine. First-aid training should be made available to all
workers.

43
9. Specific hazards

9.1. Hazardous substances and atmospheres

117. As far as practicable workers should not be exposed to contents

airborne contaminants, harmful physical and chemical agents

or other hazards present in the working environment. A suit-
able system should be established to determine the quality of
the air and identify any physical or chemical agent likely to be
hazardous in the atmosphere in the vicinity of the mining oper-
ation, and of all locations in or about the mine where workers
may be called upon to work or travel.
118. National laws should specify and regularly review expo-
sure limits for all airborne contaminants, harmful physical and
chemical agents, and other hazards which may be encountered
in the working environment. Provisions should be made to
ensure that:
(a) the safe working methods and, as far as is reasonably
practicable, the safest physical and chemical agents are chosen
and used;
(b) special procedures, approved by the competent authority,
are enforced wherever workers may be exposed to ionizing radi-
ation hazards from any source; and
(c) the exposure limits specified by national laws are not
exceeded.
119. Where it is necessary in order to minimize the risk to
workers, written instructions should be prepared specifying
the correct procedure to be observed in these circumstances.
The necessary steps should also be taken to inform all workers
of the possible hazards and the precautions to be taken when

45
Safety and health in opencast mines

hazardous substances are likely to be encountered at the mine,

including evacuation procedures.
9.1.1. Chemicals in the workplace
9.1.1.1. Hazard description
120. A chemical substance is an element, compound or mix- contents

ture which may be present in the workplace in the form of a

liquid, solid (including particles) or gas (vapour, aerosol). These
substances may present a hazard as the result of contact with the
body or absorption into the body. Absorption can occur through
the skin, by ingestion or by inhalation. Chemical substances can
also present a fire or explosive hazard in the workplace.
121. Chemicals can have acute (short-term) and/or chronic
(long-term) health effects with or without any latency period.
They may present a safety hazard as a result of their chemical
and physical properties.
9.1.1.2. Assessment of risk
122. Workers may be exposed to chemicals actively during
their use in production processes, as well as to chemicals gen-
erated by a process or used in maintenance activities. Exposure
may occur passively due to the presence of chemicals in the
workplace environment. The advice of the competent authority
should be sought regarding exposure limits and other standards
to be applied.
123. Safety data sheets (SDS) that include advice on the
safe handling of any chemical to ensure adequate prevention
and protection should be readily available. All those concerned
with the storage and handling of chemicals, and with general
housekeeping, should be trained and should adopt safe sys-
tems of work at all times. The Globally Harmonized System of
Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS Rev.6) (United

46
 9.  Specific hazards

Nations, 2015) provides guidance on the preparation of labels,

SDS and the provision of information to workers.
124. The production of SDS in electronic format should be
encouraged. Chemical safety data sheets should, as a minimum,
meet the requirements of the competent authority and are rec-
ommended to contain the following core information: contents

(a) identification of manufacturer, product and ingredients;

(b) physical and chemical properties, and information on
the health effects, physical hazards, environmental impact and
relevant exposure limits; and
(c) recommendations concerning safe work practices; trans-
port, storage and handling; waste disposal; protective clothing
and PPE; first aid, firefighting and chemical spills.
125. Labels should, as a minimum, meet the requirements of
the competent authority, and are recommended to contain the
following core information:
(a) signal word or symbol; identification information,
including the manufacturer, product and ingredients;
(b) risks and safety phrases, first-aid and disposal proce-
dures; and
(c) reference to the SDS, and date of issue.
126. The ILO code of practice Safety in the use of chemicals at
work (Geneva, 1993) provides comprehensive guidance on the
above issues for chemicals and their use.
9.1.1.3. Control strategies
9.1.1.3.1. Training and information
127. Each employer should:
(a) identify the chemicals used at the mine;
(b) determine which chemicals are hazardous;

47
Safety and health in opencast mines

(c) establish a hazard communication programme;

(d) inform each worker who could be exposed about the
hazards related to the chemicals, and other on-site employers
whose workers could be exposed about chemical hazards and
appropriate protective measures;
(e) ensure that workers and/or trained first-aid personnel contents

are aware of emergency procedures related to exposure to haz-

ardous chemicals; and
(f) provide workers with the necessary training and pro-
tection to prevent exposure to hazards, including protective
clothing.
128. Each employer should:
(a) develop and implement a written hazard communica-
tion programme;
(b) maintain it for as long as a hazardous chemical is known
to be at the mine; and
(c) share relevant information with other on-site employers
whose workers could be affected.
129. The hazard communication programme should include
the following:
(a) how this part is put into practice at the mine through
the use of:
(i) hazard determination;
(ii) all forms of signals, signs, labels and other forms of
warning;
(iii) SDS; and
(iv) worker training.
(b) a list or other records identifying all hazardous chemi-
cals known to be at the mine, which should:

48
 9.  Specific hazards

(i) use a chemical identity that permits cross refer-

encing between the list, a chemical’s label and its
SDS; and
(ii) be compiled for the whole mine or by individual
work areas.
(c) at mines with more than one employer, the methods for: contents

(i) providing other employers with access to SDS; and

(ii) informing other employers about:
(1) hazardous chemicals to which their workers
could be exposed;
(2) the labelling system on the containers of
these chemicals; and
(3) appropriate protective measures.
130. The employer should:
(a) ensure that each container of a hazardous chemical has
a label listing the ingredients and the appropriate hazard warn-
ings; and
(b) have an SDS for each hazardous chemical used at the
mine which lists the chemical’s hazards and protective measures.
131. The employer should make current SDS readily avail-
able and accessible to workers during each work shift for each
hazardous chemical to which they may be exposed.
9.1.1.3.2. Hazard control
132. The employer should ensure:
(a) proper storage of chemicals by:
(i) storing separately chemicals which react with one
another;
(ii) minimizing volumes of stored chemicals;

49
Safety and health in opencast mines

(iii) providing for containment of spills; and

(iv) ventilating storage areas;
(b) that, where hazardous chemicals are used, handled or
stored, measures are in place to minimize workers’ exposure (for
example, ventilated fume hoods, remote handling);
(c) that, where necessary, appropriate PPE is provided contents

and workers are trained in its correct use, and it is used

properly;
(d) that emergency showers and eyewash stations are avail-
able where hazardous chemicals are used and/or stored;
(e) the cleaning of work clothes that have been polluted by
chemicals (if reusable) or their disposal; and
(f) the provision of appropriate hygienic conditions and
facilities (for washing) in places where food or tobacco are
consumed.
133. Where indicated by the competent authority or legisla-
tion, appropriate monitoring and/or health surveillance should
be in place. This monitoring should be specific to the substance
in question.
9.1.2. Inhalable and respirable substances
9.1.2.1. Hazard description
134. The pulmonary system (lungs) can be affected by expo-
sure to harmful agents through acute (short-term) injury to lung
tissue, the development of pneumoconiosis, including silicosis,
and pulmonary dysfunction. Some airborne contaminants can
lead to the development of cancers. Certain harmful agents
that are inhaled can cause target organ damage and/or systemic
toxic effects. High concentrations of certain asphyxiants can
cause death in a few seconds by displacing oxygen. In addition,
high levels of dust, as often found at loading and tipping points,

50
 9.  Specific hazards

material transfer points, crushing stations and haulage road-

ways, can impair workers’ visibility.
9.1.2.2. Assessment of risk
135. The assessment of risk should begin with a review of pro-
duction and maintenance processes in order to understand the
content, form and volume of inhalable substances associated with contents

opencast mining. This should include information acquired from

suppliers for materials brought on-site through the use of SDS.
136. The potential for exposure should be assessed according
to the provisions of the ILO codes of practice Safety in the use of
chemicals at work and Ambient factors in the workplace, or other
relevant standards, such as an exposure assessment protocol
issued by the competent authority.
137. Exposure assessments should be conducted by compe-
tent persons. The assessment should include a programme for
the measurement of airborne contaminants to:
(a) determine the extent of exposure of workers; and/or
(b) check the effectiveness of engineering control measures.
138. Account should be taken of specific work situations in
which workers are likely to be exposed, for example, to:
(a) hazardous fumes as by-products (for example, welding);
(b) hazardous substances and/or oxygen deficiency in con-
fined spaces;
(c) prolonged periods (such as during overtime) with the
risk of accumulation of higher doses;
(d) higher concentrations due to fluctuations in ambient
conditions (for example, hot environments where vapour pres-
sures of hazardous substances may be elevated);
(e) absorption through multiple routes (inhalation, inges-
tion, absorption through the skin); and

51
Safety and health in opencast mines

(f) hazardous substances that may be present even in concen-

trations below exposure limits while performing arduous tasks.
139. Employers should provide information to workers and
their representatives regarding the risk assessment process, and
the results of risk assessments. Expert advice should regularly be
sought about exposure limits relating to inhalable agents. contents

9.1.2.3. Control strategies

9.1.2.3.1. Dusts
140. Suitable arrangements should be made to control inhal-
able and respirable dusts at all working places. This is especially
important where dust may be created, such as loading and
tipping points, material transfer points, crushing stations and
haulage roadways.
141. In implementing precautions against airborne dust,
the most effective method is to control emissions at source.
This usually requires fit-for-purpose equipment, processes and
handling methods. Special attention should be paid to the fol-
lowing circumstances, operations or locations:
(a) the immediate period following blasting operations;
(b) the operation of drilling rigs or other rock drills which
are not fitted with effective dust collection or suppression
devices;
(c) loading or unloading points, particularly under dry
conditions;
(d) all mine haulage roadways;
(e) all crushing, screening and treatment plants, particu-
larly at conveyor belt transfer points;
(f) stone-cutting and polishing operations; and
(g) worked-out areas, dumps and similar sites where wind-
blown dust may become excessive.

52
 9.  Specific hazards

142. Based on hazard identification, exposure assessment

and monitoring, provision should be made for mechanical ven-
tilation to be supplied and used in all stagnant zones, dead-end
tunnels and other poorly ventilated places.
143. Methods such as dust suppression using water and/
or surfactants, extraction or filtering should be implemented contents

where practicable.
144. Where the above measures do not suffice, employers
should:
(a) provide suitable PPE until such time as the risk is elim-
inated or minimized to an acceptable level that would not pose
a threat to health;
(b) prohibit eating, chewing, drinking and smoking in con-
taminated areas;
(c) provide adequate facilities for washing and changing
and for storage of clothing (with everyday clothing separated
from work clothing), including arrangements for laundering or
disposing of contaminated clothing;
(d) use signs, labels and other warnings; and
(e) make adequate arrangements in the event of an
emergency.
145. The competent authority should specify standards of
dust concentrations and sampling methods for opencast mines.
9.1.2.3.2. Other inhalable substances
146. Workers and their representatives should be made aware
of the toxicological properties, safe working procedures, protec-
tive equipment and emergency procedures necessary to elimi-
nate exposure to all harmful inhalable agents. Where this is not
possible, exposure to harmful inhalable agents with which they
work or may come into contact should be minimized. Training

53
Safety and health in opencast mines

should be provided in advance of the work, including produc-

tion or maintenance process changes that result in the use or
generation of different inhalable agents.
147. Training should specify special precautions to be taken
for workers who perform work in confined spaces that might
contain harmful inhalable agents. See Section 9.17 for addi- contents

tional information on safe work practices involving confined

spaces.
148. Engineering controls should be developed and imple-
mented for harmful inhalable agents. Such controls include, but
are not limited to: the substitution of more harmful agents by
less harmful agents; isolating processes that generate such air-
borne contaminants; and the use of local and general ventila-
tion systems.
149. When engineering controls are not feasible or suffi-
ciently effective to ensure that exposure to inhalable agents is
maintained at or below exposure limits, work practices and
procedural controls should be applied, including PPE where
absolutely necessary. These might include, but are not limited
to: altering temperature, pressure and other process settings;
and minimizing the length of time that workers are potentially
exposed to inhalable agents.
150. The harmful effects of many inhalable agents may
be made worse when inhalation occurs simultaneously with
smoking. Areas that are separate from inhalable agents should
be designated for smoking where appropriate. Accumulation
should be avoided of toxic metal dusts or fumes on surfaces
where they may be deposited. Surface contamination may lead
to secondary exposure through ingestion.
151. Where applicable the provisions in the Asbestos
Convention (No. 162), and Recommendation (No. 172), 1986;

54
 9.  Specific hazards

ILO codes of practice Occupational exposure to airborne sub-

stances harmful to health (Geneva, 1980) and Safety in the use
of asbestos (Geneva, 1984); and Dust control in the working envi-
ronment (silicosis), ILO Occupational Safety and Health Series
No. 36 (Geneva, 1977) should be considered.
contents
9.1.3. Radiation
9.1.3.1. Hazard description
152. All human beings are exposed to a background of natu-
rally occurring radiation which is relatively harmless. However,
when sources of radiation are concentrated or there is increased
exposure, harmful effects may result. The most common
harmful effect, at relatively low doses, is a change to chemical
compounds in the body which can lead to diseases such as
cancer. This is reason alone to minimize exposure to harmful
radiation to accepted safe exposure levels.
153. Radiation can be classified in a number of ways. For
example, the sun’s radiation consists of electromagnetic waves
(light, ultraviolet (UV) and infrared) while decaying uranium
produces alpha and beta particles and gamma rays.
154. The penetrative power of such radiation varies: alpha
particles have very little penetrative power and can be stopped
by a sheet of paper; beta particles have more penetration and can
be stopped by cardboard; while gamma rays are very penetrative
and require a lead shield to stop them.
155. Radiation can also be classified by the amount of
energy it has. For example, gamma rays contain a high level of
energy, while infrared radiation contains relatively little energy.
Radiation with enough energy to cause a change in atoms that it
hits is called ionizing radiation. Radiation without that amount
of energy is called non-ionizing radiation.

55
Safety and health in opencast mines

156. Higher energy ionizing radiation can affect atoms in

cells of the body leading to potentially permanent damage.
Examples are: the effect of higher energy UV light on unpro-
tected skin through excessive sun exposure possibly leading to
skin cancers; or the inhalation of radioactive dust leading to
exposure to alpha radiation and possible lung cancer. contents

157. Ionizing radiation may affect the body via three

routes:
(a) radiation directly on the skin;
(b) inhalation (for example, of radioactive dust); or
(c) ingestion (as a result of poor hygiene practice).
158. Non-ionizing radiation can only impact the body via
irradiation. Alpha particles cannot penetrate the dead outer
layer of the skin, but they make a dense ionization trail along
their stopping track, so they can produce damage to biological
tissue if emitted inside the body following ingestion or inhala-
tion. Beta particles carry less energy, and give it up in a much
more spread out and less dense manner than alpha particles,
causing less damage. Gamma rays are very penetrative and can
affect the entire body through external irradiation.
159. Absorption in the UV and visible portions of the spec-
trum can produce photochemical reactions. In the case of
infrared radiation, all of the absorbed radiant energy is con-
verted into heat. Exposure to some radio-frequency and micro-
wave radiation (also forms of electromagnetic radiation) can
result in the formation of cataracts of the eye.
160. Exposure of the eyes to visible and infrared radiation
can cause thermal injury to the retina and damage to the lens,
which may result in the formation of cataracts. Exposure of the
eyes to UV radiation can result in inflammation of the conjunc-
tiva and cornea.

56
 9.  Specific hazards

9.1.3.2. Ionizing radiation

9.1.3.2.1. Assessment of risk
161. Likely sources of ionizing radiation at opencast mines
are the minerals or material mined, or equipment which uses
a form of radiation to perform its function. Examples of the
former are: contents

(a) uranium mining, on-site transportation and processing;

and
(b) mineral sands and rare earths (such as rutile, zircon,
leucoxene).
162. Equipment which may be a source of radiation, unless
correctly used and maintained, includes:
(a) devices using sealed radio-active sources, for example:
(i) density gauges;
(ii) level gauges;
(iii) multiphase flow metres;
(iv) smoke detectors;
(v) borehole logging;
(vi) moisture gauges; or
(vii) non-destructive testing equipment (gamma rays);
and
(b) irradiating devices (X-rays), for example:
(i) XRF analytical equipment (handheld or in on-site
laboratories); and
(ii) non-destructive testing equipment.
163. The presence and form of these sources and the degree
of likely exposure of workers forms the basis for the risk assess-
ment of the hazard of ionizing radiation.

57
Safety and health in opencast mines

164. Radon gas, while a source of concern in underground

mines, is unlikely to be encountered in opencast mines except in
unventilated areas containing radioactive material. Such areas
should be adequately ventilated before any entry by workers.
9.1.3.2.2. Control strategies
165. The competent authority should be consulted about contents

national laws and accepted standards covering radiation exposure.

166. Control of potential radiation exposure should begin with
a comprehensive survey of possible radiation sources, which should
be conducted by an industrial hygienist with experience in radia-
tion protection or other competent and authorized persons. Based
on the survey information, a radiation protection programme
(RPP) should be developed, as part of the OSH management
system, and implemented with the advice of an industrial hygienist
and qualified industrial safety specialist or other competent and
authorized persons. A radiation protection officer should oversee
the operation of the RPP. The RPP should make provision for:
(a) monitoring and dose assessment, including:
(i) initial surveys of gamma radiation, airborne radio-
active dust and surface contamination levels;
(ii) monitoring during stagnant atmospheric condi-
tions when radiation exposure may increase;
(iii) ongoing measurement and recording of gamma
ray dose rates, with particular attention to fixed
working locations;
(iv) ongoing measurement of radioactive dust con-
centrations;
(v) ongoing measurement of surface contamination,
with particular emphasis on mining, crushing and
processing areas; and

58
 9.  Specific hazards

(vi) assessment and recording of occupational expo-

sures including both individual and workplace
monitoring;
(b) engineering measures, including:
(i) a preference for employing design, installation,
maintenance, operational and administrative contents

arrangements and instruction of workers as far as

possible in the use of PPE;
(ii) the use of effective ventilation and dust capture;
(iii) minimization of dust generation by appropriate
blasting patterns and timing, and the use of water
and other means of suppressing dust;
(iv) the use of enclosed operator cabs on mining equip-
ment to minimize dust exposure;
(v) design and operation of crushing and screening
plants to keep the release of contaminants as low
as possible, and to facilitate the removal of accu-
mulated contaminated material;
(vi) special care during maintenance activities to pre-
vent exposure to accumulated radioactive material
in pipes and vessels; and
(vii) where practicable, the handling of concentrated
radioactive material with automated equipment.
(c) administrative protective measures, including:
(i) the maintenance of good housekeeping and
cleanliness;
(ii) prompt clean-up of spills (while providing area
monitoring and suitable PPE);
(iii) cleaning of plant or materials leaving the mine site
(for example, wash down facilities for vehicles); and

59
Safety and health in opencast mines

(iv) supplementary use of PPE, including:

(1) coveralls, head coverings, gloves, boiler suits
and impermeable footwear and aprons com-
mensurate with the risk of contamination
and working conditions;
(2) facilities to allow the deposition of used PPE contents

and contaminated clothing prior to show-

ering and changing into clean clothes; and
(v) provision of suitable disposal, decontamination
or laundry facilities for contaminated clothing or
items;
(d) personal hygiene measures, including:
(i) provision of hand and face washing facilities which
are used before rest or meal breaks and at the end
of a shift;
(ii) provision of clean eating areas, supplied with
potable water and good quality air;
(iii) prohibition of eating, drinking, chewing (gum or
tobacco), smoking or taking snuff in areas where
radioactive material could be ingested;
(iv) first-aid procedures, which should include special
precautions for cleaning of wounds; and
(v) as a last resort, job rotation without penalty (for
example no loss of pay) may be considered as a
means of reducing the exposure of workers.
167. Health surveillance measures for an opencast mine
should take into account the potential of exposure to ionizing
radiation where this is an issue at the mine. Workers should be
instructed about radiation types, their potential effects and how
they are monitored and measured.

60
 9.  Specific hazards

168. Further information: Occupational radiation protec-

tion in the mining and processing of raw materials: Safety guide
(International Atomic Energy Agency and ILO), Vienna, 2009;
International basic safety standards for protection against ionizing
radiation and for the safety of radiation sources (FAO, IAEA,
ILO, OECD/NEA, PAHO and WHO), Vienna, 1997, and the contents
ILO code of practice Radiation protection of workers (ionizing
radiations) (Geneva, 1987).
9.1.3.3. Non-ionizing radiation
9.1.3.3.1. Assessment of risk
169. There should be an assessment of equipment and activ-
ities likely to give rise to hazardous exposure to non-ionizing
radiation. The assessment might include such matters as:
(a) potential exposure to sunlight (UV, infrared and visible
radiation);
(b) the altitude at which outside work is to be performed
(the effect of the sun’s rays is stronger at higher altitudes);
(c) the use of lasers at the mine site (a laser beam consists of
strong, coherent, visible radiation); and
(d) the use of other potential UV sources, such as fluores-
cent and discharge type light sources, electric arc welding and
plasma torches.
9.1.3.3.2. Control strategies
170. The competent authority should be consulted about
national laws and accepted standards covering radiation
exposure.
171. Control of potential radiation exposure should begin
with a comprehensive survey of possible radiation sources,
which should be conducted by an industrial hygienist with
experience in radiation protection or other competent and

61
Safety and health in opencast mines

authorized persons. Based on the survey information, a radi-

ation protection programme (RPP) should be developed, as
part of the OSH management system, and implemented with
the advice of an industrial hygienist and qualified industrial
safety specialist or other competent and authorized persons.
A radiation protection officer should oversee the operation of contents
the RPP.
172. It is desirable to limit sun exposure by wearing appro-
priate clothing (including sunglasses), limiting periods of expo-
sure by the provision of shade and the use of protective sun
screen on exposed skin. As indicated above, these measures may
be more critical at higher altitudes.
173. Guidance on the use of lasers may be found in The use
of lasers in the workplace: A practical guide, ILO Occupational
Safety and Health Series No. 68 (Geneva, 1993).
174. Excessive exposure to non-solar UV radiation may be
reduced by:
(a) ensuring that tungsten-halogen lamps are only used
with glass filters; and
(b) ensuring that electric arc welding is only done while
wearing appropriate PPE (on both the welder and any observers).
175. Health surveillance measures for an opencast mine
should take into account the potential for exposure to non-ion-
izing radiation where this is an issue at the mine. Workers
should be instructed about radiation types, their potential
effects, and how they are monitored and measured.
9.2. Electric and magnetic fields
176. Electric and magnetic fields are found around all
equipment that passes an electric current. Some studies have
shown that exposure to magnetic fields can cause certain types

62
 9.  Specific hazards

of cancers and brain tumours. They can also affect a person’s

mood, alertness, heart function, and the immune and reproduc-
tive systems. Some individuals suffer from skin irritation in the
presence of electrical fields.
177. Workers with heart pacemakers should not be employed
in areas where they may be exposed to magnetic fields of a contents

strength likely to affect the device. Equipment producing such

fields should be clearly signposted.
178. Unlike electric fields, magnetic fields cannot be easily
screened off, as they can pass through all materials. However,
the power of the field rapidly diminishes as the distance from
the source of the magnetic field increases. It is generally advis-
able to shut down all electrical equipment when not in use.
179. Fixed installations which generate high-strength fields,
such as transformers and switching stations, should be sited as
far away from work areas as possible.
180. Further guidelines and recommendations can be found
in Protection of workers from power frequency electric and mag-
netic fields: A practical guide, ILO Occupational Safety and
Health Series No. 69 (Geneva, 1994).
9.3. Stored energy
9.3.1. Hazard description
181. The opencast mining industry uses a variety of machinery
which contains stored energy, for example, pressure energy in
pneumatic and hydraulic systems, electrical energy in capacitive
elements or batteries, or mechanical energy in components under
strain. The unexpected release of these energies can lead to very
serious injury to workers in the vicinity. Of particular concern are
maintenance activities which typically involve workers being in
close proximity to machinery with stored energy (unless isolated

63
Safety and health in opencast mines

or dissipated) and undertaking activities which are likely to com-

promise the containment of that energy.
182. A particular hazard is presented by hydraulic and other
gas or steam systems which typically operate under very high
pressures. Workers in close proximity to these systems may
suffer hydraulic fluid injection injuries which, in addition to the contents

physical damage caused, can result in necrosis of surrounding

tissue due to the common components of hydraulic fluids.
9.3.2. Assessment of risk
183. An initial and ongoing risk assessment should be con-
ducted to identify machinery and its components containing
stored energy which, if accidently released, can result in injury
to workers.
9.3.3. Control strategies
184. Workers who may work in close proximity to machinery
containing stored energy should be identified and made aware
of the potential hazards of the unexpected release of that energy.
This especially applies to workers involved in maintenance
activities.
185. Where there are specific hazards, such as electricity, pres-
sure differentials, poor air quality or radiation, these should be
identified and controlled so that workers and others in the work-
place are not endangered. This should include confirmation that:
(a) electrical, gas and liquid connections have been iso-
lated and any excess pressure in the systems concerned has been
discharged;
(b) suitable guarding or enclosure of equipment or compo-
nents that can unexpectedly release energy;
(c) any unexpected movement of machinery is prevented;

64
 9.  Specific hazards

(d) suspended loads have been secured;

(e) scaffolding, work platforms and ladders used for the
work have an adequate stability and carrying capacity;
(f) the tools to be used are in good condition and suitable
for their intended purpose;
contents
(g) when tanks or confined spaces are serviced, inspected or
cleaned, measures have been taken to control the danger from
lack of oxygen, toxic gasses or other hazardous substances, and
that appropriate emergency procedures are in place;
(h) access to the danger area is restricted to essential
personnel;
(i) appropriate PPE and protective clothing are supplied
and used; and
(j) equipment or components that contain or store energy,
including pressure vessels, actuators and pipes, should be main-
tained and inspected in accordance with manufacturers’ recom-
mendations and relevant laws.
186. To isolate or dissipate potentially damaging energy
sources, the following action should be taken:
(a) machinery should be fitted with a means to disconnect
and isolate it from all energy sources. Such isolators should be
clearly identified. They should be capable of being locked in the
“off” position if reconnection could endanger workers. This is
especially important where a worker is unable to check that the
energy is still cut off due to the inaccessibility of the area;
(b) identify and implement specific procedures for the
control of hazardous energy. These procedures should include
preparation for shut-down, lock-out or tag-out, a permit-to-
work system and verification of isolation, as part of a formal risk
management system;

65
Safety and health in opencast mines

(c) after the energy is cut off it should be possible to dissi-

pate normally any energy remaining or stored in the circuits of
the machinery without risk to workers;
(d) certain circuits may remain connected to their energy
sources in order, for example, to hold parts, to protect informa-
tion, and to light interiors. In this case, special steps should be contents

taken to ensure worker safety;

(e) where there is a potential for fluid release, the pipeline
should be blanked off; and
(f) steps to safely re-energize and reinstate equipment to
operational status.
9.4. Noise
9.4.1. Hazard description
187. Exposure to noise levels exceeding those determined
to be safe can result in noise-induced hearing loss. Exposure to
high noise levels may also interfere with communication and
may result in nervous fatigue with an increased risk of occupa-
tional injury. In opencast mines, workers are exposed to noise
from many types of machinery, equipment and processes.
9.4.2. Assessment of risk
188. The competent authority should set standards for the
maximum noise dose considered acceptable to prevent hearing
impairment in the working environment on a daily basis and for
the maximum peak noise level.
189. The assessment of risk should, as appropriate, consider
the:
(a) risk of hearing impairment;
(b) degree of interference to communication essential for
safety purposes; and

66
 9.  Specific hazards

(c) risk of fatigue, with due consideration of the mental

and physical workload and other non-auditory hazards or
effects.
190. In order to prevent adverse effects of noise on workers,
employers should:
(a) identify the sources of noise and the tasks that give rise contents

to exposure to noise;
(b) seek the advice of the competent authority and/or the
occupational health service about exposure limits and other
standards to be applied;
(c) seek the advice of the supplier of processes and equip-
ment used in the mine environment about expected noise emis-
sion; and
(d) if this advice is incomplete or in doubt, arrange for
measurements by competent professionals in accordance with
current nationally and/or internationally recognized standards
and regulations.
191. Noise measurements should be used to:
(a) quantify the level and duration of the exposure of workers
and compare it with exposure limits, as established by the compe-
tent authority or internationally recognized standards;
(b) identify and characterize the sources of noise and
exposed workers;
(c) create a noise map for the determination of risk areas;
(d) assess the need both for engineering noise prevention
and control and for other appropriate measures and their effec-
tive implementation; and
(e) evaluate the effectiveness of existing noise prevention
and control measures.

67
Safety and health in opencast mines

9.4.3. Control strategies

192. Based on the assessment of the exposure to noise in
the working environment, the employer should establish a
noise-prevention programme with the aim of eliminating the
hazard or risk, or reducing it to the lowest practicable level by
all appropriate means. The employer should review the effec- contents

tiveness of any engineering and administrative controls to

identify and correct any deficiencies. If a worker’s noise expo-
sure exceeds the permissible level, the employer should use all
feasible engineering and administrative controls to reduce the
worker’s noise exposure to the permissible exposure level, and
enrol the worker in a hearing conservation programme that
would include:
(a) audiometric testing;
(b) training and education on hearing loss;
(c) providing hearing protection that is effective;
(d) conducting additional noise measurements to deter-
mine continued exposure; and
(e) continue to examine methods and controls to lower the
noise levels causing the overexposure.
193. In the case of new processes and equipment, as far as
practicable:
(a) low noise output of the process and equipment should
be specified as a condition of purchase, alongside production-re-
lated specifications; and
(b) the workplace layout should be arranged to minimize
noise exposure to the workers.
194. In the case of existing processes and equipment, it
should first be considered whether the noisy process is necessary
at all, or whether it could be carried out in another way without

68
 9.  Specific hazards

generating noise. If the elimination of the noisy process as a

whole is not practicable, replacing its noisy parts with quieter
alternatives should be considered.
195. If the elimination of noisy processes and equipment
as a whole is impracticable, individual sources should be sepa-
rated out and their relative contribution to the overall sound contents

pressure level identified. Once the causes or sources of noise are

identified, the first step in the noise-control process should be
to attempt to control it at source. Such measures may also be
effective in reducing vibration.
196. If prevention and control at source do not reduce expo-
sure sufficiently, enclosure of the noise source should be con-
sidered as the next step. In designing enclosures, several factors
should be taken into consideration if the enclosure is to prove
satisfactory from both an acoustical and a production per-
spective, including workers’ access and ventilation. Enclosures
should be designed and manufactured in accordance with the
requirements and needs indicated by the user, consistent with
internationally recognized standards and regulations.
197. If enclosure of the noise source is impracticable, consid-
eration should be given to alternative sound transmission-path
treatment using a barrier to block or shield the worker from the
noise hazard. Barriers should be designed and manufactured in
accordance with the requirements and needs indicated by the
user, consistent with accepted standards.
198. If reducing the noise at source or intercepting it does
not reduce workers’ exposure sufficiently, then the final options
for reducing exposure should be to:
(a) install an acoustical booth or shelter for those job activi-
ties where the movement of the worker is confined to a relatively
small area;

69
Safety and health in opencast mines

(b) minimize, by appropriate organizational measures

such as job rotation, the time workers spend in the noisy
environment;
(c) designate specific areas with high noise levels and install
appropriate warning signs indicating that hearing protection is
mandatory; contents

(d) provide hearing protection; and

(e) offer audiometric testing.
199. Workers who may be, or have been, exposed to noise
levels exceeding occupational standards should receive initial
and further regular audiometric testing (for example, within
three months of commencing work, and at least annually).
Workers who may be exposed to significant levels of noise
should be trained in:
(a) the effective use of hearing protection devices;
(b) identifying and reporting on new or unusual sources of
noise that they become aware of; and
(c) the role of audiometric examination.
200. Workers in noisy environments should be informed of
the:
(a) results of their audiometric tests;
(b) factors leading to noise-induced hearing loss and the
consequences, in non-auditory effects and social consequences;
(c) the precautions necessary, especially those requiring the
intervention of workers or the use of hearing protection devices;
(d) effects that a noisy environment may have on their gen-
eral safety; and
(e) symptoms of adverse effects of exposure to high levels of
noise.

70
 9.  Specific hazards

201. For further information refer to Chapter 9 of the ILO

code of practice Ambient factors in the workplace (Geneva,
2001).
9.5. Vibration
9.5.1. Hazard description contents

202. Exposure of workers to hazardous vibration mainly

comprises:
(a) whole-body vibration, when the body is supported on
a surface that is vibrating, such as in vehicles or when working
near vibrating industrial machinery; or
(b) hand-transmitted vibration, which enters the body
through the hands and is caused by various processes in which
vibrating tools or work pieces are grasped or pushed by the
hands or fingers.
203. Exposure limits should be established according to cur-
rent international knowledge and data. Further detailed infor-
mation can be found in Appendix III.
9.5.2. Assessment of risk
204. If workers are frequently exposed to hand-transmitted
or whole-body vibration, and obvious steps do not eliminate
the exposure, the employer should assess the hazard and risk to
safety and health resulting from the conditions, and:
(a) identify the sources of vibration and the tasks that give
rise to exposure;
(b) seek the advice of the competent authority about expo-
sure limits and other standards to be applied;
(c) seek the advice of the supplier of vehicles, machinery
and equipment about their vibration emissions; or

71
Safety and health in opencast mines

(d) if this advice is incomplete or in doubt, arrange for meas-

urements by a competent person, in accordance with recognized
standards and regulations and currently available knowledge.
205. Vibration measurements should be used to:
(a) quantify the level and duration of exposure of workers,
and compare it with exposure limits as established by the com- contents

petent authority or other standards to be applied;

(b) identify and characterize the sources of vibration and
the exposed workers;
(c) assess the need both for engineering vibration con-
trol and for other appropriate measures, and for their effective
implementation;
(d) evaluate the effectiveness of particular vibration-preven-
tion and vibration-control measures; and
(e) if possible, determine the resonance frequencies.
206. The assessment should identify the ways in which
vibrating tools are used, and determine in particular whether:
(a) the high-risk use of tools can be eliminated;
(b) workers have had sufficient training in the use of the
tools; and
(c) the use of tools can be improved by supports.
207. With a view to establishing appropriate prevention and
control measures, the assessment should take into account:
(a) exposure to cold at the workplace, which can bring on
symptoms of vibration white finger (Raynaud’s phenomenon)
in those exposed to vibration;
(b) vibration of the head or eyes, as well as vibration of
the displays themselves, which can affect the perception of
displays; and

72
 9.  Specific hazards

(c) body or limb vibration which can affect the manipu-

lation of controls.
9.5.3. Control strategies
208. Employers should ensure that workers who are exposed
to significant vibration hazards are: contents

(a) informed about the hazards and risks of prolonged use

of vibrating tools;
(b) informed about the measures within the workers con-
trol which will minimize risk, particularly the proper adjust-
ment of seating and working positions;
(c) instructed in the correct handling and use of hand tools
with a light but safe grip; and
(d) encouraged to report finger blanching, numbness or
tingling, without unwarranted discrimination, for which there
should be recourse in national law and practice.
209. Manufacturers should:
(a) provide vibration values for their tools;
(b) redesign processes to avoid the need to use vibrating
tools;
(c) provide information to ensure that vibration is con-
trolled by correct installation;
(d) avoid resonance frequencies of the component parts of
machinery and equipment;
(e) consider including remote control capabilities into
equipment that causes vibration hazards; and
(f) use, where practicable, anti-vibration handles.
210. When purchasing equipment and industrial vehicles,
employers should ascertain that the vibration exposure to the
user is within prescribed national standards and regulations.

73
Safety and health in opencast mines

211. Where old machinery is still in use, sources of vibration

that present a risk to safety and health should be identified, and
suitable modifications made by employing current knowledge of
vibration-damping techniques.
212. Seating in vehicles, including static plant with integral
seating, should be designed to minimize transmission of vibra- contents

tion to the rider, and should permit an ergonomically good

working position. Consideration should be given to jolt and jar
effects in certain types of mobile equipment, for example bull-
dozers, while ripping hard, rocky earth.
213. Where workers are directly or indirectly exposed to
vibration transmitted via the floor or other structures, the
vibrating machines should be mounted on vibration isolators
(anti-vibration mounts), installed according to the manufactur-
er’s instructions, or designed and manufactured according to
internationally recognized plant and equipment standards.
214. Machinery or vibrating tools should be maintained reg-
ularly, because worn components may increase vibration levels.
215. Where the exposure might lead to injury if workers con-
tinue to work for a longer period, and reduction of the vibra-
tion is impracticable, the work should be rearranged to give rest
periods or job rotation sufficient to reduce the overall exposure
to a safe level.
9.6. Heat and cold stress
9.6.1. Hazard description
216. Risks arise in special conditions including when:
(a) temperature and/or humidity are unusually high;
(b) workers are exposed to high radiant heat;
(c) high temperatures and/or humidity occur in combina-
tion with heavy protective clothing or a high work rate;

74
 9.  Specific hazards

(d) temperature is unusually low;

(e) high wind speed (>5m/s) prevails with a low tempera-
ture; or
(f) work with bare hands is carried out for extended periods
of time at low temperatures.
contents
9.6.2. Assessment of risk
217. If workers are exposed in all or some of their tasks to
any conditions listed above, and the hazard cannot be elimi-
nated, employers should assess the hazards and risks to safety
and health from extreme temperatures, and determine the con-
trols necessary to remove the hazards or risks or to reduce them
to the lowest practicable level.
218. Workers should be allowed sufficient time to acclima-
tize to a hot environment, including major changes in climatic
conditions.
219. The assessment of the thermal environment should take
into account the risks arising from working with hazardous sub-
stances in work situations such as:
(a) the use of protective clothing against hazardous sub-
stances, thereby increasing the risk of heat stress;
(b) a hot environment that makes respiratory protec-
tors uncomfortable and less likely to be used, and necessitates
restructuring of jobs in order to reduce the risks, for example by:
(i) minimizing exposure to the hazardous substances
so that there is less need for protective clothing;
(ii) changing the tasks so that the work pace is reduced
in hot conditions; and
(iii) increasing the number of rest periods and job
rotation.
220. In assessing the hazards and risks, employers should:

75
Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) make comparisons with other similar workplaces

where measurements have been made; where this is not practi-
cable, arrange for measurements to be performed by a techni-
cally capable person, using appropriate and properly calibrated
equipment;
(b) seek the advice of the occupational health service or a contents

competent body about the exposure standards to be applied; and

(c) bear in mind that the quality of fine work done by hand
is adversely affected by cold temperatures.
9.6.3. Control strategies
221. When the assessment reveals that workers may be at risk
of heat stress or hypothermia, employers should, as far as prac-
ticable, eliminate the need for work in such conditions or take
measures to reduce the risks from extreme temperatures.
222. Where the assessment shows that unhealthy or uncom-
fortable conditions arise from increased air temperature, the
employer should implement means to reduce air temperature,
which may include ventilation or air cooling. If no other con-
trols can mitigate the risk, PPE such as cooling jackets should
be provided.
223. Employers should take particular care with ventilation
design where work is undertaken in enclosed spaces or areas.
When fail-safe systems are not in operation, there should be
adequate supervision of workers at risk to ensure that they can
be removed from danger.
224. Where part of the risk arises from the metabolic heat
produced during work, and other methods of eliminating the
risk are impracticable, employers should arrange a work–rest
cycle for exposed workers, preferably in an air-conditioned or
cool resting room. The rest periods should be as prescribed by

76
 9.  Specific hazards

the competent authority and should be sufficient to allow the

worker to recover. Employers should ensure that the appropriate
mechanical aids are available to reduce workloads and that tasks
performed in hot environments are well designed ergonomically
to minimize physical stress.
225. For hydration maintenance, employers should make contents

available sufficient quantities of drinking water, with the proper

electrolytes, where appropriate.
226. Where a residual risk of heat stress remains even after all
the control measures have been taken, workers should be adequately
supervised so that they can be withdrawn from the hot conditions
if symptoms occur. Employers should ensure that first-aid facilities,
and staff trained in the use of such facilities, are available.
227. Extra care should be taken when workers are required
to move from a very hot working environment to a much colder
one, especially when exposed to a strong wind, as the wind chill
factor can result in exposed flesh cooling very rapidly.
228. Workers should be protected against the severest forms
of cold stress, hypothermia and cold injury.
229. The core body temperature should not be allowed to fall
below 36°C (96.8°F). Suitable protection should be provided to
prevent injury to extremities.
230. Workers exposed to heat or cold, as well as their super-
visory officials, should be trained:
(a) to recognize symptoms which may lead to heat stress or
hypothermia, in themselves or others, and the steps to be taken
to prevent onset and/or emergencies;
(b) in the use of rescue and first-aid measures; and
(c) in action to be taken in the event of the increased risk of
accidents because of high or low temperatures.

77
Safety and health in opencast mines

231. Workers should be advised of:

(a) the importance of physical fitness for work in hot or
cold environments; and
(b) the importance of drinking sufficient quantities of a
suitable liquid and the dietary requirements providing intake of
salt and potassium and other elements that are depleted due to contents

sweating.
9.7. Fatigue
9.7.1. Hazard description
232. Fatigue can be defined as a state of impairment that can
include physical and/or mental elements, associated with lower
alertness and reduced performance. Signs of fatigue include
tiredness even after sleep, psychological disturbances, loss of
energy and inability to concentrate. Causal factors include:
(a) physical/mental demands of work;
(b) shift work, especially night work;
(c) extended shifts (more than eight hours);
(d) excessive time spent commuting;
(e) work environment conditions; and
(f) individual factors, for example, a medical condition,
illness, disease or personal factors, among other things, stress
and anxiety.
233. Fatigue can be a contributing factor to dangerous occur-
rences or serious accidents because workers may not be alert or
able to quickly respond to changing circumstances. In addition,
prolonged fatigue can lead to long-term health problems.
234. Fatigue results from a number of factors, including
environmental conditions, such as excessive heat, cold or noise;
physical or mental overexertion; and/or insufficient rest and

78
 9.  Specific hazards

sleep between activities (for example, from poor quality sleep).

The inter-related causes of fatigue include:
(a) time of day that work takes place;
(b) length of time spent at work and in work-related
duties;
contents
(c) type and duration of work tasks and the environment in
which they are performed;
(d) the ergonomic design of workstations and the environ-
ment in which work is performed;
(e) quantity and quality of rest obtained prior to and after a
work period;
(f) activities outside work, such as family commitments or
a second job; and
(g) individual factors, such as sleep disorders.
235. Acute fatigue is caused by immediate episodes of sleep
deprivation; for example, because of long periods of wakefulness
from excessively long shifts or night shifts without adequate
daytime rest. Ongoing sleep disruption can lead to sleep debt
and chronic sleep deprivation, placing individuals in a state of
increased risk to themselves and to others. It results in:
(a) unpleasant muscular weariness;
(b) tiredness in everyday activities; and
(c) reduced coordination and alertness.
If sleep deprivation continues, work performance can deteri-
orate even further.
236. Fatigue can result from features of the work and the
workplace and from features of a worker’s life outside work.
Levels of work-related fatigue are similar for different individ-
uals performing the same tasks.

79
Safety and health in opencast mines

9.7.2. Assessment of risk

237. Work-related fatigue can and should be assessed and
managed at an organizational level. The contribution of non-
work-related factors varies considerably between individuals.
Non-work-related fatigue is best managed at an individual
level. contents

238. Work-related causes of fatigue include:

(a) aspects of the tasks being undertaken (for example,
greater workload within standard shifts);
(b) roster design (for example, too many consecutive night
shifts);
(c) unplanned work, overtime, emergencies, breakdowns
and call-outs;
(d) features of the working environment (such as noise or
temperature extremes); and
(e) commuting times.
239. Non-work-related causes of fatigue include:
(a) sleep disruption due to ill family members;
(b) strenuous activities outside work, such as a second job;
(c) sleep disorders;
(d) inappropriate use of alcohol, prescription and illegal
drugs; and
(e) stress associated with financial difficulties or domestic
responsibilities.
9.7.3. Control strategies
240. A fatigue risk assessment should be carried out and a
written fatigue management programme drawn up for all oper-
ations and in accordance with national laws if national laws

80
 9.  Specific hazards

prescribe. The fatigue management programme should specify

working time arrangements where workers:
(a) carry out work between 7 p.m. and 6 a.m.;
(b) work more than 48 hours in any consecutive five-day
period (working on each day) including unplanned work, emer-
gencies, overtime, breakdowns and callouts; or contents

(c) do not have a minimum of two consecutive days off in

any seven-day period.
Additional fatigue hazards identified during the risk assess-
ment should be included in the plan.
241. The risk assessment and the fatigue management plan
should be developed in consultation with workers and their
representatives, and there should be a demonstrated commit-
ment from all parties that it will be supported by the whole
organization. It should cover the rosters, roles and respon-
sibilities of managers, professional staff, contractors, those
who work on planned rosters and unplanned work such as
overtime and call-outs. Commuting times as well as suita-
bility of employer-provided accommodation should also be
considered.
242. Daily and weekly working hours should be arranged so
as to provide adequate periods of rest which, as prescribed by
national laws or approved by inspectorates or collective agree-
ments, where applicable, should include:
(a) appropriate breaks during working hours, especially
when the work is strenuous, dangerous or monotonous, to
enable workers to recover their vigilance and physical fitness;
(b) sufficient breaks for meals;
(c) daily or nightly rest;
(d) weekly rest.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

Extended workdays (above eight hours) should be contem-

plated only if:
(a) the nature of the work and the workload permit; and
(b) the shift system is designed to minimize the accumula-
tion of fatigue.
243. Any changes in work schedules that could affect OSH contents

should be preceded by full consultation with the workers and

their representatives.
9.8. Work at high altitudes
9.8.1. Hazard description
244. While the proportion (or concentration) of oxygen in
the atmosphere remains constant at higher altitudes, the par-
tial pressure of oxygen decreases. For example, at an altitude of
5,000  m, the partial pressure of oxygen is only 53 per cent of
its value at sea level. Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by
oxygen itself, to which the human body responds. The result is
that less oxygen is available to the body at higher altitudes with
every breath containing fewer and fewer molecules of oxygen.
The body is effectively starved of oxygen, which is referred to as
hypoxia and has a number of physiological effects:
(a) hyperventilation (breathing faster, deeper or both);
(b) shortness of breath;
(c) changed breathing pattern at night;
(d) waking frequently at night; and
(e) increased urination.
These effects vary widely between individuals and are per-
fectly normal responses.
245. While the body can acclimatize to tolerate lower oxygen
levels, this takes time. The body, in effect, balances itself, and this

82
 9.  Specific hazards

probably occurs during periods of sleep. The period required for

acclimatization can vary considerably between individuals and
may typically be of the order of several days. From this point of
balance, the body can accommodate a further increase in alti-
tude. But there is a limit, and if it is exceeded acute mountain
sickness (AMS) can result. contents

246. The symptoms of AMS are a headache and any one of

the following:
(a) loss of appetite, nausea, or vomiting;
(b) fatigue or weakness;
(c) dizziness or light-headedness; or
(d) difficulty sleeping.
247. These are thought to be a result of a mild swelling of
brain tissue due to hypoxia and can vary from mild to severe.
If the swelling progresses far enough, then high altitude cere-
bral edema (HACE), or fluid in the brain, can result. HACE
is characterized by the loss of the ability to think and possibly
confusion, behavioural changes and lethargy. There is also a
characteristic loss of coordination. HACE can progress rapidly
and can be fatal in a matter of a few hours to one or two days.
248. Another form of severe altitude illness is high altitude
pulmonary edema (HAPE), or fluid in the lungs. Although
this often occurs alongside AMS, it is not felt to be related and
the classic signs of AMS may be absent. Signs and symptoms of
HAPE include any of the following:
(a) extreme fatigue;
(b) breathlessness at rest;
(c) fast, shallow breathing;
(d) cough, possibly producing frothy or pink sputum;
(e) gurgling or rattling breaths;

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(f) chest tightness, fullness or congestion;

(g) blue or grey lips or fingernails; or
(h) drowsiness.
249. Even without severe symptoms, the low oxygen stress of
altitude can impair work efficiency, performance and safety due
contents
to maladaptive behaviour, distorted consciousness and reduced
sleep quality.
9.8.2. Assessment of risk
250. The assessment of the risk of working at high altitude
might consider the following:
(a) the medical condition of workers expected to work at
high altitudes;
(b) the experience and familiarity of the workers with high
altitude work;
(c) the familiarity of workers with the body’s normal
response to increase in altitude (increased breathing and
urination);
(d) the availability of means of rehydration for workers;
(e) arrangements to ensure that un-acclimatized workers
are not put at risk (to themselves or others);
(f) workers’ familiarity with the symptoms of the onset of
AMS, HACE and HAPE;
(g) the degree of acclimatization of the workers;
(h) change in altitude prior to work from the altitude at
which the workers were last acclimatized;
(i) the availability of first response or medical support for
affected workers; and
(j) the availability of emergency evacuation to lower alti-
tudes, if required.

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 9.  Specific hazards

9.8.3. Control strategies

251. It is common for national laws to specify the stand-
ards necessary to protect workers in opencast mines situated
at high altitudes. Specific regard should be paid to the par-
ticular characteristics of these mines and the hazards to which
the workers are exposed because of the location of such mines. contents

Control strategies to prevent ill effects at high altitude might

include:
(a) pre-employment and periodic medical examinations of
workers, with special attention to the cardio-pulmonary system;
(b) selection of workers indigenous to high altitude;
(c) selection of workers who have shown previous capacity
to work at high altitude (for example, at an altitude of 4,500 m
for several weeks without appreciable problems);
(d) where workers are from lower altitudes, appropriate
scheduling of periods of high altitude work considering:
(i) while many affected people feel much better after
two to four days, it may take up to seven to ten days
for the body’s ventilatory response to stabilize;
(ii) there is potential for loss of acclimatization if
workers spend too long at low altitude;
(iii) the time taken for workers to travel from their
homes or sleeping quarters to the mine site
(sleeping at lower altitude, if possible, is advanta-
geous); and
(iv) psychosocial factors (although long periods
working at high altitude may be the most medi-
cally efficient, they may be unacceptable socially);
(e) training of workers to understand and appreciate the
symptoms of AMS, HACE and HAPE;

85
Safety and health in opencast mines

(f) the supply of medication (for example, acetazolamide)

to assist acclimatization and improve the quality of sleep at
altitude;
(g) provision to allow anyone who develops a high altitude
illness to rest, to be given oxygen and, if there is no improve-
ment, or a deterioration, to be taken to a lower altitude; contents

(h) occupational exposure limits, and the means of moni-

toring compliance with them, should be suitably modified for
higher altitudes;
(i) the availability to workers of means of rehydration; and
(j) making a high altitude worksite “dry” (alcohol free).
Further information can be found in the Encyclopaedia of
Occupational Health and Safety (ILO, online edition, 2012),
Part VI, General Hazards, Barometric pressure reduced.
9.9. Tailings dams and lagoons
9.9.1. Hazard description
252. Tailings dams and lagoons contain the leftover material
from the mining process, often in large quantities. Tailings are
chemically similar to the parent mined material, but the pres-
ence of process reagents, evaporation of water and weathering
after deposition may significantly change their properties. All
tailings have been subjected in some way to physical and/or
chemical separation processes, such as flotation, cyanidation or
acid leaching.
253. If a tailings dam bursts it can release millions of cubic
metres of potentially toxic sludge and mine waste into the
nearby environment. In some cases, communities have been
destroyed and lives lost. Homes, land and livelihoods have been
ruined. Cleaning up and repairing damage can take many years
and is a very expensive process.

86
 9.  Specific hazards

254. Some common adverse characteristics of material depos-

ited as tailings include:
(a) remnant cyanide;
(b) high pH;
(c) sulphide minerals which, through oxidation, have the
potential to generate acid and consequently mobilize heavy metals;
contents

(d) elevated arsenic levels;

(e) highly saline pore water; and
(f) colloidal clays and other suspended, or potential mobile
material.
255. The more serious potential impacts associated with a
tailings dam failure include:
(a) threat to human life, health or infrastructure;
(b) short-term and long-term pollution of ground and/or
surface waters;
(c) raised groundwater levels resulting in salination of the
surface and streams;
(d) the release of a large volume of water and semi-fluid
tailings which smother vegetation, blanket the land surface and
restrict stream flow with sediment;
(e) threat to the health or life of wildlife, livestock or
domestic animals;
(f) loss of significant native vegetation; and
(g) generation of dust or odour.
256. The potential of these facilities to generate catastrophic
accidents has been demonstrated in numerous cases. Deficiencies
in design, management or operational practice, inadequate con-
trols, unauthorized access, climatic events or geotechnical insta-
bility can reduce their safety margin.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.9.2. Assessment of risks

257. The risk assessment of a tailings dam should take a life-
cycle approach. The main phases for a tailings dam are: design,
construction, operation and decommissioning.
258. Elements in the design of a large tailings dam or one
storing contaminated tailings that may require consideration in contents

the risk assessment include:

(a) location, with particular emphasis on whether the
effects of failure may extend off-site;
(b) containment system;
(c) type of lifting of the dam crest; and
(d) where relevant, cyanide management.
259. Hazards associated with the operation of a tailings dam
may arise through:
(a) inadequate site security;
(b) structural failure;
(c) operational failure;
(d) equipment failure; or
(e) unforeseen circumstances or consequences.
260. For instance, the main threats to the stability of an arti-
ficial embankment may be:
(a) overtopping by flood waters and overproduction of
tailings;
(b) slope instability caused by high hydraulic pressure;
(c) piping of fine-grained material during seepage; or
(d) liquefaction of saturated fines during seismic activity or
other vibration.

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 9.  Specific hazards

9.9.3. Control strategies

9.9.3.1. Design
261. Competent specialist engineering expertise should be
assigned to oversee the entire life cycle of each tailings dam. A
competent authority should oversee the entire life cycle of any
tailings dam and may require the facility to be approved prior to contents

commissioning.
262. One of the earliest and most important stages in the
design of a tailings dam is the selection of an appropriate site. A
proposed site for a tailings dam should be established as suitable
and safe in all respects.
263. In assessing safety and suitability, particular consider-
ation should be given to safeguarding the safety and health of
workers and the nearby population during normal operation,
and also in the event of a dam failure.
264. Site selection often requires analysis of a number of
competing factors, some of which may be subject to national
laws.
265. Matters that may be considered in assessing site selec-
tion include:
(a) the area and nature of the catchment above the tailings
dam: tailings dams should be designed and located to have the
smallest practical catchment;
(b) climatic conditions, such as peak flows from critical
storms and wet seasons;
(c) long-term stability of structures, such as stream
diversions;
(d) location of domestic water supplies;
(e) effects of drainage works on downstream flow regimes,
and particularly flooding;

89
Safety and health in opencast mines

(f) landscape design; and

(g) planned rehabilitation outcomes.
266. Tailings dams should be adequate for their proposed use
and need to be adapted to the particular site, the mineralogy
and treatment of the raw material and the desired ultimate
landform. The primary design objectives for a tailings dam may contents

be:
(a) the safe and stable containment of tailings;
(b) the management of decant and rainfall run-off;
(c) the minimization or control of seepage;
(d) a cost-effective storage system; and
(e) a planned system for effective closure.
267. Appropriate investigation of the foundations of the dam
and analysis of the possible causes of failure should be conducted
early in the design of all tailings dams. A geological map of the
area should also be prepared. The plans, sections and geological
map should be kept securely at the mine.
268. Tailings dam design should meet contemporary stand-
ards and have identified and addressed all likely risks associ-
ated with the site, the nature of the containment materials, the
nature, quantity and treatment of the tailings, construction
process and closure.
9.9.3.2. Construction
269. Reports detailing the construction of each lift should
be prepared and retained to assist determination of the overall
stability and future life of a tailings dam.
270. The reports should include survey drawings of:
(a) original ground surface contours inside and outside the
tailings dam;

90
 9.  Specific hazards

(b) the locations of test boreholes and pits (and details of

their backfilling);
(c) the location of the drainage system;
(d) the location and profiles of any borrow pits inside the
facility;
contents

(e) embankment profiles; and

(f) confirmation that the lining has been constructed to
the required specifications.
271. Construction records should be retained to allow the
effective monitoring of the long-term performance of a tailings
dam. Ground conditions should be properly monitored and
appropriate remedial works undertaken where zones of higher
permeability or lower structural strength are encountered in the
substrate. This information should be included in construction
records. Embankment walls should be correctly keyed in. Some
designs may rely on such technically complex features as grout
curtains or geo-membrane liners.
272. The materials used should be appropriate and compat-
ible with the rest of the design, emplaced to the correct compac-
tion levels and gradient, and produce an erosion resistant outer
wall.
273. Where it is necessary to vary the design during con-
struction of a large tailings dam, it should be verified that the
changes do not compromise the design objectives. The changes
should be reviewed and endorsed by a suitably qualified and
experienced person (such as the original designer). Changes
should be reflected in all records. As a significant change could
invalidate a previous risk assessment, the amended design
should be reassessed and resubmitted for authorization to the
competent authority.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.9.3.3. Operation
274. Well-planned operational practices can minimize risks
from a tailings dam. This should include planning for the sys-
tematic deposition of tailings, water and process chemicals in
the dam. Although these processes are simple, minor variations
in the way they are carried out can significantly impact on contents

outcomes.
275. An operations manual, for utilization by operational
personnel, should be in place from the time of commissioning
of a tailings dam.
276. The level of detail in the operations manual should be
determined by the characteristics of the specific site. However,
the manual should document all relevant operational proce-
dures, such as:
(a) roles and responsibilities;
(b) method for tailings deposition;
(c) water management and maintenance of freeboard;
(d) inspection schedule and maintenance;
(e) safety and health monitoring arising from the dam;
(f) record-keeping;
(g) reporting requirements; and
(h) any additional requirements specified by the dam
designer.
277. Tailings dam personnel should have a detailed under-
standing of those aspects of the operations manual relevant to
their day-to-day functions and responsibilities. The operations
manual should be updated as required to reflect any significant
changes in site conditions.
278. Monitoring and regular reviews are essential man-
agement tools for the operation of a tailings dam. Where

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 9.  Specific hazards

monitoring or reviews indicate deficiencies in the risk assess-

ment or risk controls, there should be a clearly defined process
for review of those measures.
279. Workers and other persons who work at or near tailings
dams should be trained in the hazards and how to identify and
report signs of failure or changing conditions that could present contents

a risk.
280. There should be action plans in place that are activated
and implemented where there are signs of failure or changing con-
ditions identified through monitoring or reporting by workers.
281. Depending on the facility, features to be included in a
safety monitoring programme for a large tailings dam might
include:
(a) seepage or leakage through the embankment;
(b) cracking, slips, movement or deformation of the
embankment;
(c) erosion of the embankment;
(d) pond level;
(e) pond location (location of the pond against the embank-
ment may pose particular problems);
(f) hydraulic pressure levels in embankments (to this end,
knowledge of the location of saturated ground would assist);
(g) structural defects or obstructions in infrastructure
(outlet pipes, spillway, decant system);
(h) borehole groundwater elevations;
(i) under-drain flow rates;
(j) obstruction or erosion of diversion drains; and
(k) characteristics and consolidation behaviour of the tail-
ings (enabling the prediction of final settlement and the refine-
ment of the design to suit the predicted conditions).

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.9.3.4. Decommissioning
282. Tailings material should be securely stored for an indef-
inite period and present no hazard to public safety and health.
The closure of a tailings dam and rehabilitation works should
therefore be as inherently stable, resistant to degradation and
consistent with the surrounding landscape as possible. The contents

design should also seek to minimize upkeep.

283. Early planning for closure of a tailings dam can reduce
risks for both the community and operator and minimize costs.
Most tailings dams require large quantities of cover material.
284. Tailings dams should be designed for the long term
and the tailings dam operator should provide for the long-term
maintenance and upkeep costs associated with such facilities.
9.9.3.5. Management of cyanide
285. Sodium cyanide solutions are widely used in the mining
industry for the recovery of gold and other non-ferrous metals.
Industry favours cyanide because the technology is proven, well
understood and available at reasonable cost. However, cyanide
is highly toxic and can accumulate in the human body, plants
and animals, and should be very carefully managed to minimize
the associated risks.
286. In the mining industry where tailings contain cyanide,
heavy metals or other undesirable constituents, seepage rates
usually need to be managed by the installation of a suitable
liner and often an under-drainage system. A number of options
for liner construction are available, including clay and artificial
liners, or a combination of both.
287. Where a liner is required for a large tailings dam or a dam
storing contaminated tailings, the design process should be used
to specify an appropriate design permeability and liner thickness.
The design risk assessment should include consideration of:

94
 9.  Specific hazards

(a) the potential rate of seepage under and through the

embankment and the base of the tailings dam;
(b) the predicted chemical composition of seepage;
(c) the predicted physical and chemical properties of the
tailings;
contents
(d) the characteristics of the underlying substrate; and
(e) the potential impacts on the beneficial uses of ground-
water and surface water systems.
288. Tailings dam design proposals incorporating a clay liner
should specify a minimum thickness for the liner, taking the
following factors into account:
(a) the thickness required to ensure construction is prac-
ticable given the need to compact in layers and minimize the
development of preferential pathways;
(b) the applicability of assumptions about the degree of
compaction to be achieved and the extent of homogeneity in
the liner material;
(c) the permeability of the underlying substrate;
(d) the expected permeability of the emplaced tailings; and
(e) the risk of the liner integrity being compromised by
cracking or mechanical damage while tailings are being depos-
ited or prior to the commencement of deposition.
289. Tailings containing toxic chemicals, such as cyanide,
can often be treated to neutralize their toxicity. However, the
processing costs should be weighed against the benefits. A fur-
ther consideration is that cyanide compounds degrade rapidly
in the environment. Potential technologies to replace cyanide
exist, but are not in wide use and are, in some cases, considered
more hazardous.

95
Safety and health in opencast mines

290. The approach to be taken in the management of cyanide

at a particular site is best determined by considering the hazards
and risks applicable to the location. For example, a tailings dam
within a domestic or any potable water supply catchment would
need to consider the risk of contamination of water supplies. In
this case it is highly likely that neutralization of cyanide would contents
be required to adequately reduce the risk.
291. Decisions about the management of cyanide depend
on a number of interacting factors. A formal hazard iden-
tification and assessment approach is needed to determine
the best approach. It is also essential that this assessment be
undertaken in conjunction with risk assessments for other
elements of tailings dam design, such as location, water
management and permeability, so that the outcomes are
complementary.
292. Factors to be considered in relation to the management
of cyanide include:
(a) amounts and concentration of planned and accidental
possible discharge from a processing plant to the tailings dam;
(b) exposure of and impact on wildlife;
(c) contamination of surface waters;
(d) contamination of the groundwater;
(e) exposure of and impact on livestock and domestic ani-
mals; and
(f) exposure of human populations.
Exposure to cyanide can occur either directly or indirectly,
for example, through human consumption of animals, plants
and water that have been exposed.
293. Controls that should be considered to mitigate the risks
of cyanide include:

96
 9.  Specific hazards

(a) reduction or elimination of the risks of cyanide expo-

sure to people;
(b) reduction or elimination of the amount and concentra-
tion of cyanide in tailings;
(c) animal deterrents (acoustic or visible);
contents
(d) physical barriers to access by animals to the supernatant
water, such as fencing, mesh covers or floating barriers;
(e) decant systems or seepage control to reduce the surface
area of the supernatant pond;
(f) more intensive site supervision; and
(g) amendments to design criteria, such as structural design
or method of deposition.
294. Further information on the management of cyanide is
detailed in the International Cyanide Management Code.
9.9.3.6. Emergency response plan
295. Where an opencast mine has one or more tailings dams,
the emergency response plan for the mine (see Chapter 8)
should be extended to incorporate relevant provisions covering
emergencies which may arise and include, as a minimum:
(a) an assessment of persons, property and environmental
features at risk through the completion of a formal dam burst
inundation study;
(b) engagement with local communities that may be
affected about the emergency response plan and provisions,
including implementation of alarms and/or warning systems;
(c) actions to be taken appropriate to the scale of the emer-
gency, including lines of responsibility (and names and contact
details of nominated safety personnel), communications, and
involvement of police and emergency services;

97
Safety and health in opencast mines

(d) details of any necessary evacuation procedure, including

the location of assembly points, in the event of failure or
impending failure;
(e) accessible advice to all personnel on-site and in the com-
munity as necessary, as to the nature of the emergency warning
system, or warnings and procedures to be followed; and contents

(f) training and refreshment programmes on safety proce-

dures for all personnel involved.
9.9.3.7. Reporting of dangerous occurrences
296. T he safety of facilities such as tailings dams can be
enhanced through the sharing of experience and knowledge
about accidents and dangerous occurrences. The competent
authority or an entity designated by it should act as a central
repository and disseminator of such information.
297. The employer in charge of the mine should make
provision for the immediate notification of dangerous occur-
rences (including near misses) to the competent authority to
allow evaluation and timely investigation. The competent
authority should then circulate relevant information from
reports of dangerous occurrences to other mine operators
and jurisdictions, as appropriate. Relevant occurrences might
include:
(a) injury or death of persons (whether legitimately on-site
or not) associated with a tailings dam;
(b) injury or death of fauna (domestic or native) on or near
a tailings dam;
(c) uncontrolled release of tailings or supernatant water
(pipe breaks, overtopping of dam);
(d) major unplanned seepage (discernible impact on vegeta-
tion, soil contamination, groundwater accession); and

98
 9.  Specific hazards

(e) defects in the structure of a tailings dam or its surrounds

(cracking, slumping or significant erosion of the wall, faults in
the decant system).
9.10. Tips or spoil dumps
9.10.1. Hazard description contents

298. Similar to tailings dams, tips contain the leftover mate-

rial from the mining process, and often in large quantities. They
also resemble a high wall, as a tip of any appreciable size con-
tains a huge amount of potential energy. The unintended release
of this energy can have a catastrophic outcome. In the same way
as tailings dams, the impact of their failure may extend well
beyond the mine site.
9.10.2. Assessment of risk
299. A similar life-cycle risk management approach to that
taken with tailings dams should be adopted with tips. The
design, construction, operation and decommissioning phases
should be considered.
9.10.3. Control strategies
300. A competent certified engineer(s) should oversee the
design, development, operation and decommissioning of a tip
at an opencast mine. A competent authority should oversee the
entire life cycle of any tip at an opencast mine.
301. Where it is proposed to tip mine discard or refuse of any
kind, it should be established that the proposed site is suitable and
safe in all respects, taking into account, where relevant, the pro-
tection of the population in the vicinity. Consideration should be
given to protecting the safety and health of the population both
during normal tipping operations and also in the event of a tip
failure. Factors to consider in site selection for a mine tip include:

99
Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) mine location and future size;

(b) topography (determining the type and shape of the
tip);
(c) anticipated waste rock volumes;
(d) location of property boundaries;
contents
(e) existing drainage routes and water sources;
(f) future reclamation requirements;
(g) the condition of tip foundations; and
(h) types of material handling equipment to be used.
302. Tips should be so designed and operated as to ensure
the necessary on-site safety and health. Factors to be considered
in tip design include:
(a) need for compaction in design, construction and
operations;
(b) the need to avoid tipping into water;
(c) tip configuration (valley fill, hillside wedges, fan and
terraced dumps or some combination thereof);
(d) need to clear vegetation, soils;
(e) existing drainage routes and property boundaries;
(f) material swell factor (tip volume needed) and angle of
repose (anticipated toe position);
(g) haulage method to be employed (truck, conveyor, rail)
and necessary access;
(h) tip stability considerations (limits on height or slope);
(i) the need for protective berms;
(j) topographic and climatic conditions;
(k) the need for dump stability monitoring;
(l) the effects of tip “failure”;

100
 9.  Specific hazards

(m) design of dump points (for example, to accommodate

trucks with adequate turning space and protective berms);
(n) anticipated permeability of the tip and effect on drainage;
(o) provision of adequate haul roads if required; and
(p) need for lighting at dump points or along haulage routes.
contents
303. The employer should develop, implement and maintain
safe dumping procedures for tips or spoil dumps, including for
work below tips or dumps.
304. There should be an inspection and monitoring pro-
gramme in place for tips to continually verify the stability of the
tip, the integrity of the dump berm and the safety of dumping
operations.
305. Workers and other persons who work on tips should be
trained in the hazards and how to identify and report signs of
failure or changing conditions that could present a risk.
306. There should be action plans in place that are activated
and implemented where there are signs of failure or changing con-
ditions identified through monitoring or reporting by workers.
307. An investigation should be conducted of the founda-
tions and an analysis made of possible causes of failure for pro-
posed tips. Operating procedures should be prepared for each
tip and should specify a maintenance and inspection schedule
and detail the problems and signs of weakness or danger in the
vicinity to which attention should be drawn.
9.11. High walls
9.11.1. Hazard description
308. A high wall of any appreciable height contains a huge
amount of potential energy in the rock mass. The unintended
release of this energy while persons are nearby can have a

101
Safety and health in opencast mines

catastrophic outcome. There are basically two modes of high

wall failure:
(a) rock mass failures involving a relatively large amount of
material on a large portion of a high wall. These have their ori-
gins in the nature of the material and structures present. There
are four types of rock mass failure: contents

(i) planar failures involving a sliding movement along

a single discontinuity surface; however, additional
discontinuities typically define the lateral extent of
the failures;
(ii) wedge failures involving a sliding movement along
two discontinuity surfaces that intersect at an
angle forming a wedge-shaped block in the high
wall face;
(iii) toppling failures involving buckling or rotational
movement around the base of a slab or column
formed by steeply dipping discontinuities oriented
parallel or subparallel to the high wall face; and
(iv) circular failure involving rotational and sliding
movement along a failure surface that occurs along
numerous discontinuities and often approximates
the arc of a circle; and
(b) rock falls involving a discrete number of individual
rocks on a small portion of a high wall, where blocks of rock
on a fragmented high wall are susceptible to falling as they are
relatively unconfined.
309. Personnel exposure, block weight, drop height and high
wall geometry are critical in evaluating rock fall hazards:
(a) because the block weight and drop height determine the
energy of a falling rock when it strikes;

102
 9.  Specific hazards

(b) because the geometry of a high wall affects how rocks

fall and where they land; and
(c) slumping or sloughing of gravel, sand or other loose
materials in mines including dry slumping or wet slumping
(liquefaction).
310. Rock mass failure is more likely to lead to a catastrophic contents

outcome. Rock falls can, however, also be very serious, given the
energies involved, with fatalities a likely outcome in the absence
of effective controls.
9.11.2. Assessment of risk
311. Knowledge of the properties of rock structure and the
mine environment allows for anticipation, and often prediction
of hazards, which can then be reduced or eliminated through
mine layout and design. The following factors might be taken
into account in assessing the risk of high wall failures:
(a) geotechnical factors, including:
(i) the depth of weathering and potential for uncon-
fined material;
(ii) discontinuities, such as jointing or fractures, and
their spacing and persistence;
(iii) the orientation of discontinuities, including dip,
dip direction and strike;
(iv) bedding direction relative to a high wall face;
(v) the presence of clay material in bedding;
(vi) the length of high wall structures, with potential
for splitting, and so reducing exposure;
(vii) the presence of floor rolls and a dipping seam;
(viii) the presence of major dykes, faults or burnt coal;

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(ix) cracks on high wall or benches near (for example,

within 10 m) of the crest;
(x) the presence of loose rocks or blocks;
(xi) the presence of wedges or overhangs;
(xii) identified zones of weakness;
contents
(xiii) the seepage of water from face bedding or a
structure;
(xiv) water accumulation at the toe;
(xv) water on top of a high wall or benches in proximity
to (for example, within 30m) the crest;
(xvi) occurrence of rain or snow events;
(xvii) the head of water behind a high wall;
(xviii) the presence of spontaneous combustion; and
(xix) the integrity of dragline benches;
(b) mining factors, including:
(i) the height of a high wall;
(ii) the slope angle of a high wall in relation to mining
direction;
(iii) the width of benches;
(iv) the presence of spoils on a high wall (near the
crest);
(v) equipment vibrations;
(vi) blasting vibration;
(vii) the presence of burrowing animals; and
(viii) tree roots.
312. Underground mine workings in close proximity to a
high wall, especially those that meet the surface in the high wall
face, can cause instability. This is due to pre-existing subsidence

104
 9.  Specific hazards

damage or the potential for subsidence damage in the overlying

rock strata.
9.11.3. Control strategies
313. A competent and certified engineer(s) should be
assigned to oversee the design, development, operation and contents
decommissioning of a high wall opencast mine. A competent
authority should oversee the entire life cycle of any high wall
opencast mine.
314. Pit layout and design drawing on information from
such sources as geological field mapping and core drilling.
315. High wall monitoring consists of surveillance of the
high wall, either visually or with the aid of instruments. The
objectives of monitoring are to:
(a) maintain a safe operation;
(b) provide advance notice of instability allowing for the
timely evacuation of personnel; and
(c) provide information on the extent and rate of failure to
help identify appropriate remedial measures, modify the mining
plan or redesign the slope.
316. Regular and thorough examinations from all possible
angles are necessary to identify potentially hazardous areas
and developing conditions. Particular attention should be paid
to toe and crest areas, since fallen rocks at the toe and cracks
behind a high wall crest may be signs of developing stability
problems.
317. Ground conditions should be examined:
(a) in areas where work is to be performed prior to work
commencing;
(b) after blasting; and

105
Safety and health in opencast mines

(c) as warranted by ground conditions during a work shift.

318. High walls and banks adjoining travel ways should
be examined as often as ground conditions warrant. It should
be recognized that visual monitoring of a high wall often has
limited value. Visual monitoring is often not sufficiently con-
sistent or quantitative for informed decision-making. Spotter contents

reaction time (considering potential fatigue), as well as means of

sounding the alarm, are also critical considerations.
319. Workers and other persons who work near high walls
should be trained in the hazards and how to identify and report
signs of failure or changing conditions that could present a risk.
320. There should be action plans in place that are activated
and implemented where there are signs of failure or changing
conditions identified through monitoring or reporting by
workers.
321. Monitoring with instruments can provide quantitative
information on minute high wall movements. Monitoring tech-
nologies can provide this information constantly in real time.
Examples of monitoring technologies include:
(a) wireline extensometers;
(b) prism surveying;
(c) global positioning systems (GPS);
(d) laser imaging; and
(e) slope scanning radar.
322. Rock stabilization and protection measures might also
be employed. Stabilization measures include:
(a) reinforcement:
(i) rock bolting;
(ii) dowelling;

106
 9.  Specific hazards

(iii) tying back walls;

(iv) shotcreting (sprayed concrete);
(v) use of buttresses; and
(vi) drainage;
(b) shot-in-place buttresses; contents

(c) rock removal:

(i) re-sloping;
(ii) trimming; and
(iii) scaling.
323. Protection measures include:
(a) ditches;
(b) meshing;
(c) catch fences;
(d) warning fences;
(e) rock sheds; and
(f) tunnels.
324. Benches can be used to reduce the distance rocks can
fall and catch falling material. Berms can be used effectively to
control rock fall hazards. They:
(a) create a catch basin to contain falling material;
(b) are also an effective barrier to keep personnel out of an
area;
(c) should be properly sized and located; and
(d) should be maintained.
325. Computer modelling can be used to model rock falls to
assist in the design of benches and berms. Computer models can
be used to design rock fall protection measures through:

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(a) modelling field conditions;

(b) applying random affects;
(c) running many simulations; and
(d) analysing patterns.
326. Exclusion zones to protect personnel should be declared, contents
signposted or otherwise designated and enforced:
(a) in high-risk areas;
(b) at the base of high walls; and
(c) between machinery or equipment and the high wall or
bank where the machinery or equipment may hinder escape
from falls or slides of the high wall or bank.
327. When working is necessary near a high wall, equipment
should be positioned so as to afford the operator maximum pos-
sible protection from falling material.
328. Unstable high wall conditions in the vicinity of under-
ground mine workings could be remedied through shorter high
walls and wider benches to improve the stability of the high wall
by reducing overburden load, as well as the amount of material
that could become unstable.
329. In cases where an opencast mine is being worked in the
vicinity of any active underground workings, there should be
consultation between the owners, operators or management of
each mine to ensure that appropriate precautionary measures
are devised and implemented.
9.12. Inundation or flooding of workings
9.12.1. Hazard description
330. Sources of large volumes of water in close proximity to
opencast mine workings present a hazard of rapid inundation or
flooding.

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 9.  Specific hazards

9.12.2. Assessment of risk

331. The proximity of porous water-bearing strata, dams,
rivers, lakes and seas and potentially flooded underground or
opencast mine workings should be considered in the assessment
of the risk of inundation of opencast mine workings. In addition,
the competence of intervening strata to form an effective barrier contents

pillar should be taken into account, along with potential seismic

effects.
332. When water-bearing strata are mined, workings could
be flooded if the rate of water ingress overcomes water removal
arrangements.
9.12.3. Control strategies
333. Prior to the commencement of excavation, steps should
be taken to ensure that a thorough hydrological and hydroge-
ological assessment is made of the surface and subsurface con-
ditions of the area to be mined and the area which may form a
protective barrier pillar.
334. When mining in water-bearing strata or near rivers,
dams, lakes and seas and potentially flooded underground or
opencast mines, provision should be made for barrier pillars
to be left or a dam to be erected to prevent any breakthrough.
Competent specialist engineering expertise should be assigned
to oversee the design and ongoing integrity of barrier pillars.
A competent authority should oversee the ongoing integrity of
barrier pillars.
335. No mining should take place within the boundaries of
such pillars unless carefully evaluated and overseen by the com-
petent authority. Where mining is carried out in areas liable to
flooding from any source or because of any circumstance, pro-
tective schemes should be designed and implemented.

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336. The protective schemes should include, where relevant,

the monitoring of barrier pillars and the timely alerting of
workers in the event of loss of barrier integrity.
337. In cases where a lowered water table is maintained with
the aid of drainage shafts or holes, the following safety measures
should be ensured: contents

(a) the installed pump capacity should be such that the

maximum daily inflow can be raised sufficiently quickly (for
example, in not more than 20 hours);
(b) stand-by pumps should be installed with a sufficient
capacity (for example, not less than 25 per cent of the total
installed capacity);
(c) the electrical feed to the pumps should be duplicated,
with each feed capable of carrying the maximum load of the
installation;
(d) stand-by pumps should be so equipped as to start auto-
matically in case of failure of a main pump;
(e) where drainage tunnels need to be driven in water-
bearing strata, pilot holes should be carried to a sufficient depth
(for example, not less than 5 m); and
(f) the sump for the main pumping installation should
have a sufficient capacity (for example, not less than four hours
of normal water inflow).
338. Sinkholes and surface subsidence occurring as a result of
dewatering should be enclosed to prohibit access.
9.13. Dredges and other floating installations
9.13.1. Hazard description
339. For the purpose of this section, the term “dredge”
includes any floating vessel used for cutting, pumping, mining

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 9.  Specific hazards

or treatment purposes, and other machinery to be used for or in

connection with mining by means of dredging. The term does
not include a barge, workboat, tender, anchor punt or other
boat ancillary to dredging operations. Dredges are, in effect,
vessels used under a dynamic loading and unloading situation.
The relevant hazards are therefore those of a working vessel in contents
that situation.
9.13.2. Assessment of risk
340. The following hazard categories should be considered in
the risk assessment of a dredging facility:
(a) buoyancy and stability;
(b) access and egress;
(c) drowning hazards;
(d) machinery hazards;
(e) electrical hazards; and
(f) fire hazards.
9.13.3. Control strategies
9.13.3.1. Acceptance by the competent authority
341. A dredge, floating treatment plant or other vessel should
not be used in mining unless it has received the authorization
of the competent authority. The application for authorization or
use by the competent authority should be accompanied by:
(a) drawings and specifications of the dredge, floating treat-
ment plant or other vessel;
(b) buoyancy calculations in respect of the vessel made by a
competent person; and
(c) the results of all buoyancy tests carried out in respect of
the vessel.

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342. In giving authorization, the competent authority should

specify the approved load line that has been assigned to the
dredge or floating treatment plant. The competent authority
should not assign to any vessel a load line such that the vessel
would have a freeboard of less than 150 mm. The load line
so assigned to a dredge or floating treatment plant should be contents
clearly marked in an approved manner.
9.13.3.2. Personnel
343. No person should act, or be permitted or employed to
act, as a winch or cutter operator unless they have been author-
ized by the employer, who is satisfied as to their competence.
9.13.3.3. Safety precautions on board dredges
344. The hull of a dredge or other vessel used for mining
should be kept sound and watertight. The interior of the hull
compartments should be kept clean and free of water as far as
is reasonably practicable, with the exception of compartments
in which the storage of ballast has received the approval of the
competent authority,
345. A dredge or floating treatment plant should be provided
with:
(a) sufficient number of lifebuoys, properly positioned on
the dredge;
(b) suitable lifelines fitted around the vessel at a convenient
height;
(c) a boat containing a lifeline not less than 15 m in length
and a boat-hook, and equipped ready for use with oars and row-
locks or other effective means of propulsion;
(d) a sufficient number of properly fitted life vests or other
personal flotation devices (PFDs); and

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 9.  Specific hazards

(e) notices indicating clearly the location of all life-saving

appliances.
346. The life vests or PFDs provided should be worn by all
persons when on board or when there is a danger of drowning.
Their design should not impede normal activities or compro-
mise safety when they are worn. All life-saving appliances contents

should be maintained in good order and condition and should

be kept in a readily accessible location.
347. All workers engaged on or in connection with dredgers
should be given training and instruction in life-saving tech-
niques. All dredges should be fitted with the following safety
devices:
(a) an electric return signalling system between the winch
room and the discharge end of the screen;
(b) an automatic alarm bell that is designed to sound when
the load line assigned to the vessel has been submerged;
(c) a pendulum or other device to show the list of the vessel;
(d) a means of indicating an obstructed discharge from the
dredge or treatment plant;
(e) a means of indicating the dredging depth; and
(f) in the case of a bucket dredge, an automatic device to
ensure immediate stopping of the dredging machinery in the
event of an overload of the dredge.
348. Warning notices should be posted in conspicuous places
to warn persons of danger from head and side lines.
349. The head and side lines of a dredge or treatment plant
should have free and unobstructed play between the anchors
and the dredge or floating treatment plant. All obstacles likely
to impede the free play of the head lines should be removed or
the head lines elevated over such obstacles.

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350. A deflecting sheave, if used between the anchor and the

dredge or floating treatment plant, should be securely anchored.
Every anchor for a head line or side line of a dredge or floating
treatment plant should be of adequate capacity to hold the vessel
under all working conditions.
351. No unauthorized person should be allowed to work in contents

the vicinity of the head or side lines while the dredge is oper-
ating. No unauthorized person should be permitted to interfere
with any machinery, line or other appliance used in a dredging
operation.
9.13.3.4. Miscellaneous protective precautions
352. Hatchways and all other deck openings should be fitted
with watertight seals or safeguarded by coamings not less than
400 mm in height, to prevent water ingress. All openings a
person could fall into should be closed or guarded. Hull com-
partments should be treated as confined spaces, if applicable.
353. The competent authority may require every open side of
the deck of a dredge or floating treatment plant to be provided
with guardrails and stanchions suitable to prevent persons falling
overboard. The following provisions should apply to all guardrails:
(a) stanchions should be secured to the deck and spaced not
more than 5 m apart;
(b) the guardrails should consist of an upper rail located 1
m above the deck and a lower rail located 250 mm above deck;
(c) guardrails should be constructed of suitable timber, scaf-
fold tube, steel wire rope or chain and, in the case of steel wire
rope or chain, should be kept taut by means of turn-buckles or
other suitable devices; and
(d) guardrails should be kept in place except when removed
temporarily for access purposes.

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 9.  Specific hazards

354. Where the competent authority directs, a dredge or

floating treatment plant working close to a bank should be pro-
vided with a gangway not less than 600 mm wide and of suffi-
cient length to reach from the bow to a firm and stable position
on the bank, or from the stern to the tailings dump, according
to the instructions of the competent authority. The gangway contents
should be provided with a substantial handrail and should be
secured to the deck of the dredge or floating treatment plant.
355. Every place where persons are working should be ade-
quately illuminated during the hours of darkness.
356. The following safety requirements should be observed
by all persons working on a dredge used for mining purposes:
(a) every member of a dredge crew when employed in out-
board work on the dredge should use safety belts, life jackets
and personal floatation devices, and what to do in the event of
falling into the water;
(b) in the event of a person going overboard, the bucket line
or cutter and suction equipment should be stopped immediately
and the alarm given; and
(c) no person should step on any bucket, chain or revolving
screen while it is in motion, nor ride on them.
357. The employer should appoint a competent person to
carry out specific inspections and controls daily before the com-
mencement of operations, namely:
(a) soundings of all hull compartments;
(b) inspection of the freeboard on the bow, stern, port and
starboard; and
(c) inspection of the dredging depth or ladder angle, in
a bucket dredge where the dredging depth is not recorded
automatically.

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358. The person who makes the checks should record the
results forthwith in a durable manner determined by the
employer.
9.13.4. Emergency provisions
359. Immediately after the sounding of any emergency alarm, contents
the winch operator or other person in charge of the dredge or
other vessel concerned should:
(a) cease digging or dredging and take all necessary meas-
ures to correct the defect causing the alarm; and
(b) not recommence digging until the defect triggering the
alarm has been effectively corrected.
360. After the operation of the automatic overload stopping
device, digging should not be permitted to recommence until
the winch operator has ascertained that the overload has been
cleared.
9.13.5. Other matters
361. The maximum number of persons that may be carried
at one time in a dredge or other vessel used in connection with
dredging or mining operations should be fixed by the compe-
tent authority. A prominent notice of this figure should be kept
posted on the dredge or other vessel.
362. Warning notices for the public should be posted in a
conspicuous position in all cases where head or side lines cross a
path or thoroughfare.
363. Every dredge should be provided with suitable toilets or
latrines.
364. All dredges and other floating installations should be
provided with firefighting facilities in a quantity to be agreed
with the competent authority.

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 9.  Specific hazards

9.14. Surface buildings and structures

9.14.1. Safety of buildings
365. All buildings and structures should comply with
the requirements of national building laws, regulations and
accepted standards, including all standards for access ways,
platforms and electrical wiring. They should be maintained contents

in safe condition and, wherever possible, be constructed of

fire-resistant material.
9.14.2. Safe means of access
366. Safe means of access to or egress from every place or
building where any person has to pass or work should be pro-
vided and maintained in good condition.
9.14.3. Provision of emergency lighting
367. Stand-by emergency lighting should be provided for use
in the event of a failure of the power supply:
(a) at the medical or first-aid room and, where appropriate,
the rescue station;
(b) at changing rooms and wash houses;
(c) in crusher houses and treatment plants where stair-
ways, walkways or ladders are normally used by operating
personnel;
(d) at all stairways and emergency escape ways; and
(e) at all places where a reduction or failure of artificial
illumination is likely to result in enhanced risk to the workers
employed there.
368. The competent authority may grant exemption or relief
from the provisions of this section if workers are not present
during the hours of darkness or where individual lamps are
provided.

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9.15. Management of falling hazards

9.15.1. Hazard description
369. Hazards associated with a fall by a person from one level
to another that is reasonably likely to cause injury to the person
concerned or to any other person should be marked with appro-
priate signs and controlled. contents

9.15.2. Assessment of risk

370. These hazards include work:
(a) in or on an elevated workplace from which a person
could fall;
(b) in the vicinity of an opening through which a person
could fall;
(c) in the vicinity of an edge over which a person could fall; or
(d) on a surface through which a person could fall.
9.15.3. Control strategies
371. Where any person can fall a hazardous distance or any
distance which may be specified in national laws, secure foot-
holds, handholds and fences should be provided as necessary to
control that hazard. Where these provisions are not practicable,
safety harnesses, or other fall-prevention and fall-arrest devices
should be provided and used.
372. Where there is a risk of falling objects striking a worker,
suitable control measures should be implemented.
9.16. Falls from height and falling objects
9.16.1. Hazard description
373. Falls from a height above ground or platform level are a
major cause of serious injuries and fatalities in opencast mines.
This can occur when:

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 9.  Specific hazards

(a) persons working at a height above ground or platform

level are not prevented or protected from falling and fall to
below;
(b) persons accessing areas, machinery or equipment,
including ascending, descending or working on ladders, among
other things. contents

(c) incorrect operation or failure of height access or fall-ar-

rest equipment; and
(d) a person being suspended in a harness after a fall from
height has been arrested by fall-protection equipment and the
person is not rescued in time, resulting in suspension trauma.
374. Objects falling from height and striking a person are
also a major cause of serious injuries and fatalities in opencast
mines. This can occur when there is an unplanned release from
height of an object, including equipment, components, tools,
material, among other things, and persons are in the drop zone
or working below.
9.16.2. Risk assessment
375. The competent authority should establish regulations,
specifying requirements for fall prevention or work at height.
This should include the requirements for preventing falls from
height; the certification, inspection, testing and use of fall-pre-
vention and fall-protection equipment; and the required con-
trols to prevent falling objects striking a person.
376. The employer should perform a risk assessment to
identify and assess tasks that involve a risk of a person falling
from height. Based on the risk assessment, there should be a
fall-prevention programme developed. The programme should
include:
(a) procedures for working at height;

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(b) a process for preparing, testing and implementing emer-

gency rescue procedures for fall scenarios; and
(c) the certification, provision, use inspection, testing and
maintenance of fall-prevention and fall-protection equipment.
377. The employer should perform a risk assessment to iden-
tify and assess the situations, tasks or equipment where there contents

could be an unplanned release from height of any object, equip-

ment, component or material, among other things. Particular
attention should be paid to work, either routine or non-routine,
where persons are working above other persons. Based on the
assessment, each mine should develop control strategies for the
prevention of falling objects or for protecting persons from the
risk of falling objects.
9.16.3. Control strategies
378. In all cases, elimination of the risk of a fall from height
is the priority and there should be processes in place to assess
the work and minimize the need for working at any height,
including bringing components to ground level to perform
maintenance, among other things.
379. In any case, where there is a risk of falling greater than
the height specified by national regulation (for example, 1.8 m
is typical), either fall-prevention or fall-protection equipment
should be used.
380. Where work at height occurs, the employer should
develop work at heights procedures and a permitting process.
This should include a process for preparing, testing and imple-
menting emergency rescue procedures for fall scenarios.
381. The employer should develop a procedure to define bar-
ricading requirements where there is a risk of falling over an
unprotected edge and barricading or protective covers where
there is a risk of falling through an opening. The procedures

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 9.  Specific hazards

should also address the control measures required to prevent

or protect a person from falling through a brittle surface, for
example, working on or accessing roofs, among other things.
382. Where elimination of the fall risk is not possible, there
should be a process to reduce the risk of falling by using fall-pre-
vention measures that include: contents

(a) fixed and temporary work platforms, access ways, bar-

riers, and so forth, including scaffolding and mobile work plat-
forms, among other things; and
(b) fall restraint, which should only be used when elimina-
tion of the fall risk, the use of work platforms or hard barri-
cading cannot be used. Fall restraint should prevent a person
reaching a position at which there is a risk of a fall and should
consist of a harness, connected by a lanyard to an anchorage
point or static line.
Fall-prevention measures should be designed, installed,
maintained and certified in accordance with national laws and
by competent, authorized persons. There should be processes
and procedures for the inspection, maintenance, testing and
certification of these.
383. Wherever practical, a safe working area should be pro-
vided by means of work platforms or scaffolds that have com-
plete floors, guardrails, toe-boards, and safe access and egress.
384. Where mobile work platforms are used for fall preven-
tion, there should be a process for ensuring these are compliant
with national laws and approved standards and that they are
inspected to manufacturers’ pre-operational check requirements
prior to use. When operating a mobile work platform:
(a) a competent and authorized person should be desig-
nated to control the mobile work platform and that person
should be inside the basket; and

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(b) every person in the mobile work platform basket should

be attached to an approved anchorage point at all times.
385. Where the above fall-prevention strategies cannot be
used, fall-protection or fall-arrest systems should be used. A
fall-arrest system should only be used where a person:
(a) can reach a position where a fall is possible; contents

(b) has a lanyard, adjustable in length, so the unprotected

edge can be reached; and
(c) is working on a surface that may not hold their weight.
386. The fall-arrest system should consist of:
(a) an approved body harness;
(b) a shock-absorbing lanyard, where the potential to fall is
greater than 4 m or a short restraining lanyard, where the poten-
tial to fall is less than 4 m;
(c) double- or triple-action snap hooks (or karabiner type
rings); and
(d) secure anchorage points or static lines.
387. There should be a process for ensuring that fall-arrest
equipment, including harnesses, shock-absorbing lanyards,
hooks or rings is tested and certified for use; inspected by the
user before use; and destroyed after a fall or where inspection
shows evidence of excessive wear or mechanical malfunction.
388. Permanent anchorage points should be designed and
rated to take the required load and be periodically inspected
by a competent person. Temporary anchorage points must be
assessed by a competent person prior to use to ensure they can
support the required load.
389. Work from portable ladders should be minimized. If
required, it should be carried out in accordance with an approved
procedure. Portable ladders should be safely stored, inspected

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 9.  Specific hazards

before use and maintained. A person may climb or descend a

ladder without fall protection provided that they are able to use
both hands and legs to do so; facing the ladder, and using one step
at a time. Where a person could fall more than 6 m, a fixed ladder
installation should be fitted with a side screen, or a ladder cage.
390. Where overhead work is being conducted, barricading contents

should be erected around the work area to prevent people

accessing the drop zone and there should be controls in place to
prevent tools, equipment or other objects from falling.
391. There should be training and competency assessment in
accordance with national laws, regulations and approved stand-
ards so that relevant persons are trained and deemed competent to:
(a) work at heights;
(b) issue work at heights permits;
(c) design, erect, dismantle, maintain and inspect work
platforms and scaffolds;
(d) design, install, inspect and maintain anchorage points
and static lines;
(e) operate and maintain mobile work platforms; and
(f) inspect and maintain scaffolding and work at heights
equipment.
9.17. Confined spaces
9.17.1. Hazard description
392. A confined space is an enclosed or partially enclosed
space that is not designed or intended for continuous human
occupancy and at any time during entry, occupancy or exit can
have a hazardous atmosphere, risk of engulfment or entrapment,
for example a tank, process vessel, underground vault or tunnel.
A person would only enter if there was work to be done.

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393. W hile the primary hazard of confined spaces is the

atmosphere that they may contain, they are also sometimes
cramped spaces which may hinder entry, exit and the activi-
ties of a person working in them. Many fatalities occur when
first responders, without adequate precautions or personal
protection, enter confined spaces in an attempt to rescue contents
colleagues.
9.17.2. Assessment of risk
394. In assessing the risk posed by confined spaces at an
opencast mine:
(a) existing and potential confined spaces should be iden-
tified by a person familiar with the hazards of confined spaces
who is assigned to conduct that identification;
(b) a register of all identified and potential confined spaces
should be compiled and maintained and made available to all
workers at the site;
(c) where entry is not required, unauthorized or inad-
vertent entry into a confined space should be prevented by
posting warning signs, locking and securing, or other measures
as necessary, to ensure that workers do not enter without proper
protection;
(d) where entry is required by a worker:
(i) a confined space should be fully characterized,
through testing and inspection, for all existing and
potential hazards in the confined space (hazards
can be classified as mechanical, oxygen depletion,
flammable or combustible vapours and gases, and
toxic gases and vapours); and
(ii) supply systems to a confined space should be
blanked off or bled and isolated.

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 9.  Specific hazards

395. A confined space should be re-evaluated where there is

reason to believe that conditions have changed.
9.17.3. Control strategies
396. Because of its hazardous nature, work in confined
spaces is often addressed in national laws and accepted stand- contents

ards. Measures should be taken to identify any relevant laws and

accepted standards and to follow them.
397. Workers who are to enter a confined space, and those
who are to act as sentries to protect them, should be trained
and competent in confined space entry. Where a competent
authority requires certification for confined space entry, those
workers should be appropriately certified.
398. All identified confined spaces should be clearly marked
with warning notices and means provided to prevent unauthor-
ized entry. Lone entry into confined spaces should be clearly
prohibited and enforced.
399. No confined space entry should be permitted before
site-specific confined space entry, work and emergency pro-
cedures are implemented. Confined space entry should be
controlled by a permit system with an appropriate level of
authorization.
400. Prior to any entry into a confined space, the atmosphere
should be tested to ascertain its content. It should never be
assumed that a confined space remains in the same state as it
was left after the last entry. If the atmosphere in a confined space
does not appear safe, then all reasonable measures, including
purging, inerting, flushing or ventilating should be undertaken
to make it safe (based on retesting as appropriate). All supply
systems to the confined space should be turned off, blanked off
or bled prior to entry.

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401. Workers entering a confined space should be provided

with appropriate respirators and PPE commensurate with the
hazards in the confined space. Forced ventilation should be used
to reduce the potential for build-up of toxic or flammable gasses
or vapours in the confined space.
402. Not less than two persons should be present when there contents

is work in a confined space. One should be outside the confined

space to keep watch and to offer rescue action or assistance or
to activate emergency arrangements; that person shall have no
other assignments. Additional emergency and accident assis-
tance should be readily available. Testing of the atmosphere
in a confined space should continue while work proceeds and
persons in the confined space should leave immediately if told
to do so. Rescue harnesses should be worn by everyone inside
the confined space, with lifelines attached to a point outside the
space, where a risk assessment identifies the need.
9.18. Machinery
9.18.1. Hazard description
403. All machines can be the source of diverse hazards and
great attention should be paid to their design, manufacturing,
planned use, maintenance and disposal.
404. To ensure that machines are safe, key decisions have
to be taken already at the concept/design and manufacturing
stages. This code does not cover these decisions, as the steps to
be taken by designers and manufacturers of machines are not
undertaken at opencast mines. It is, however, recommended
that the guidance in the ILO code of practice Safety and health
in the use of machinery (Geneva, 2013) (the “Machinery code”)
should be followed by designers and manufacturers of machines
for opencast mines, as well as considered by employers, when
choosing machinery.

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 9.  Specific hazards

9.18.2. Assessment of risk

405. In ensuring safety in the use of machinery by reducing
the associated risks, risk assessments should be conducted at var-
ious levels. Risk assessment should be completed by employers
to ensure that the machinery is safe and to provide a safe system
of work, and workers should be consulted to secure their views contents

and experiences, and should actively participate in risk-assess-

ment procedures.
406. Safety and health risks can be assessed as follows:
(a) collecting the appropriate information, including man-
ufacturers’ information, and determining the limits of the
machinery, such as use, speed, time, environmental and inter-
face limits;
(b) performing a risk assessment to identify and document
the hazards associated with the tasks to be performed for the
use and maintenance of machinery in the workplace; and
(c) developing and implementing procedures specifying
controls for the operation and maintenance of the machine.
407. Risk assessments to ensure safety in the use of machinery
should cover the following aspects:
(a) adequacy of initial machinery design;
(b) correct selection of machinery;
(c) adequacy of machinery installation;
(d) correct use;
(e) adequate maintenance;
(f) management of changes in personnel, materials and
work methods; and
(g) equipment and process modifications.
408. Employers should consider the workers affected when
identifying tasks and hazards. These may include: operators and

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helpers; maintenance individuals; engineers; technicians; sales

personnel; installation and removal personnel; administrative
personnel; trainees; passers-by; designers; managers; supervi-
sors; safety personnel; safety committees; safety consultants;
and loss control administrators. In addition, employers should
determine the level of knowledge, training, experience and contents
ability of such persons.
409. I n assessing the risks, employers should consider
typical categories of hazards and hazardous situations, such
as: (1) mechanical; (2) electrical; (3) thermal; (4) noise; (5)
vibration; (6)  radiation; (7) materials and substances; (8)
ergonomic; (9) unexpected start-up, overrun and overspeed;
(10) inadequate stopping; (11) rotating parts; (12) power
supply failure; (13) control circuit failure; (14) errors of fit-
ting; (15) break-up during operation; (16) falling or ejected
objects or fluids; (17) loss of stability and overturning of
machinery; (18) slipping, tripping and falling; and (19) com-
binations of the above. Further information on these hazards
and respective control measures are found in Chapters 3–17
of the Machinery code.
9.18.3. Control strategies
410. In addition to the general provisions outlining control
strategies in the Machinery code, Chapter 8 of that code out-
lines supplementary measures relating to specific machinery
types. Section 8.4. Dealing with machinery presenting hazards
due to its mobility (such as vehicles, earth-moving machinery,
excavators) is of particular relevance to users of the present
code. As the Machinery code does not comprise a similar
section on boilers, Appendix IV of the present code provides
such information. It should be read in conjunction with the
Machinery code.

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 9.  Specific hazards

9.19. Tyre and rim safety

9.19.1. Hazard description
411. Off-road tyres used on much opencast mining
machinery are potentially hazardous because of:
(a) their large size and mass. The greatest fatality risk poten-
tial is from tyres with a diameter greater than 24 inches or those contents

with split rim assemblies;

(b) the magnitude of air or gas pressures they contain; and
(c) the presence of combustible materials along with a
source of ignition in case of a tyre fire (with potential for
explosion).
412. The uncontrolled release of the mechanical, pressure or
chemical energy inherent in tyre assemblies can result in serious
accidents, including fatalities.
413. The hazards associated with tyres include:
(a) those related to inflating and deflating, handling and
working with tyres, wheels and rims, including pneumatic tools;
(b) tyre fires, bursts and explosions when tyres are in ser-
vice; and
(c) loss of control of a vehicle due to tyre failure.
414. Caution: an overheated large tyre should be regarded as
a “ticking bomb”. An explosion in a large tyre can propel debris
hundreds of metres and is potentially lethal to any workers in
the vicinity, including persons in vehicles. In addition, tyre fires
are difficult to extinguish and produce large volumes of toxic
fumes.
9.19.2. Risk assessment
415. Effective tyre management needs to consider the life
cycle, selection, operation, maintenance and disposal of tyres,

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rims and wheel assemblies. A strategy that spans the whole life
cycle needs to involve the employer, suppliers and manufac-
turers, maintenance workers and OSH experts.
416. A risk-based approach to tyre safety might consider:
(a) information on tyre and rim failures (for example, circu-
lars from a competent authority or other industry information); contents

(b) records of tyre use and failure at the mine;

(c) the influence of mine operations on tyre life and safety;
(d) the sudden release of stored pressurized energy, leading
to projectiles (for example, rim components or rocks) and per-
cussive shock;
(e) the use of compressed air or other gases (for example,
nitrogen) with pressure hazards and, in the case of nitrogen,
asphyxiation and cryogenic hazards;
(f) noise from, for example, the rapid release of compressed
gases, working with pneumatically powered tools and general
workshop noise;
(g) the handling of heavy objects, for example, tyre assem-
blies weighing many tons;
(h) working with or operating heavy equipment such as
cranes, forklifts or mobile plant fitted with hydraulic tyre-han-
dling attachments;
(i) low-inflation pressure damages a tyre in a number of
ways, including:
(i) heat separation caused by over work;
(ii) irregular wear of the tread caused by excessive
tread movement;
(iii) separation caused by excessive sidewall distortion;
(iv) friction and chafing caused by distortion of the
bead area or slipping of the bead; and

130
 9.  Specific hazards

(v) separation of plies due to high stress between plies;

and
(j) heating of any part of a tyre assembly, wheel end or hub
can compromise the integrity of the tyre, and in extreme cases
result in bursting or explosion (due to pyrolysis of the tyre mate-
rial, or decomposition of inappropriate lubricant or wooden contents

debris left inside a tyre).

417. Sources of tyre heating that could result in an explosion
include:
(a) heating of frozen wheel fasteners;
(b) welding or grinding of wheel components;
(c) contact with high-voltage electrical conductors (for
example, overhead power lines);
(d) a lightning strike; and
(e) external fires (for example, engine bay fires, hydraulic
fires, electric fires, or grass fires in parking areas).
418. As tyre degradation may not be detectable, it can lead to
auto-ignition without warning. Moreover, some fuels, solvents
and other hydrocarbons may react with tyre rubber and increase
the risk of fire.
419. The use of thermal imaging or remote tyre pressure
monitoring (for example tyre pressure/temperature moni-
toring systems) avoids the need for personnel to enter the
danger zone of a suspected overheated tyre to conduct an ini-
tial assessment.
9.19.3. Control strategies
420. Control strategies to be considered include:
(a) assessing and preparing appropriate storage and work
areas;

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(b) selecting and implementing tyre-handling facilities,

including plant, tools, equipment and safe work procedures;
(c) monitoring and implementing component inspection,
maintenance and repair (for example, non-destructive testing of
wheels and rims);
(d) appropriately assessing and selecting tyres, wheels or contents

rims;
(e) maintaining accurate record-keeping of tyre and rim
service;
(f) understanding the mechanisms of tyre fires and
explosions;
(g) minimizing the risk of tyre explosions, by considering:
(i) remote deflation and inflation of tyres during
maintenance from a protected or guarded position;
(ii) tyres on split rims or those with tubes should
be deflated to zero PSI or other tires to a max-
imum nominal pressure of 5 PSI (0.3 bar) prior to
removal of any retaining devices;
(iii) all lock rings should be identifiable to ensure
compatibility with rims and be inspected prior
to fitment to ensure they are fit for purpose and
checked for correct seating prior to inflation;
(iv) replacing compressed air with nitrogen gas for
inflation, provided the correct nitrogen inflation
procedure is used so that the tyre is sufficiently
purged of air;
(v) ensuring overhead power lines crossing haul roads
have adequate clearance and warning signs;
(vi) providing lightning notifications to reduce the
potential exposure of vehicles to lightning strikes;

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 9.  Specific hazards

(vii) avoiding the use of petroleum-based products on

or near tyres;
(viii) operating tyres within the manufacturer’s specifi-
cations; and
(ix) not using a lubricant to assist with assembling
tyres and rims unless it has been clearly identified contents

by the manufacturer as being safe to use for that

purpose;
(h) parking up trucks that have or are suspected to have
overheated tyres in a safe place well away from other equipment
and workers, and allowing tyres to cool down slowly over at
least 24 hours before any inspection or replacement of the tyre
is attempted;
(i) providing appropriate emergency response procedures
and capability; and
(j) ensuring that people are trained for the tasks they are
assigned.
421. A competent person should be assigned to oversee the
selection, operation, maintenance and disposal of tyres, rims
and wheel assemblies at opencast mines.
9.20. Fires on large machinery
9.20.1. Hazard description
422. The opencast mining industry is characterized by the
use of large diesel or diesel/electric powered machinery (for
example, haul trucks, bulldozers or excavators). There is typ-
ically enormous potential for fire to occur on these machines
with an ample supply of fuel, in the form of diesel, and myriad
potential sources of ignition. As well as rapidly engulfing an
entire machine, a serious fire can put the machine operator at
extreme risk.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.20.2. Assessment of risk

423. Each type of large mobile machinery in use, or to be
used, at an opencast mine should be the subject of risk assess-
ment focused on potential fuel and ignition sources as precur-
sors to a fire. In addition, the risk assessment should consider
the hazards to which a machine operator may be exposed in the contents

case of fire.
9.20.3. Control strategies
424. Control strategies should be considered to include:
(a) training of workers in the use of fire extinguishers and
fire suppression systems;
(b) fitting of fire detection and suppression systems;
(c) fire detection and suppression systems as well as fire
extinguishers should be maintained on a scheduled basis;
(d) fitting of handheld fire extinguishers readily available to
the machine operator;
(e) machine operator protection and rapid and safe means
of egress;
(f) the use of metallic fuel tanks and steel braided fuel lines
in preference to plastic;
(g) routing of fuel lines away from high risk/temperature
areas and sources;
(h) segregation of fuel lines from damage and potential fire
risks;
(i) separation of fuel lines and electrical cables;
(j) adequate protection and support of components to mit-
igate vibration damage;
(k) shrouding of hot parts;
(l) shielding of vulnerable parts, for example, rubber hoses;

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 9.  Specific hazards

(m) removal of undesirable exposed materials (for example,

cladding or inappropriate insulation);
(n) control of foreign material (for example, rags, debris, oil
spills, dust accumulation, food wrappers or drink cans);
(o) washing of vehicles at appropriate intervals;
contents
(p) use only of fit-for-purpose machines;
(q) appropriate operational demands on machinery (for
example, operating conditions, loads or grades);
(r) timely rectification of leaks (for example, hydraulic and
lubricating oil or fuel);
(s) timely rectification of electrical faults; and
(t) adequate machine inspection and maintenance
generally.
9.21. Automated machinery
9.21.1. Hazard description
425. A common rationale for introducing automated
machinery includes improving safety by the removal of the
human element, thereby reducing the exposure of workers to
hazards. As new technologies change the risk profile of mining
operations, the risks introduced by automated machinery need
to be assessed in great detail and the respective control measures
taken.
426. In opencast mines, automated machinery can currently
include:
(a) facilities to load and unload trains;
(b) mobile crushing and screening plants;
(c) excavators and shovels;
(d) loaders;

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(e) bulldozers;
(f) haul trucks;
(g) drill rigs; and
(h) light vehicles.
427. Hazards with automated machinery are likely to arise: contents

(a) if the machinery strays outside its planned operating

envelope;
(b) if personnel stray into the operating envelope of auto-
mated machinery; and
(c) when personnel are in close proximity to automated
machinery for maintenance or repair purposes.
9.21.2. Assessment of risk
428. The employer should conduct a comprehensive mine-
site risk assessment prior to the introduction of automatic
machinery, which should take the following aspects into
consideration:
(a) adequacy of initial machinery design (including its
functional design and machinery safety and security);
(b) correct selection of machinery in view of the mine
design and existing limits of machine capabilities;
(c) adequacy of machinery installation, including detailed
management of interactions and interfaces between automatic
and manual machinery;
(d) planning for automatic operation, setting up specific
operational practices for correct use and for necessary support
logistics;
(e) adequate maintenance, including repair facilities and
practices;

136
 9.  Specific hazards

(f) managing changes in personnel, materials and work

methods, including rules on how to revert to manual operation,
if required; and
(g) equipment and process modifications.
9.21.3. Control strategies contents

429. The automation of large mining machinery, catering

for its interactions with the working environment and other
machinery, and the development of appropriate support exper-
tise, are challenging tasks. The introduction of new technologies
therefore has the potential to disrupt work organization and
shift responsibilities.
430. Competent persons with the required technical skills
should be available at each mine to oversee the deployment of
machines and the implementation of all related control strategies.
431. All machines should be:
(a) compliant with accepted standards (including in rela-
tion to the functional safety of critical systems);
(b) provided with layers of protection and redundancy built
into safety systems (for example, collision avoidance);
(c) designed to prevent unauthorized (or unintended) mod-
ification of operating parameters;
(d) designed to use fail-to-safety and safe machine degrada-
tion approaches;
(e) designed to ensure the integrity of control to machine
communications;
(f) licensed (for example, for communications networks);
and
(g) provided with the technical information as to their
design and use.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

432. All control strategies should take into account spe-

cific capabilities and limits of each machine in relation to, for
example:
(a) functioning under harsh operating conditions (for
example, heat, dust, vibration);
(b) operating gradients and surfaces; and contents

(c) turning radiuses.

433. The interactions between automatic and operated
machinery should be devised in a way that:
(a) minimizes interaction between personnel and non-auto-
matic machines (for example, through separation of automatic
machines from personnel and manned machines; separate park
and work areas; access controls to and from automated machine
operating areas); and
(b) minimizes their potential for interaction with explo-
sives and processing facilities.
434. Operational and management practices should be estab-
lished in relation to:
(a) traffic management (including road design, intersec-
tions, park-up areas, loading and dumping locations and speed
limits);
(b) review and sign-off processes for system changes to
ensure strict control thereof (for example, software or firmware);
(c) ensuring that machines are provided with a valid mine
model that reflects the most recent changes; and
(d) commissioning, maintenance and repair, including in
relation to:
(i) conduct of safety system and machine perfor-
mance tests;

138
 9.  Specific hazards

(ii) formal commissioning and hand-over processes;

(iii) controls for in-situ inspection and servicing;
(iv) safe recovery procedures in case of breakdown;
(v) effective isolation of servicing or recovery areas;
and
contents
(vi) safe procedures for reversion to manual operation,
if required.
9.22. Electrical equipment
9.22.1. General provisions
435. Electrical equipment should only be installed in a
manner consistent with national laws or accepted standards.
Sufficient numbers of suitably certified and competent persons
should be assigned to develop, implement and maintain all
electrical equipment in conformity with those requirements or
standards. Such persons should be competent to a level com-
mensurate with any qualification requirements of a competent
authority.
436. Small mines might consider pooling their resources
with other mines, or making other appropriate arrangements to
enable them to comply with the relevant requirements.
437. An electrical control plan respecting all the electrical
equipment at the mine of whatever description or purpose
should be prepared and implemented. The electrical control
plan should cover:
(a) the examination and testing of all electrical equipment
before use, after installation, reinstallation or repair;
(b) the systematic examination and testing of all elec-
trical equipment at the mine to ensure its proper maintenance,
including ensuring that accumulation of dust is not permitted;

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(c) the intervals, which may differ for different equipment

and parts of equipment, within which all electrical equipment
should be examined and tested;
(d) the nature of the examination and testing to be carried
out; and
(e) the manner in which the results of every examination contents

and test made pursuant to the control plan are to be durably

recorded.
438. No one, except a competent person or persons working
directly under their close personal supervision, should under-
take any electrical work where technical knowledge or experi-
ence is required.
439. Notices should be posted at prominent positions around
the mine:
(a) prohibiting any unauthorized person from handling or
interfering with electrical equipment; and
(b) setting out directions as to the rescue and first aid of
persons suffering from electric shocks or burns.
440. Electrical installations should be protected from inad-
vertent access by fencing or locked installations, and appropriate
warning signs posted.
9.22.2. Insulation
441. All power wires and cables should be adequately insulated
where they pass into or out of electrical compartments. Cables
should enter metal frames of motors, splice boxes and electrical
compartments only through proper fittings. When insulated
wires, other than cables, pass through metal frames, the holes
should be substantially bushed with insulated bushings.
442. Communication conductors for telephone and low-po-
tential signalling systems should be protected by isolation or

140
 9.  Specific hazards

suitable insulation, or both, from contacting energized power

conductors or any other power source.
443. High-voltage electrical conductors should be covered,
insulated or so placed as to prevent contact with low-voltage con-
ductors. The voltage on bare signal wires accessible to contact by
persons should not exceed a safe voltage (for example, 48V). In contents

the selection of insulating material, consideration should be given

to the conditions under which the conductors will be used.
9.22.3. Control devices
444. A ll electrical equipment and circuits should be provided
with properly designed switchgear to facilitate control and,
when necessary, isolation or lock-out. Principal power switches
and terminals should be appropriately labelled to show which
units they control.
445. Control devices need to be maintained and inspected at
regular intervals.
446. Where a motor is operated by means of remote control
and is stopped from any point, the circuit should be so arranged
that the motor cannot be started again except at the place from
which it was stopped.
9.22.4. Distribution boxes
447. Distribution boxes should be provided with a discon-
necting device for each branch circuit. Such disconnecting devices
should be equipped or designed in such a manner that it can be
determined visually when the device is open and the circuit de-en-
ergized. Distribution boxes should display single-line wiring dia-
grams and be labelled to show which circuit each device controls.
448. Inspection and cover plates on electrical equipment
and junction boxes should be kept in place at all times, except
during testing or repair.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.22.5. Earthing systems

449. All earthing conductors should be electrically contin-
uous throughout, and in effective electrical connection with
earth and with the equipment they are intended to earth.
Individual earthing conductors should be connected in parallel
and it should be strictly forbidden to connect them in series. contents

450. All metal enclosing or encasing of electrical circuits

should be earthed or provided with equivalent protection. This
requirement does not apply to battery-operated equipment.
451. Frame earthing or equivalent protection should be pro-
vided for mobile equipment powered through trailing cables.
Metal fencing and metal buildings enclosing electrical appa-
ratus should be earthed.
452. A specific requirement should be established within the
scheme of maintenance for verifying resistance and continuity
of earth leads and establishing that the maximum resistance
specified in national laws or accepted standards is not exceeded.
9.22.6. Overload and earth leakage protection
453. The current in all systems should be so controlled that
when, in any circuit, the current exceeds a specified value, it is
automatically cut off. Fuse links of all fuses should be calibrated
by the manufacturer and the rated current should be indicated.
454. The use of unmarked or uncalibrated fuses, or defeating
fuses or bridges, should be prohibited.
455. The conditions under which automatic earth leakage
current protection is required together with the current levels
at which the protection should operate should be defined and
applied (for example, each circuit supplying portable electrically
operated hand-held equipment should operate at no more than
250V and have earth leakage current protection of no more
than 30mA at 30 milliseconds sensitivity).

142
 9.  Specific hazards

9.22.7. Transformers
456. Transformers should be suitably housed and, where nec-
essary, fenced. Transformer enclosures, where provided, should
be kept locked against unauthorized entry.
457. Any transformer, installed for the first time, should not
contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) or other materials contents

likely to release toxic gases when ignited. Inservice transformers

containing these materials should be removed from service
and marked as PCBs and disposed of responsibly as soon as
practicable.
9.22.8. Conductors
458. Conductors or wiring, and the conditions under which
they are installed and used, should be in accordance with
national laws and accepted standards.
459. All overhead power lines should be constructed and
maintained in accordance with national laws and accepted
standards.
460. Temporary overhead power lines in opencast mines
should conform to the following requirements:
(a) a table of distances of the lowest phase wire of a power
line to the ground should be prepared;
(b) no piles of rock, ore, sleepers, rails or other materials
should be made below overhead power lines; and
(c) no excavator or other machine with extensible or lifting
arms should be used under or near power lines unless the lifting
or extending part of the machine does not approach nearer than
a safe distance from the power lines (for example 1 m for lines
up to 1 kV, 3 m for lines up to 33 kV, 6 m for lines up to 132 kV,
or 7 m for lines up to 400 kV. Where the rating is unknown, the
distance should be no nearer than 6 m).

143
Safety and health in opencast mines

461. Any work in the vicinity of overhead power lines should

be the subject of a risk assessment prior to commencement.
462. Trailing cables should be attached to machines in a suit-
able manner to protect the cable from damage and to prevent
strain on the electrical connections. Surplus trailing cable on
excavators, cranes and similar equipment should be: contents

(a) stored in cable boats;

(b) stored on reels mounted on the equipment; and
(c) otherwise protected from mechanical damage.
463. While it should be avoided, workers who have to man-
ually handle trailing cables in the course of their duties should
be provided with the necessary equipment, such as insulated
hooks, tongs, gloves and aprons for this purpose. Trailing cables
feeding mobile machinery should be so laid as to avoid being
damaged, run over, or freezing to the ground. In inundated
areas, cables should be laid on supports.
464. A cable that has been mechanically damaged should be
taken out of service as soon as possible. Notwithstanding this
provision, a damaged cable may remain temporarily in use only
if it is examined by a person with appropriate electrical expertise
and rendered safe. Any cable requiring repair should be discon-
nected from the feed point and any residual electrical charges
should be discharged. All overhead and cable power lines located
within the danger zone during blasting operations should be
de-energized during the blast, and should be inspected before
being re-energized.
465. Electric power lines should not be worked on during
thunderstorms.
466. Permanent splices and repairs made in power cables,
including the earth conductor where provided, should be:

144
 9.  Specific hazards

(a) mechanically sound and with electrical conductivity

which is not significantly less than that of the original;
(b) insulated to a degree at least equal to that of the orig-
inal, and sealed to exclude moisture; and
(c) provided with damage protection as near as possible to
that of the original, including good bonding to the outer jacket. contents

467. Power cables energized to potentials in excess of 150V,

phase-to-earth, should not be moved by equipment unless sleds
or slings insulated from such equipment are used. When such
energized cables are moved manually, insulated hooks, tongs,
ropes or slings should be used unless suitable protection for
persons is provided by other means. This does not prohibit the
pulling or dragging of a cable by the equipment it powers when
the cable is physically attached to the equipment by suitable
mechanical devices, and the cable is suitably insulated from the
equipment.
9.22.9. Switchboards and switchgear
468. Switchboards and switchgear should be so installed,
located and guarded that:
(a) the control means are safely and readily accessible to
authorized persons;
(b) live parts are inaccessible to unauthorized persons;
(c) adequate working space is provided for manual operation
where required, including at the back of any switchboard having
exposed live parts lower than 2.5 m from the ground; a clear space
of not less than 1 m is provided between the top of the equipment
and any ceiling having exposed combustible material;
(d) adequate illumination is provided;
(e) interrupting capacity adequate to handle the short cir-
cuit current of the system is incorporated;

145
Safety and health in opencast mines

(f) access by unauthorized persons is prevented or prohib-

ited and a notice to this effect posted at the entrance; and
(g) a notice is posted describing the procedure for first aid
in case of electric shock.
9.22.10. Protection of portable, transportable and mobile machines contents

469. Transportable and mobile machines and their associ-

ated trailing cables operating above extra low voltage (normally
<= 50V AC (rms) and <= 120V DC (ripple free)) should be
protected by automatic earth leakage devices and by automatic
earth continuity devices capable of cutting off the voltage in the
event of a break in the earth conductor of the cable between the
supply or control box and the machine.
470. In the case of earth leakage devices and related equip-
ment, as defined in national laws, regulations or accepted stand-
ards, the following should be specified:
(a) the leakage current at which the equipment should be
set to operate;
(b) the time to trip the circuit supplying the equipment;
and
(c) in the case of any portable machine or equipment and
its associated trailing cable operating at a voltage above extra
low voltage, the value in milliamps at which an instantane-
ous-type earth leakage tripping device should be set to operate.
471. Portable electrical equipment and flexible cables should
be protected by automatic continuity protection, capable of cut-
ting off the voltage in the event of a break in the earth conductor
of the cable between the supply or control box and the machine.
472. Any device limiting the fault current should have a time
rating which is certified as being manufactured to an approved
standard.

146
 9.  Specific hazards

473. The inspection and testing intervals of equipment

should be based on its use.
9.22.11. Miscellaneous safety procedures
474. Controls should be in place to prevent mobile equip-
ment running over power conductors, nor should loads be contents

dragged over power conductors, unless the conductors are prop-

erly bridged or otherwise protected.
475. Power circuits should be de-energized before work is
done on such circuits unless hot-line tools are used. Suitable
warning signs should be posted by the persons doing the work.
Switches should be locked out or, where not possible, other
measures taken to prevent the power circuits from being ener-
gized without the knowledge of the persons working on them.
Such locks, signs or preventive devices should be removed only
by the person who installed them or by authorized persons.
476. Electrically powered equipment should be de-ener-
gized before mechanical work is done on such equipment.
Power switches should be locked out or, where not possible,
other measures taken to prevent the equipment from being
energized without the knowledge of the persons working on it.
Suitable warning notices should be posted at the power switch
and signed by the persons who are to do the work. Such locks,
notices or preventive devices should be removed only by the per-
sons who installed them or by authorized persons.
477. If equipment, other than a trolley locomotive, has to
be moved or operated near energized high voltage power lines
where the clearance is less than 3 m, the lines should be deener-
gized or other precautionary measures taken.
478. When a potentially dangerous condition is found, it
should be corrected before equipment or wiring is energized.

147
Safety and health in opencast mines

479. Appropriate danger signs should be posted at all major

electrical installations.
9.23. Transport and material handling
9.23.1. Mobile equipment
9.23.1.1 General provisions contents

480. This Section of the code is concerned with two types of

equipment:
(a) all rubber-tyred or tracked, self-propelled mobile equip-
ment used in or about an opencast mine for hauling, trans-
porting, personnel carrying, lifting, hoisting, scraping and
similar operations, and having a gross vehicle mass (GVM) in
excess of 4,500 kg (heavy equipment); and
(b) vehicles whose GVM is below 4,500 kg, including jeeps,
vans, four-wheel drive vehicles and the like (light vehicles).
481. Based on a risk assessment of the mobile equipment’s
characteristics and intended use, and in accordance with
national laws, regulations and applicable standards, it should be
equipped with appropriate falling object protective structures
(FOPS), roll over protective structures (ROPS) and devices to
protect an operator from falling or being propelled from the
equipment.
482. All mobile equipment that transports people should be
fitted with seatbelts for all occupants and these should be worn
by all occupants when the vehicle is in transit.
483. Tests may be prescribed by the competent authority to
assist safe operation of the equipment and devices concerned.
484. All self-propelled mobile equipment should be provided
with adequate braking systems, capable of effectively stopping
and holding the vehicle stationary when fully loaded, under any
conditions of operation when driven correctly.

148
 9.  Specific hazards

485. No mobile equipment should be left unattended

unless:
(a) the controls are in the neutral position and the parking
brakes fully applied;
(b) if it is a tracked and wheeled vehicle parked on a grade,
that it is blocked or turned into a rib or bank; contents

(c) the movable parts of equipment such as dippers, buckets,

scraper blades are secured or lowered to the ground when not in
use; and
(d) the master switch of electrically powered mobile equip-
ment is in the off position, all operating controls are in the
neutral position, and the brakes are set or other equivalent pre-
cautions are taken against rolling.
486. When a vehicle is in motion between work areas, the
movable parts of the equipment should be secured in the travel
position.
487. Tipping body props or other devices should be provided
and these should be capable of preventing a skip collapsing, and
their mode of operation should be independent of the tipping
mechanism.
488. The engine exhaust gases from mobile equipment oper-
ated by an internal combustion engine should be discharged at a
point remote from the operator’s position and from any aircon-
ditioning intake where fitted.
489. All operators or drivers of mobile equipment should
be trained, competent and authorized for the equipment they
operate and the areas they operate it in.
9.23.1.2. Ergonomics
490. Particular attention should be given to cab design
including:

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(a) access to the cab – safe entry and exit for the operator
and emergency egress;
(b) cab space – sufficient for all operators, especially when
using seat adjustments;
(c) operator seating – appropriate for the vehicle with
adjustment to accommodate different sized users; contents

(d) machine controls, such as location, layout, type, design

and direction of movement of all control devices;
(e) location and design of emergency stops;
(f) location, design (fit-for-purpose) and quality of dis-
played information, including warnings;
(g) vision and visibility from the cab;
(h) protection against environmental hazards, including
inclement weather, heat, cold, noise, vibration and airborne
dust; and
(i) accessibility for routine service checks, regular mainte-
nance and breakdown maintenance.
491. All motor vehicles should be equipped with effective
and fit-for-purpose:
(a) headlights, tail lights and clearance lights;
(b) windscreen washers and wipers;
(c) audible warning systems, which should be sounded
whenever the driver wishes to move the vehicle without having
clear vision immediately in front and behind; and
(d) where needed: an effective and fit-for-purpose proximity
detection system and reverse detection system.
9.23.1.3. Mobile equipment construction and use
492. The operator’s cab of any vehicle used for rock haulage
should be so constructed or reinforced as to resist damage by
spillage.

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 9.  Specific hazards

493. The operator’s cab should not be additionally equipped,

altered or otherwise modified in a manner which impairs
operating visibility or impairs the safety characteristics of the
construction.
494. Cab windows should be of safety glass or equivalent, in
good condition and should be kept clean. Access for cleaning contents

should be safe and easy. Cabs of mobile equipment should be

kept free of extraneous materials including equipment and fit-
tings that might impede access to controls or the visibility of
critical information either inside or outside the cab.
495. Fire extinguishers of an appropriate type and capacity
should be installed on all mobile equipment, but should not
intrude into the operator’s workspace, block vision or cause
obstruction, especially for emergency exiting of the machine.
496. A person should not operate, or be permitted to drive,
mobile equipment at an opencast mine unless:
(a) they hold a current licence for that type of equipment
issued by a competent authority; or
(b) they have satisfied competence criteria established at the
mine to operate that type of equipment; or both.
497. No person should mount or enter any haulage machine
being operated and capable of movement unless they have
attracted the operator’s attention prior to doing so.
498. Where loads are carried which project beyond the sides
of vehicles, or by more than 2 m beyond the rear of the vehicles,
there should be attached at the end of the projection:
(a) a warning light during the hours of darkness or in lim-
ited visibility; and
(b) a clearly visible warning flag of suitable size in daylight
conditions.

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499. Where overhead clearance is restricted, warning devices

should be installed and the restricted area should be conspicu-
ously marked.
500. Where the regular transport of persons is required,
buses or other specially fitted vehicles should be used, equipped
with seating and safe means of entry and exit. contents

501. The transport of persons should be prohibited in or

on mobile equipment or parts of mobile equipment unless
the equipment is properly designed for that purpose and is
fitted with appropriate safety devices such as seatbelts for that
purpose;
502. All ramps and dumping facilities should:
(a) be of substantial construction; and
(b) have suitable width to accommodate the equipment
using the facilities.
503. Berms, bumper blocks, safety hooks or similar means
should be provided and maintained as required to prevent over-
travel and overturning at all tipping and dumping locations.
504. Chute loading installations should be so designed and
installed that the persons operating them are not required
to be in a hazardous position while at work. Any attempt to
free a blockage in a chute should only be made by a competent
person who fully understands the hazards involved and follows
approved procedures.
505. All grizzlies, grates and similar stationary sizing devices
should be securely mounted and anchored. Persons required to
work on a grizzly while breaking rocks should be provided with
and should wear a securely anchored safety belt.
506. Mobile equipment used in dumping and tipping opera-
tions should be provided with an automatic reverse signal alarm

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 9.  Specific hazards

which is audible above the surrounding noise level, or should

have an observer to enable reversing to be carried out in safety.
9.23.2. Rail transport hazards
507. A set of plans should be prepared showing every part of a
proposed rail system whose primary use will be for the transport
of ore. A copy of the plans should be securely kept at the mine. contents

508. Railway operating procedures, including signals and

signal codes and inspection and maintenance procedures to
apply to all railway operations, should be prepared. No change
should be made to these rules except in the case of an unfore-
seen occurrence, mishap or defect.
509. Every person employed on a railway operation on an
opencast mine should be provided with a copy of the operating
rules, signals and signal codes applicable to that mine. Before
any person is employed as a train controller, locomotive driver,
member of a train crew or driver of any rail track vehicle, they
should be trained so that they are fully conversant with the rel-
evant operating rules, signals and signal codes and are compe-
tent to discharge their duties and are authorized to work on the
mine by the employer.
510. No person should be permitted to take or have charge of
a locomotive on a mine railway unless they have demonstrated
competence to do so (for example, by holding a locomotive
driver’s certificate issued by a competent authority). A person
undergoing instruction may operate a locomotive under the
supervision of a certified locomotive driver.
511. Road-beds, rails, joints, switches, frogs and other ele-
ments of every rail track, as well as bridges, culverts and other
structures supporting it should be designed, installed and main-
tained in a safe manner consistent with the speed and type of
haulage.

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512. Locomotives, rolling stock, tracks and all other

equipment used in the operation of a railway system should
be maintained in a safe condition and should be subject to
regular inspection at intervals to be laid down in operating
rules.
513. Every train should be equipped with an effective contents

braking system. Every locomotive, railcar, truck, wagon or other

rail track vehicle should be provided with effective brakes which
should be capable of being operated individually by hand and by
the train braking system when forming part of a train.
514. There is no requirement to provide brakes for each
vehicle if a single vehicle is attached to the end of a train, or if a
single vehicle is towed by a self-propelled vehicle, the brakes of
which are adequate for the task.
515. A train should not be left unattended unless brakes of
sufficient strength to hold the whole train stationary have been
applied. No railcar, truck, wagon or other rail track vehicle
should be left detached from a train unless its brakes are applied
or unless it is otherwise secured to prevent a runaway.
516. Positive-acting stop blocks, derail devices or other ade-
quate means should be installed wherever necessary to protect
persons from runaway or moving railroad equipment.
517. Every locomotive should be equipped with the fol-
lowing devices and systems, which should be maintained in
good working order:
(a) effective headlights and rear lights;
(b) at least two braking systems (handbrakes and pneu-
matic or electric);
(c) a whistle or siren capable of giving clear and distinct
warnings and signals;
(d) sanding devices;

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 9.  Specific hazards

(e) speedometers;
(f) adequate fire extinguishers; and
(g) first-aid equipment.
518. Only authorized persons should be permitted to ride
on trains or locomotives and then only in positions of safety. contents
In cases of accident or emergency, the employer may authorize
the carriage of persons. Persons should not attempt to mount
or dismount from moving equipment unless national legislation
specifically permits it.
519. All loads should be securely attached to the rail vehicles.
520. Rocker-bottom and bottom-dump railcars should be
equipped with locking devices.
521. Cars should not be coupled or uncoupled manually,
unless the driver and the shunter are within clear view of each
other, or they have some effective means of signalling to each
other, or the cars are so designed and equipped as to minimize
any hazard while performing this operation.
522. A driver who has not clearly recognized a signal given
by the “brakeman” when the train is under the direction of the
latter should assume it to be a stop signal.
523. No person should pass over, under or between cars
unless the train is stationary and the driver has been informed
and has clearly understood what is being done.
524. Railcars should not be left on side tracks unless ample
clearance is provided for traffic on adjacent tracks. A loco-
motive on one track should not be used to move equipment
on a different track unless a suitable system has been devised
to do so safely. Where necessary, bumper blocks, buffers or
the equivalent should be provided at track dead ends. Track
guardrails, lead rails, frogs and guide rails should be protected

155
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or blocked so as to prevent a person’s foot from becoming

wedged.
525. Public and permanent railroad crossings should be
posted with warning signs or signals, or should be guarded when
trains are passing and should be planked or otherwise filled in
between the rails. If repairs are being carried out adjacent to rail contents

tracks, special rules should be drawn up and implemented to

provide for the safety of personnel and the safe movement of
trains.
9.23.3. Aerial ropeways
526. The buckets of aerial ropeways should not be overloaded,
and the feed should be regulated to prevent spillage.
527. Positive-action-type brakes – or devices which apply the
brakes automatically in the event of a power failure – should be
provided on all aerial ropeways.
528. Track cable connections should not obstruct the passage
of carriage wheels.
529. All towers should be suitably protected from swaying
buckets. Guard nets or other suitable protection should be pro-
vided where aerial ropeways pass over roadways, walkways or
buildings. Persons should only be permitted to ride on aerial
ropeways in accordance with the transport rules of the mine,
which should forbid riding on loaded buckets. Whenever pos-
sible, operators should ascertain that all persons are clear before
starting an aerial ropeway system and should give clear, audible
warning of any impending start.
530. Persons other than maintenance personnel should not
ride aerial ropeways unless the following features are provided:
(a) two independent brakes, each capable of holding the
maximum load;

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 9.  Specific hazards

(b) direct communication between terminals;

(c) power drives with emergency power available in case of
primary power failure; and
(d) buckets equipped with positive locks to prevent acci-
dental tripping or dumping.
contents

9.23.4. Conveyors
531. No conveyor should be operated unless it is provided
with a system for stopping the belt from any point along its
length.
532. Footbridges with handrails or rope bridges should be
provided at intervals not exceeding 500 m in the case of com-
bined excavator and belt transfer systems.
533. If the entire length of a conveyor is visible from the
starting switch, the operator should visually check to make cer-
tain that all persons are clear of the conveyor before starting it.
A positive audible or visual warning system should be installed
and operated to warn persons that the conveyor is about to be
started.
534. A conveyor belt should be provided with a device per-
mitting any person, from any point along its length, to stop the
belt and prevent it from being restarted.
535. Conveyors should not be used for the conveyance of
people unless the design of the conveyor is certified by the
competent authority and national laws permit and regulate the
operation, inspection, maintenance and use of the conveyor for
this purpose. No person should clean underneath a moving
conveyor, nor any part of a moving conveyor, unless adequate
protective guards are in place. Moving conveyors should not
be crossed except at designated safe points designed for that
purpose.

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536. All head, tail and tension pulleys and sprockets of a

conveyor should have their nip points adequately guarded (for
example, for a distance of at least 1 m).
537. The guidance in the ILO code of practice Safety and
health in the use of machinery (Geneva, 2013) (the “Machinery
code”) should be considered in this context. contents

9.23.5. Conveyor bridges, stacking conveyors

and overburden spreaders
538. Structural members of conveyor bridges, overburden
spreaders and excavating machines, together with all ladders
and platforms thereon, should be cleaned off before the com-
mencement of every shift.
539. All automatic control, tele-automatic and remote con-
trol systems should be provided with interlocking devices to
interrupt the power supply in case of defective operation.
540. Conveyor bridges and overburden spreaders should be
equipped with instruments for automatic continuous measure-
ments of wind velocity and direction, interlocked with an emer-
gency signalling system and a system of undercarriage control
of overburden spreaders, as well as with control and measuring
instruments, limit switches, signalling and intercommunication
devices. In addition to automatic brakes, the bridge undercar-
riages should be equipped with intact handbrakes. No machine
should be operated unless the abovementioned instruments,
switches and devices are in good working order.
541. During repairs to a conveyor bridge, the simultaneous
disassembly of the automatic brakes and the handbrakes should
be prohibited.
542. Any counterweight should be effectively guarded.
Conveyor lines on conveyor bridges and overburden spreaders

158
 9.  Specific hazards

should be provided with servicing platforms guarded on both

sides. No passageway along a conveyor should be less than 700
mm in width.
543. During inclement weather, thunderstorms, snow-
storms, heavy rain or fog, when the visibility is less than 25 m,
the passage of persons or work on a conveyor bridge should be contents

suspended.
544. No conveyor bridge should be permitted to approach
a structure or any mining and transport equipment to within
a distance of less than 1 m or to operate in a position above
other operating mining and transport equipment. Conveyor
bridge railway tracks should not be used when they are under
water.
545. Where persons walk or work under an elevated con-
veyor they should be guarded from falling objects.
546. When an overburden spreader of the walking or rail-
way-walking type is in motion, no persons, nor transport vehi-
cles, machines or other equipment should be permitted to pass
under the dumping cantilever of a conveyor bridge.
547. The vertical distance between the end of a dumping can-
tilever of a conveyor bridge and the crest of the dump should
not be less than 3 m; for overburden spreaders which move peri-
odically and use a cantilever-type belt conveyor, this distance
should not be less than 1.5 m.
548. If there are signs of a rock slide on a waste dump, a con-
veyor bridge should immediately be removed from the danger
zone.
9.23.6. Stockpiles, bins and storage silos
549. The following precautions should be taken for all bun-
kers, silos, ore passes and storage piles:

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) wherever practicable, special devices should be incorpo-

rated for breaking down material which has caked up, or for
clearing other obstructions which have formed in the material;
(b) no person should be permitted to enter or work in such
locations until all conveyors are locked out and other tipping
activities have been stopped. A permit-to-work system should be contents

devised for this specific purpose;

(c) persons should only enter under competent supervision;
(d) work involving entry into bunkers, silos or ore passes,
which may constitute confined spaces, should be entrusted to
experienced persons who have been specially instructed in the
hazards involved;
(e) all persons entering should wear safety lanyards and a
fall-arrest device attached to a secure fitting at the entrance;
(f) where appropriate, permanent ladders should be
attached to the walls;
(g) the support structures of bins and silos should be pro-
tected against collision with moving equipment; and
(h) bins and silos should be regularly inspected by a compe-
tent person for hidden corrosion and wear.
550. When handling material which is liable to emit harmful
or flammable gases, the atmosphere in the bunker or silo should
be sampled and analysed before access is permitted and proper
PPE should be issued and worn.
551. Tunnels below coal stockpiles and silos should be venti-
lated so as to maintain concentrations of firedamp or methane
below 1 per cent.
552. When it is necessary for a tunnel to be closed at one end,
an escape way of not less than 750 mm in diameter, or equiv-
alent, should be provided, equipped with ladders as necessary,

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 9.  Specific hazards

which extends from the closed end of the tunnel to a safe loca-
tion on the surface.
9.23.7. Mobile and travelling cranes
9.23.7.1. General provisions
553. The employer should ensure that all cranes, lift trucks and contents

similar handling equipment in use at an opencast mine are con-

structed, operated and maintained in accordance with the rele-
vant national standards and the manufacturer’s specifications.
554. No modifications or major repairs should be carried out
on a crane unless these are performed by a person competent in
this field and the crane meets national standards and the manu-
facturer’s specifications.
9.23.7.2. Safety precautions
555. The following precautions should be adopted in the
operation of cranes and lifting devices:
(a) hitches and slings used to hoist materials should be
suitable for the material being handled and should be in good
condition;
(b) taglines should be attached to loads that may require
steadying or guidance while suspended;
(c) persons should stay clear of suspended loads, should
never be under a suspended load, and loads should not be lifted
over people. Exclusion zones should be established around
lifting operations;
(d) no material should be dropped from an overhead ele-
vation unless the drop area has been cleared of personnel and
either guarded or a suitable warning has been given;
(e) only trained and competent workers should be author-
ized to operate the crane and sling loads; and

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(f) all cranes, lifting apparatus and rigging should be

inspected, maintained and tested by competent persons and in
accordance with national laws and approved standards.
556. Fork and other types of lift trucks should be operated
with:
(a) the upright tilted back to secure the load; contents

(b) the load kept in the upgrade position when ascending or

descending grades in excess of 8 per cent;
(c) with the exception of minor adjustments, the load
should not be raised or lowered en route; and
(d) the load-engaging devices should be on the downgrade
side when travelling unloaded on all grades.
9.24. Transportation of hazardous goods to and from site
557. The transport of hazardous goods (as defined in
national laws and accepted standards) is normally controlled
by an authority with jurisdiction for transport on the public
road network. Transport is typically carried out through a
system of licensing transport vehicles and licensed, competent
operators.
558. The employer should take care to ensure that only appro-
priately licensed and qualified entities are used for the transport
of hazardous goods to and from the mine site.
9.25. Traffic
9.25.1. Hazard description
559. Opencast mines are often characterized by a mixture of
light vehicles (able to be registered for use on a public road) and
heavy vehicles (for example, large haul trucks). In the absence
of effective controls, the potential for light and heavy vehicle
collisions is ever present. In addition, roads and supporting

162
 9.  Specific hazards

infrastructure are made to “mine standards”, which may be less

than those required for the public road network.
560. Traffic hazards can be caused by interaction between
vehicles, vehicles and other objects and personnel, or by loads
falling off or from a vehicle. A particularly catastrophic but
credible accident scenario is a collision between a heavy vehicle contents

and a personnel transport or bus.

9.25.2. Risk management
561. The assessment of risk presented by the movement of
traffic at a surface mine might include:
(a) the nature and needs of vehicles at the mine (for
example, their turning circles);
(b) the condition and capability of roads and other facili-
ties to service those needs (for example, grades, road width, road
surface, and intersection design);
(c) the need for segregation, in space or time, of heavy and
light vehicles, or personnel transport and other types of vehicles
and pedestrian traffic;
(d) the fitness for purpose of traffic controls (for example,
signage);
(e) the adequacy of dust control measures;
(f) the adequacy of water and, where relevant, ice control;
(g) the adequacy of procedures controlling traffic
movement;
(h) the adequacy and use of operator and passenger protec-
tive devices (for example, seat belts);
(i) the effects of limited visibility envelopes of vehicles or
machinery and the adequacy of vehicle visibility enhancements
(for example, flashing lights, flags or colours);

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(j) the need for and maintenance of no-go or exclusion

zones around operating machinery; and
(k) the adequacy of inter-vehicle/machine communication.
9.25.3. Control strategies
9.25.3.1. Roads contents

562. All mine roads should be designed for, and of such

width as will adequately contain the vehicles using them. They
should be provided with a shoulder barrier (berm) of an effec-
tive size for the traffic using the road (for example, at least half
the height of the largest wheel).
563. As far as practicable, light vehicles and, in particular,
personnel transport should be segregated from heavy or haulage
vehicles.
564. Haul roads should be of sufficient width to allow the
safe operation of the largest vehicles that regularly use them and
to allow access for emergency vehicles if required. For two-way
traffic a width of at least 3.5 times the width of the largest
vehicle should be considered; and for one-way traffic at least 1.5
times the width of the largest vehicle (width refers to the width
of the useable running surface clear of guideposts, grader rills
and safety berms). If the above control measures cannot be fully
implemented, alternative risk reduction measures, such as traffic
controls, should be applied.
565. Where appropriate, passing places, which should be
clearly visible from both directions, should be provided on sin-
gle-lane roads. The gradient and radius of any part of a road
should be such that vehicles can negotiate the road in safety.
566. Such signs as may be necessary to control the speed and
movement of all vehicles making use of roads should be put in
place.

164
 9.  Specific hazards

567. Mine roads should be adequately drained so as to con-

trol accumulations of standing water. Where required for sur-
face maintenance or dust control, mine roads should be watered,
but not to such an extent that safety is compromised. Roads
subject to freezing conditions should be cleaned systematically
of snow and ice and strewn with sand, gravel, slag or other suit- contents
able material.
568. Haul roads with steep gradients as determined by a risk
assessment should have emergency escape or run-away roads,
which should:
(a) be spaced throughout the length of the haul road;
(b) ensure that a runaway vehicle entering an emergency
escape road can be safely brought to rest; and
(c) vehicles should not exceed the gradient specified by the
manufacturer.
569. Haul road intersections should:
(a) be formed to be as square as possible;
(b) use centre berms to direct turning traffic;
(c) have a reduction of height of road berms on the approach
to allow for improved visibility;
(d) have appropriate signage, such as:
(i) stop or give-way signs controlling minor roads;
(ii) keep left or keep right signs on centre berms, as
appropriate;
(iii) side road and intersection warning signs; and
(iv) strategic placement of chevron warning signs.
570. The design of roads should avoid sharp bends. Should
sharp bends exist, appropriate control measures should be
considered.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

9.25.3.2. Traffic rules

571. The operating speed of vehicles should be consistent
with conditions of roadways, grades, clearances, visibility, traffic
and the type of vehicle. Operators should maintain full control
of vehicles while in motion. Haulage vehicles should be oper-
ated under power control at all times. Maximum permissible contents
vehicle speeds should be posted.
572. Haulage vehicles should remain a safe distance apart
(for example, 50 m on haul roads and 30 m near loading and
tipping points) and other vehicles should remain sufficiently
separated to allow for potential spillage from haulage vehicles.
573. Haulage vehicles should travel in single file (not over-
take) unless another vehicle is stationary (for example, broken
down or temporarily parked). Other vehicles should not over-
take unless there is positive communication with the other
vehicle (not just traffic indicators) and it is safe to do so.
574. As far as practicable, all vehicles should be fitted with
two-way radios to allow communication between them and
operating face machinery. The use of mobile phones, including
via hands-free appliances, should be prohibited while vehicles
are in motion.
575. All vehicles should carry fire extinguishers of a suitable
rating and compliant with accepted standards. All vehicles should
be fitted with three-point seat belts, which should be worn.
576. All vehicles should utilize flags, flashing lights and
distinctive marking to aid visibility, as appropriate. Visitors’
vehicles, or others not so equipped, should be escorted by an
equipped vehicle. Vehicles should not be left unattended while
the engine is running.
577. When haul roads are discontinued, the traffic plans
should be altered and shared with the workers.

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 9.  Specific hazards

9.25.3.3. Traffic signs

578. Traffic signs should, as far as practicable, be identical
to those used in the public road network beyond the mine site.
Traffic signs should be installed at critical points, for example:
(a) intersections;
(b) where speed limits change; contents

(c) at major changes in road grades;

(d) changes in normal traffic flow; and
(e) to indicate particular road hazards, as needed.
579. Traffic signs should be part of regular mine inspections
and repaired or replaced as required.
9.25.3.4. Parking areas
580. Parking areas should be designated and signposted with
provision for inherently stable parking (for example, humps or
spoon or V drains). Parking areas should also include:
(a) protection for pedestrians (for example, separate
walkways, one-way traffic flow, walkways not crossing traffic
routes);
(b) protected maintenance bays, as appropriate;
(c) adequate safe separation for heavy vehicles (for example,
at least 5 m);
(d) separate light and heavy vehicle parking; and
(e) adequate lighting.
9.25.3.5. Clearance distances
581. Adequate safe distances should be maintained between
vehicles and operating machinery, especially in a face area,
with the use of electronic proximity warning systems being
desirable.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

582. Before a vehicle enters the operating envelope of

machinery there should be positive communication between
the driver and the machinery operator.
583. Vehicles should remain a safe distance from high walls.
9.26. Multiple-people carriers contents

9.26.1. Hazard description

584. The size of operations and their relative remoteness
often means that opencast mines need to transport large num-
bers of people at the same time in a single conveyance. This
includes work crews being transported to the working section of
an opencast mine, the transport of workers to and from a mine
site from towns or mine camps and, in the case of fly-in fly-out
operations, by aircraft.
585. These arrangements present a very significant expo-
sure to risk. The probability of a major accident involving such
forms of transport may be relatively low, but the potential con-
sequences (multiple fatalities) could be catastrophic.
9.26.2. Assessment of risk
586. The risk assessment of multiple-people off-site transport
might consider such factors as:
(a) who is to be transported and in what numbers (as a
measure of potential exposure);
(b) the purpose of the transport;
(c) the mode of transport;
(d) the safety design and characteristics of the transport;
(e) the optimal maintenance and timely replacement of
transport vehicles and planes;
(f) the credentials and reliability of transport providers; and

168
 9.  Specific hazards

(g) the level of competence of the transport operator (driver,

pilot).
9.26.3. Control strategies
587. Control strategies for the transport of people might
include: contents

(a) reducing exposure by transporting fewer people, or

using multiple vehicles (for example, conducting a number of
flights to transport key personnel, or using more and smaller
buses);
(b) considering whether the transport is absolutely neces-
sary (in other words, could the same purpose be achieved by
another means (for example, could workers be accommodated
closer to the site));
(c) considering the safest mode of transport available (for
example, is the time saved on a notoriously dangerous flight
route justified, compared with road transport or other safer
means);
(d) fitting of all road transport with seat belts for drivers
and passengers and ensuring their use;
(e) considering the age and ensuring the mechanical and
design integrity of the transport (fitness-for-purpose);
(f) using only reputable and licensed transport pro-
viders, including through checking their credentials and past
performance;
(g) considering the use of in-house transport so that greater
control can be exercised;
(h) ensuring that the transport operator (driver, pilot) has
an acceptable level of competence (qualifications, skill and expe-
rience), including by checking licences and past performance;

169
Safety and health in opencast mines

(i) regular inspection and maintenance of critical controls,

for example, braking and steering systems; and
(j) considering suspending production and/or traffic when
there could be contact with multiple-people carriers.
9.27. Explosives contents

9.27.1. General provisions

588. No person should handle or have access to explosives
or detonators at an opencast mine unless they are approved for
that activity by the competent authority. “Handling explosives”
includes the activities of conveying, manufacturing, processing,
possessing, using, preparing for use, treating, dispensing,
storing, packing, selling, supplying, rendering harmless, aban-
doning, destroying and disposing of explosives.
589. Only explosives and detonators approved by the compe-
tent authority and provided by, or with the knowledge of, the
employer in charge of the mine should be used at an opencast
mine. National laws should define the term “explosive” and
specify the conditions governing its manufacture, transport and
use.
9.27.2. Storage of explosives
590. A magazine built at a mine where explosives are to be
stored should be constructed in accordance with the require-
ments of, and should be licensed by, the competent authority.
Detonators and detonating accessories should not be stored in
the same magazine as other explosives unless kept in a separate
approved compartment.
591. Every main magazine should be under the charge of
a competent person assigned by the employer for the pur-
pose who should be responsible for access to the magazine

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 9.  Specific hazards

and the safe storage and issue of the explosives. The employer
should ensure that a durable record is kept, which should
show the quantities of explosives on hand and the quantities
of explosives received or issued, as well as the dates and times
at which they were received or issued, and to whom. With
the exception of explosives, articles likely to cause a fire or contents
explosion should not be taken into or permitted to remain
in such a magazine.
592. Persons should not smoke or permit an open flame to
be within a specified distance (for example, 6 m) of any place
where explosives are stored, transported or used. Every maga-
zine should be kept clean, dry and adequately ventilated and the
roof and walls maintained in good and safe condition.
593. The area surrounding a magazine should be kept free of
dry grass, bush, rubbish and other flammable material for an
appropriate distance or as may be prescribed in national legisla-
tion and, where practicable, enclosed by a fence.
594. Explosives which have deteriorated should be isolated
and destroyed in an approved manner in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions.
595. Where operations at a mine or part of a mine are to
cease or be suspended, all explosives should be removed to a
safe place or destroyed in an approved manner. The competent
authority should, as soon as practicable, be informed of such
removal or destruction.
9.27.3. Transport of explosives
596. The employer should prepare procedures to regulate the
transport of all explosives and detonators at the mine. Vehicles
used for the transport of explosives should comply with the fol-
lowing requirements:

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) they should have substantially constructed bodies,

no sparking metal exposed in the cargo space, and should be
equipped with suitable sides and tailgates;
(b) they should be equipped with suitable fire extinguishers,
wheel chocks and, when powered by an internal combustion
engine, a battery isolating switch; contents

(c) when transporting explosives or detonators, they should

be posted with proper warning signs;
(d) if they are parked while containing explosives or detona-
tors, the brakes should be set, the ignition switched off, the vehicle
blocked securely against movement and never left unattended;
(e) when required to be taken to a garage or repair shop for
any purpose, they should be emptied and cleaned out; and
(f) their trailers, if used, should be fitted with efficient
brakes and coupled to the towing vehicle by a properly designed
rigid tow bar and safety chain couplers.
597. Explosives should be transported in separate vehicles
from detonators, unless both materials are housed in separate
and properly constructed and locked containers. National laws
should state the maximum quantities of explosives and detona-
tors which may be transported.
598. If explosives or detonators are hauled by trolley locomo-
tive, they should be placed in covered, electrically insulated cars.
599. Explosives or detonators should not be transported on
locomotives. Only the necessary attendants should be allowed
to ride on or in vehicles containing explosives or detonators.
Explosives or detonators should not be transported on or with
vehicles transporting workers.
600. Explosives and blasting agents should be correctly and
stably loaded, and transported without undue delay, over routes

172
 9.  Specific hazards

and at times that expose the minimum number of persons.

Other materials or supplies should not be placed in or on the
cargo space of a conveyance containing explosives, detonating
cord or detonators. Safety fuses contained in properly secured
non-sparking containers used expressly for the transport of such
fuses may be placed in the conveyance. contents

601. Substantial non-conductive containers should be used

to carry explosives to blasting sites. Substantial non-conductive
containers with tight-fitting covers should be used to transport
or carry capped fuses and electric detonators to blasting sites.
602. Vehicles containing detonators or explosives, other than
blasting agents, should not be left unattended except in blasting
areas during loading or charging operations.
603. Separate containers for explosives, detonators, blasting
agents, fuses and detonating accessories should be provided and
used where these are carried manually.
9.28. Shotfiring
9.28.1. General provisions
604. National laws and site procedures should specify the
extent of the danger zone surrounding surface blasting oper-
ations, procedures to protect persons and property at risk of
being affected by shock waves (vibration), flying fragments, dust
and fumes from blasting operations.
605. No person may charge explosives unless authorized by
the employer to do so, and any person thus authorized should be
under the supervision of the shotfirer. Trainee shotfirers may be
authorized by the employer to fire shots under the supervision
of and in the immediate presence of a competent person.
606. The following precautions should be observed in the
preparation for blasting:

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Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) explosives should be kept separate from detonators until

charging is started;
(b) primers should be made up immediately prior to use,
and as close to the blasting area as conditions allow;
(c) only wooden or other non-sparking implements should
be used to open cases of explosives and to punch holes in an contents

explosive cartridge; and

(d) blasting caps should be crimped to fuses only with
implements designed for that specific purpose.
607. A charge of explosive should not be fired in an opencast
mine unless and until:
(a) the person in charge of the blast has cleared all persons
from the danger zone, and has posted sentries at all points of entry
to prevent inadvertent access (for example, and depending on the
circumstances, an exclusion zone of 500 m may be established);
(b) proper warning has been given:
(i) in all adjacent areas from which a person might
approach the danger zone; and
(ii) over all radio channels and once a warning is given,
radio silence should be imposed;
(c) all persons who are in places where they might be
injured by the blasting have been warned; and
(d) all such persons have taken adequate shelter or left the
area.
608. All overhead and cable power lines located within the
danger zone during blasting operations should be de-ener-
gized during the blast, and should be inspected before being
re-energized.
609. Where blasting at an opencast mining operation could
constitute a public nuisance or danger, the competent authority

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 9.  Specific hazards

may require the installation and operation of an audible warning

device or other form of notification.
610. Where surplus or deteriorated explosives have to be dis-
posed of, the advice of the manufacturer should be sought, and
the destruction carried out in accordance with an agreed and
developed procedure laid down by the employer. contents

611. When blasting operations are to be carried out in hot

strata, the employer should ensure that a working procedure has
been devised to deal with the resulting specific hazards.
9.28.2. Misfires
612. The employer in charge of a mine where shotfiring is
practised should draw up a scheme specifying the procedure to
be followed in the event of a misfire. When a misfire is known or
suspected to have occurred, no work should be done at the site
until the shotfirer or another experienced person has inspected
the site at which the misfire occurred and taken such action as
may be necessary to ensure that further work may be safely con-
tinued. No person should approach a misfired hole:
(a) when a safety fuse has been used, until at least 30 min-
utes have elapsed since the time of lighting the fuse; and
(b) when electrical firing has been used, until the shotfiring
lines have been disconnected from the source of electric power
and been short-circuited, and then at least 15 minutes after that
have elapsed.
613. After the appropriate time interval, the shotfirer should
inspect, or where they cannot do so, instruct another compe-
tent person to inspect the bench or face and take such action as
may be necessary to ensure that further work may be safely con-
tinued (for example, misshole refiring or washing the misshole
out).

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614. A record of the inspection and of the action taken

should be made, in a book kept at the mine for the purpose, at
the end of the shift by the person making the inspection.
615. It is also common practice for the competent authorities
to require the reporting of instances of misfires.
contents
9.28.3. Electrical firing
616. Electric detonators of different types should not be used
in the same round. All necessary testers, exploders, switches,
fuses, electrical conductors and other necessary apparatus
should be suitable for the conditions under which they are to be
used, and should be provided by the employer.
617. No meter or device for the purpose of testing the resist-
ance or continuity of circuits intended for electrical firing
should be used, unless it is of a type which has been approved.
Except when being tested with an approved instrument:
(a) electric detonators should have a shunt fitted until they
are being connected to the blasting line or wired into a blasting
round;
(b) wired rounds should be kept shunted until they are
being connected to the blasting line; and
(c) blasting lines should be kept shunted until immediately
before blasting.
618. When blasting electrically in opencast mine operations,
an instrument specifically designed and approved for testing
blasting circuits should be used to test the:
(a) continuity of each detonator in the borehole, prior to
the addition of stemming;
(b) resistance of individual series or the resistance of mul-
tiple balanced series to be connected in parallel, prior to their
connection to the blasting line;

176
 9.  Specific hazards

(c) continuity of blasting lines, prior to the connection of

electric detonator series; and
(d) total blasting circuit resistance, prior to connection to
the power source.
619. Where firing is carried out by means of electric power
circuits, the: contents

(a) voltage and current should be adequate for the number

of detonators and type of circuit, and the voltage used should
not exceed medium voltage;
(b) shotfiring cables should be isolated from the source of
power by a double throw switch, by means of which the cables
are short-circuited and earthed when disconnected from the
source of power;
(c) isolating switch should be housed in a box with a locked
door; and
(d) shotfiring leads are connected to the firing cables
through two-pin plugs fitted to appropriate bases connected to
the firing cables.
620. Immediately after firing any charge, the shotfirer should
disconnect the firing cable from the source of power and lock
the box. The key to the door of the isolating switch box should
not, under any circumstances, pass from the personal custody of
the shotfirer on duty.
621. An exploder may be used for firing:
(a) single electric detonators; or
(b) electric detonators wired in series.
622. An exploder should not be used for firing electric det-
onators wired in a circuit which combines series and parallel
wiring unless authorized by the employer. The exploder should

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Safety and health in opencast mines

have adequate capacity for the number of detonators to be fired

in the circuit.
623. The exploder should be in the charge of the shotfirer on
duty and should be fitted with a handle, key, or other device,
the removal of which will render the exploder inoperative. It
should be the duty of the shotfirer to ensure that the exploder contents

is inoperative when not in use for firing and the handle, key, or
other device should remain in their personal custody while they
are on duty.
624. A hole being charged with ammonium nitrate blasting
agent should be loaded so as to obtain a continuous explosive line.
For charging purposes where other means are not practicable,
ammonium nitrate blasting agent may be poured into a hole.
625. Pneumatic loading of ammonium nitrate blasting agent
should not be used unless adequate steps have been taken to
eliminate the hazard of static electricity including the grounding
and bonding of the conductive parts of the pneumatic loading
equipment. The loader and its associated equipment, when
earthed, should give a total resistance to earth of not more than
1 megohm.
626. Water lines, compressed air lines, wire-covered hoses,
rails or permanent electrical earthing systems should not be
used as a means of earthing.
627. Permanent blasting cables should be properly supported,
insulated and maintained in good repair by a qualified mine
electrician.
628. Conductors for blasting lines should:
(a) be readily identifiable as being for blasting use;
(b) be waterproofed;
(c) consist of two insulated conductors; and

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 9.  Specific hazards

(d) be kept as far as possible from any power or lighting

cable, and kept out of contact with any pipes, rails or other con-
ductive materials.
629. Detonators should not be used in the presence of radio
transmitters or other radio frequency fields except in accord-
ance with standard distances provided for in national regula- contents

tions, unless the detonators are coupled to transformers which

are specifically designed to prevent induction of electrical cur-
rent sufficient to activate the detonator.
630. No attempt should be made to charge, connect or fire
a blast electrically if there is any sign of thunderstorm activity.
If the presence of static electricity or stray currents is detected
during charging up with electric detonators, charging should be
stopped immediately and only resumed after the condition has
been remedied.
9.29. Drilling
9.29.1. General safety precautions
631. Before the commencement of drilling operations, the
area should be carefully inspected for misfires, sockets and other
hazards. After a hole has been drilled, it should be closed off by
a plug. Safe work procedures should be prepared and followed
for each type of drilling employed.
9.29.2. Drilling rigs
632. Drilling rigs should be operated on a level surface. If
working on a bench, the rig should be located a safe distance
(for example, not less than 3 m) from the bench crest, especially
when drilling the nearest hole to the crest – in this case, the
operator should not have their back to the crest. While in oper-
ation, a drilling rig should be so arranged that its longitudinal
axis is perpendicular to the bench crest.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

633. When a drill is being moved from one drilling area to

another, drill steel, tools and all other parts of the machine
should be secured, and the mast placed in a safe position. If a
drill helper assists the drill operator during the movement of
a drill to a new position, the helper should be in sight of, or in
communication with, the operator at all times. contents

634. No person should be on a rig mast while the drill bit is

operating. When the rig mast is being raised or lowered, per-
sons should not be permitted to remain in front of or behind a
drilling rig.
635. Tools or other objects which might cause injury to per-
sonnel should not be left loose on the mast or drill platform.
636. With rotary drilling rigs for which the assembly and
dismantling of the drilling set and the cleaning of the mouth of
the hole are not mechanized, the augers should be enclosed and
they should be interlocked with the electric power supply to the
rotary driving motor.
637. Where there is an identified risk of inhalable or respir-
able dust, drill rigs with a properly designed and maintained
dust suppression and collection system should be used.
9.30. Excavation and loading
9.30.1. Excavation
638. The employer in charge of the mine should ensure that
excavation and loading rules, detailing the procedures to be fol-
lowed during such operations, are prepared and followed.
639. Electrically powered equipment should be disconnected
before mechanical work is done on such equipment. Power
switches should be locked out or other measures taken to prevent
the equipment being connected again without the knowledge
of the persons working on it. Such locks or protective devices

180
 9.  Specific hazards

should not be removed except by the person who installed them

or by an authorized person.
640. In case of an unforeseen interruption of the elec-
tric power supply, the operator should immediately return all
starters and control levers to the “stop” or “zero” positions.
641. The employer should ensure that technical instruc- contents

tions are prepared for each type of machine in operation.

In addition to technical details relating to the machine, the
information to be contained on this sheet should include the
permissible dimensions of working places, bench heights,
stability angles and distances that should be maintained by
mining machines and transport equipment from working
faces, dumps and tipping points. This information sheet
should be posted in the proximity of the operator’s position
on the machine concerned.
642. The cabins of all excavating machines should be so
equipped that the operator can always keep that part of the
working face adjacent to the machine in sight. All sites where
excavating machines are operating should be equipped with a
means of communication with the machine operator. Cabins
should be positively ventilated, and air-conditioned in signifi-
cantly hot or cold areas.
643. Rail-mounted excavators should not be set in operation
unless the tracks have been examined and pronounced safe.
644. Cab windows should be of safety glass or equivalent, in
good condition, and should be kept clean.
645. No unauthorized person should be allowed in the
cabin or on the external platforms of an operating excavator.
No person should mount or enter any excavator being operated
and capable of movement without first attracting the operator’s
attention.

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9.30.2. Single-bucket excavators

646. When moving an excavator, the driven axle should
always be positioned either at the downhill end or at the rear
if the machine is level. The bucket should be empty and main-
tained at a height of not more than 1 m above the ground. The
boom should face in the direction of motion. contents

647. In the case of a walking excavator, the bucket should

be empty and the boom should face backwards, opposite to the
direction of movement. When moving on a gradient, all pos-
sible precautions should be taken against sliding of an excavator.
648. Where it is necessary to move an excavator using the
aid of an assistant, the assistant should use approved signals and
should be within sight of the operator at all times.
649. Excavators should stand on a firm and level base, with
a gradient not exceeding the permissible gradient specified in
the technical instruction sheet. In all cases, the distance from
the flank of a bench or dump or any transport vehicle to the
counterweight of an excavator should not be less than 1 m, and
the cabin of the machine during operation should be placed in
such a way that danger to the operator is minimized.
650. The employer should ensure that a special code of sig-
nals is established for the operators of excavators to be applied
to the loading operation. This code of signals should be posted
on the excavator in a prominent position.
651. During the loading of railcars by excavators and the
unloading of cars at dumping positions, the train team should
follow the signals given by the excavator operator’s assistant.
These signals should correspond to those envisaged in the
railway operating rules.
652. A free passage should be maintained at all times to
enable an excavator to be speedily removed from a mining face.

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 9.  Specific hazards

An excavator in operation should be stopped and removed

immediately to a safe place when any dangerous conditions are
detected, and particularly when there is a likelihood of rock
falls from the face or when misfires have been located in the
working area.
653. In cases where stripping and loading operations are per- contents

formed with the aid of a dragline excavator, safety rules should

be established by the employer and brought to the attention of
all concerned. In particular, safe distances between machines
should be established when two or more types of machines are
working together.
9.30.3. Multi-bucket and rotary excavating machines
654. The technical instruction sheet should specify the per-
missible limits for gradients and radii of curvature for railway
tracks and roads used by tracked and wheeled excavating
machines and walking excavators.
655. Track gauges and other devices used for making obser-
vations on variations in track width and gradients should be
checked at least once a month. The results of the checks should
be recorded in the book kept at the mine for that purpose.
No excavating machine should be operated if the gauges and
devices for variations in track width and gradient are missing or
defective.
656. Rotary excavating machines with extractable booms
which cannot be retracted should be fitted with automatic
devices to ensure that the specified rates of movement and
angles of turn of the rotary boom are not exceeded.
657. Multi-bucket excavating machines should be fitted with
devices for preventing the bucket frame, rotary boom and con-
veyor from lifting, lowering or turning through angles greater
than those provided for in the machine design.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

658. The operator’s cabin of an excavating machine should be

equipped with an alarm signalling board and with instruments
for controlling the:
(a) rate of motion and turning angle of the rotary boom;
(b) rate of motion of the excavating machine; and
contents
(c) voltage and power load at the lead-in of the machine.
659. During operation of a multi-bucket excavating machine,
no person should be allowed adjacent to or between the cars
being loaded, below loading and unloading points and con-
veyors or reloading devices, or under the chassis frame of the
excavating machine.
660. Before starting a new cut with a multi-bucket exca-
vating machine, the appropriate supervisor should inspect the
face and take any necessary steps for the removal of foreign
bodies such as large tree roots, pieces of timber, metal objects
and the like along the entire front of operation of the machine
and to the full width of cut, taking into account the angle of
response.
661. A multi-bucket machine with bottom digging should
not be operated where there is a possibility of rocks sliding on
the face, and where the required stability of the slope and that
of the working surface cannot be ensured.
662. In a combined operation involving a rotary excavator
with conveyors and overburden spreaders, or a multi-bucket
excavating machine which loads spoil on to a conveyor, the
controls of the excavators/conveyors/spreaders should be
interlocked.
663. In order to carry out repair and adjustment work, meas-
ures should be provided for manual control of each separate
machine.

184
 9.  Specific hazards

9.30.4. Scrapers and bulldozers

664. Drag cable scrapers should not be used on bench slopes
having an inclination in excess of 5  degrees. No scraper plant
should be started up unless a prior warning signal has been
given; during the operation of a scraper, no person should
attempt to make repairs or adjustments, to stand near the rope, contents

or to guide the rope by hand.

665. While operating on a bench, self-propelled and trac-
tor-hauled scrapers should not approach within 2 m of the
bench crest. No scraper should be permitted to move backwards
downhill when unloading.
666. Scrapers hauled by wheeled tractors should not be
permitted to negotiate access roads having a gradient greater
than:
(a)15 degrees in the case of a loaded machine; or
(b)25 degrees in the case of an empty machine.
667. When operating a tractor-type bulldozer, it should be
prohibited to:
(a) leave a machine with the engine running and the blade
lifted;
(b) stand on the blade frame or on the blade;
(c) operate a machine that is not fitted with an interlocking
device to prevent the engine from starting when it is in gear; or
(d) operate a machine that is not fitted with a device which
requires the engine to be started from within the cab.
668. All repairs, lubrication or adjustments to a bulldozer
should be performed with the machine on level ground, the
engine switched off and the blade or ripper lowered to the
ground. Where, because of failure or defect, a bulldozer is
stopped on a slope, steps should be taken to block the machine

185
Safety and health in opencast mines

in position so as to avoid any downhill movement before repairs

are attempted.
669. Should it be necessary to carry out an inspection of the
underside of a bulldozer blade or ripper, the blade or ripper
should be lowered on to firm supports and the engine stopped.
No person should be permitted to go under a lifted blade except contents

if it is firmly chocked up and permission has been given by the

competent person.
670. On every face or bench where a bulldozer may be called
upon to operate, written instructions should be prepared, based
on the conditions at each working place, and stating clearly the
distance from the edge which no bulldozer may cross.
671. Bulldozers should not be permitted to operate on
slopes where the inclination measured along the steepest plane
exceeds 25 degrees or on any slope which has a dangerous cross
inclination.
9.30.5. Loading and dumping
672. The employer should ensure that all equipment and
vehicles in use for these operations are of an approved type and
conform with such specifications and requirements for safety as
may have been laid down in national laws.
673. The following precautions should be considered during
loading operations:
(a) a driver of any truck should not enter or leave their cab;
(b) the loaded bucket of any shovel or loader should not be
traversed over the driver’s cab of a truck or other motor vehicle;
(c) any person or equipment entering the loading area, such
as bulldozers and dump trucks, must first have positive two-way
communication with the loading machine operator. All persons
should keep clear of the area between the loading unit and the

186
 9.  Specific hazards

mine face, and the area traversed by the loading bucket during
loading operations;
(d) all rocks that are too large to be handled safely should
be broken before loading;
(e) transport equipment should be loaded in a manner to
minimize spillage during haulage; and contents

(f) proximity detection or location devices should be used.

674. The following precautions should be adopted during
dumping operations:
(a) where there is a possibility that the ground at a dumping
place may fail to support the weight of a vehicle, loads should be
dumped back from the edge of the bank;
(b) a vehicle should not be permitted to dump a load over a
bank or into a bin, unless there is an effective backstop provided;
(c) when dumping is carried out, whether by day or by
night, marker guides or other effective signs should be placed
to indicate to the driver the limit of the safe approach to the
tipping area;
(d) when dumping is carried out during the hours of dark-
ness, the area should be illuminated by lighting units so placed
as to give effective illumination to the working area and to the
edge of the dump area;
(e) adequate artificial lighting should be provided at all
points where poor visibility or work during the hours of dark-
ness may present a hazard; and
(f) there should be no reflections, dazzle or glare which
cause decreased visibility.

187
10. General controls

675. There are a number of controls which have an impact

across a range of hazards. For example, the spatial information
provided through surveying is used for a number of purposes. If contents

that information is inaccurate, then the impact can be seen in

several areas. Another example is inadequate training arrange-
ments which can have a broad impact across an organization.
676. Great attention should be paid to these controls, as the
failure of one can have an impact across a number of safety and
health management arrangements.
10.1. Surveyors and plans
10.1.1. Competent surveyor
677. No opencast mine should be worked unless there is a
competent mine surveyor. No person should be assigned as the
mine surveyor unless they are considered competent in accord-
ance with national laws.
10.1.2. Responsibilities of the mine surveyor
678. The mine surveyor should be required to:
(a) prepare or supervise the preparation of all plans, draw-
ings and sections of the mine which are required by national
laws;
(b) establish the accuracy of any plans, drawings or sections
which have not been prepared by the mine surveyor; and
(c) ensure that all working papers, calculations or other
notes which were necessarily used in the preparation of any
plans, drawings and sections are signed, dated, properly filed
and preserved.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

10.1.3. Plans: General

679. Every mine should keep accurate plans showing particu-
lars of all the workings, together with such other information as
may be specified by national laws. All plans should be kept up
to date periodically, as often as required for their purpose and as
may be specified by national laws. contents

10.1.4. Plans: Requirements

680. At every mine there should be:
(a) a general plan of the mine showing: existing workings
of the mine, including disused workings; proposed workings of
the mine; any other disused workings that are attached, or in
close proximity, to the mine; and the location or best estimated
location of any adjacent mine workings or geological structures
which may impact on the mine; and
(b) an emergency plan for the mine showing such things as
the position of all telephones and other communication equip-
ment, first-aid stations, and firefighting and rescue devices. The
emergency plan should always be available for the information
of workers and to external emergency services.
10.1.5. Faulty plans
681. The competent authority should be empowered to direct
the employer to have the mine surveyed and new plans prepared
if plans are found to be inaccurate or deficient.
10.1.6. Abandonment plans
682. No mine or part of a mine should be abandoned until
the mine plans, including an accurate survey of all areas where
mining has been conducted, have been brought up to date.
Abandonment plans should contain all the information spec-
ified in national laws, together with any other information not

190
 10.  General controls

so specified which may affect the safety of the surrounding area,

including neighbouring mine workings; such plans should be
endorsed with a certificate from the mine surveyor attesting to
their accuracy and any limitations thereon.
683. Abandonment plans should be submitted to the compe-
tent authority, which should store them safely and should keep contents

a proper register of stored plans; they should be made available

to all persons having a proper interest in them.
10.2. Mine registration and record-keeping
10.2.1. Commencement and cessation of mining operations
684. Any opencast mine should be registered with the com-
petent authority in a manner consistent with national laws.
Notification should be made to the competent authority along
with plans and details of the mining scheme and equipment
before the:
(a) commencement of any mining operation;
(b) the reopening of an abandoned or closed mine; and
(c) the proposed closure of a mine, indicating whether the
closure is temporary or permanent.
685. Where a change occurs in the ownership or the name of
a mine, or the identity of the mine operator, the latter should,
as soon as practicable, notify the competent authority of the
change.
10.3. Records and returns
686. All records, reports, plans or other documents required
by national laws on matters of safety and health should be
kept in a secure manner at the mine and should be available
for inspection by the competent authority and the workers’
representatives.

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687. The employer should send to the competent authority

such returns and statistics as may be required relating to the
safety and health matters at the mine. These should be made
available to the workers’ representatives.
10.4. Mine design and methods contents

10.4.1. Design requirements

688. Where an opencast mine excavation is planned to
exceed a significant depth (for example, 10 m), the operator
should, prior to the commencement of excavation, prepare:
(a) a mine design; and
(b) an operating manual.
689. The mine design should include:
(a) maps and, where available, recent aerial photographs,
showing the location and physical features of the mine area,
including local drainage systems;
(b) drawings showing:
(i) the contours of the ground before any site
preparation;
(ii) structural geology in the region of the mine;
(iii) a plan of the mine illustrating the projected five-
year plan;
(iv) typical cross-section through the walls;
(v) the location of any diversionary drainage systems;
and
(vi) the results of any tests, studies and investigations
to determine:
(1) geotechnical properties of the rock and soil in the
vicinity of the walls; and

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(2) groundwater conditions in the vicinity of the mine;

(c) the design, position, nature of construction and stability
analysis of any support structures to be incorporated in the walls;
(d) a stability analysis including an outline of any design
assumptions that were made; and
contents
(e) details of any testing and instrumentation which may
be required to monitor wall or strata movement and ground-
water conditions in the region of the mine to verify the design
assumptions.
690. The operating manual should include:
(a) specifications for the configuration of the final mine
walls, including toe and crest positions, planned face slopes,
average overall wall slopes, bench widths, bench intervals and
any berm construction;
(b) the method and rate of excavation to the final walls;
(c) details of any blasting procedure to maintain control of
the pit wall;
(d) specifications for drainage and dewatering systems; and
(e) details including location, method and frequency of
reading and of maintenance of any instrumentation required to
monitor wall and strata movement or groundwater conditions
in the region of the mine.
691. Where an amendment to any design is proposed, the
employer in charge of the mine should prepare a report showing:
(a) the extent of the land to be disturbed by any additional
excavation;
(b) the new design height of any wall;
(c) details of any additional site preparation and excavation,
including any blasting procedures that may be required; and

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(d) an analysis of the safety aspects of the intended design

to include the results of:
(i) geotechnical studies, including drill-hole logs, tests
and groundwater measurements; and
(ii) stability studies to assess any effects of the amend-
ment on the safety and ground stability of the contents

walls.
10.4.2. Stripping of overburden
692. Vegetation, such as bushes and trees, should be removed
from the overburden before stripping. Foundations of buildings
should be similarly removed when stripping reaches their level.
693. When the overburden consists of unconsolidated or
blasted material:
(a) excavation by undercutting should not be used;
(b) if mechanical equipment is not used, no place should be
worked unless the material is at a stable angle; and
(c) if mechanical equipment is used, no working face
should have a vertical height greater than the maximum height
to which the excavation equipment in use can reach.
694. All rock, stone or other material from the stripping of
overburden should be dumped, tipped or otherwise disposed of
safely.
695. Where mining is to be carried out in regions of heavy
snowfall or heavy rainfall, particularly in areas liable to flash
flooding, lightning strike or where monsoon conditions are
prevalent, or in active seismic areas where earthquakes and land-
slides may be expected, or in areas of volcanic activity, special
protective procedures should be developed and copies of these
procedures kept at the mine. These protective procedures should
be in accordance with the mine emergency plan.

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 10.  General controls

10.4.3. Mining methods

696. Mining methods include but are not limited to: truck
and shovel, strip, quarrying, and rock sawing, among others. A
risk assessment should be performed to determine the specific
control measures required to manage the people, equipment
and work environments that are involved. contents

697. Mining methods should be used that will maintain wall,

bank and slope stability in places where persons work or travel
in performing their assigned tasks. When benching is necessary,
the width and height should be based on the type of equipment
used for cleaning of benches or for scaling of walls, banks and
slopes, and the safety of any persons or vehicles working or trav-
elling thereon.
698. Ground conditions that create a hazard to persons
should be mitigated or supported before other work or travel is
permitted in the affected area.
699. Until corrective work is completed, the area should be
posted with a warning against entry and, when left unattended,
a barrier should be installed to impede unauthorized entry.
Trimming, scaling and support should be carried out from a
safe location.
700. The vertical height of a bench face being worked should
not exceed a safe height, for example, 8 m if is to be worked
manually, or 20 m if it is to be loaded mechanically. This provi-
sion should not prevent a mine from being worked with two or
more benches having a face height not exceeding 8 m and 20 m
correspondingly.
701. Persons should not be permitted to work or travel
between machinery or equipment and the high wall or bank
where the machinery or equipment may hinder escape from
falls or slides from the high wall or bank. No person should be

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deployed in a determined exclusion zone of mechanical equip-

ment unless that equipment is effectively immobilized.
702. In cases where an opencast mine is being worked in
the vicinity of any underground workings, no face of the open-
cast mine should be advanced over the underground workings
if danger could be occasioned to persons in the underground contents

workings or in the opencast mine unless the competent

authority has been informed beforehand and approval has been
obtained for the method of working to be implemented.
703. Blasting should not be performed in underground
workings that lie within 30 m vertically below the bottom or
60 m horizontally from the wall of any opencast mine in which
work is being carried out, unless consultation has taken place
between the managements of both enterprises to devise and
implement suitable precautionary measures to ensure safety.
704. No person should work or climb on top of any surge
stockpile in active use to which broken rock is fed from above
and from which the rock is withdrawn unless all the following
provisions are complied with:
(a) they have been authorized to do so by the employer;
(b) the feed to and from the stockpile has been stopped and
locked out;
(c) it has been established that the chute below is not in the
discharging position;
(d) they are wearing a safety belt attached to a rope of cor-
rect length, securely fixed to an anchorage above them; and
(e) they are assisted by another person stationed at a safe
vantage point above them.
705. A tunnel under a surge stockpile of broken rock or
other unconsolidated material (reclaim tunnel) should have two

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 10.  General controls

entrances as far as practicable. Caution should be exercised to

ensure that reclaim tunnels do not constitute a “confined space”.
706. No person should be permitted to work on a face, wall
or other location in an opencast mine from which a dangerous
fall could occur unless they are:
(a) wearing a safety harness and lanyard of correct length, contents

securely fixed to an anchorage above them; and

(b) are assisted by a competent person.
707. As far as practicable, where explosives are used, bench
drilling should be carried out from the top of the bench. This
provision should not prevent the drilling and firing of toe or
other holes, but a combination of top-drilled and toe-drilled holes
should be avoided, particularly if intended for sequential firing.
708. A working face should not be drilled or otherwise
worked in a manner which will create an overhang of the face,
and where unconsolidated rock is being mined, the face and
sides should be rammed to prevent collapse. A face should not
be undercut by the excavation of a slot at the toe of the face; this
provision should not, however, prevent a tunnel or adit being
driven into the face for drainage purposes.
709. At a mine where rock is being sluiced or mined by jets
of water or other liquid, no person should be permitted to
approach the top of the mine face to within a distance equal
to twice the height of the face. When working of the jets is sus-
pended, no person may enter the zone earlier excluded unless
that zone has been examined and declared to be safe by a com-
petent person. Before the resumption of jet operation all per-
sons should again be withdrawn from that zone.
710. The maximum height of a working face in sandy mate-
rial should not exceed the vertical reach of the excavating equip-
ment working at the face. In cases where the projected total

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depth of any sandpit excavation will exceed the vertical reach of

the excavating equipment to be used, the pit should be worked
by a series of benches.
711. Each bench should have separate loading arrangements
and should be of sufficient length and breadth to provide safe
working conditions. Sand pit faces should be worked over as contents

large a width as is practicable, and at any cessation of operations

for a period of time exceeding that of one shift, all pit faces
should be sloped to prevent any further slump of sand. For the
purpose of the present paragraph, the walls of a sand pit should
be considered to be working faces. For the purposes of this
Section, sand includes all unconsolidated materials or deposits.
712. Where manual workers are engaged on or ahead of over-
burden, stripping or mineral-winning phases, then there should
either be a team of two workers or more working together, or
any solitary worker should be kept under constant observation
at all times.
10.5. Competence, education and training
10.5.1. General provisions
713. No person should be employed to work at an opencast
mine unless that person has received the necessary instruction
and training so as to be able to do the work competently and
safely.
714. Prior to the commencement of mine operations, job
tasks and job descriptions should be determined and a training
needs assessment should be performed to determine training
and competency needs.
715. National laws or regulations should establish standards
for the training of all workers at opencast mines, including
workers, supervisory officials and contractors. The employer

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should prepare, and national laws or regulations require, a

training plan which should specify:
(a) the induction and refresher training for workers in the
industry;
(b) the competency required for persons assigned to new
work; contents

(c) approved courses of training at a mining school or other

approved place and, where practicable, the inclusion in the cur-
riculum of training in OSH hazards, emergency response and
first-aid techniques vital to saving lives;
(d) training and refresher training required when new sys-
tems of work are introduced;
(e) the requirement that each person employed at a mine
should undergo refresher training at intervals to be specified
and in a manner and language understood by the workers;
(f) the training and retraining of supervisory officials,
examiners, electricians and other such personnel;
(g) the training of contract workers who work at the mine;
(h) the requirement that records of the training of each
person be kept by a training officer appointed by the employer
in charge of the mine; and
(i) the duty of the training officer to supervise the training
of persons who work at the mine and to report, in writing, on
training matters as required by the employer in charge of the
mine.
716. Training programmes should:
(a) be conducted by competent persons;
(b) include participant evaluation for comprehension and
retention of the training;

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(c) be reviewed periodically by the safety and health com-

mittee, where it exists, or by the employer in consultation with
workers or their representatives, and modified as necessary;
and
(d) be documented.
717. The form and the content of training, which should be contents

required by national laws or regulations, particularly for new

workers, should be devised and implemented by employers in
consultation with workers or their representatives, and should
be in accordance with the identified needs, and include:
(a) pertinent aspects of relevant legislation, codes of prac-
tice and instructions on the prevention of accidents and disease
and any collective agreement, such as the rights, responsibilities
and duties of competent authorities, employers, contractors and
workers;
(b) assessments, reviews and exposure measurements, and
the rights and duties of workers in this regard;
(c) the role of health surveillance, the rights and duties of
workers in this regard, and access to information;
(d) the hazards associated with mine fires and measures
needed to prevent them and extinguish them should they
occur;
(e) the hazards of unsafe walls, and the measures needed to
prevent rock falls or collapses;
(f) hazard warning signs and symbols for hazardous
ambient factors which may occur;
(g) any other relevant hazards;
(h) the health risks of inhalable and respirable dusts and
hazardous and toxic substances and measures needed to prevent
exposure and related diseases;

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 10.  General controls

(i) procedures to be followed in an emergency, emergency

measures, mine rescue, firefighting and fire prevention, and first
aid;
(j) instructions on PPE as may be necessary, its signifi-
cance, correct use and limitations, and in particular on factors
which may show inadequacy or malfunction of the equipment, contents

and the measures which may be required for workers to protect

themselves;
(k) the nature and degree of hazards or risks to safety and
health which may occur, including any factors which may influ-
ence that risk, such as appropriate hygiene practices;
(l) the correct and effective use of prevention, control and
protection measures, especially engineering controls, and the
responsibility of workers to use such measures properly;
(m) ergonomically correct methods for the handling of
materials and tools;
(n) methods for identifying harmful chemicals and agents,
including use of SDS which should be provided in languages
and at educational levels that ensure they will be understood by
workers;
(o) appropriate hygiene practices to prevent, for example,
the transmission of hazardous substances off-site;
(p) cleaning, maintenance, storage and waste disposal,
to the extent that these may cause exposure for the workers
concerned;
(q) suitable instruction in the hazards connected with their
work and in their working environment, as well as training in
precautions necessary to avoid accidents, dangerous occurrences
and occupational diseases; and
(r) training of safety and health representatives.

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718. Training should be provided to workers at no cost and

should take place during working hours. If this is not possible,
the timing and other arrangements should be agreed upon
between the employer and workers’ representatives.
719. Employers should ensure that training and information
requirements and procedures are kept under review, as part of contents

the assessment review and documentation.

10.5.2. Qualifications of managers and supervisory officials
720. Each mine operation should have sufficient managers,
supervisory officials, examiners, mining engineers, industrial
hygienists and others responsible for the health and safety of
the mining operation who have been certified as competent in
accordance with national laws or regulations.
721. Candidates for certification of competency for positions
such as mine managers, mine foremen, assistant mine foremen
or deputies, and/or mine examiners or their equivalent, should
have completed a specified number of years of practical work
experience. Candidates for those positions should have to pass a
test administered by the competent authority covering the var-
ious aspects of mining laws or national regulations related to
mines, practices and conditions they would be dealing with in
their official positions.
722. Successful management requires the integration of OSH
into all the facility’s activities, including contractors’ activities.
723. Responsibility for managing OSH within any organi-
zation should be placed upon managers and supervisors at each
level in the job hierarchy. Managers and supervisory officials
should be in possession of an appropriate qualification and
training, or have gained sufficient knowledge, skills and experi-
ence to qualify on the basis of competence, to ensure that they
are able to:

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 10.  General controls

(a) plan and organize safe operations, including identifica-

tion of hazards, assessments of risks and the implementation of
preventive measures;
(b) establish, implement and maintain an OSH manage-
ment system;
(c) monitor the status of OSH in those operations for contents

which they are responsible; and

(d) take corrective action in the event of non-compliance
with requirements.
724. Managers should receive technical and other training to
allow them to fulfil their responsibilities for OSH.

10.5.3. Qualifications, training and skills testing of workers

725. The employer should:
(a) provide workers with the instruction and training that
is necessary to enable them to perform their work safely and
without injury;
(b) ensure that every worker has the training to become
familiar with work-related hazards and risks to which they may
be exposed and the measures that need to be taken to control
those risks;
(c) ensure that every worker is made aware of the relevant
laws, regulations, standards, instructions and advice relating to
prevention of accidents and diseases as they relate to opencast
mining;
(d) evaluate the education and training of workers to ensure
its effectiveness.
726. The employer should ensure that every worker is prop-
erly trained:

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(a) to deal appropriately with every significant risk to safety

and health that is associated with any work that the worker has
to perform;
(b) in the measures necessary to control those risks to safety
and health;
(c) in the procedures to be followed to perform the work; contents

and
(d) in relevant emergency procedures.
10.5.4. Qualifications of contractors and others working at the mine
727. The management of OSH with contractors and other
parties should be consistent.
728. Best practices in OSH at the facility should be applied
to contractors.
729. Only those contractors that can demonstrate good
performance and an adequate safety and health management
system should be used.
730. The OSH management systems of contractors and their
OSH record should carry similar weight to other performance
factors when considering the choice of contractors.
731. Before commencing work, on-site pre-work briefings
should be completed which cover the scope of work, work method,
identification of key hazards and risk assessment. All relevant
safety permits should be completed before work is commenced
and the mining worksites should be supervised and examined to
the same standards that exist for the mining operation.
10.6. Personal protective equipment (PPE)
10.6.1. General
732. A s a supplementary protection against exposure to
hazardous conditions in opencast mining where the safety

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 10.  General controls

of workers cannot be ensured by other means, such as elim-

inating the hazard, controlling the risk at source or mini-
mizing the risk, suitable and sufficient PPE, having regard to
the type of work and risks, and in consultation with workers
and their representatives, should be used by the workers and
provided and maintained by the employer, without cost to contents
the workers.
733. The minimum requirements for mandatory PPE on the
mine should be established and communicated, for example,
helmets, coveralls, safety glasses, safety boots and gloves.
734. Items of PPE provided should comply with the relevant
national standards and criteria approved or recognized by the
competent authority.
735. PPE should be issued as new to an individual worker
and not interchanged unless it has been maintained and prop-
erly sanitized.
736. Those responsible for the management and operation of
the personal protection programme should be trained:
(a) in the selection of the proper equipment;
(b) in assuring that it is correctly fitted to the people who
use it;
(c) in the nature of the hazards and the adverse health
effects of exposure and how the equipment is intended to pro-
tect against these; and
(d) in the consequences of poor performance or equipment
failure.
737. PPE should be selected considering the characteristics of
the wearer and additional physiological load or other harmful
effects caused by the PPE. It should be used, maintained, stored
and replaced in accordance with the standards or guidance for

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each hazard identified at the facility and according to the infor-

mation given by the manufacturer.
738. PPE should meet the requirements of Chapter 9 with
respect to each hazard identified at the facility, for example,
heat and cold stress, noise exposure, hazardous substances and
vibration. contents

739. PPE should be examined periodically by the user to

ensure that it is in good condition and replaced or repaired, as
necessary, by the employer at no cost to the user.
740. Different PPE and their components should be compat-
ible with each other when they are worn together.
741. PPE should be ergonomically designed and, as far as
practicable, should not restrict the user’s mobility or field of
vision, hearing or other sensory functions.
742. Employers should ensure that workers who are required
to wear PPE are fully informed of the requirements and of the
reason for wearing it, and are given adequate training in the
selection, wearing, maintenance and storage of this equipment.
743. When workers have been informed accordingly, they
should use the equipment provided throughout the time they
may be exposed to the risk that requires the use of PPE for
protection.
744. The PPE should not be used for longer than the time
indicated by the manufacturer.
745. Workers should make proper use of the PPE pro-
vided, and maintain it in good condition, consistent with their
training, and be provided with the proper means of doing so.
746. Before reissuing the clothing or equipment, employers
should provide for the laundering, cleaning, disinfecting and
examination of protective clothing or equipment which has

206
 10.  General controls

been used and may be contaminated by materials that are haz-

ardous to health.
747. Protective equipment that may be contaminated by
materials hazardous to health should not be laundered, cleaned
or kept at workers’ homes. Employers should ensure that workers
do not take contaminated clothing home and should provide contents

for the cleaning of such clothing at no cost to the worker.

748. PPE should not contain hazardous substances.
10.6.2. Head protection
749. Helmets should be worn by all persons at the mine.
750. Any helmet that has been submitted to a heavy
blow, even if there are no evident signs of damage, should be
discarded.
751. If splits or cracks appear, or if a helmet shows signs of
ageing or deterioration of the harness, the helmet should be
discarded.
752. Where there is a hazard of contact with exposed con-
ductive parts, only helmets made of non-conducting material
should be used.
753. Helmets for persons working overhead should be pro-
vided with chin straps.
754. In addition to safety, consideration should also be given
to the physiological aspects of comfort for the wearer. The
helmet should be as light as possible, the harness should be flex-
ible and should not irritate or injure the wearer, and a sweat-
band should be incorporated.
10.6.3. Face and eye protection
755. Face shields or eye protectors should be used to protect
against flying particles, fumes, dust and chemical hazards.

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756. Goggles, helmets or shields that give maximum eye pro-

tection for each welding and cutting process should be worn by
operators, welders and their helpers.
757. Welding and cutting processes emit radiation in the
ultraviolet, visible and infrared bands of the spectrum, which
are all able to produce harmful effects upon the eyes. In welding contents

operations, helmet-type protection and hand-shield-type protec-

tion should be used. Protection is also necessary for the welder’s
assistant and others who may be exposed to the hazards, who
should be appropriately protected.
758. With the use of face and eye protectors, due attention
should be paid to comfort and efficiency.
759. The protectors should be fitted and adjusted by a person
who has received training in this task.
760. Comfort is particularly important in helmet- and hood-
type protectors as they may become almost intolerably hot
during use. Air lines can be fitted to prevent this.
761. Face and eye protectors should give adequate protection
at all times, even with the use of corrective vision devices.
762. Eye protectors, including corrective lenses, should be
made of appropriate impact-resistant material.
10.6.4. Upper and lower limb protection
763. Hands and feet should be protected against physical,
chemical and other hazards.
764. The height to which safety footwear covers the ankle,
knee or thigh depends on the hazard, although comfort and
mobility should be considered.
765. Trouser legs should be pulled over the top of the boot
and not tucked inside.

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 10.  General controls

766. Slip, impact and acid-resistant properties should be

taken into account when choosing footwear.
767. Knee protectors may be necessary, especially where work
involves kneeling.
10.6.5. Respirators contents

768. When effective engineering controls are not feasible,

or while they are being implemented or evaluated, respirators,
appropriate to the hazard and risk in question, should be used
to protect the health of the worker.
769. When the hazard and risk cannot be assessed with suffi-
cient accuracy to define the appropriate level of respiratory pro-
tection, employers should make positive pressure air-supplied
respiratory protective devices available.
770. When selecting respirators, an appropriate number of
sizes and models should be available from which a satisfactory
respirator can be selected. Different sizes and models should be
available to accommodate a broad range of facial types. Workers
should be fit-tested for respirators.
771. The user should be sufficiently trained and familiar with
the respirator in order to be able to inspect the respirator imme-
diately prior to each use to ensure that it is in proper working
condition.
772. Respirators should be properly stored. Damage may
occur if they are not protected from physical and chemical
agents, such as vibration, sunlight, heat, extreme cold, excessive
moisture or damaging chemicals.
773. Each respirator should be used with an understanding
of its limitations, based on a number of factors, such as the level
and duration of exposure, the characteristics of the chemical
and the service life of a respirator.

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774. Workers should be medically evaluated for their ability

to wear a respirator safely before they are required to do so.
10.6.6. Hearing protection
775. When effective engineering controls are not feasible, or
while they are being implemented or evaluated, hearing protec- contents
tion should be used to protect the health of workers.
776. Hearing loss of speech frequencies may occur with ele-
vated long-term exposure to noise. The use of hearing protectors
gives the best results to users who are well informed of the risks
and trained in their use. If earplugs are used, special attention
should be paid to the proper fitting technique.
777. Hearing protectors should be comfortable, and the
users should be trained to use them properly. Special attention
should be paid to possible increased risk of accidents due to the
use of hearing protectors. Earmuffs reduce the capacity to locate
sound sources and prevent warning signals from being heard.
This is especially true for workers with considerable hearing
loss.
778. No model is suitable for all persons. Those wearing
hearing protectors should be able to choose from alternative
products that meet the attenuation criteria. Earplugs should not
be the only solution as not all people can wear them.
779. Hearing protectors should be made available at the
entrance to the noisy area and they should be put on before
entering the noisy area. Noisy areas should be indicated by
appropriate signs.
780. Hearing protectors work well only if they are well
maintained. Good maintenance consists of cleaning, changing
replaceable parts such as cushions, and overall monitoring of
the state of the hearing protector.

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 10.  General controls

10.6.7. Protection from falls

781. When other measures do not eliminate the risk of
falling, workers should be provided with and trained in the use
of appropriate fall protection equipment, such as harnesses and
lifelines. Workplaces and roadways in which there are fall haz-
ards or which border on a danger zone should be equipped with contents

devices which prevent workers from falling into or entering the

danger zone.
782. Devices should be provided to prevent workers from
falling through floors and openings.
783. Safety harnesses should be worn where required and the
lifeline should be attached to an adequate anchor point.
784. Appropriate and timely rescue should be provided when
using fall-arrest equipment to prevent suspension trauma.
10.6.8. Work clothing
785. Where required on the basis of a risk assessment,
workers should wear the appropriate protective clothing pro-
vided by the employer.
786. The selection of protective clothing should take into
account:
(a) the adequacy of the design and the fit of the clothing,
allowing freedom of movement for the worker to perform tasks,
and whether it is suitable for the intended use;
(b) the environment in which it will be worn, including
the ability of the material from which it is made to resist pen-
etration by chemicals, minimize heat stress, release dust, resist
catching fire and not discharge static electricity, as far as tech-
nologically possible; and
(c) the requirements of workers to wear reflective clothing.

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787. Work clothes contaminated with a chemical substance

or substances should be washed (if reusable) or disposed of in a
workplace facility.
788. The employer should ensure that a worker removes
protective clothing before leaving the containment area or any
workplace exposed to a substance that may pose a risk outside contents

the containment area. Contaminated clothing should be dis-

posed of safely.
789. Inspection of protective clothing should be performed
by the user before each use.
10.7. Ergonomics
10.7.1. Musculoskeletal injuries
10.7.1.1. Hazard description
790. The risk of musculoskeletal injuries exists in industries
where repetitive motions and manual labour are common.
Manual carrying and lifting of large, bulky and/or heavy objects
is common in mining, and can cause musculoskeletal injuries.
791. These injuries comprise disorders of the muscles, joints
and/or soft tissue (ligaments, tendons and capsules) that can
arise from a variety of activities. They can occur suddenly as the
result of jolts, jars and overexertion or a fall; or they may develop
over months and years from repeated minor injuries or cumula-
tive “wear and tear” on the joints, muscles and soft tissue. Long-
lasting repetitive work movements and awkward postures may
cause musculoskeletal injuries. Maintaining the same posture
for extended periods causes excessive fatigue.
792. Repetitive work and tasks with little variety and/or few
events may lead to boredom and errors being made.
793. Too heavy a physical load may cause excessive fatigue,
especially in a hot environment.

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 10.  General controls

10.7.1.2. Assessment of risk

794. Measures should be taken to ensure the appropriate
selection and design of tools, machines, equipment and work-
stations, including PPE.
795. An appropriate ergonomic risk study should be under-
taken to investigate jobs and tasks while workers are carrying contents

out various operations. The study should focus on heavy phys-

ical work, work postures, work movements (especially repeti-
tive movements), lifting and pushing/pulling heavy loads. The
impact of the working environment on the worker and the
functional design of the machinery should be explored.
796. The competent authority, after consulting the represent-
ative organizations of employers and workers, should establish
OSH requirements for repetitive work, working postures, phys-
ical load and the handling and transport of materials, particu-
larly manual handling. Such requirements, technical standards
and medical opinions should be used in the risk assessment,
taking account of the relevant conditions in which the work is
performed.
10.7.1.3. Control strategies
797. To the extent possible, the task should be adapted to
the worker, and jobs and tasks with unacceptable ergonomic
problems should be eliminated by redesigning work procedures,
workstations, tools and machinery.
798. If complete elimination is not practicable, the time that
workers are required to spend in such conditions should be as
short as possible. The workload may be brought to a tolerable
level with sufficient rest periods and job rotations. Changes in
posture should be possible.
799. Workers should be trained in using correct work
techniques.

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Safety and health in opencast mines

800. Workers should be informed about the hazards related

to physical work, work postures, repetitive movements and
lifting and carrying loads, including physical limits for force,
frequency and posture.
801. Workers should be trained in using correct work tech-
niques, where they have been established, to reduce the risk of contents

disorders. They should receive all the necessary information

about the process, equipment, their co-workers and any risks
associated with the job in the correct form and in due time to
enable them to complete the tasks without risks to their health
and safety. Receipt of this information should be verified.
802. Work that is done intermittently or infrequently should
be checked and temporary/contract workers should receive all
the necessary information to undertake the job without risks to
their health and safety.
10.7.2. Safety signs, alarms and communication
803. As far as is practicable, all opencast mines should use
the same system of signs and safety colours which conform to
accepted standards.
804. Road signs governing the circulation of vehicles at an
opencast mine should be in accordance with those approved by
the relevant competent authority. Any person entering the mine
for the first time should be taught about all safety signs and col-
ours and tested on this in their induction training.
805. When using written signs to convey a warning message,
the type of language used in the message should be taken into
account – use short statements in plain language, with symbols
where appropriate. The colours of the sign, use of icons, the
typeface and the suitable placement of the sign in the workplace
also need to be considered.

214
 10.  General controls

806. The primary objective of safety signs is to warn or cau-

tion. The device should be conspicuous, recognizable and under-
standable. Signals or signs may fall into specific classifications of
warning or caution, or hazard advisory or instructional. They
need to meet accepted national, regional and ergonomics criteria.
807. The conveying of visual and acoustic information may contents

be degraded because of environmental factors, poor design of

machinery and equipment, and inappropriate or incorrectly
used PPE, and may lead to dangerous occurrences and accidents.
10.7.2.1. Visual and auditory alarms
808. Visual alarms are appropriate when the worker is within
the line of sight of the alarms, as in a cab or control room.
Auditory alarms are necessary if the worker cannot be in the
line of sight of visual alarms. However, if background workplace
noise level exceeds 85dB(A) auditory alarms may not be heard.
There are some basic guidelines for auditory alarms. They:
(a) may be used in addition to visual alarms to bring the
worker’s attention to a problem immediately;
(b) should not be used simply to indicate the status of the
system;
(c) should be able to be heard and identified either through
pitch or frequency or both; and
(d) should only be loud enough to draw the attention of
those who need to be alerted.
809. Very loud signals are not acceptable. They may startle
listeners, distract them in an emergency or a critical task, and
cause temporary deafness. If they are regularly activated workers
may be tempted to disable them.
810. Audible alarms are often unnecessary if the colour
coding conventions for visual alarms are followed.

215
Safety and health in opencast mines

10.7.2.2. Electronic communications protocols

811. Protocols for communicating via radios or other elec-
tronic means should be established to ensure that the risk of
misunderstanding is minimized, particularly for critical infor-
mation. These protocols should be conveyed to all involved in
such activities and strictly monitored. contents

10.7.2.3. Availability of information

812. All information to be made available to workers should
be readily accessible, legible, understandable (for example, in
appropriate languages) and up to date. Information available to
workers at all times should include:
(a) the name of the mine, and the name and address of the
mine operator;
(b) the name and appropriate contact details of relevant
competent authorities;
(c) the national laws relevant to the mine;
(d) all relevant procedures (for example, those relating to
excavation, traffic and shotfiring);
(e) all notices served by a competent authority; and
(f) information with respect to hazardous products as
defined in the Global Harmonized System (GHS).
813. Workers should be made aware of how to access the
information available to them. Account should be taken of the
literacy of workers in making available information to them.
10.8. General precautions for frozen soil and permafrost
814. Where steam-thawing operations are practised, all
steam pipelines should be heat insulated. Where steam lances
are used for permafrost thawing, the steam hose should be
firmly attached at both ends and equipped with safety chains at

216
 10.  General controls

the steam pipeline and at the lance point. Hoses should be reg-
ularly examined for defects and maintained in good condition.
815. Steam thawing should not be permitted under over-
head power lines. No person should be permitted to approach
steam or hot water points located under the soil unless these
are covered by gangways. Electric thawing of frozen soils should contents

only be carried out in accordance with a scheme – acceptable to

a competent authority – which is designed to ensure that the
work may be performed safely.
816. A steam pipeline network should be provided with pres-
sure gauges installed at the exit of the main steam pipeline and
at the end of the header into the section under treatment. The
main steam supply should be disconnected before proceedings
to rearrange any of the distribution pipes, to tighten flange con-
nections, to mount or dismount valves and plugs, or to connect
and disconnect hoses.
817. Sink holes and fall-through funnels formed around
thawing points should be fenced or closed off.

217
11. Work organization

11.1. Job safety analysis

818. The employer, in consultation with workers and their contents

representatives, should study the work process in order to deter-

mine the tasks that make up job or work operation. Each of
those tasks should then be analysed to determine the hazards,
assess the risks, and devise suitable means for performing the
task as safely as possible. Special attention should be given to
maintenance tasks.
819. Where the job safety analysis does not identify suit-
able controls to protect workers’ safety, the task should not be
undertaken.
820. The results of this analysis should be used to write a set
of safe work procedures (SWPs), listing the hazards, required
work procedures, appropriate PPE and procedures to be fol-
lowed in case of unusual circumstances or emergencies.
821. The SWPs applicable to each task should be readily
available to the workers involved. Workers should be trained in
the relevant SWPs and these should be reviewed with each such
worker or work crew assigned to the task before the first time
they perform it, and frequently thereafter.
822. SWPs should be reviewed, and revised if necessary,
whenever the task or its hazards change, when there is an acci-
dent involving the task, and periodically.
11.2. Work teams
823. The employer should ensure that work teams are
resourced adequately to undertake the assigned tasks safely.

219
Safety and health in opencast mines

11.3. Persons working alone

824. Working alone should be avoided. If it is necessary, the
employer should take appropriate measures for the protection of
workers working alone or in isolation.

11.4. Admission of outside persons contents

825. Any person not employed at a mine should not be

allowed to enter the mine, unless permitted by the employer in
charge of the mine to do so and accompanied by a responsible
and competent person. A record should be kept of both the
arrival and departure of all visitors to an opencast mine.
826. The provision of adequate visitor safety and health
induction training is an important consideration. While on-site,
all visitors should be adequately supervised. Every person who
enters a mine, for whatever purpose, should comply with the
provisions of national laws or regulations and with any instruc-
tions given by the supervisory officials or the accompanying
responsible person with a view to ensuring their safety and that
of the workers and the mine.

11.5. Small-scale artisanal mining activity

827. Artisanal and small-scale mining provides work and
income for millions of people. Despite attempts in a number of
ILO member States to create appropriate legal and regulatory
frameworks, which include monitoring and enforcement pro-
visions, and programmes to improve the working methods of
small-scale artisanal miners (ASMers), its potential as a source
of decent work and rural development has not been widely real-
ized. Until now, small-scale mining has typically suffered from
decent work deficits, such as child labour and, particularly in
conflict or post-war areas, forced labour.

220
 11.  Work organization

828. Small-scale mining may not only lead to very poor OSH
conditions for small-scale miners, but can also have repercus-
sions on the OSH of workers in large-scale mines. Particularly
dangerous forms of ASM activities are those in which ASMers
may be trespassing and where they work in abandoned areas, in
tailings dams or upstream from larger operations. As some activ- contents
ities of ASMers can have negative repercussions on the structural
soundness of the opencast mine concerned, there is a need for
companies to understand what ASMers are doing, what possible
side effects their work may have and to find ways that would allow
them to pursue their operations without putting at risk a mine,
workings or other sections of a mine, such as a tailings dam.
829. In accordance with national laws and regulations, inter-
actions between large-scale mines and small-scale miners should
not, however, be limited only to countering possible deteriora-
tion of structures put in place.
830. Mines should also consider ways in which they could
directly assist ASMers in achieving decent work (for example,
by having their workers act as mentors to ASMers), or assisting
employers’ and workers’ organizations in their efforts to improve
the operations and social conditions of ASMers.
831. Further information can be found in the conclusions of
the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-
scale Mines (ILO, 1999) and Working Together: How large-
scale mining can engage with artisanal and small-scale miners
(ICMM/CASM/IFC CommDev, 2010).

221
12. Special protection

12.1. General welfare

832. National laws or regulations should specify the require- contents

ments for the changing, storing and drying of clothes, and

for canteen, restroom and laundry facilities, as well as toilets,
showers and washbasins to be provided at mines.
833. As a minimum, the following should be provided:
(a) sufficient and suitable toilets, showers, washbasins and
laundry facilities;
(b) adequate supplies of clean drinking water in suitable
places and properly maintained; and
(c) based on the nature of the mine and its operations, ade-
quate facilities for the changing, storage, laundering and drying
of clothes.
834. At opencast mines where it is not practicable to set up
canteens providing nutritious meals and, if necessary, in mines
where such canteens already exist, messroom facilities should be
provided for individual workers to prepare food or to heat and
eat meals brought by themselves.
835. Where practicable, and as required, mobile canteens
should be provided for the sale of nutritious meals to workers.
836. During mealtimes and other work breaks, workers
should be protected from extremes of temperature and extreme
weather conditions. The necessary arrangements should be
made to ensure the regular maintenance in a clean and sanitary
condition of all the facilities provided.

223
Safety and health in opencast mines

837. When required, adequate transport facilities should be

arranged to meet the needs of shiftworkers at suitable times of
the day and night. Where, in the interests of health and safety
and to avoid excessive fatigue, it appears necessary for persons to
be transported to and from their places of work, suitable trans-
port should be provided. contents

12.2. Personal hygiene

838. Adequate washing facilities, including hot and cold or
warm running water, together with soap or other cleaning mate-
rials and towels or other drying equipment, should be provided.
839. The washing facilities should be conveniently accessible
but situated so that they are not themselves exposed to contam-
ination from the workplace.
840. Suitable toilets should be provided by the employer with
handwashing facilities and soap.
841. Toilets, washing facilities and areas set aside for
eating should be kept clean and in a hygienic condition by the
employer. The type of washing facilities should be related to the
nature and degree of exposure.
842. Facilities for storing personal clothing should be pro-
vided when protective clothing is used or when there is a risk of
contamination of personal clothing by hazardous materials.
843. Changing facilities should be situated and designed
so as to prevent the spread of contamination from protective
clothing to personal clothing and from one facility to another.
12.3. Alcohol and drug use
844. Problems relating to alcohol and drug use may arise from
personal, family or social factors, or from certain work situa-
tions, or from a combination of these elements. Such problems

224
 12.  Special protection

not only have an adverse effect on the health and well-being

of workers, but may also cause difficulties at work, including a
deterioration in job performance. As there are multiple causes
of alcohol- and drug-related problems, there are consequently
multiple approaches to prevention, assistance, treatment and
rehabilitation. contents

845. Alcohol and other drug policies and programmes should

promote the prevention, reduction and management of alcohol-
and drug-related problems in the workplace. Management and
workers and their representatives should cooperate in devel-
oping such programmes. The same restrictions or prohibitions
with respect to alcohol should apply to both management and
workers.
846. Testing of bodily samples for alcohol and drugs in the
context of employment involves moral, ethical and legal issues
of fundamental importance, requiring a determination of when
it is fair and appropriate to conduct such testing.
847. Workers who seek treatment and rehabilitation for
alcohol- or drug-related problems should not be disciplined or
discriminated against by the employer and should enjoy funda-
mental principles and rights at work.1 Any information com-
municated should be treated with confidentiality.
848. It should be recognized that the employer has authority
to discipline workers for employment-related misconduct asso-
ciated with alcohol and drugs. However, counselling, treatment
and rehabilitation should be preferred to disciplinary action.
849. Further information can be found in Management of
alcohol- and drug-related issues in the workplace, an ILO code of

In accordance with the 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and

1

Rights at Work.

225
Safety and health in opencast mines

practice, 1996; and Alcohol and drug problems at work: The shift
to prevention (ILO, 2003).
12.4. HIV and AIDS
850. HIV and AIDS should be treated like any other chronic
illness/condition in the workplace. contents

851. The ILO HIV and AIDS Recommendation, 2010 (No.

200), and the ILO code of practice on HIV and AIDS and the
world of work should be instrumental in helping to prevent
the spread of the pandemic, mitigate its impact on workers and
their families and provide social protection to help cope with
the disease.
852. The work environment should be healthy and safe in
order to prevent transmission of HIV. Employers should take
steps to prevent the transmission of HIV and other blood-borne
pathogens, particularly with respect to emergency response.
Universal precaution should be applied with respect to first
aid and other medical procedures and to the handling of other
potentially infected material.
853. There should be no disciplinary action nor discrimina-
tion against workers on the basis of ongoing medical care or real
or perceived HIV status. Real or perceived HIV status should
not be a cause for termination of employment. Temporary
absence from work because of illness or caregiving duties related
to HIV or AIDS should be treated in the same way as absences
for other health reasons.
854. Persons with HIV-related illness should not be denied
the possibility of continuing to carry out their work, with rea-
sonable accommodation if necessary, for as long as they are
medically fit to do so. Measures to redeploy such persons to
work reasonably adapted to their abilities, to find other work

226
 12.  Special protection

through training or to facilitate their return to work should be

encouraged.
855. In workplaces, it is recommended to have an HIV and
AIDS policy and programme, the successful implementation
of which requires cooperation and trust between employers,
workers and their representatives. The active participation of contents

both men and women should be promoted in the HIV response,

regardless of sexual orientation.
856. When there is a possibility of exposure to HIV at work,
workers should receive education and training on modes of
transmission and measures to prevent exposure and infection.
Awareness-raising measures should emphasize that HIV is not
transmitted by casual physical contact and that the presence of
a person living with HIV should not be considered a workplace
hazard.
857. There should be no discrimination against workers
living with HIV or AIDS in access to and receipt of benefits
from statutory social security programmes and occupational
health services.

227
Bibliography

The International Labour Conference has adopted a large

number of international labour Conventions and accompanying contents
Recommendations directly concerned with OSH issues. The
ILO has also developed codes of practice and technical publi-
cations that are applicable to opencast mining. They represent
a body of definitions, principles, obligations, duties and rights,
as well as technical guidance reflecting the consensual views of
the ILO’s tripartite constituents from its 187 member States on
most aspects of OSH.
1. Relevant ILO Conventions and Recommendations
1.1. Fundamental ILO Conventions and accompanying
Recommendations
Eight Conventions were included by the International
Labour Conference in the ILO Declaration on Fundamental
Principles and Rights at Work. These eight Conventions cover
the following four areas:
Freedom of association
• Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to
Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)
• Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Con-
vention, 1949 (No. 98)
The elimination of forced labour
• Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29) and the
Protocol of 2014
• Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No.
105)

229
Safety and health in opencast mines

The abolition of child labour

• Minimum Age Convention (No. 138) and Recom-
mendation (No. 146), 1973
• Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182)
and Recommendation (No. 190), 1999
The elimination of discrimination
contents

• Discrimination (Employment and Occupation) Con-

vention (No. 111) and Recommendation (No. 111),
1958
• Equal Remuneration Convention (No. 100) and
Recommendation (No. 90), 1951
1.2. Conventions and Recommendations on occupational safety
and health and working conditions
• Labour Inspection Convention, 1947 (No. 81) and
Recommendation (No. 81), 1947
• Radiation Protection Convention (No. 115) and
Recommendation (No. 114), 1960
• Reduction of Hours of Work Recommendation (No.
116), 1962
• Guarding of Machinery Convention (No. 119) and
Recommendation (No. 118), 1963
• Employment Injury Benefits Convention (No. 121) and
Recommendation (No. 121), 1964
• Maximum Weight Convention (No. 127) and
Recommendation (No. 128), 1967
• Workers’ Representatives Convention, 1971 (No. 135)
and Recommendation (No. 143), 1971
• Occupational Cancer Convention (No. 139) and
Recommendation (No. 147), 1974

230
 Bibliography

• Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and

Vibration) Convention (No. 148) and Recommendation
(No. 156), 1977
• Occupational Safety and Health Convention (No. 155)
and Recommendation (No. 164), 1981
• Protocol of 2002 (recording and notification of occu- contents

pational accidents and diseases) to the Occupational

Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155)
• Occupational Health Services Convention (No. 161)
and Recommendation (No. 171), 1985
• Asbestos Convention (No. 162) and Recommendation
(No. 172), 1986
• Chemicals Convention (No. 170) and Recommendation
(No. 177), 1990
• Night Work Convention (No. 171) and Recom-
mendation (No. 178), 1990
• Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents Convention
(No. 174) and Recommendation (No. 181), 1993
• Safety and Health in Mines Convention (No. 176),
1995
• Maternity Protection Convention (No. 183) and
Recommendation (No. 191), 2000
• List of Occupational Diseases Recommendation (No.
194), 2002 (as well as the ILO List of Occupational
Diseases (revised 2010))
• Promotional Framework for Occupational Safety and
Health Convention (No. 187) and Recommendation
(No. 197), 2006
• Recommendation concerning HIV and AIDS and the
World of Work (No. 200), 2010

231
Safety and health in opencast mines

2. Selected ILO codes of practice with provisions which

are relevant and applicable to opencast mining
• Protection of workers against noise and vibration in the
working environment, 1977
• Occupational exposure to airborne substances harmful to
health, 1980 contents

• Safety in the use of asbestos, 1984

• Radiation protection of workers (ionizing radiations),
1987
• Safety, health and working conditions in the transfer of
technology to developing countries, 1988
• Prevention of major industrial accidents, 1991
• Safety in the use of chemicals at work, 1993
• Management of alcohol- and drug-related issues in the
workplace, 1996
• Recording and notification of occupational accidents and
diseases, 1996
• Protection of workers’ personal data, 1997
• Ambient factors in the workplace, 2001
• HIV/AIDS and the world of work, 2001
• Safety and health in the use of machinery, 2013

232
 Bibliography

3. Relevant publications
FAO, IAEA, ILO, OECD/NEA, PAHO and WHO. 1996.
International basic safety standards for protection against ion-
izing radiation and for the safety of radiation sources.
ICMM/IFC/World Bank. 2007. Working Together: How large-
scale mining can engage with artisanal and small-scale miners. contents

International Finance Corporation. 2004. HIV/AIDS guide for

the mining sector.
International Atomic Energy Agency and ILO. 2009.
Occupational radiation protection in the mining and pro-
cessing of raw materials: Safety guide.
The International Cyanide Management Institute. 2016.
International Cyanide Management Code.
ILO. 1993. The use of lasers in the workplace, ILO Occupational
Safety and Health Series No. 68.
—. 1994. Protection of workers from power frequency electric and
magnetic fields: A practical guide, ILO Occupational Safety
and Health Series No. 69.
—. 1997. Dust control in the working environment (silicosis),
Occupational Safety and Health Series No. 36.
—. 1998. Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at
Work and its Follow-up, International Labour Conference,
86th Session.
—. 1998. Technical and ethical guidelines for workers’ health sur-
veillance, Occupational Safety and Health Series, No. 72.
—. 1999. Conclusions of the Tripartite Meeting on Social and
Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines.
—. 2001. Guidelines on occupational safety and health manage-
ment systems, ILO–OSH 2001.

233
Safety and health in opencast mines

—. 2001. Safety and health in small-scale surface mines: A

handbook.
—. 2003. Alcohol and drug problems at work: The shift to
prevention.
—. 2006. Resolution concerning asbestos (adopted by the
International Labour Conference at its 95th Session) contents

—. 2012. Encyclopaedia of occupational health and safety, online

edition.
—. 2013. HIV and AIDS, Guidelines for the mining sector.
—. 2013. Training package on workplace risk assessment and
management for small and medium-sized enterprises.
—. 2014. A 5 STEP GUIDE for employers, workers and their
representatives on conducting workplace risk assessments.
—. 2017. Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning
Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (fifth edition,
2017).
United Nations. 2003. Globally harmonized system of classifica-
tion and labelling.
4. Relevant online information
Radiation Safety Institute of Canada. Online training
courses: http://onlinelearning.radiationsafety.ca/

234
Appendix I

Workers’ health surveillance contents

(adapted from ILO Technical and ethical guidelines
for workers’ health surveillance, Geneva, 1998)
1. General principles
1.1. Competent authorities should ensure that laws and
regulations governing workers’ health surveillance are properly
applied.
1.2. Workers’ health surveillance should be carried out in
consultation with workers and/or their representatives:
(a) with the central purpose of the primary prevention of
occupational and work-related injuries and diseases;
(b) under controlled conditions within an organized
framework, as may be prescribed by national laws and regula-
tions and in accordance with the Occupational Health Services
Convention, 1985 (No. 161), and Recommendation, 1985 (No.
171), and the ILO Technical and ethical guidelines for workers’
health surveillance, Occupational Safety and Health Series, No.
72 (Geneva, 1998).
2. Organization
2.1. The organization of workers’ health surveillance at dif-
ferent levels (national, industry, enterprise) should take into
account:
(a) the need for a thorough investigation of all work-related
factors and the nature of the occupational hazards and risks in
the workplace which may affect workers’ health;

235
Safety and health in opencast mines

(b) the health requirements of the work and the health

status of the working population;
(c) the relevant laws and regulations and the available
resources;
(d) the awareness of workers and employers of the functions
and purposes of such surveillance; contents

(e) the fact that surveillance is not a substitute for moni-

toring and control of the working environment.
2.2. In accordance with the needs and available resources,
workers’ health surveillance should be carried out at the
national, industry, enterprise and/or other appropriate levels.
Provided that surveillance is carried out or supervised by quali-
fied occupational health professionals, as prescribed by national
laws and regulations, it can be undertaken by:
(a) occupational health services established in a variety of
settings, for example, within an enterprise or among enterprises;
(b) occupational health consultants;
(c) the occupational and/or public health facilities available
in the community where the enterprise is located;
(d) social security institutions;
(e) worker-run centres;
(f) contracted professional institutions or other bodies
authorized by the competent authority; or
(g) a combination of any of the above.
2.3. A comprehensive system of workers’ health surveillance
should:
(a) include individual and collective health assessments,
occupational injury and disease recording and notification, sen-
tinel event notification, surveys, investigations and inspections;

236
 Appendix I

(b) comprise the collection of information from various

sources, and analysis and evaluation with regard to quality and
intended use;
(c) determine action and follow-up, including:
(i) guidance on health policies and OSH programmes;
and contents

(ii) early warning capabilities so that the competent

authority, employers, workers and their repre-
sentatives, occupational health professionals and
research institutions can be alerted to existing or
emerging OSH problems.
3. Assessment
3.1. Medical examinations and consultations, as the most
commonly used means of health assessment of individual
workers, either as part of screening programmes or on an
as-needed basis, should serve the following purposes:
(a) the assessment of the health of workers in relation to
hazards or risks, giving special attention to workers with specific
needs for protection in relation to their health condition;
(b) detection of pre-clinical and clinical abnormalities
at a point when intervention is beneficial to the health of the
individual;
(c) prevention of further deterioration in workers’ health;
(d) evaluation of the effectiveness of control measures in the
workplace;
(e) reinforcement of safe methods of work and health
maintenance;
(f) assessment of fitness for a particular type of work, with
due regard to the adaptation of the workplace to the worker,
taking into account individual susceptibility.

237
Safety and health in opencast mines

3.2. Pre-assignment medical examinations, where appro-

priate, carried out before or shortly after employment or assign-
ment, should:
(a) collect information which serves as a baseline for future
health surveillance;
(b) be adapted to the type of work, vocational fitness cri- contents

teria and workplace hazards.

3.3. During employment, medical examinations should take
place at periodic intervals, as prescribed by national laws and
regulations, and be appropriate to the occupational risks of the
enterprise. These examinations should also be repeated:
(a) on resumption of work after a prolonged absence for
health reasons;
(b) at the request of the worker, for example, in the case of
change of work and, in particular, change of work for health
reasons.
3.4. Where persons have been exposed to hazards and, as a
consequence, there is a significant risk to their health in the long
term, suitable arrangements should be made for post-employ-
ment medical surveillance for the purposes of ensuring the early
diagnosis and treatment of such diseases.
3.5. Biological tests and other investigations should be pre-
scribed by national laws and regulations. They should be subject
to the worker’s informed consent and performed according to
the highest professional standards and least possible risk. These
tests and investigations should not introduce unnecessary new
hazards to the workers.
3.6. Genetic screening should be prohibited or limited to
cases explicitly authorized by national legislation, in accordance
with the ILO code of practice Protection of workers’ personal
data (Geneva, 1997).

238
 Appendix I

4. Collection, processing, communication and use of data

4.1. Workers personal medical data should:
(a) be collected and stored in conformity with medical
confidentiality, in accordance with the ILO code of practice
Protection of workers’ personal data (Geneva, 1997);
(b) be used to protect the health of workers (physical, contents

mental and social well-being) individually and collectively, in

accordance with the ILO Technical and ethical guidelines for
workers’ health surveillance.
4.2. The results and records of workers’ health surveillance
should:
(a) be clearly explained by professional health personnel to
the workers concerned or to persons of their choice;
(b) not be used for unwarranted discrimination, for which
there should be recourse in national law and practice;
(c) be made available, where requested by the competent
authority, to any other party agreed by both employers and
workers, to prepare appropriate health statistics and epidemio-
logical studies, provided anonymity is maintained, where this
may aid in the recognition and control of occupational injuries
and diseases;
(d) be kept for the time and under the conditions prescribed
by national laws and regulations, with appropriate arrangements
to ensure that workers’ health surveillance records are securely
maintained in the case of establishments that have closed down.

239
Appendix II

Surveillance of the working environment

(based on the Occupational Health Services
contents
Recommendation, 1985 (No. 171))
1. The surveillance of the working environment should include:
(a) identification and evaluation of the hazards and risks
which may affect workers’ safety and health;
(b) assessment of conditions of occupational hygiene and
factors in the organization of work which may give rise
to hazards or risks to the safety and health of workers;
(c) assessment of collective and PPE;
(d) assessment, where appropriate, of exposure of workers to
hazardous agents by valid and generally accepted moni-
toring methods;
(e) assessment of control systems designed to eliminate or
reduce exposure.
2. Such surveillance should be carried out in liaison with the
other technical services of the undertaking and in cooperation
with the workers concerned and their representatives in the
undertaking and/or the safety and health committee, where
they exist.
3. In accordance with national law and practice, data resulting
from the surveillance of the working environment should be
recorded in an appropriate manner and be available to the
employer, the workers and their representatives in the under-
taking concerned or the safety and health committee, where
they exist.

241
Safety and health in opencast mines

4. These data should be used on a confidential basis and solely

to provide guidance and advice on measures to improve the
working environment and the safety and health of workers.
5. The competent authority should have access to these data.
They may only be communicated to others with the agree-
ment of the employer and the workers or their representa- contents

tives in the undertaking or the safety and health committee,

where they exist.
6. The surveillance of the working environment should entail
such visits by the personnel providing occupational health
services as may be necessary to examine the factors in the
working environment which may affect the workers’ health,
the environmental health conditions at the workplace and
the working conditions.
7. Without prejudice to the responsibility of each employer for
the safety and health of workers in their employment, and with
due regard to the necessity for workers to participate in OSH
matters, personnel providing occupational health services
should have such of the following functions as are adequate
and appropriate to the occupational risks of the undertaking:
(a) carry out monitoring of workers’ exposure to hazards
and risks, when necessary;
(b) advise on the possible impact on the workers’ health of
the use of technologies;
(c) participate in and advise on the selection of the equip-
ment necessary for the personal protection of the workers
against occupational hazards;
(d) collaborate in job analysis and in the study of organi-
zation and methods of work with a view to securing a
better adaptation of work to the workers;

242
 Appendix II

(e) participate in the analysis of occupational accidents

and occupational diseases and in accident prevention
programmes;
(f) supervise sanitary installations and other facilities for
the workers, such as drinking water, canteens and living
accommodation, when provided by the employer. contents

7. Personnel providing occupational health services should,

after informing the employer, workers and their repre-
sentatives, where appropriate:
(a) have free access to all workplaces and to the installations
the undertaking provides for the workers;
(b) have access to information concerning the processes,
performance standards, products, materials and sub-
stances used or whose use is envisaged, subject to their
preserving the confidentiality of any secret information
they may learn which does not affect the safety and
health of workers;
(c) be able to take for the purpose of analysis samples of
products, materials and substances used or handled.
8. Personnel providing occupational health services should be
consulted concerning proposed modifications in work pro-
cesses or in conditions of work liable to have an effect on the
safety or health of workers.

243
Appendix III

Occupational exposure limits for hazardous substances, heat,

noise and vibration
contents

1. Purpose
1.1. This appendix gives a general introduction to exposure
limits for the use of competent authorities, employers, workers
and others, and indicates where more information can be
obtained. Although some illustrative values are quoted, it is not
the purpose of this appendix to list values, because these change
continually as more technical information becomes available,
and it is the responsibility of the competent authority to specify
which exposure limits should be used and how.
1.2. Certain standard-setting bodies rely on technical exper-
tise only. They do not accurately reflect the views of the social
partners, for example, trade unions. This should be taken into
account when referring to the standards mentioned in this
appendix.
2. General
2.1. An exposure limit (EL) is a level of exposure specified
by a competent authority, or some other authoritative organiza-
tion such as a professional body, as an indicator of the level to
which workers can be exposed without serious injury. It is used
as a general term and covers the various expressions employed
in national lists, such as “maximum allowable concentration”,
“threshold limit value”, “permissible level”, “limit value”, “average
limit value”, “permissible limit”, “occupational exposure limit”,
“industrial hygiene standards”, and so on. The exact definition
and intended application of ELs vary widely from one authority

245
Safety and health in opencast mines

to another, and the underlying definitions and assumptions

and the requirements of the appropriate competent authority
should be taken into account if they are used. For example,
some authorities have promulgated ELs that are used as legally
permitted “safe” levels of exposure and are intended to protect
against injury, not against every health effect. Other authorities contents
provide for limits intended as guidelines or recommendations in
the control of potential workplace health hazards.
2.2. An important example of the caution to be applied in
using ELs is provided in the introduction to the annual pub-
lication Threshold limit values for chemical substances and
physical agents and biological exposure indices of the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH):
threshold limit values (TLVs) “represent conditions under which
it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed
day after day without adverse health effects. Because of wide var-
iation in individual susceptibility, however, a small percentage
of workers may experience discomfort from some substances at
concentrations at or below the threshold limit; a smaller per-
centage may be affected more seriously”. Consequently, any
EL represents a risk that is felt to be acceptable based on a par-
ticular criterion, and where such limits are promulgated there
is usually an additional requirement to keep exposure as low as
practicable, rather than simply below the EL.
2.3. It is also important to take into account the averaging
period for which the limit is intended. Some limits are ceiling
values to be continuously applied; others apply to average expo-
sures over a period of up to several years. A short period limit
requires stricter control than a longer period limit at the same
exposure value. For example, a limit applying to a month might
allow the exposure to range above the value for days at a time,
provided there was a compensating period of low exposure that

246
 Appendix III

maintained the monthly average. If the same value were applied

to 15-minute averages, the control would have to be good
enough to keep every 15-minute average below the value.
2.4. ELs generally limit exposure of the individual, and
measurements to be compared with the EL must therefore be
taken close to the individual (“personal exposure”), unless the contents

EL in question is clearly stated to be applicable to the general

value in the workplace environment. A measurement result
sometimes depends on the measurement method, and quality
control of measurements is often important; employers should
consult the occupational health service, including the compe-
tent authority, on these issues.
2.5. Some authorities issue lists of values to be used in bio-
logical monitoring or in biological effect monitoring. As with
ELs, different lists are derived from different assumptions and
are intended to be used in different ways. They include lists
of values that are believed to be safe, and values that are not
necessarily safe but that represent an acceptable standard of
control.
3. General sources
3.1. It is the responsibility of the competent authority
to specify what ELs should be used, and the responsibility
of the employer to obtain this information from the com-
petent authority for any particular hazard and to compare
the EL values with exposure levels in workplaces in order
to verify whether exposure is being properly controlled. A
large number of international, national and other authorities
have published lists of legal or recommended ELs of various
sorts, but usually only for chemicals. The most wide ranging
is the ACGIH TLV list, updated annually, which includes
recommended EL values for airborne chemicals; biological

247
Safety and health in opencast mines

monitoring limits; ionizing, non-ionizing and optical radia-

tion; thermal stress; noise; and vibration. The International
Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) produces IPCS
International Chemical Safety Cards, which are peer-re-
viewed assessment documents. International organizations,
such as the International Organization for Standardization contents
(ISO) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA),
produce technical standards on the measurement and con-
trol of several ambient factors with the objective of their
being transferred to regional or national legislation.
3.2. For all the ambient factors dealt with in this code of
practice, detailed guidance on ELs and other aspects of assess-
ment and control is provided by the ILO Encyclopaedia of
Occupational Health and Safety (Geneva, online edition, 2012).
Some references concerning ELs for particular ambient factors
are given in the following sections.
4. Hazardous substances
4.1. ELs for solids and non-volatile liquids are usually in mg/
m3 (milligrams of the chemical in a cubic metre of air). ELs for
gases and vapours are usually in ppm (parts of the substance in a
million parts of air, by volume), and also in mg/m3 at a specified
temperature and pressure. A smaller number of lists of ELs is
available for biological monitoring.
4.2. Many authorities have issued lists of ELs for air-
borne chemicals, on various assumptions. The International
Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre (CIS)
of the ILO maintains a database of the limits from different
parts of the world. For the time being, peer-reviewed IPCS
International Chemical Safety Cards are available for around
1,300 chemical substances.
4.3. There are European standards for:

248
 Appendix III

(a) the performance of measurement methods for airborne

chemicals: EN 482: Workplace atmospheres: General require-
ments for the performance of procedures for the measurement of
chemical agents (1994);
(b) comparison of the results with ELs: EN 689: Workplace
atmospheres: Guidance for the assessment of exposure by inha- contents

lation to chemical agents for comparison with limit values and

measurement strategy (1996).
4.4. Recommended values are given in Threshold limit values
for chemical substances and physical agents and biological expo-
sure indices (see paragraph 2.2).
4.5. Prominent national standards are:
(a) EH 40: Occupational exposure limits (United Kingdom,
Health and Safety Executive (HSE)) (revised annually);
(b) Technical code of practice TRGS 900 (Technische
Regeln für Gefahrstoffe): Grenzwerte in der Luft am Arbeitsplatz
[Limit values relating to air in the workplace] (Germany)
(revised annually);
(c) Code of Federal Regulations, 1910. Subpart Z:
Hazardous and toxic substances (United States Department of
Labor, Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2001).
5. Heat
5.1. A series of international standards, including those
of the ISO, are helpful in the assessment and monitoring of
the thermal environment. ISO 11399:1995 Ergonomics of the
thermal environment: Principles and application of relevant
international standards is a useful guide to their application.
5.2. In hot environments, ISO 7243:1989 Hot environ-
ments: Estimation of the heat stress on working man, based on the
WBGT index (wet bulb globe temperature) gives a rapid method

249
Safety and health in opencast mines

based on the WBGT index, which will be satisfactory under

most conditions. It may provide insufficient protection for
work in impervious clothing, in high radiant temperature, or a
combination of high temperature and high air velocity. Under
these more severe conditions, ISO 7933:1989 Hot environ-
ments: Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal contents
stress using calculation of required sweat rate and ISO 9886:1992
Ergonomics: Evaluation of thermal strain by physiological meas-
urements provide guidance for assessing individual response.
5.3. EN 563: Safety of machinery: Temperatures of touchable
surfaces: Ergonomics data to establish temperature limit values for
hot surfaces (1994) is also relevant.
5.4. The ACGIH publication Threshold limit values for
chemical substances and physical agents and biological exposure
indices (see paragraph 2.2 of this appendix) gives details of
work/rest regimes and is revised annually.
6. Noise
6.1. Noise is conventionally measured in terms of the pres-
sure of the sound wave. Because the ear responds roughly to
the logarithm of the pressure, rather than its linear value, noise
intensity is measured in decibels (dB), which are related to the
logarithm of the ratio of the pressure of the sound to the pres-
sure of a standardized least detectable sound. Also, the ear is
more responsive to some frequencies than others, so measure-
ments and ELs are in terms of dB(A), which takes a frequency
weighting into account. All authorities specify an EL in terms
of dB(A) applicable to eight-hour exposures, with a formula to
deal with other exposure periods, and in most cases a peak EL
as well. Some authorities apply stricter standards to particular
environments. Users should apply standards that are adopted or
recognized by the competent authority. These include a series of

250
 Appendix III

ISO standards on acoustics (1999:1990; 4871:1996; 9612:1997;

7196:1995; 11690:1996).
7. Vibration
7.1. ELs for vibration are usually in terms of the root-mean-
square (rms) acceleration, frequency weighted to take human
response into account. The standard is usually applied to eight-
contents

hour exposures, with a formula to account for shorter or longer

periods.
7.2. For whole-body vibration, limits are applied to the lon-
gitudinal component (through the head and feet), to the two
axes at right angles to this, and to a weighted combination of all
three (ISO 2631-1:1997).
7.3. For hand-transmitted vibration, limits are applied to
frequency-weighted acceleration along three orthogonal axes
centred at the point of contact of the hand and the tool (ISO
5349-1:2001 provides guidelines for measurement).

251
Appendix IV

Supplementary measures relating to boilers and pressure vessels1

Boilers and steam plant contents

Every boiler installed at an opencast mine, whether separate

or part of a range, should be provided with:
(a) one or more appropriate safety valves, the setting of
which should only be altered by a competent person;
(b) appropriate steam and water gauges to show respectively
the pressure and the height of the water in that boiler; and
(c) effective guarding or other protection for the gauges
provided on each boiler.
The maximum pressure at which steam should be generated
and the blow-off pressure should both be marked on each steam
gauge, and all relevant persons should be made familiar with
this arrangement.
Boilers and steam plant should be treated the same as other
machinery under the Machinery code and should be included
in the machinery control plan.
Compressed air plant
Any air compressor used at a mine should be so designed,
constructed, operated and maintained that:

1
To be read in conjunction with the ILO code of practice Safety and health in
the use of machinery (Geneva, 2013) (the “Machinery code”), in particular
Chapter 8 – Supplementary measures relating to specific machinary types.

253
Safety and health in opencast mines

(a) air entering the compressor is as dry, clean and cool as is

practicable;
(b) the maximum temperature of the air in the compressor
is safely below the flashpoint of the compressor lubricating oil
(for example, below 30°C); and
(c) the compressor is stopped either manually or automati- contents

cally if the air temperature becomes too high (for example, due
to an interruption in the flow of fluid used in the compressor
cooling system).
Pressure vessels used as air-receiver tanks should:
(a) be equipped with one or more automatic pressure-relief
valves, which prevent pressure from exceeding the maximum
allowable working pressure by not more than 10 per cent; and
(b) also be equipped with pressure gauges which accurately
indicate the internal pressure.
Pressurized hose lines should be kept secure and persons
protected from injury from the escape of compressed air.
Compressed air plant should be treated the same as other
machinery under the Machinery code and should be included
in the machinery control plan for an opencast mine.
Standards for boilers and pressure vessels
Boilers and pressure vessels should be compliant with
national laws and any relevant accepted standards.

254
Safety and health in opencast mines
The original code of practice Safety and health in opencast mines
was published in 1991. This revised code, adopted in October 2017
by a Meeting of Experts drawing upon the knowledge and experience
of governments, employers, workers and other participants, reflects
the many changes in the industry, its workforce, the roles of the
competent authorities, employers, workers and their organizations,
and the development of new ILO instruments on occupational
safety and health (OSH), including the Safety and Health in Mines
Convention, 1995 (No. 176). To this effect, the new code is based
on the principles of the Convention, including risk assessment,
addresses issues such as the interaction between large-scale
and small-scale artisanal miners and also comprises a section
on automated machinery, a development that has great potential
to change the work carried out by nearly all workers in opencast
mines worldwide.