Anatomy

Study of the structure of body parts.

Ana: up
Tomy: process of cutting

• First studied through dissection – the careful cutting of body

structures.
• Anatomy is concrete; body structures can be seen, felt, and
examined closely.
ANATOMY SUBSPECIALTIES
Embryology First 8 weeks of development, following the
fertilization of an egg.

Developmental Biology Complete development of an individual, from

fertilization to a death of an egg.

Cell Biology Histology Cell and tissues structure and function.

Gross Anatomy Structures that can be examined without using a

microscope.

Systemic Anatomy Structure of specific systems: nervous, respiratory,

etc.
Pathological Anatomy Structural changes (from gross to microscopic)
associated with disease.
 Physiology
Study of the function of body parts. How they work to carry out life-
sustaining activities.

• Physio: nature
• -logy: study of

• Explained only in terms of the underlying anatomy.

PHYSIOLOGY SUBSPECIALTIES
Cardiovascular Physiology Functions of heart and blood vessels.

Immunology How the body defends itself against disease-causing

agents.

Pathophysiology Functional changes associated with disease and

aging.
Exercise Physiology Changes in cell and organ function as a result of
muscular activity.

Respiratory Physiology Functions of the air passageways and lungs.

Neurophysiology Workings of the nervous system.

Complementarity of Structure and Function
• Anatomy and Physiology are inseparable.

• Function reflects structure.

• What a structure can do depends on its specific form.

• Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function.

Structural Organization
• Chemical level: atoms combine to form
molecules.
• Cellular level: cells are made up of
molecules.
• Tissue level: consists of similar types of
cells.
• Organ level: made up of different types
of tissues.
Necessary Life Functions
Maintaining boundaries Separation between external and internal environments must exist.

• Plasma membrane: separate cells

• Skin: separates organism from environment

Movement Muscular system allows movement

• Of body parts: skeletal muscles
• Of substances: cardiac muscle (blood) and smooth muscle
(digestion, urination)

Contractility: movement at cellular level

Responsiveness Ability to respond to stimuli (excitability).

• Withdrawal reflex prevents injury.

• Control of breathing rate, which must change in response to
different activities.

Reproduction At cellular level, reproduction involves division of cells for growth /

repair.

At organismal level, reproduction is the production of offspring.

Necessary Life Functions cont’d

Digestion
Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption
of simple molecules into blood.
Metabolism All chemical reactions that occur in body cells.

• Catabolism: molecule BREAKDOWN

• Anabolism: molecule SYNTHESIS

Excretion Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion.

• Urea (protein breakdown) – carbon dioxide

(metabolism) – feces (unabsorbed foods)

Growth Increase in size / body part.

Interrelationship Among Body Organ System
• Integumentary: main organ is the skin. Forms the
external body covering and protects deeper
tissues from injury. • Nervous: fast-acting control system of the body;
Responds to internal and external changes by
• Synthesizes vitamin D, houses cutaneous activating appropriate muscles and glands.
receptors (pain, pressure, etc.), sweat, and oil
glands. • Endocrine: glands secrete hormones that regulate
processes: growth, reproduction, nutrient use by
• Skeletal: protects and supports body organs and body cells (metabolism).
provides a framework the muscles use to cause
movement. • Cardiovascular: blood vessels transport blood
which carries oxygen, CO2, waste, nutrients, etc.
• Blood cells are formed with bones. Bones • Heart pumps blood.
store minerals.
• Lymphatic / immunity: picks up fluid leaked from
• Muscular: allows manipulation of the blood vessels & returns it to blood. Dispose debris
environment, locomotion, facial expression. in the lymphatic stream. Houses WBC
(lymphocyte) involved in immunity.
• Maintains posture, produces heat.
Interrelationship Among Body Organ System cont’d

• Reproductive (male & female): production

• Respiratory: keeps constant supply of of offspring.
oxygen for the blood and removes CO2.
• Testes produce sperm & male sex
• Digestive: breaks down food into hormone. Male ducts + glands aid in
absorbable units that enter the blood for delivery of sperm to the female tract.
distribution to body cells.
• Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated • Ovaries produce eggs & female sh.
as feces. The remaining female structures
serves as sites for fertilization and
• Urinary: eliminates nitrogenous waste; development of fetus. Mammary
regulates water, electrolyte & acid-base glands of female breast produce milk
balance of the blood. to nourish the newborn.
Survival Needs
Humans need several factors for survival that must be in appropriate amounts. Too much or
too little can be harmful.
• Nutrients
o Carbohydrates: major source of energy

o Proteins: needed for cell building +

chemistry
• Normal body temperature: if body temp. falls
below / above 37C, rates of chemical reactions are
o Fats: long-term energy storage
affected.

• Oxygen: essential for release of energy from • Atmospheric pressure: specific pressure of air is
foods. The body can survive only a few minutes needed for adequate breathing and gas exchange
WITHOUT oxygen. in lungs.

• Water: most abundant chemical in the body.

Provides water environment needed for chemical
reactions. Fluid base for secretion + excretions.
Homeostasis
• The maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment.
• In a dynamic state of equilibrium; always adjusting if needed.
• Maintained by contributions of all organ systems.
• Any process that helps maintain our internal environment, while dealing with an ever-changing external
environment.

Three components: Thermoregulation

• Hypothalamus: receives signal from
• Receptor: SENSES a change in environment, receptors on the skin and internal structures,
signals the – and decides how to stabilize temperature.
• Control center: determines HOW to respond to
the change, signals the –
• Effector: RECEIVES signal and adjusts Human Homeostasis
accordingly. • Blood sugar regulation
• Regulation of calcium levels in blood
• Negative feedback loop: occurs when a change in • Osmoregulation
a regulated variable triggers a response which • Acid-base
reverses the initial change. • Hemostasis
Homeostasis cont’d
• Body must be constantly monitored and regulated to maintain homeostasis.

• Nervous and endocrine systems, and others, play a major role in maintaining homeostasis.

• Variables are factors that can change (blood, sugar, body temp., blood volume, etc.)

Homeostatic control of variables involves 3 components:

• Receptor: sensor; monitors environment and responds to stimuli

• Control center: determines set point at which variable is maintained. Receives input from receptor;
determines appropriate response.

• Effector: receives output from control center; provides the means to respond.

• Response either reduce stimulus (negative feedback) or enhance stimulus (positive feedback).
1. Give 3 subspecialties of anatomy and 3 subspecialties of physiology that were not included as examples from the lecture.
Briefly discuss/talk about them.

Anatomy
• Surface anatomy: also called superficial / visual anatomy. This is in fact a branch of gross anatomy. Surface
anatomy is a descriptive science, and particularly in the case of human surface anatomy, studies the form
and proportions of a human body and its surface landmarks relative to deeper structures hidden from view.
It helps to at least determine and indicate where a particular part of the internal body is located, from the
outside.
o For instance, what we see outside in our facial features are the eyes, ears, nose, and lips. Suppose that
we are trying to locate the nasal bone. Our outside features can help us determine where it is – hence,
the nose.

• Regional anatomy: deals with the form, position, and relationship of structures that are present in a
particular location / region in the body. This is a bit of an opposite to surface anatomy, since dissection is
required to study the body’s regions, parts, and divisions.

• Radiographic anatomy: this subspecialty of anatomy involves the use of radiographic films, since it is the
study of anatomy through the use of x-rays. This is because there are certain parts / areas of the body which
cannot be studied without the help of radiographic instruments. This may especially help the study of
broken bones.
1. Give 3 subspecialties of anatomy and 3 subspecialties of physiology that were not included as examples from the lecture.
Briefly discuss/talk about them.

Physiology
• Endocrinology: the study of hormones – chemical regulators in blood –and how they control body
functions. Hormones are imperative for everyday survival, since it controls our sleep, mood, stress, growth,
and many others. Of course, hormones are chemicals, broadcast throughout the body which prompt
physiological changes in certain, specific target cells.

• Renal physiology: pertains to the functions of the kidney, or the physiology of the kidney. The key feature
of the renal physiology being a subspecialty, came from several articles and studies observed that the
kidney is a complex organ which causes a great impact on many physiological processes and systems. Some
of these are the:
o “Altered renal sodium handling and the development of hypertension..” – a review by Ivy & Bailey, 2014
o “The increased risk of cardiovascular disease when renal function is compromised, and vice versa..” –
Lekawanvijit & Krum, 2014

• Electrophysiology: the study of electrical properties of biological cells and tissues, and involves
measurements of electric current, and electrical activity of neurons and other cells. The role of
electrophysiology is to be able to make early diagnosis, study the possible toxicity of visual system, and for
an objective functional assessment and document the efficacy of a treatment.
2. Why are anatomy and physiology inseparable?

While it is understood that anatomy deals with the structures of body parts, and physiology is
concerned with how those structures function, when studied together – the two topics provide a more
complete figure of what the human body is, and how it works. The Principle of Complementarity of
Structure and Function basically tells all – the two subjects complement each other; sure enough, we can
study the two separately, but it would just leave us wondering: “what are these body parts for?”.

3. How can you relate your chosen course to the different systems of your body as a student? Choose 2 systems to relate to
and EXPLAIN further.

Psychology and the Nervous System

I believe that the Nervous System is of utmost significance in Psychology. In Neuropsychology, this branch of
clinical psychology discusses how the brain and nervous system affect how all of us function on a daily basis. Psychologists
study the nervous system because this is the most essential part of the body, wherein the way that people behave, think,
and feel is located in the brain. And since Psychology is the scientific study of people’s mind – and anything along that
concept, studying the brain and the nervous system is the most crucial factor for studying Psychology.
3. How can you relate your chosen course to the different systems of your body as a student? Choose 2 systems to relate to
and EXPLAIN further.

Psychology and the Endocrine System

The Endocrine system is comprised of glands which secrete hormones to regulate normal body functions. This
two discussions are related to each other through a study called Behavioral Endocrinology – the scientific study of
interaction between the hormones and behavior. Hormones can influence one’s behavior, and behavior occasionally
influence hormone concentrations. Hormones regulate behaviors, and an imbalance in hormones relate to several
disorders as well. It serves a crucial role in communicating throughout the body, which also helps in Psychology. The
Hypothalamus, in particular, connects the nervous and the endocrine systems, and is responsible for controlling a
phenomenal amount of human behavior.
4. Discuss homeostasis. Cite examples that are not stated in the video. Explain and avoid plagiarism.
With disregard to the continual, internal and external changes, homeostasis constitutes dynamic process
which allows optimum conditions be maintained for cells (Clancy and McVicar, 1995). In the most basic sense,
homeostasis is any self-regulating process of a human and many other organism for survival – inclined to maintain
stability and adjust to changing conditions. If homeostasis is unsuccessful, it may harm the organism, or even cause
its death. If successful, life continues.

• Our body, or particularly the Lymphatic system, help maintain homeostasis and aid in fighting an infection
when bacteria or virus that makes us sick , enters our body. It makes sure that we stay healthy.

• Another example is maintaining a healthy blood pressure. The heart is able to detect changes in blood
pressure thereby causing it to send signals to the brain, and back to the heart – if the blood pressure is too
low, the heart must slow down, if too low, the heart needs to accelerate.

• Maintaining the appropriate water balance is also an example of homeostasis. Cells with too little water
may shrink (hypertonic), if it contains too much water, the cell will swell and a probability to explode
(hypotonic).
5. What are the implications of Anatomy and Physiology in your future work as a professional?
I believe that the common misconception about Psychology is that our career (or future careers)
pertains to ‘mind-reading’ and some more concept similar to it; and that it’s all words and no mathematical /
statistical matters. When in reality, patients / clients and fellow professionals need data and reports – not just
assuring and helping words. Even in the field of Psychology, studying anatomy and physiology allows us to
better comprehend and explore the connection between anatomy and the science of behavior.

• With proper education in these subjects as a Psychology major, provides several advantages – from
standardized communication between professionals, to accurate and efficient documentation and reports.

• Additionally, the anatomical and medical terms we will learn in this subject will help us give precise answers
to the questions “what is the reason for this patient to seek help?” and “what do I have and need to do to help
and give proper medication to this patient?”

• Lastly, without anatomy and physiology, I would be inefficient and wouldn’t be able to truly explain why,
where, and how mental, emotional, and behavioral issues / matters occur. I believe that the majority of
human population prefers and needs a more authentic, realistic, scientific explanation, and anatomy and
physiology would help with that.