Educational Statistics
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Jhona IlaoMODULE 1 BASIC STATISTICAL CONCEPTS AND TOOLS
IN EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT
LESSON 1 INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL CONCEPTS
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. define statistics;
2. discuss the aim of statistics;
3. describe some useful vocabulary in statistics;
4. differentiate the different fields of statistics;
5. describe the kinds of data needed in educational management;
6. identify various kinds of variables; and,
7. distinguish between nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
Keywords and Phrases:
statistics discrete variable nominal scale
descriptive continuous variable ordinal scale
statistics
quantitative variable interval scale
inferential
statistics qualitative variable ratio scale
variable
Introduction
Professionals in education are eager to improve their instructional
procedures. Statistical formulations will always be encountered by an educator
at almost every turn, whether she is working with relevant educational data or
pursuing graduate work where statistics is a tool for research. Only through
statistical understanding can an educator really become professionally literate in
understanding the primary sources and data for new knowledge in his field of
specialization.
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Positive and encouraging signs that educators are using empirical
methods in evaluating teaching procedures are seen and with these, the
educator needs to be conversant with the statistical language used in reporting
evidences and data.
Definition of Statistics
Statistics refers to a set of mathematical formula used to analyze
numerical or quantitative data. It is a set of tools used to organize and analyze
data.
In its plural sense, the word statistics is a set of numerical data that are
gathered and analyzed systematically.
In its singular sense, statistics is a branch of science which deals with
gathering, presenting, analyzing and interpreting data.
Uses of Statistics in Education
1. To predict the demand for education of different sectors and to estimate
the future enrolment of students so that adequate educational resources –
teachers, facilities, buildings, and equipment – will be available at the right
time.
2. To analyze the flow of students and individuals with different kinds of
education.
3. To estimate future costs for the educational system.
4. To organize a database useful for education research, e.g., for controlling
the efficiency of the educational system in the light of educational plans
and programs.
5. To give information such as data on schools and classes, data on
students, data on teachers, institutional and national examinations, etc.
6. To give a broad description of the educational sector for the information of
the general public.
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7. To build a database that will provide information to educational financing
agencies such as DepEd, CHED, TESDA, DBM, etc.
Population and Sample
A population is the total or entire group of individuals or observations from
which information is desired by a researcher. (e.g. graduate students in
educational management)
A sample is a part or subset of the population used to gather information
about the population. This refers to a set of individuals selected from a
population, usually intended to represent the population in a study.
A parameter is a numerical characteristic of the population. When
describing data, it is necessary to distinguish if data come from a population or a
sample. Any characteristic of a population is called a parameter.
A statistic is a numerical value that describes a sample. Typically, every
population parameter has a corresponding sample statistics.
Fields of Statistics
Most statisticians agree that there are two primary fields of statistics as
applied to education. The first field involves the description of data. Statistical
techniques which are used to describe data are referred to as descriptive
statistics. Descriptive statistics are utilized to summarize sets of numerical data
such as test scores, ages, length of service, years of schooling, economic status
etc. Through the use of statistics one simplifies time and space necessary to
describe data.
The second field allows the researcher to draw better inferences as to
whether a phenomenon which is observed in a relatively small number of
individuals (sample) can be generalized to a larger number of individuals
(population). This is called inferential statistics.
In inferential statistics, one is frequently concerned with relationships
between and among variables. The educator attempts to discover relationships
among such variables as mental ability, performance or achievement, study
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 3
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habits, multiple intelligence etc. so that after establishing relationships, he may
use the results to improve school programs.
Thus, inferential statistics serves as an important function in the design of
educational research. The researcher should organize his studies carefully so
that the data yielded from the study can be analyzed meaningfully.
Variables and Measurement
A variable is a characteristic or attribute of persons or objects which
assume different values for different objects under consideration.
Measurement in the process of determining the value or label of a
particular variable for a particular individual or object on which a variable is
measured.
Classification of Variables
1. Discrete vs. Continuous Variables
A discrete variable can assume finite or at most, countably infinite number
of values; usually measured by counting or enumeration (e.g. students,
professors, mayors, children, priests, doctors etc.)
A continuous variable can assume many values corresponding to a line
interval (e.g. time, money, weight etc.)
2. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Variables
Qualitative variable is variable that yields categorical responses (e.g.
occupation, gender, civil status, political affiliation etc.)
Quantitative variable takes on numerical values representing an amount or
quantity (e.g. height, salary, number of children, etc.)
3. Independent vs. Dependent Variables
Independent variables are variables that the researcher controls or
manipulates in accordance with the purpose of the investigation.
Dependent variables are measures of the effect of the independent
variable/s. This is sometimes called an outcome variable.
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As an example, to determine the predictive validity of entrance
requirements for freshman students, the independent variables are national
achievement test, entrance examination and high school grade. The dependent
variable is the performance in first year college.
Levels of Measurement Scales
Data for analysis result from the measurement of one or more variables.
Depending upon the variables, and the way in which they are measured, different
kinds of data result represent different scales of measurement.
It is important to know which type of scale is represented by your data
since different statistics are appropriate for different scales of measurement. A
characteristic may be measured using nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales.
The resulting data are termed nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data.
Nominal Scale
Nominal scales have no numerical value. They are sometimes called
categorical scales or categorical data. Such a scale classifies persons or objects
into two or more categories. Whatever the basis for classification, a person can
only be in one category, and members of a given category have a common set of
characteristics. Categories may be referred to as true or artificial. True
categories are categories into which persons or objects naturally fall,
independently of the research study. Variables which involve true categories
include:
Sex (female vs. male)
Number of siblings (0 vs. 1 vs. 2 vs. 3, etc.)
Employment status (full-time vs. part-time vs. unemployed)
Educational attainment (elementary graduate vs. high school graduate vs.
bachelor‟s degree holder vs. master‟s degree holder vs. doctorate
degree holder)
Type of school (public versus private)
Examples of Survey Questions that use nominal data:
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[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
1. What is the teacher‟s gender? Encircle one.
Male 1
Female 2
2. Describe your current employment status? Encircle one.
Full-time 1
Part-Time 2
Not currently employed 3
Retired 4
3. Indicate your current marital status. Encircle one.
Single (never married) 1
Married 2
Single (widowed, separated) 3
Interval Scale
An interval scale has all the characteristics of a nominal scale and an
ordinal scale, but in addition, it is based upon predetermined equal intervals.
Achievement tests, aptitude tests, and intelligence tests represent interval scale.
When scores have equal intervals, it is assumed, for example, that the difference
between a score of 30 and a score of 40 is essentially the same as the difference
between a score of 50 and a score of 60.
An interval scale, however, do not have a true zero point. Such scale
typically has an arbitrary maximum score and an arbitrary minimum score, or
zero point. If an IQ test produces scores ranging from 0 to 200, a score of 0
does not indicate the absence of intelligence, nor does a score of 200 indicate
possession of ultimate intelligence. A score of 0 only indicates the lowest level of
performance possible on that particular test and a score of 200 represents the
highest level.
Scores resulting from administration of an interval scale can be added and
subtracted, but not multiplied or divided. We can say that an achievement test
score of 90 is 45 points higher than a score of 45, but we cannot say that a
person scoring 90 knows twice as much as a person scoring 45. Similarly, a
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 6
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person with a measured IQ of 140 is not necessarily twice as smart, or twice as
intelligence, as a person with measured IQ of 70.
Trait anxiety (e.g., high anxious vs. low anxious)
IQ (e.g., high IQ vs. average IQ vs. low IQ)
Family income (e.g., above average vs. below average)
Ordinal Scale
An ordinal scale not only classifies subjects but also ranks them in terms
of the degree to which they possess a characteristic of interest. In other words,
an ordinal scale puts the subjects in order from highest to lowest, from most to
least. Ordinal scales are typically seen in questions that call for ratings of quality
(e.g. excellent, very good, good, fair, poor, very poor) and agreement (e.g.
strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
Although ordinal scales indicate that some subjects are higher, or lower
than others, they do not indicate how much higher or how much better. That is,
intervals between ranks are not equal, the difference between rank 1 and rank 2
is not necessarily the same as the difference between rank 2 and 3, as the
example below illustrates.
Rank Weight (in lbs.)
1 170
2 165
3 158
4 150
5 145
6 140
7 138
8 137
9 135
10 130
Examples of Survey Questions that use ordinal scale
1. How much education have you completed? Encircle one.
College graduate 1
With some units in college 2
High school graduate 3
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Never furnished high school 4
2. What is your latest student evaluation? Encircle one.
Outstanding 1
Very satisfactory 2
Satisfactory 3
Fair 4
Poor 5
3. How often during the last month did you find yourself under stress?
Encircle one.
Always 5
Very often 4
Fairly often 3
Sometimes 2
Almost never 1
Ratio Scale
A ratio scale represents the highest, most precise, level of measurement.
A ratio scale has a meaningful, true zero point, height, weight, time, distance,
and speed are examples of ratio scales. Because of the true zero point, not only
can we say that the difference between a weight of 150 and a weight of 140 is
the same as the difference between 120 and 110, but also that a man 5‟4” is
twice as tall as a child 2‟7”. Similarly, 90 minutes is 3 times as long as 30
minutes, and 80 pounds is 4 times as heavy as 20 pounds.
It is interesting to note that, a statistic appropriate for a lower level of
measurement may be applied to data representing a higher level of
measurement. A statistic appropriate for ordinal data, for example, may be used
with interval data, since interval data possess all the characteristics of ordinal
data and more. The reverse, however, is not true. A statistic appropriate for
interval data cannot be applied to ordinal data since such a statistics requires
equal interval. (Downie, 1984)
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 8
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Summation Notation
The Greek letter (a capital sigma) is used to designate summation.
For example, suppose a teacher measured the performance of five (5) students
on worded distance problem in Algebra. Student 1‟s score will be referred to as
X1, Student 2‟s as X2, and so on. The scores are shown below:
Subject Score
1 X1 8
2 X2 9
3 X3 5
4 X4 7
5 X5 6
The way to use the summation sign to indicate the sum of all five X‟s is:
5
xi
11
This notation is read as follows: Sum the values of X from X 1 through X5.
The index I (shown just under the sign) indicates which values of X are to be
summed. The index I takes on values beginning with the value to the right of the
“=” sign (1 in this case) and continues sequentially until it reaches the value
above the sign (5 in this case). Therefore I takes on the values 1,2,3,4 and 5
and the values of X1, X2, X3, X4, and X5 are summed (8+9+5+7+6 = 35)
Examples:
1. For the numbers 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, compute
1.1 x
1.2 X2
1.3 (X)2
Solutions:
1.1 x = 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 11 = 35
1.2 X2 = 9 + 25+ 49 + 81 + 121 = 285
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 9
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1.3 (X)2 = (35)2 = 1225
Given:
X 1 3 4 8 10
Y 2 5 7 9 12
x = 1 + 3 + 4 + 8 + 10 = 26
X2 = 1 + 9 + 16 + 64 + 100 = 190
Y = 2 + 5 + 7 + 9 + 12 = 35
Y2 = 4 + 25 + 49 + 81 + 144 = 303
XY = (1)(2) + (3)(5) + (4)(7) + (8)(9) + (10)(12) = 237
(Y)2 = (35)2 = 1225
XY = (26)(35) = 910
XY2 = (26)(303) = 7878
Reading Assignment:
Links: ebmlibrarian.wetpaint.com/thread/508093
barnettinternational.com/EducationalServices_Seminar.as
px?s=6725&id
www.statsoft.com/textbook/esc.html
Read supplemental books on Statistics
E-Journals/E-Books
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
Password: powersearch
Exercises/Written Assignments:
A. Indicate whether the following statements require the use of descriptive
or inferential statistics.
1. A teacher wants to know the attitudes of all students towards
abortion.
2. A market analyst of a sales firm draws a chart showing the sales
figures of a given product for the period 2006-2007.
3. A forecaster predicts the results of an election using the number of
votes cast in 15 out of 25 barangays.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 10
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4. Men are better in math than women.
5. Forty percent of the employees of an organization were recorded
tardy for at least 15 working days.
6. There are very few gender-related occupations.
7. An account predicts accuracy rate of a client‟s financial resources.
8. A quality control manager wishes to check production output.
9. Records indicated that 75% of the faculty in the graduate school
are doctoral degree holders.
10. There is no relationship between educational qualification of
parents and academic achievement of their children.
B. Categorize each of the following variables as either discrete or
continuous.
1. Ages of out-of-school youth
2. Size of family in a certain barangay
3. Number of car passers along C5 on a given day
4. Distance from Baguio to Manila
5. Volume of mineral water sold daily
6. Number of cars sold in a branch outlet
7. Number of employees collecting retirement benefits from GSIS
8. Height of students
9. Salaries of employees
10. Weight of babies born in a hospital
C. Select the qualitative variable in each of the given pair
1. Sex Height
2. Time Status of employment
3. Hair color Weight
4. Car make Volume
5. Length Color
6. Asset Age
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 11
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
7. Occupation Distance
8. Temperature Political affiliation
9. Amount Type of school
10. Economic status Scores
D. Categorize each of the following as either nominal, ordinal, interval or
ratio measurement.
1. Ranking of college athletic teams
2. Employee number
3. Temperature in Celsius degrees
4. House number
5. Brands of softdrinks
6. Socioeconomic status
7. Number of vehicles registered
8. Zip code numbers
9. Annual income
10. Amount of time spent for telephone calls
E. Identify the qualitative and quantitative variables. If quantitative,
classify whether discrete of continuous. Also indicate the minimum
level of measurement required in each.
1. Response time
2. Number of words correctly spelled
3. Car ownership
4. Civil status
5. Educational qualification of respondent
6. Occupation
7. Job satisfaction rating
8. Number of government officials
9. Favorite color
10. Number of children
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[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
F. Given:
X 2 4 7 9 11
Y 1 3 8 10 15
Find:
1. x
2. x 2
3. y
4. y 2
5. xy
6. y
2
7. x2
8. x y
9. x y 2
10. x y
2
References/Bibliography:
Blommers, Paul J. Statistical Methods in Psychology and Education.
Lanham University Press. 1987
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth
Edition). 1984
Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.
New York: McGraw-Hill. 1989
Field, Maurice H. Statistics for Graduate Research Projects. Tennessee. .
1997
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 13
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Freed, M.N., Ryan, J.M., & Hess, R.K. Handbook of statistical procedures
and their computer applications to education and the behavioral
sciences. NY: MacMillan Publishing Co. 1991
Naval, Victoria C. et al. General Statistics. Conanan Publishing. 1988
Ostle, Bernard B. Statistics in Research: Basic Concepts and
Techniques for Research Workers. Ames: Iowa State University
Press. 1988
Popham, James . Educational Statistics: Use and Interpretation. Harper
and Row Publishers, New York. 1987
LESSON 2 SAMPLING DESIGNS: Basic Concepts and Procedures
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. describe the basic concepts and definitions of sampling designs;
2. compare censuses and surveys;
3. differentiate probability and non-probability sampling techniques; and,
4. compare different types of probability and non-probability sampling
techniques.
Keywords and Phrases:
population simple random sampling
census stratified random sampling
survey systematic random sampling
probability sampling cluster sampling
non-probability sampling
A. Basic Concepts and Definitions
1. Population – the entire group of items or individuals of interest in a study.
Operationally, a population is described in terms of time and space, as the
same population can have different characteristics at different times.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 14
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Because of the broad definition, researchers usually identify what
we call “defined target population” which consists of key informants from
which data or information may be collected by the researcher.
2. Sample – A sample is synonymous to an element of the population. It is a
person or item from which data is collected. It is a subset or a part of the
target population.
3. Sampling units – These are items or elements of the defined target
population available for selection during the sample process.
4. Frame – a collection of units, (referred to as sampling units) in a
population; the materials or devices, which delimit, identify and allow
access to the elements of the target population.
5. Survey – This refers to a method of collecting information about a
population in which direct contact is made with the units of study through
systematic means such as questionnaires and interview schedules.
5.1 Census or complete enumeration – This is a survey in which data are
to be collected from all elements of the target population
5.2 Sample survey – This refers to the gathering of information from only a
fraction of the population chosen to represent the whole.
6. Probability and Sampling Designs
6.1 Probability - This is a measure of the relative occurrence or non-
occurrence of one of the possible outcomes of an experiment or
procedure.
6.2 Probability Sampling – This refers to a sampling process where each
unit in the population has a known nonzero probability of being
included in the sample.
6.3 Non-probability sampling – A sampling process wherein probabilities of
selection are not specified for the individual units in the population
7. Basic Sampling Designs
7.1 Probability Sampling
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 15
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
a. Description – Sampling design wherein every item or element in the
population is given an equal nonzero chance of being selected as a
sample. This could be done either with or without replacement.
b. Advantage – it is very simple and easy to use.
c. Disadvantage – The sample chosen may be distributed over a wide
geographic area.
d. When to use – This is preferable to use if the population is not
widely spread geographically. Also, this is more appropriate to use
if the population is more or less homogenous with respect to the
characteristics of the population.
7.2 Stratified Random Sampling
a. Description – The population is divided into „strata‟ or groupings.
The samples from each stratum are drawn independently from the
samples from other strata. Samples from each stratum may be
randomly drawn using simple random sampling techniques.
b. Advantage – Stratification of respondents is advantageous in terms
of precision of the estimates of the characteristics of the population.
Sampling designs may vary by stratum to adjust for the differences
in the conditions across strata. It is easy to use as a random
sampling design.
c. Disadvantage – Values of the stratification variable may not be
easily available for all units in the population especially if the
characteristic of interest is homogeneous. It is possible that there
are not representative in one or two strata. Also, transportation
costs can be high if the population covers a wide geographic area.
d. When to use – If the population is such that the distribution of the
characteristics of the respondents under consideration
concentrated in small and spread segment of the population. Thus,
this is preferred to use if precise estimates are desired for stratified
parts of the population and if sampling problems differ in the
various strata of the population
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 16
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
7.3 Systematic Random Sampling
a. Description – Samples are selected by going down an arranged list
of elements in the population using a fixed interval, k; the k th
subsequent unit after the last selected sample is also selected as
sample. For example, in a list of 100 respondents, where k is 5, the
first element is the 5th in list, followed by the 10th, the 15th and so
on, until the desired sample size is attained.
b. Advantage – Drawing of the sample is easy. It is easy to
administer in the field, and the sample is spread evenly over the
population.
c. Disadvantage – May give poor precision when unsuspected
periodicity is present in the population.
d. When to use – This is advisable to us if the ordering of the
population is essentially random and when stratification with
numerous data is used.
7.4 Cluster Sampling
a. Description – It refers to selecting a sample of distinct groups or
clusters of smaller units called elements. Similar to strata in
stratified random sampling, clusters are mutually exclusive
subpopulations. Unlike strata, however, it is desirable to form
clusters with heterogeneous elements so that each cluster will
be typical or the population.
b. Advantages – There is no need to come out with a list of units in
the population; all what is needed is simply a list of the clusters.
It is also less costly since the elements are physically closer
together.
c. Disadvantage – In actual field applications, adjacent households
tend to have more similar characteristics than households
distantly apart.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 17
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
d. When to use – If the population can be grouped into clusters
where individual population elements are know to be different
with respect to the characteristics under study, this preferable to
use.
7.5 Multi-stage Sampling
a. Description – Selection of the sample is done in two or more
steps or stages, with sampling units varying in each stage. The
population is first divided into a number of first-stage sampling
units from which a sample is drawn. Smaller units, called the
secondary sampling units, comprising the selected first-stage
units then serve as the sampling units for the next stage. If
needed, additional stages may be added until the units of
observation for the survey are clearly identified. The smaller
units comprising the samples selected from the previous stage
constitute the frame for the stages.
b. Advantages – it is easier to generate adequate sampling
frames. Transportation costs are greatly reduced since there is
some form of clustering among the ultimate or final samples;
i.e., they are in the sample lower-stage units.
c. Disadvantage – Its complexity in theory may be difficult to apply
in the field. Estimation procedures may be difficult for non-
statisticians to follow.
d. When to use – if no population list is available and if population
covers a wide area.
7.6 Non-Probability Sampling Techniques
7.6.1 Quota Sampling – The main concern in quota sampling is to
come up with the desired number of samples no matter how
they are selected.
7.6.2 Judgment Sampling – An expert selects a representative
sample according to his own subjective judgment.
7.6.3 Volunteer Sampling – Sample consists essentially of volunteers.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 18
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
7.6.4 Haphazard/Incidental Sampling - Samples are selected purely
by chance; that is, whoever is available at the time and place
the data is to be collected.
7.6.5 Purpose Sampling – The researcher selects those who can best
help explain or give information based on his own judgment.
Subjects are not randomly selected.
B. Criteria in Choosing the Sampling Design
The choice of technique for getting a sample depends primarily on the
nature of the problem, the cost and time factors involved, and the desired
precision or reliability of the results. There is no single principle, which would
lead the investigator to choose particular sample scheme to the exclusion of
others. His choice is modified by the availability of resources and materials, and
by certain statistical and administrative considerations.
In many instances the research problem under consideration, by its very
nature, along with the objectives pursued, automatically eliminates one or several
possible sample schemes. The researcher must then weigh the advantages and
disadvantages of the remaining techniques and choose that one which would
best meet his budget, time, and precision requirements.
The selection of technique is further complicated by the fact that in
practically all surveys, the study is not limited to the consideration of a single
item. Many characteristics some closely interrelated and others not at all, must
be considered in the data collection and estimation procedure. Each of these
items may call for a different sampling plan and sample size, thus necessitating a
compromise on the part of the investigator as to which design to use and how
large a sample to obtain.
In planning the survey design, the researcher must take into
consideration, not only the nature of the problem, but also the probable costs
involved (in terms of money, time and effort) and how precise the final estimates
must be. The researcher who is not faced with the stumbling block of cost is
lucky indeed, because many problems that arise in choosing a proper technique
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 19
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
are insignificant or non-existent for him. The size of the sample can be made as
large as needed to obtain the desired standard of precision. And this large
processing and analysis because of the availability of a high-speed computer
system, for instance, the rental of which may deter others for whom cost is a
problem.
The researcher has to ascertain whether, given the research problem at
hand and the type of sampling needed, the objectives of the study can actually
be fulfilled within the stipulated budget. That is, the investigator must determine
whether the resources available will permit the attainability of the precision
required for the final estimates.
Reading Assignment:
Links: http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/1997-98/101/sample.htm
http://www.abs.gov.au/websitedbs/D3310116.NSF/0/116e0f
93f17283eb4a2567ac00213517?OpenDocument
E-Journals/E-Books
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
Password: powersearch
Exercises/Written Assignments
1. Differentiate probability sampling from non-probability sampling.
2. Illustrate the application of the following probability sampling
techniques:
2.1 Systematic random sampling
2.2 Stratified random sampling
2.3 Simple random sampling
3. Why do researchers prefer the use of probability sampling techniques?
4. List down sample research problems that make use of non-probability
sampling techniques.
5. Discuss the criteria in the choice of sampling designs.
References/Bibliography
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 20
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Blommers, Paul J. Statistical Methods in Psychology and Education.
Lanham University Press. 1987
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth
Edition). 1984
Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.
New York: McGraw-Hill. 1989
Field, Maurice H. Statistics for Graduate Research Projects. Tennessee.
1997
Freed, M.N., Ryan, J.M., & Hess, R.K. Handbook of statistical
procedures and their computer applications to education and the
behavioral sciences. NY: MacMillan Publishing Co. 1991
Naval, Victoria C. et al. General Statistics. Conanan Publishing. 1988
Ostle, Bernard B. Statistics in Research: Basic Concepts and
Techniques for Research Workers. Ames: Iowa State University
Press. 1988
Popham, W. James. Educational Statistics: Use and Interpretation.
Harper and Row Publishers, New York. 1987
MODULE 2 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
LESSON 1 MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. calculate and describe the measures of central tendency such as the
mean, median and mode; and,
2. apply in real-life situations the measures of average.
Keywords and Phrases
Central tendency
Average
mean Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 21
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
median
mode
LEARNER
Introduction
The initial step in the analysis of data is to compute summary measures to
be able to get general information from the data. Summary measures for a data
set are often referred to as descriptive statistics
The following are called descriptive statistics:
Measures of Central Tendency (or Position, or Average)
Measures of Variability (or Spread, or Dispersion)
Measures of Skewness
All these measures are useful in data analysis, for comparing multiple data
sets for reporting results of a research study.
The measures of central tendency are sometimes called measures of
position or measures of average.
Each is a measure of the center of location of a set of data that are
arranged according to magnitude. The value of a measure of central tendency
or an average is regarded as the most representative value of the given data.
This is because it is determined at the point where the concentration of values
is greatest. It is a precise yet simple expression representing consolidated
result of a complex array of data.
Measures of Central Tendency
The most commonly used measures of central tendency are:
MEAN
MEDIAN
MODE
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 22
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
MEAN
The mean is the most widely used or the most common measure of
central tendency or position that can be computed for any set of quantitative raw
data. It is simply the mathematical average of a set of data. It is the sum of all
observations or items divided by the total number of items. It is appropriate only
for data under interval and ratio scale or measurement.
The mean is the arithmetic average of of observations or items in a set of
data. It is symbolized as x . We compute the mean by adding the observations
or items (scores or responses) and divide by the number of observations or
items.
Numerically, the mean of a set of n measurements x1, x2, x3 …xn is equal
to the sum of the measurements divided by n.
n
Conveniently, expressed as a formula, it is denoted by x
i 1
i where is
the Greek capital letter sigma which tells us that the subscripted variables are to
be added. Therefore, it directs us to sum the elements that appear to the right of
the sign, starting with X1 and the proceeding in order to Xn. Thus,
x = X1 + X2 + X3 + X4 …+ Xn
i 1
i
From these ideas, we can express the formula for the sample mean as:
n
x = x
i 1
i
Example 1:
a. The data given below is the total number of hours lost due to tardiness
and absences of employees in a company in a given year. Find the
mean.
Month hours lost
(x)
January 55
February 23
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 23
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
March 37
April 37
May 48
June 42
July 27
August 20
September 30
October 32
November 24
December 40
x = 415
Solution:
x1 x2 ....x`12
x=
n
415
=
12
x = 34.58 hours lost per month
THE WEIGHTED ARITHMETIC MEAN
W1 X 1 W2 X 2 .... Wn xn Wi X i
X=
W1 W2 ...... Wn Wn
Where Wi = the weight of the ith item
X i = value of the ith item
Example 2:
Given the following data on household size by number of
households in a certain municipality,
Household size Number of Households
1 5
2 6
3 11
4 14
5 20
6 12
7 12
8 8
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 24
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
TOTAL 88
Solution:
5(1) 6(2) 11(3) 14(4) 20(5) 12(6) 12(7) 8(8)
x=
88
440
=
88
x = 5 is the average household size
Disadvantages:
1. It is easily affected by the presence of out-lying or extreme values in the
group data.
2. It cannot be calculated if one or more items in the data are missing.
3. It cannot be computed from a frequency distribution that contains “open-
ended” intervals.
4. It is also an inappropriate average when the distribution is invariably
skewed, since skewness increases the error of the midpoint assumption.
Thus, the mean computed form a grouped of data may differ markedly
from the computed from an ungrouped data.
5. It cannot be easily interpreted.
MEDIAN
The median is defined as the value of the middle item in a set of items.
Half of the observations are above and half are below the median. It is denoted
by the symbol Md. We can determine the median by using the following steps:
Arrange the items from lowest to highest or vice versa.
Count to the middlemost value. The median is the middlemost
value for an odd number of observations and the average of the two
middle values for an even number of observations.
It is an appropriate measure of average for data in ordinal scale of
measurement.
Example 1.
Using the example on total hours lost in a company, find the median.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 25
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Step 1. Sort the data according to ascending order of values
x1 = 20
x2 = 23
x3 = 24
x4 = 27
x5 = 30
x6 = 32
x7 = 37
x8 = 37
x9 = 40
x10 = 48
x11 = 42 x12 = 55
Step 2. Since n is even, therefore the M d is
xn / 2 x( n1) / 2 x6 x7
Md =
2 2
32 37 69
Or Md = = 34.5 hours lost
2 2
Interpretation:
This means that in half of the year, the company lost less than 34.5 hours
while for the other half of the year, company lost by more than 34.5 hours due to
the tardiness and absences of employees.
Example 2.
Distribution of Employees by Performance Rating
RATING Number Cumulative Frequency
(CF)
Outstanding 5 5
Very Satisfactory 35 40
Satisfactory 25 65
Unsatisfactory 2 67
Total 67
Since the scale of measurement is ordinal, the appropriate measure of
average is median. The total number of observations is odd, thus
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 26
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
x( n1)
Md
2
n 1 67 1
34
2 2
n 1
Locate the or 34th observation in the cumulative frequency distribution
2
(F). The value of the F for outstanding is 5 while for VS is 40. Thus the median
is VS.
Characteristics of the MEDIAN
Advantages:
1. The median is not affected by the size of extreme values but by the
number of observations. For this reason, it is called a positional
average. It is most typical or representative in a series of observations
when the values tend to cluster about the central value.
2. The median can be calculated even when the frequency distribution
contains “open-ended” intervals i.e. under 5 years or 75 years and
over.
3. It can also be used to define the middle of a number of objects,
properties, or quantities which are not really quantitative in nature.
4. It can be easily interpreted.
Disadvantages:
1. It does not have any direct relation with the total number of observations
and their total value.
2. Since the median is an average of position, it is less stable than the mean
in sampling.
3. An overall median of a set of medians obtained from two or more groups
cannot be calculated by combining the medians of different groups.
4. In combining two or more sets of data, the new set of values has to be
rearranged in ascending or descending order and the median recomputed.
MODE
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 27
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
The mode is the observation of the value which occurs most frequently. It is
sometimes called nominal average. It is an appropriate measure of average for
data using the nominal scale of measurement.
Computation of the Mode
Example 1.
To illustrate the concept of the mode, consider the example on hours lost.
a. 55, 23, 37, 37, 48, 42, 27, 20, 30, 32, 24, 40
This set of data has single mode which is equal to 37. The
distribution is unimodal.
b. 26, 19, 15, 21, 21, 24, 26, 18, 22, 20
This set of data has 2 modes, namely 21 and 26. The distribution
in this case is bimodal.
c. 26, 52, 19, 27, 30, 56
This set of data has no mode.
Example 2.
Distribution of Faculty by Performance Rating
RATING Number
Outstanding (O) 20
Very Satisfactory (VS) 35
Satisfactory (S) 10
Unsatisfactory (US) 2
Total 67
When the mode is used as a measure of average, we say that the
average rating is VS since this is the rating with the highest frequency.
Example 3.
Distribution of Respondents by Occupation
Occupation Number
Skilled workers 65
Unskilled workers 22
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 28
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Professional 60
Self-employed 45
Since the scale of measurement of the data is nominal, the appropriate
measure of average is the mode. Thus, we say that the average occupation of
the respondents is skilled workers. The mode is 65.
Characteristics of the Mode
Advantages:
1. The mode is easy to understand.
2. Like the median, it is not greatly affected by extreme values.
3. Like the median, it can be computed even when the frequency distribution
contains “open-ended” intervals.
Disadvantages:
1. It is not based on all the observations in the series and hence is not an
ideal measure of central tendency. It relies too much on the modal group
and thus may not be fully representative of the whole series.
2. It is not a frequently used measure of average unlike the mean and
median because of the fact that the mode may not exist and even if does
exist, it may not be unique.
3. The mode does not possess the desirable algebraic property of the mean
to make it available for further manipulation.
Example 4.
The following is the data on the profile of residents in Barangay 634, Sta.
Mesa, Manila:
A. Mean Age = 25
B. Population Distribution by Highest Educational Attainment
Educational Attainment Frequency Cumulative Frequency
None 40 1085
Elementary Graduate 240 1045
High School Graduate 378 805
College Level 242 427
College Graduate 155 185
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 29
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Post Graduate 30 30
TOTAL 1085
1085
Median = 542.5
2
Median = High School
C. Religion
Religion Frequency
Iglesia ni Kristo 143
Catholic 282
Protestant 184
Muslim 150
Fundamentalist 210
Others 116
TOTAL 1085
Mode = Catholic
D. Number of Household Members
Number of Household Members Frequency Cumulative Frequency
1 24 985
2 26 961
3 153 935
4 360 782
5 162 422
6 184 260
7 76 76
Total 985
985
Median= 492.5
2
Median = 4 household members
E. Sex Distribution
Male = 286 Female = 259
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 30
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Thus to describe the municipality, we say that the population in Barangay
634, Sta. Mesa, Manila is young with a mean age of 25. Almost 50 percent are
high school graduates. The population is predominantly Catholic but
fundamentalist also comprise a relatively large number.
To describe the average resident in the barangay we say, he is 25 years
old, high school graduate, Catholic and in a household with 4 members.
When to Use – Mean, Median or Mode
An educator may be confused as to whether he should use mean, median
or the mode when describing the central tendency of a set of data. Among all
three measures, only the mean uses all the information in a set of data. Every
score or element in the set is used in the computation of the average, whereas
the median and the mode do not need all the information in the set of data. The
mean is also the most stable among the three measures but there are also
disadvantages in using all elements or score in a set of data.
Suppose, a principal likes to determine the average income of the families
of students studying in her school. She discovered that three (3) of the students
have parents who earned so high very much different from the income of the
families of the other students. The very high income when added to the other
incomes will surely inflate the combined income and will not give a realistic
typical mean income. In this case, the median is the better choice since it is not
influenced by extreme scores.
Reading Assignment:
Read topics on Statistics
E-Journals/E-Books:
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
Password: powersearch
Exercises/Written Assignments:
A. Solve the following:
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 31
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
1. Find the mean, median and mode of the following set of IQ results of
ten (10) honor students.
130 125 115 110 100
138 120 112 105 95
2. Compute the mean, median and mode of the following test results in
Mathematics.
88 85 80 70 55
86 82 78 68 50
3. Why are the measures of central tendency necessary to describe a set
of data?
References/Bibliography:
Bloomers, Paul J. (1987). Statistical Methods in Psychology and Education.
Lanham University Press.
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth Edition).
1984
Edwards, Allen L. Statistical Analysis. New York, Holt, Rinehard and Winston.
1998
Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education. New
York: McGraw-Hill. 1989
Field, Maurice H. Statistics for Graduate Research Projects. Tennessee. 1997
Guilford, J.P. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New York:
McGraw-Hill. 1985
Kumar, R. Research Methodology, pp. 1-15. Busy Book Distributors. 1996
Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, Jean E. Practical Research Planning and Design, 8th
edition, pp. 1-6, Prentice Hall, 2005.
Naval, Victoria C. et al. General Statistics. Conanan Publishing. 1988
Ostle, Bernard B. Statistics in Research: Basic Concepts and Techniques for
Research Workers. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 1988
Van Dalen, Deobold B. Understanding Educational Research. New York:
McGraw-Hill. 1982
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 32
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
LESSON 2 MEASURES OF DISPERSION
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
3. discuss the kind of information about data sets that can be inferred
from analyzing the measures of dispersion;
4. calculate the variance, standard deviation and coefficient of variation;
and,
5. compute and apply such measures in real life situations.
Keywords and Phrases
range
variance
LEARNER
standard deviation
quartile deviation
Introduction
Another major set of descriptive statistical measures are the measures of
dispersion, sometimes called measures of spread or measures of variability.
These measures show the way in which data are spread in either direction from
the central of the distribution
Measures of Dispersion
RANGE
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 33
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest
observations or items in a set of data. This is a limited measure because it
depends on only two of the numbers (the highest and the lowest) in the data set.
It does not provide any information regarding the concentration of the data at the
middle of the distribution. Generally, the more observations there are, the more
spread out they will be. If the highest set in a set of scores is 120 and the lowest
is 35, the range is 120-35 = 85.
STANDARD DEVIATION
The standard deviation is the most common measure of dispersion. It
indicates how close to the mean the items or observations are. The larger the
standard deviation, the more variation there is in the data set.
Calculation of the Standard Deviation
The formula for the computation of the standard deviation is:
S=
(x x)2
n 1
The statistic is represented by “s”. The corresponding parameter is called
“𝜎" (𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑚𝑎)
Suppose, we have recorded the following ten (10) scores on an attitude
survey in science and we are asked to compute the standard deviation,
8, 10, 7, 7, 5, 7, 8, 6, 7, 5
1. Compute the mean
x = 8 +10+7+7+5+7+ 8+6+7+5 = 70/10 = 7
2. Subtract the mean ( x ) from each score (x) or x - x
3. Square the results
Score Step 2 (x- x ) Step 3 (x- x )2
8 (8-7) = 1 1
10 (10-7) = 3 9
7 (7-7) = 0 0
7 (7-7) = 0 0
5 (5-7) = -2 4
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 34
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
7 (7-7) = 0 0
8 (8-7) = 1 1
6 (6-7) = -1 1
7 (7-7) = 0 0
5 (5-7) = -2 4
x =7
( x x) 2
20
4. Add () all the squares from step 3:
( x x )2 = 1 + 9 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 4 = 20
5. Divide the result by n-1
20 20
= = 22.2
n 1 9
The resulting number is the variance. The more spread out the
items are, the larger the variance.
6. Take the square root of the variance. This is the standard deviation
2.22 = 1.4889966
The larger the standard deviation, the more variation there is in the data
set.
Interpretation of the Standard Deviation
If the distribution of scores is symmetric, the following rules apply:
About 68.27% of all observations fall between the mean and 1 standard deviation,
About 95.45% of all observations fall between the mean and 2 standard
deviations.
About 99.98% of all observations fall between the mean and 3 standard
deviations.
In the above-illustrated example, with a mean of 7 and a standard
deviation of 1.49
68. 27% of the items fall between 5.51 – 8.49
95.45% of the items fall between 4.02 – 9.98
99.98% of the items fall between 2.53 – 11.47
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 35
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
QUARTILE DEVIATION
Percentiles
A percentile is a number that indicates the percentage of a distribution that
is equal to or below that number. To say that a student scored in the 85 th
percentile means that 85% of other students who took the test scored the
same or below that student.
Percentiles are also used to compare an individual value with a set of
standards or norms. To say that a student obtained a 60 th percentile in the
National Admission Test (NAT) means that compared to a standard or NAT
norm, 60% have the same or lower scores and 40% have the same or higher
scores. The median is equivalent to 50th percentile. Half of the distribution is
at or above, and half is at or below.
Interquartile Range
The interquartile range makes use of percentiles. It is referred to as the
difference between the 25th (First Quartile or Q1) and the 75th percentile (Third
Quartile or Q3) the interquartile range contains 50% of the items.
Quartile Deviation
Q3 Q1
This is given by the formula: QD
2
The average of the interquartile range is the quartile deviation. It is used
when the median is used as the measure of central tendency.
SKEWNESS
Measures of central tendency and dispersion indicate where the data are
located and how spread they are. Measures of skewness are concerned with
whether the data are symmetrically distributed, or is concerned with the shape of
the distribution.
We are familiar with the distribution referred to as the normal symmetrical
or bell-shaped curve. We always assume that the data are distributed normally.
But, this is not always the case, and in actual research it is always wise to
examine the set of data to see if the distribution is symmetrical or skewed.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 36
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
If the data are not distributed symmetrically, the distribution is said to be
skewed. One way of determining skewness is by looking at the frequency
distribution of the data. Another way of determining skewness is by comparing
the values of the mean, median and mode. If the three are equal, then the data
are symmetrical.
If the mean is to the left of the median and mode and if the tail is longer at
the left side, the distribution is said to be negatively skewed or skewed to the left,
as illustrated below:
If the mean is to right of the median and mode, and if the tail is longer at
the right side, the distribution is said to be positively skewed or skewed to the
right, like the one below:
Reading Assignment:
Links: http://www.quckmba.com/stats/dispersion/
http://mathbits.com/MathBits/TISection/Statistics2/dispersion.htm
http://www.emathzone.com/tutorials/basic-statistics/introduction-
to-measure-of-dispersion.html
E-Journals/E-Books:
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
Password: powersearch
Exercises/Written Assignments:
B. Solve the following:
2. Find the variance and the standard deviation of the following
admission test results of ten (10) applicants.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 37
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
88 85 80 70 55
86 82 78 68 50
2. What are the considerations in choosing methods of statistics analysis
for measures of dispersion?
3. Why are measures of dispersion necessary to describe a set of data?
4. Calculate the mean and standard deviation. Interpret the spread of
scores in a normal distribution.
78 76 48 74 82
75 65 69 78 86
5. Differentiate the variance from standard deviation and the quartile
deviation.
References/Bibliography:
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth
Edition). 1984
Edwards, Allen L. Statistical Analysis. New York, Holt, Rinehard and
Winston. 1998
Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.
New York: McGraw-Hill. 1989
Field, Maurice H. Statistics for Graduate Research Projects. Tennessee.
1997
Guilford, J.P. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New
York: McGraw-Hill. 1985
Kumar, R. Research Methodology, pp. 1-15. Busy Book Distributors.
1996
Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, Jean E. Practical Research Planning and
Design, 8th edition, pp. 1-6, Prentice Hall, 2005.
Naval, Victoria C. et al. General Statistics. Conanan Publishing. 1988
Ostle, Bernard B. Statistics in Research: Basic Concepts and Techniques
for Research Workers. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 1988
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 38
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Poham, W. James. (1987). Educational Statistics: Use and Interpretation.
Harper and Row Publishers, New York.
Van Dalen, Deobold B. Understanding Educational Research. New York:
McGraw-Hill. 1982
Module 3 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS: Hypothesis Testing
LESSON 1 Research Terminology
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. understand the role of statistical analysis in the research process;
2. differentiate a parameter from a statistics;
3. differentiate a null hypothesis from an alternative hypothesis;
4. discuss the types of possible errors in hypothesis testing;
5. explain the importance of tests of statistical significance; and,
6. distinguish between parametric and nonparametric statistics.
Keywords and Phrases:
inferential statistics type I error
parameter type II error
statistics one-tailed test
hypothesis two-tailed test
null hypothesis parametric statistic
alternative hypothesis nonparametric statistics
statistical significance
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 39
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
level of significance ( )
Introduction
Frequency distribution and descriptive measures such as the measures of
central tendency, measures of dispersion and measures of skewness are very
useful in describing sets of data. There are a number of techniques which are
usually designated as inferential statistics. Inferential statistics are more complex
than descriptive statistics. Inferential techniques allow the researcher to draw
from data taken from a sample some inferences which may have wider
generalizability. That means, inferences may be applied to the total population.
Inferential procedures are only valid where there is a target population to which
the inferences can be made and when appropriate random sampling have been
utilized.
POPULATIONS AND SAMPLES
The purpose of inferential statistics is to allow the researcher to make
estimates based on sample statistics regarding population phenomena. A
measure based on a population is called a “parameter” while a measure based on
a sample is called a “statistic”. One rarely has access to parameters. For
example, the sample mean is called a “statistics” and is represented by x . The
population mean is called a parameter and is represented by (greek letter) in
various situations be it in education, industry, government and nongovernment
situations, not only it is difficult to obtain data from an entire population; it is also
a waste of time, effort and energy to obtain parameters directly.
If a researcher could determine for example, the standard deviation of the
ages of all college professors in the world, that standard deviation would be
called a parameter.
To be able to draw legitimate inferences about populations from samples,
a researcher must be certain that the sample really represents the population.
Inferential statistics demand that the samples be drawn by random sampling
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 40
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
methods for one to be able to draw valid inferences. Sampling techniques are
discussed in Module V. There might be a risk that the inference is wrong.
Statistical significance is very important. To be significant, relationship,
association, difference or comparison must be due to planned interventions
rather than by chance.
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE
Statistical significance is often interpreted as a result that occurs by
chance, while a value is the probability of obtaining the results of a statistical
test by chance. When the chance probability is 5 in 100, we say that the
occurrence is statistically significant at the 0.05 or 5 percent level. The same is
true with 0.10, 0.01, 0.001 probability levels. The symbol is used as follows:
<0.05 indicates that the probability of the event‟s occurrence (by chance) is
less than (<) 0.05. Conversely, the symbol >0.05 would indicate that the
event‟s occurrence (by chance) is greater than (>) 0.05.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
The word hypothesis comes from the Greek words hypo, which means
“under” and tithenai which means “to place”.
A hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true but has to be
tested for its truth or falsity. Suppose a researcher is concerned with testing the
relationship between variables. Through inferential statistical measures, he can
discover important information even if no relationship was established between
the variables. It is possible for the researcher to discover differences and
therefore may test individual or group differences.
It is therefore helpful for the researcher to think of inferential statistics n
terms of whether they test for relationship or association or whether they test for
comparison or difference.
There are two types of hypotheses: the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 41
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
The null hypothesis is denoted by H o and the alternative hypothesis is
denoted by H 1 . The null hypothesis is the one that is always tested by a
researcher. The null hypothesis indicates that there is no difference between the
group means in the comparison. The alternative hypothesis on the other hand,
indicates that there is a true difference between the group means.
The results will show that either there is a meaningful difference between
the two groups, thus we reject the null hypothesis or the difference between the
two groups is not large enough to conclude that the groups are different thus we
fail to reject the null hypothesis. If the null hypothesis ( H o ) is rejected, then the
alternative hypothesis ( H 1 ) us accepted.
Errors in Decision Making
There are two types of error involved with hypothesis testing. Type I error
is committed when a researcher rejected a null hypothesis when in fact it is true.
The second type of error, Type II error, is the error that occurs when the data
from the sample produce results that fail to reject the null hypothesis when in fact
the null hypothesis is false and should be rejected.
Parametric and nonparametric Statistics
Two types of significance tests are usually used by researchers:
parametric and nonparametric. Parametric tests are used for interval and ratio
measurements. It is also required that the samples and observations are drawn
from normally distributed populations and that the selection of each case should
be independent of the other. The populations should have equal variances.
Nonparametric tests do not specify normally distributed populations and
similarity of variances nonparametric tests are the only test used with nominal
data or ordinal data.
Reading Assignment:
E-Journals/E-Books:
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 42
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
Password: powersearch
Exercises/Written Assignments:
1. Distinguish between
1.1 Parametric and nonparametric tests
1.2 Null and alternative hypothesis
1.3 Statistical significance and practical significance
1.4 Type I and Type II Errors
2. Discuss the possibility of committing Type I and Type II errors in
hypothesis testing.
3. Explain the importance of tests of statistical significance.
4. You are interested in finding out whether young adults (25-34 years old)
are more likely to view basketball games on TV than older adults (35 or
more years old). State your null hypothesis. Write also the alternative
hypothesis accompanying the null hypothesis.
5. Give five (5) examples of a null hypothesis accompanied by an alternative
hypothesis.
References/Bibliography:
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth
Edition). 1984
Field, Maurice H. Statistics for Graduate Research Projects. Tennessee.
1997
Guilford, J.P. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New
York: McGraw-Hill. 1985
Kumar, R. Research Methodology, pp. 1-15. Busy Book Distributors.
1996
Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, Jean E. Practical Research Planning and
Design, 8th edition, pp. 1-6, Prentice Hall, 2005.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 43
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Naval, Victoria C. et al. General Statistics. Conanan Publishing. 1988
LESSON 2 Hypothesis Testing
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
7. understand the logic of testing a statistical hypothesis;
8. describe the steps involved in testing a statistical hypothesis; and,
9. exemplify the steps in hypothesis testing.
Keywords and Phrases:
hypothesis testing acceptance area
calculated value rejection area
critical value
Introduction
A researcher needs to do hypothesis testing before he makes a decision
about a research problem.
The testing of hypothesis is relevant in a situation where we want to be
assured that the results of an investigation are not due to chance. Once the
researcher has satisfied himself as to the representativeness of his sample, he is
then in a position to test a particular hypothesis concerning the relationship
between variables.
When a researcher tests hypotheses regarding these relationships, other
information may be revealed even if no relationship was established between or
among the variables.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 44
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It is also helpful to think of inferential statistics in terms of whether they
test for differences, as in testing differences between means of two or more
groups, or whether they test for the existence of relationships.
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Steps in Statistical Testing:
A central idea in hypothesis testing is to be sure that what is observed
from sample data and generalized to population phenomena is not due to
chance.
1. State the null hypothesis. The null (Ho) hypothesis is a statement that no
difference exists between the averages or means of two groups.
Example:
Let us supposed that a teacher is conducting an experiment using two
different methods of teaching Mathematics (X and Y) to grade six pupils.
The results of the experiment will be measured with a math achievement
test.
These are three possible outcomes:
a. Method X is equal to Method Y, that is, X = Y
b. Method X is better than Method Y, that is, X>Y
c. Method X is poorer than Method Y, that is, X<Y
Outcome A forms the basis of the null hypothesis H o a
statement of no difference in mathematics achievement in the
populations being compared. Outcomes B and C are
statements of differences between populations and are the
alternate hypotheses. For this experiment, the following are the
hypotheses:
H o Students in the population taught by Method X will demonstrate
achievement in mathematics equal to that of the population
taught by Method Y.
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H 1 Students in the population taught by Method X will show either
more or less math achievement than those taught by Method Y.
Therefore, Outcomes B and C are combined into a single
alternate hypothesis. This hypothesis is called a nondirectional
hypothesis and a two-tailed test is needed in this kind of
experiment.
If however, the alternate hypothesis was that students
using Method X got higher achievement test scores than those
taught by Method Y, we would have a directional hypothesis
that would be tested by a one-tailed test.
2. Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation. A researcher must
determine the measurement scale, the type of variable, the type of
data gathered, the number of groups or the number of categories.
3. State the level of significance for the statistical test. The level of
significance is chosen before the test is performed. It has been
traditionally accepted by schools of thought to use alpha, , to denote
the level of significance in rejecting null hypotheses. It is equivalent to
the amount of risk regarding the accuracy of the test that the
researcher is willing to accept. The levels most frequently used are
.05, .01, and .001. An level of .05 implies that the probability of
committing an error by chance is 5 in 100.
4. Compute the calculated value. Use the formula for the appropriate
significance test to obtain the calculated value. The following formula
may be used.
A. Test of Significance of Difference
1. Between Means (t-test for independent samples)
x x x x
N1 2 N2
2
i 1 i 2
N1 N 2 N
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 46
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
or when S1 and S 2 are given:
S12 ( N 1) S 22 ( N 2)
S2
N1 N 2 N
The standard error of the difference between the two means is
given by:
S1 S 2
SX X2
1
N1 N 2
To obtain the t-ratio, the difference between the mean is divided by
the estimate of the standard error.
x1 x 2
t
s x x2
1
Another formula for calculating s2 (pooled variance) when raw
scores are given is:
N2
2
2
N
x x
N 2 2 N 2 2
s 2 x 2
N
x x
N1 N2
N1 N 2 2
2. One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
3. A typical ANOVA Table
Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean F-ratio
Variation Freedom Squares Square
Between
groups
Within
groups
Total
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ANOVA relies on the F-ratio to test the hypothesis that the two variances
are equal; that is, the subgroups are from the same population. “Between
groups” refer to the variation between each group mean and the grand or overall
mean. “Within groups” refer to the variation between each subject and the
subject‟s group mean.
Between group mean square
F
Within group mean square
B. Tests of Relationship
1. Product-Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson 4
(Interval or Ratio variables)
The formula for calculating the Pearson r is:
n xy x y
R
n( x 2
) ( x ) 2 n( Y 2 ) ( y ) 2
2. Spearman Rank-Difference Method (Ordinal Variables)
6 D 2
R 1
n(n 2 1)
3. Chi-Square Test for independence (Nominal Variables)
Multimonomial
f 0 f e 2
N
2
df k 1
fe
Contingency Table
N2
O E 2 df (r 1)(c 1)
E
row total )(column total )
Where E =
( grand total )
5. Determine the critical value the test statistic must attain to be significant.
After we compute the calculated measure, we must look up the critical
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 48
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
value in the appropriate table for the distribution. The critical value
defines the region of rejection from the region of acceptance of the null
hypothesis. The areas of acceptance and rejection in a standard
normal distribution, using 𝛼 = .05, is illustrated below:
Rejection Rejection
area Acceptance area
area
-1.96 0 1.96 z
Areas of acceptance and Rejection in a Standard Normal Distribution, Using 𝛼 = .05
6. Make the decision. If the calculated value is greater than the critical
value, we reject the null hypothesis. If the critical value is larger, we
conclude that we have failed to reject the null hypothesis.
Reading Assignment:
E-Journals/E-Books:
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
Password: powersearch
Exercises/Written Assignments:
6. Propose a problem and use the steps of hypothesis testing to solve the
problem.
7. Briefly explain the meaning and give an example for each.
7.1 null hypothesis
7.2 alternative hypothesis
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7.3 tails of a test
7.4 acceptance and rejection region
8. Give three examples each of:
8.1 one-tailed test
8.2 two-tailed test
References/Bibliography:
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth
Edition). 1984
Field, Maurice H. Statistics for Graduate Research Projects. Tennessee.
1997
Guilford, J.P. Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and Education. New
York: McGraw-Hill. 1985
Kumar, R. Research Methodology, pp. 1-15. Busy Book Distributors.
1996
Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, Jean E. Practical Research Planning and
Design, 8th edition, pp. 1-6, Prentice Hall, 2005.
Naval, Victoria C. et al. General Statistics. Conanan Publishing. 1988
Module 4 MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION
LESSON 1 DATA ANALYSIS
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
8. Select the appropriate statistical technique to be utilized when
analyzing data;
9. evaluate the types of relationships between variables;
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10. distinguish between the uses of the different statistical measures of
association or relationship: Pearson Product Moment correlation.
Spearman Rank Order correlation, and Chi-square;
11. utilize descriptive and inferential statistics when examining the
relationship between variables; and,
12. solve problems using the statistical measures for association.
Keywords and Phrases:
Pearson product-moment correlation linear regression
Spearman rank order correlation hypothesis testing
chi-square confidence intervals
Introduction
Another major type of data analysis is concerned with determining the
extent to which variables are related or associated with each other. Statistical
tests available depend upon the type of data gathered for the research. Some
requires interval data as in Pearson Product-Moment Correlation (r). When data
are ordinal or in ranked form, the Spearman Rank-Order Correlation or rho is the
formula which is more appropriate to use when determining the relationship of
two variables.
Correlation Analysis
Correlation analysis is a statistical measure used to determine the
strength or degree of relationship between two or more variables. One main
purpose in using correlation is to determine the degree of linear relationship
between two variables.
Y Y
r = +1
X r = -1X
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 51
(a) Perfect positive linear association (b) Perfect negative linear association
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Y Y
…. …. ….
….…. ….
…. . . …..
…..….. 0<r<+1 …. ….
. ….…. ….
…. . .
. . X . . . . …. . -1 < Xr < 0
.
(c) Positive linear association .
(d) Negative linear association
Y r =0 Y r =0
…. …. …. ….
…. …. . …. …. ….. . …. . …. ….
…. …. .….
. …. . . . …. X
….. . .
…. .
. . . X
….
. ….association .
(d) Nonlinear association.
(d) No. linear
Figure 1 Hypothetical
. …. scatter diagrams indicating some forms of relationship
.
between X and Y.
The Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (Pearson r)
If the scatter diagram indicates the presence of linear association between
two variables, the extent of their association can be measured. The most
commonly used statistical measure is the Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient denoted by p and estimated by r.
This coefficient can take any value from -1 to +1, and it is a dimensionless
or unitless quantity. A positive value indicates a negative slope.
If we ignore the sign, the size of the coefficient indicates how close the
data is to a straight line. The closer the size is to one, the more closely the data
follow the straight line. A correlation equal to +1, indicates that the points lie
exactly on a line with a positive slope; a -1 correlation indicates that the points lie
on a line with a negative slope. A correlation close to 0 indicates that the points
are more scattered.
The square of the correlation coefficient (r) is the coefficient of
determination (r2).
In the example, the correlation coefficient of 0.95 indicates that (0.95) 2
(100) = 90.25% of the variation in variables y is due to the linear relationship
between x and y while 9.7%, called an error is due to other unexplained factors.
Calculating the Pearson r:
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The formula for calculating the Pearson r is:
n xy ( x)( y)
R
[n( x 2 ) ( x) 2 ][n( y 2 ) ( y) 2]
X Y X2 Y2 XY
3 9 9 81 27
4 13 16 169 52
5 15 25 225 75
6 16 36 256 96
7 17 49 289 119
x 25 Y 70 X 2 135 Y 2 1020 XY 369
Substituting the Values
5(369) 25(70)
R
[5(135) (25) 2 ][5(1020) (70) 2 ]
1845 1750
(50)(200)
95
.95
100
A correlation coefficient of 0.95 indicates a positive high degree or positive
strong correlation between the values. A positive coefficient indicates a direct
relationship; when the values in one set increases, those of the other set also
increase.
In linear correlation analysis, it is important that we know the extent by
which the variation in the dependent variable is related to the variation in the
independent variable such that we may be able to see the need for examining
other related variables by such statistical tools as the multiple or partial
correlation.
A process by which we can measure the interdependence of the variables
under consideration is provided for by the square of the correlation coefficient
which is known as the coefficient of determination(r2). This value tells us the
proportion of the total variation in the dependent variable (y) which is explained
by the linear relationship with the independent variable (x).
Testing the Significance of Pearson r
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The formula for testing the significance of Pearson r is called the t-test. It
is being used to verity if the value of the computed coefficient of correlation is
significant, that is, does it represent a real correlation, or is the obtained
coefficient of correlation merely brought about by chance?
The formula for t-test is,
n2
tr
1 r 2
Where r = correlation coefficient
N = number of samples
Using the example given,
n2
tr
1 r 2
52
.95
1 (.95) 2
3
.95
1 .9025
3
.95 .95(5.547) 5.27
.0975
This value with (N-2) degrees of freedom, or 3 degrees of freedom is
significant at the 5 percent level (t.05 = 3.182, df = 3). Therefore, there is a
significant relationship that exists between x and y at .05 level of significance.
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Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient in SPSS: To run the
correlation in SPSS, select Analyze, Correlate, Bivariate... from the Data Editor
window.
Select the variables for which we want to calculate the Pearson r
correlation and drag them to the right side of the variable list. Select “Pearson
test” from the window. Click on the “ok” button.
The result window will show the result of the Pearson correlation with the
same set of values used with manual computations.
Correlations
X Y
X Pearson Correlation 1.000 .950*
Sig. (2-tailed) .013
N 5.000 5
Y Pearson Correlation .950* 1.000
Sig. (2-tailed) .013
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N 5 5.000
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
CORRELATION FROM RANKS
Spearman Rank-Difference Method
Computational Procedure:
1. Record the rank order of the first distribution giving the highest score a
rank of 1.
2. Do the same with the second distribution.
3. Get the difference between these two ranks for each individual and record
in the D column
4. Square each of these difference and sum this column.
5. Apply the values in the formula:
6 D 2
R 1
n(n 2 1)
Example:
A committee of five men and five women in a government agency
evaluated ten applications for a vacant position in the office. They were asked to
rate each applicant on the basis of his/her qualification and interview. The
ranking of the applicants by men and women are given in the following table:
Applicant 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Men (X) 6 2 1 4 9 10 5 3 8 7
Women (Y) 5 8 4 6 3 2 7 10 1 9
Solution:
Rx Ry D D2
1 6 5 1 1
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2 2 8 -6 36
3 1 4 -3 9
4 4 6 -2 4
5 9 3 6 36
6 10 2 8 64
7 5 7 -2 4
8 3 10 -7 49
9 8 1 7 49
10 7 9 -2 4
D 2
256
Substituting the values:
6 D 2
R 1
n(n 2 1)
6(256)
=1-
10(10 2 1)
1536
=1-
10(99)
1536
=1-
990
= 1 – 1.55
= -0.55
A correlation coefficient of -0.55 indicates a negative, indirect or inverse
relationship between the two sets of variables. That is, when one set of variables
increases, the other set decreases. The level of relationship indicated by 0.45 is
moderate.
Spearman rank correlation in SPSS: To run the correlation in SPSS, select
Analyze, Correlate, Bivariate... from the Data Editor window.
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The bivariate correlation window will appear after clicking on the
bivariate option. Select the correlation variable and put them on the right hand
side of the variable list. Then select the “Spearman test” from the window. Click
on the “ok” button.
The following table will show the Spearman rank correlation from the result window:
The following table will show the Spearman rank correlation from the result
window with the same set of values used with manual computations.
Correlations
Men Women
Spearman's rho Men Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.552
Sig. (2-tailed) . .098
N 10 10
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Women Correlation Coefficient -.552 1.000
Sig. (2-tailed) .098 .
N 10 10
Simple Linear Regression Analysis
Regression analysis is a statistical measure used to determine the
functional relationship between two or more variables. It is concerned with
finding an equation that uses the known values of one or more variables, called
the independent or predictor variables, to estimate the unknown value of a
quantitative variable called the dependent or response variable.
The objectives of finding a statistical functional relationship between
variables are:
To establish the possible causation of changes in one variable by changes
in other variables;
To predict or estimate the value of a variable given the values of other
variables;
To explain some of the variation of one variable by the other variables.
The Data and the Scatter Diagram
Suppose we want to find out whether the values of variable Y depend on
the values of another variable X, where Y is the dependent variable and X is the
independent variable. The first step is to collect a random sample of n pairs of
values of X and Y, namely: (X1, Y1), (X2,Y2), … (Xn,Yn); then plot these values on
the X-Y plane. The plotted points of the basic data on the X-Y plane is called the
scatter diagram. It gives us an idea on the possible relationship between X and
Y. Figure 2 shows some forms of the scatter diagram. Scatter diagrams (a) and
(b) show a linear relationship between X and Y while; (c) exhibits no relation at
all; (d) shows a curved relation.
Y Y
…. …
…. …
….
….…. …… …
…. … X …. … X
(a) Positive linearBasic
relationship (b)Tools
Statistical Concepts and Negative linear relationship
in Educational Management 59
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
…. … …. …
Y .. .. Y
… …
. . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
… . . …
........ ...
X . … … … . X
........
(c) No …...
relationship (d) Nonlinear . ……
… … … (quadratic) ……
relationship
…
. … … . ….
… … … … …
…
…… …
……
…
… … …
Figure 2: Hypothetical scatter diagrams indicating some forms of functional
relationships between X and Y.
The Data and the Regression Equation
The next step in regression analysis is to find a suitable function that
expresses the predicted value of Y given a value of X. The general pattern
presented by the points on the scatter diagram gives us a clue to finding the
appropriate regression function. Figure 3 shows that a linear function seems to
fit the pattern of the data points.
The general form of the linear function is
Y a bX
Where a is called the Y-intercept of the line (the value of Y when X is
equal to zero); and b is the slope of the line called the regression (the rate of
change of Y per unit change in X). An illustration is made in Figure 3 with b> 0.
Y
Y = a +bXand Tools in Educational Management
Basic Statistical Concepts 60
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X
Figure 3: Graph of Y = a + bX when b > 0.
b units
1 unit
The line that describes the statistical relationship between X and Y is
called the regression line.
The regression line gives an estimate of the mean value of Y, denoted by
Y, given the value of X. Hence the equation of the regression line is
Y a bX
Y should be distinguished from the observed data values which we denote
simply by Y. For a specific X, the resulting Y is a predicted value of the
dependent variable.
Characteristics of the Regression Line
1. When b> 0, Y increases as X increases. In this case, we say that Y is
directly or positively related to X. Figure (a) is an example of this
relationship.
2. When b< 0, Y decreases as X increases, and we say that Y is inversely or
negatively related to X. Figure (b) is an example.
3. When b = 0, Y is a constant and is equal to the y-intercept a. This implies
that there is no change in Y whatever X be. (horizontal line).
Calculation of Simple Regression
Given: Equation of the line Y = a + bX
Computing for a and b:
byx
XY [ X Y / N ]
[ X 2 [( X ) 2 / N
a yx Y byx X
Data Scores of 10 students on two entrance tests, Test I in English, Test II in
Filipino
Test 1 (X) Test 2 (Y) X2 Y2 XY
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35 15 1225 225 525
30 13 900 169 390
27 14 729 196 378
26 10 636 100 260
24 8 576 64 184
23 10 529 100 230
18 12 324 144 216
17 8 289 64 136
15 10 225 100 150
13 8 169 64 104
12 6 144 36 72
11 5 121 25 55
8 2 64 4 16
6 4 36 16 24
5 0 25 0 0
X 270 Y 125 X 5992
2
Y 1307
2
XY 2740
x 270 X 2
5992
Y 125 Y 2
1307
XY 2740 n 15
X X / N 270 / 15 18
Y Y / N 125 / 15 8.3
Substituting to the above equations for a and bxy
bxy
XY [ X Y / n]
[ X 2 [( X ) 2 / n]
n[ xy x y
n x 2 ( x) 2
= [15(2740) – (270) (125)]/[15(5992) – (270)2]
= 0.43286
ayx = Y - byxX
= 8.33 – (0.43286) (18)
= 8.33 – 7.7915
= 0.5385
The least squares regression line is therefore
Y = a + bX
Y = 0.5385 + 0.43286X
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We may now use this equation to predict Test 2 scores given Test I score.
For instance, when X = 30
Y = 0.5385 + 0.4286 (30) = 13.496 = 13.5
The proper interpretation of 13.5 as a predicted value is that on the
average a student obtain a score of 13.5 in Test 2 if his score in Test 1 is 30.
Simple Linear Regression in SPSS. To run simple linear regression in SPSS,
select Analyze, Regression, Linear... from the data editor window.
Then, specify Test 2 in dependent variable box and test 1 in the
independent variable box.
The following table will show the regression result:
ANOVAb
Sum of Mean
Model Squares df Square F Sig.
1 Regressio
211.608 1 211.608 51.203 .000a
n
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Residual 53.726 13 4.133
Total 265.333 14
a. Predictors: (Constant), Test1
b. Dependent Variable: Test2
Coefficientsa
Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients Coefficients
Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.
1 (Constant) .685 1.191 .575 .575
Test1 .425 .059 .893 7.156 .000
a. Dependent Variable: Test2
* Difference in manual computation and use of SPSS is due to rounding off errors.
Chi-Square (X2)
2
The chi-square (Greek letter chi, X ) is the most commonly used method
of comparing proportions. It is particularly useful in test evaluating a relationship
between nominal- or ordinal data. Typical situations or settings are cases where
persons, events, or objects are grouped in two or more nominal categories such
as “Yes – No” responses, “Favor-Against-Undecided” or class “A,B,C, or D”.
Chi-square analysis compares the observed frequencies of the responses
with the expected frequencies. It is a measure of actual divergence of the
observed and expected frequencies. It is given by the formula:
2 ( Fo Fe ) 2
X =
Fe
Where: Fo = observed number of cases
Fe = expected number of cases
Chi-square and Goodness of Fit: One Sample Case
There are research problems where responses fall in any one of a number
of categories. The data are expressed in frequencies and the observed
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frequencies ( Fo ) are compared to the frequencies expected ( Fe ) on the basis of
some hypothesis.
If the differences between the observed and the expected frequencies are
small, X2 will be small. The greater the difference between the observed and
expected frequencies under the null hypothesis, the greater or larger the X 2 will
be. If the difference between the observed and expected values are so large
collectively as to occur by chance only, say 0.05 or less, when the null
hypothesis is true, then the null hypothesis is rejected.
Illustration:
Consider the nomination of three (3) presidential candidates of a political
party, A, B and C. The chairman wonders whether or not they will be equally
popular among the members of the party. To this the hypothesis of equal
preference, a random sample of 315 men were selected and interviewed which
one of the three candidates they prefer. The following are the results of the
survey:
Candidates Frequency
A 98
B 115
C 102
Are you going to reject the null hypothesis that equal members of men in
the party prefer each of the three candidates? Or are you going to accept the null
hypothesis of equality of preference?
Calculating the X2 value:
Fo Fe Fo - Fe (Fo - Fe)2 (Fo - Fe)2/ Fe
A 98 105 -7 49 49/105=0.467
B 115 105 10 100 100/105=0.952
C 102 105 -3 9 9/105=0.085
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1.505
[( f o f e ) 2
X
2
= 1.505
fe
In order to test the significance of the computed X2 value using a specified
criterion of significance, the obtained value is referred to a table with appropriate
degrees of freedom which is equal to k-1, where k is equal to the number of
categories of the variable. In this problem, df= 3-1 =2. Therefore, for the X2 to
be significant at the 0.05 level, the computed value should be more than (>) the
tabular value which is 5.991.
Summarizing,
Level of significance = 5%
df = k-1 (number of categories minus one)
= 3-1
=2
Critical value : X2(.05.2) = 5.991
Decision rule: Reject Ho if X computed > 5.991, otherwise do
not reject Ho.
Conclusion:
Since 1.505 < 5.991, do not reject Ho. There is no sufficient
evidence or reason to reject the null hypothesis that the frequencies in the
population are equal.
Chi-square and Goodness of Fit: One Sample Case in SPSS: From the Data
Editor window. Data are entered in the SPSS like this.
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Click on the “analysis” menu and select “nonparametric test.”
The following table will show the Chi-square correlation from the result window:
Correlations
Observed N Expected N Residual
98 98 105.0 -7.0
102 102 105.0 -3.0
115 115 105.0 10.0
Total 315
Test Statistics
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VOTES
Chi-
1.505
Square(a)
df 2
Asymp. Sig. .471
a 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected
cell frequency is 105.0.
Chi-Square as a Test of Independence: Two Variable Problems
Chi-square can also be used to test the significance of the relationship
between two variables when data are expressed in terms of frequencies of joint
occurrence. For this kind of problem, a two-way contingency table with rows and
columns are set-up.
In the case of two variable problems, the expected frequencies are those
predicated on the independence of the two variables. The formula is equal to
(rowtotal )(columntotal )
Fe [ ]
N
Example:
Suppose, one wants to know if there is a relationship between
gender and school choice. A sample of 100 female and 100 male freshman
students were asked individually for their school choice. Test the null hypothesis
of no significant relationship between the students‟ gender and school choice at
5% level of significance.
Gender
School choice Female Male Total
Public 42 C1 65 C3 107
Private 58 C2 35 C4 93
Total 100 100 200
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Computational Procedure:
1. Compute the expected frequency of each cell
Expected Frequency (Fe) = Raw Total X Column Total
Grand Total
100 x107
C1 = 53.5
200
100 x93
C2 = 46.5
200
100 x107
C3 = 53.5
200
100 x93
C4 = 46.5
200
2. Present in table form
fo fe fo-fe (fo-fe)2 (fo-fe)2/ fe
42 53.5 -11.5 132.25 2.48
58 46.5 11.5 132.25 2.85
65 53.5 11.5 132.25 2.48
35 46.5 -11.5 132.25 2.85
( fo fe )
= 10.66
fe
Therefore X2 = 10.66
3. Prepare the hypothesis
Null hypothesis: No significant relationship exist between
gender and school choice.
Level of Significance : 5%
Degrees of freedom = (c – 1)(r -1)
c = no. of columns
r = no. of rows
df = ( 2 – 1) (2 – 1) = (1) (1) = 1
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CV = 3.841
4. Decision Rule
Since the computed value X2 = 10.66 is greater than the critical
value (3.841), we reject the null hypothesis. Thus, the two variables of
gender and school are related – females tend to prefer private schools
while males tend to prefer to study in public schools.
Pearson Chi Square in SPSS: Select Analyze, Descriptive Statistics,
Crosstabs... from the Data Editor window
As you click on the cross tab, the following window will appear. From this
window, select the row variable and insert it as a marked row. Select the second
variable and put them in to mark a column.
Click on the “statistics” button and select “chi-square” from them.
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The cross tabulation table for the Chi-Square test of Independence will
show the expected value for two nominal variables.
School * Gender Crosstabulation
Gender
Female Male Total
School Public
42 65 107
School
Private
58 35 93
School
Total 100 100 200
The Chi-square tests table will show the value of Pearson Chi-Square
value, associated with the significance value.
Chi-Square Tests
Asymp. Sig. Exact Sig. Exact Sig.
Value df (2-sided) (2-sided) (1-sided)
Pearson Chi-Square 10.632a 1 .001
b
Continuity Correction 9.728 1 .002
Likelihood Ratio 10.730 1 .001
Fisher's Exact Test .002 .001
Linear-by-Linear
10.579 1 .001
Association
N of Valid Cases 200
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a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is
46.50.
b. Computed only for a 2x2 table
MORE SPSS APPLICATIONS
CHI-SQUARE TEST
Example.
A researcher is interested whether there is a significant relationship
between gender and the educational attainment of the respondents. To
investigate the issue, the researcher randomly selected 25 teachers and noted
their gender and educational attainment. Gender is coded 1 for male and 2 for
female, and the Educational Attainment is coded 1 for BA/BS Degree Holder,
2 for With Units in MA/MS, 3 for MA/MS Degree Holder. The data are shown
in Table 1.
Table 1. The Gender and Educational Attainment of
25 Randomly Selected Teachers
Respondent Gender Educational Attainment
1 1 1
2 1 2
3 1 1
4 1 3
5 1 3
6 2 3
7 2 2
8 2 2
9 2 2
10 1 1
11 2 1
12 1 1
13 2 2
14 1 2
15 2 2
16 1 3
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[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
17 2 3
18 2 3
19 2 3
20 2 2
21 2 2
22 2 2
23 2 3
24 2 3
25 2 3
Step 1. Enter your data in the SPSS Data Editor.
Figure 1.1 SPSS Data Editor after data are entered
Step 2. Run the chi-square test.
Click on Analyze.
Click on Descriptive Statistics.
Click on Crosstabs
A dialog box will open, with a list of your variables in the white rectangle
on the left. Click on the independent variable, and then click on the small
right arrow to the left of the white box headed Column(s). This will move
the independent variable into the Column(s) box (in this example
“EducAttainment”).
Click on the dependent variable and then click on the small right arrow to
the left of the white box headed Row(s) (see figure 1.2). This will move
the dependent variable into Row(s) box. In this example the dependent
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 73
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
variable is “Gender”.
Figure 1.2 Entering variables in Crosstabs
Click on Statistics.
Click on the chi-square box. A tick will appear there.
Click on Continue.
Click on Cells.
In the percentages area click on Column. A tick will appear.
Click on Continue.
Click on OK.
An output window will open with the results of the analysis as follows.
This table shows the total number of cases broken down
by valid cases and missing cases
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 74
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Chi-Square value p-value. If this p-value is less than to the assigned
level of significance, we say that the result is
statistically significant.
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Valid Missing Total
N Percent N Percent N Percent
Chi-square was used to determine if the gender of the teachers is
Gender * EducAttainment Crosstabulation
EducAttainment
BA/BS MA/MS
Degree With Units Degree
Holder in MA/MS Holder Total
Gende Male Count 4 2 3 9
r
% within
80.0% 20.0% 30.0% 36.0%
EducAttainment
Female Count 1 8 7 16
% within
20.0% 80.0% 70.0% 64.0%
EducAttainment
Total Count 5 10 10 25
% within
100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
EducAttainment
significantly related to educational attainment. Since the computed p-value
(0.065) with chi-square value of 5.469 is greater than to the assigned level of
significance (0.05), Therefore, the hypothesis that there is no significant
relationship between gender and educational attainment of the teachers is thus
accepted. It means that the tow variables are not significantly related at 5% level
of significance. Anon-significant chi-square indicates that, in the population from
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 75
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
which we have sampled, the data in the each row does not significantly related to
data in each column.
SPSS APPLICATION - t-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
Example
A researcher is interested whether there is a significant difference in the
teaching performance of male and female teachers. The researcher randomly
selected 24 teachers, noted their gender, and evaluated their teaching
performance. Gender is coded 1 for male and 2 for female. The data are shown
in Table 2.
Table 2. The Gender and Teaching Performance of 24 Teachers
Case Gender Teaching Performance
1 1 98
2 1 95
3 1 92
4 1 94
5 1 89
6 2 79
7 2 82
8 2 88
9 2 85
10 1 94
11 2 83
12 1 97
13 2 80
14 1 91
15 2 82
16 1 90
17 2 81
18 2 83
19 2 84
20 2 85
21 2 85
22 2 80
23 2 90
24 1 97
Step 1. Enter your data in the SPSS Data Editor.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 76
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Figure 2.1 SPSS Data Editor after independent samples –test data entered in
SPSS Data Editor
Step 2. Run the Independent Samples t-test.
Click on Analyze.
Click on Compare Means.
Click on Independent-Samples T Test
A dialog box will open with a list of your variables in the white rectangle
on the left hand side. Click on the dependent variable, and then click on
the small black arrow to the left of the white box headed Test Variable(s).
This will place the dependent variable (in this case TeachingPerformance)
in the box.
Click on the independent variable and then click on the small black arrow
to the left of the white box headed Grouping Variable. This will place the
independent variable (in this case Gender) in the box (see Figure 2.2)
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 77
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Figure 2.2 Entering the test and grouping variables
Click on the Define Groups button.
The dialog box shown in Figure 2.3 will open. Enter the two values of the
independent variable in the white boxes. Because in our example males
are coded 1 and females 2 (see Table 2), these are the two values shown
in Figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Entering the levels of the independent variable
Click on Continue.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 78
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Click on OK.
The output will be as follows
Group Statistics
Std. Std. Error
Gender N Mean Deviation Mean
TeachingPerformanc Male 11 93.5455 3.01210 .90818
e Female 14 83.3571 3.10353 .82945
Number of cases in The mean of The standard deviation of
each group each group (in each group
this example
males and
Independent Samples Test
females).
Levene's Test
for Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
Teaching Equal
Performa variances .016 .899 8.2 23 .000 10.18831 1.23456 7.63442 12.74220
nce assumed 53
Equal
ariances
not 8.2 21.
.000 10.18831 1.22995 7.63696 12.73967
assumed 83 913
Significance of Levene’s test for
equality of variances. If this value t value degrees of freedom Significance level: the probability of a
is less than 0.05, use the t-value, significant difference in the means as
df, and significance level given for great as the one here if the null
Equal variances not assumed hypothesis is true. This value needs to
be below compared to the assigned
Referring to the Independent Samples Test table again
levelweof can see the
significance for statistical
significance.
results of the t-test. The t-value is 8.253, there 23 degrees of freedom and the
(two-tailed) significance level is 0.000. The difference between two groups‟
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 79
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
means is significant in this case because 0.000 is less than to the assigned level
of significance (0.05).
The mean teaching performance were 93.55 (SD = 3.01) for males and
83.36 (SD = 3.10) for females. The teaching performance of males and females
were compared using an independent samples t-test. There was no significant
difference between the teaching performance of males and females t(23) =
8.253, p-value = 0.000
PAIRED SAMPLES t-TEST
A researcher is interested whether a training course increases or
decreases the teaching performance of the teachers who attended the training.
The researcher randomly selected 25 teachers and measured their teaching
performance before and after they attended the training courses. The data are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The Teaching Performance of 25 Teachers
Before and After a Training Program
Case Teaching Performance Teaching Performance
Before Training After Training
1 85 95
2 84 98
3 86 97
4 87 92
5 89 96
6 82 93
7 80 94
8 84 95
9 86 90
10 82 82
11 89 97
12 87 98
13 82 95
14 81 95
15 86 92
16 89 91
17 89 94
18 84 95
19 85 96
20 88 97
21 81 99
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 80
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
22 80 98
23 86 99
24 87 91
25 89 98
Step 1. Enter your data in the SPSS Data Editor.
Figure 3.1 Paired samples t-test data entered in SPSS Data Editor
Step 2. Run Paired Samples t-test.
Click on Analyze.
Click on Compare Means.
Click on Paired Samples T Test
A dialog box will appear. Click on both the variables you want to include in
the analysis, and then click on the small black arrow to the left of the white
box headed Paired Variables. The variables will move into the white box
as in shown in Figure 3.2.
Click OK.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 81
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Figure 3.2 Entering variables in a paired samples t-test
The output will be as follows
Paired Samples Statistics
Std. Std. Error
Mean N Deviation Mean
Pair 1 before_TeachingPerfor
85.1200 25 3.00444 .60089
mance
after_TeachingPerform
94.6800 25 3.70495 .74099
ance
Mean Number of Cases Standard Deviations
s
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
Std. Std. 95% Confidence Sig.
Deviatio Error Interval of the (2-
Mean n Mean Difference t df tailed)
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 82
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Lower Upper
Pair 1 before_Teaching .92390
Performance - -
4.61952 -11.46685 -7.65315 -10.347 24
after_Teaching 9.56000 .000
Performance
The mean Teaching Performance was 85.12 (SD = 3.00) before the
training course and 94.68 (SD = 3.70) after the training course. The difference
between the mean level of Teaching Performance before and after the training
course was examined with a paired samples t-test. Teaching Performance was
significantly higher after the training course than before it t(24) = 10.347, p-value
< 0.05.
Reading Assignment:
t-value Degrees of freedom Significance level: The probability of a difference in
E-Journals/E-Books: the means as great as the one here if the null
hypothesis is true. This value needs to be below to
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
the assigned level of significance (alpha) for
Password: powersearch statistical significance.
Exercises/Written Assignments:
1. Compute the coefficient of correlation (r) and coefficient of determination
(r2) between the monthly income (in thousands of pesos) and the amount
of expenses (in thousands of pesos) of ten families of the same size.
Monthly Income 20 14 15 18 30 34 36 47
Monthly expenses 15 12 25 20 25 30 35 32
2. The scores on an aptitude test of ten students and the number of hours
they reviewed for the test are as follows:
Number of Hours 18 27 20 10 30 24 32 27 12 16
Scores (y) 68 82 77 90 78 72 94 88 60 70
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[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
2.1 Compute the coefficient of correlation (r) and coefficient of
determination (r2)
2.2 Test the significance of the correlation coefficient.
3. Table 1 gives the ranks of ten applicants for teaching position on
intelligence and emotional quotients as shown by their psychological test
results.
Applicant Intelligence Quotient Emotional Quotient
A 1 1
B 4 3
C 8 9
D 5 2
E 8 6
F 10 8
G 6 7
H 3 5
I 2 4
J 7 10
A. Calculate the Spearman‟s rho.
B. Test the significance of the Spearman‟s rho.
4. In the following given data, x = number of sessions attended by 15
trainees in a leadership training seminar, while y = scores obtained by the
same trainees in a test given after the seminar.
x 3 2 4 5 5 6 6 7 9 7 8 5 6 3 8
y 65 50 75 70 80 85 79 88 91 87 88 70 71 63 85
a. Determine the regression equation for predicting y from x
b. Predict the mean score of trainees who attend an average of 8 sessions
References/Bibliography
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth
Edition). 1984
Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology and Education.
New York: McGraw-Hill. 1989
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 84
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Field, Maurice H. Statistics for Graduate Research Projects. Tennessee.
1997
Freed, M.N., Ryan, J.M., & Hess, R.K. Handbook of statistical
procedures and their computer applications to education and the
behavioral sciences. NY: MacMillan Publishing Co. 1991
Naval, Victoria C. et al. General Statistics. Conanan Publishing. 1988
Ostle, Bernard B. Statistics in Research: Basic Concepts and Techniques
for Research Workers. Ames: Iowa State University Press. 1988
Kumar, R. Research Methodology, pp. 1-15. Busy Book Distributors.
1996
Module 5 MEASURES OF COMPARISON
LESSON
TYPES 1 ANALYSIS FOR COMPARISON
OF
LESSON 1
Learning Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. distinguish between the uses of the different statistical measures for
comparison: t-test and Analysis of Variance;
2. understand the application and uses of the t-test; and
3. understand the application and uses of analysis of variance.
Keywords and Phrases:
t-test
analysis of variance (ANOVA)
LEARNER
independent samples
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 85
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
dependent samples
Introduction
So far in hypothesis testing, a researcher not only deals with tests of
relationships but also with differences. When different groups are used in
research, these groups usually represent a research variable. When a researcher
tests for group differences on a particular measure, he is also assessing
comparison or relationship.
T-test
Significance of the Difference Between Two Means for Independent
Samples.
Consider drawing a very large number of pairs of samples, each from one
of two “treatment population” and study. Then we compute the difference in
sample means x1 x2 for each of all possible pairs of samples. Now a
distribution of such difference would be called a sampling distribution of the
statistics x1 x2 . This is a theoretical sampling distribution and its mean is equal
to the difference in population means, x1 x2 .
For two independent samples, the standard deviation of this sampling
distribution is called the standard error of the difference of the two means, written as,
x1 x2
Let‟s assume that we are going to conduct an experiment using an
experimental and a control group. We will use x1 as the mean of the control
group and x2 , the mean of the experimental group with N1 and N 2 cases,
respectively, drawn from a normally distributed population with means 𝜇 1 and 𝜇 2
and variance 𝛿 1 2 and 𝛿 2 2.
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[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
The assumption is that the samples are drawn from populations with equal
variances 𝛿 1 2 = 𝛿 22 = 𝛿 2.
This is known as homogeneity of variance assumption (homoscedasticity).
If this assumption is true, data from the two samples can be combined to obtain
an estimate of the population variance (s2) as:
N N
1 2 2 2
(x x) (x x)
S2
i1 i2
N1 N 2 N
=
or when s1 and s2 are given:
S1 ( N 1) S 2 ( N 2)
s2
2 2
N1 N 2 N
The standard error of the difference between the two means is given by:
2 2
sx x s s
1 2 N N
1 2
To obtain the t-ratio, the difference between the mean is divided by the
estimate of the standard error,
x x
t 1 2
sx x
1 2
Another formula for calculating s2 (pooled variance) when raw scores are
given is:
( x) 2
N 1
( x) 2
N 2
N
N N
x ( x N
2 2
x N
1
2 2 2
1
2
s
2
N1 N 2 2
Sample Calculation:
At the start of a semester, a teacher draws a sample of students in his
mathematics class and randomly assigned 15 of them to an experimental group
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 87
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
and 15 to a control group. The teacher taught the experimental group (Group I)
with Computer-Aided Instruction (CAI) and the control group with the traditional
method of teaching. At the end of semester, a mathematics achievement test
was given to both groups. The results are given below. On the basis of the data,
should the teacher conclude that the experimental method is more effective than
the traditional method?
Experimental Group Control Group
35 25
45 32
36 40
20 28
25 22
35 25
40 20
45 50
27 20
32 18
20 12
18 40
15 15
12 10
10 8
Hypothesis:
Ho: 𝜇 1 = 𝜇 2 or 𝜇 2 - 𝜇 1 = 0
The assumption is made that x1 , x2 are means of two samples drawn from
a normally distributed population with population means 𝜇 1 and 𝜇 2 and variances
𝛿 1 2 and 𝛿 2 2.
𝜇 1≠ 𝜇 2 or 𝜇 2 - 𝜇 1 = 0
Level of Significance: ∝= 0.05
Region of rejection: - 2.048
and t > 2.048, df = 28
Computation:
X1 X2 X12 X22
35 25 1225 625
45 32 2025 1024
36 40 1296 1600
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 88
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
20 28 400 784
25 22 625 484
35 25 1225 625
40 20 1600 400
45 50 2025 2500
27 20 729 400
32 18 1024 324
20 12 400 144
18 40 324 1600
15 15 225 225
12 10 144 100
10 8 100 64
x1 = 415 x2 = 365 x1 = 13367
2
x2 = 10899
2
x1 27.7 x2 24.3
x1 x2
2 2
N1 = 15 N2 = 15
The unbiased estimate of the variance is:
( x) 2
N 1
( x) 2
N 2
N
x N
1
2 N N
x ( x N
2 2
2 2
1
2
s
2
N1 N 2 2
(415) 2 (365) 2
13,367
10899
s
2 15 15
15 15 2
s2
13,367 11481.67 10,889 8,881.67
28
s 2 139.38
The t-ratio is:
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 89
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
x1 x2
t
s2 s2
N1 N 2
27.7 24.3
t
139.38 139.38
15 15
3.4
t
27.876
3.4
t = 0.64
5.28
Decision Rule:
The tabular value of t for df 28 at 0.05 level is 2.048. The observed value
of 0.46 indicates that the difference between the means was not large enough for
us to reject the null hypothesis at the 5% level. We can conclude that the two
methods of teaching do not exert a differential effect on the achievement of
students.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS FOR
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES IN SPSS
To run independent sample t-test in SPSS, select Analyze, Compare
Means, Independent-Samples T-test…from the data editor window.
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[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
The Independent-Samples T-test window will appear after clicking on the
independent-samples t-test option. Select the test variable (scores) and put them
on the right hand side of the test variable list. Select the “grouping variable” to
define groups, then click on the “ok” button. (In this example, the two groups are
the students who used experimental method and students who utilized traditional
method).
The following table will show the result.
Group Statistics
Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 91
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Scores Experimental Method 15 27.6667 11.60460 2.99629
Traditional Method 15 24.3333 12.00397 3.09941
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error Difference
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
Scores Equal
variances .072 .791 .773 28 .446 3.33333 4.31093 -5.49721 12.16388
assumed
Equal
variances not .773 27.968 .446 3.33333 4.31093 -5.49766 12.16433
assumed
MORE SPSS APPLICATION - t-TEST FOR INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
Example
A researcher is interested whether there is a significant difference in the teaching
performance of male and female teachers. The researcher randomly selected 24
teachers, noted their gender, and evaluated their teaching performance. Gender is
coded 1 for male and 2 for female. The data are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The Gender and Teaching Performance of 24 Teachers
Case Gender Teaching Performance
1 1 98
2 1 95
3 1 92
4 1 94
5 1 89
6 2 79
7 2 82
8 2 88
9 2 85
10 1 94
11 2 83
12 1 97
13 2 80
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 92
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
14 1 91
15 2 82
16 1 90
17 2 81
18 2 83
19 2 84
20 2 85
21 2 85
22 2 80
23 2 90
24 1 97
Step 1. Enter your data in the SPSS Data Editor.
Figure 2.1 SPSS Data Editor after independent samples –test data entered in
SPSS Data Editor
Step 2. Run the Independent Samples t-test.
Click on Analyze.
Click on Compare Means.
Click on Independent-Samples T Test
A dialog box will open with a list of your variables in the white rectangle
on the left hand side. Click on the dependent variable, and then click on
the small black arrow to the left of the white box headed Test Variable(s).
This will place the dependent variable (in this case TeachingPerformance)
in the box.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 93
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Click on the independent variable and then click on the small black arrow
to the left of the white box headed Grouping Variable. This will place the
independent variable (in this case Gender) in the box (see Figure 2.2)
Figure 2.2 Entering the test and grouping variables
Click on the Define Groups button.
The dialog box shown in Figure 2.3 will open. Enter the two values of the
independent variable in the white boxes. Because in our example males
are coded 1 and females 2 (see Table 2), these are the two values shown
in Figure 2.3.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 94
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Figure 2.3 Entering the levels of the independent variable
Click on Continue.
Click on OK.
The output will be as follows
Group Statistics
Std. Error
Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Mean
TeachingPerformance Male 11 93.5455 3.01210 .90818
Female 14 83.3571 3.10353 .82945
Number of cases in
each group The mean of The standard deviation of
each group (in each group
Independent Samples Test
this example
Levene's Test males and
for Equality of
females).
Variances t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence Interval of
the Difference
Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error
F Sig. t df tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper
Teaching Equal
Performa variances .016 .899 8.2 .000 10.18831 1.23456 7.63442 12.74220
23
nce assumed 53
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 95
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Equal
ariances
not 8.2 21.
.000 10.18831 1.22995 7.63696 12.73967
assumed 83 913
degrees of freedom
Referring to the Independent Samples Test table again we can see the
results of the t-test. The t-value is 8.253, there 23 degrees of freedom and the
(two-tailed) significance level is 0.000. The difference between two groups‟
means is significant in this case because 0.000 is less than to the assigned level
of significance (0.05).
The mean teaching performance were 93.55 (SD = 3.01) for males and
83.36 (SD = 3.10) for females. The teaching performance of males and females
were compared using an independent samples t-test. There was no significant
difference between the teaching performance of males and females t(23) =
8.253, p-value = 0.000
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS FOR
DEPENDENT SAMPLES
Significance of Levene’s test for Significance level: the probability of a
t value equality of variances. If this value significant difference in the means as
great as the one here if the null hypothesis
In the conduct of research, one
is lessmay
than use twotherelated
0.05, use t-value, samples, that is, one
is true. This value needs to be below
df, and significance level given for
compared to the assigned level of
may “match” or otherwise relate theEqual
twovariances
samples studied. This matching
not assumed may be
significance for statistical significance.
achieved by using each subject as his own control (as in pre-post tests design) or
by matching subjects and then randomly assigning one member of each pair to
one of the two conditions, and his matched partner to the other condition. A
procedure for testing the significance between the mean difference of two related
samples may be applied without computing the correlation coefficient between
them. This method is sometimes called the difference method.
Let D be the difference between any pair, x 1-x2. The mean difference of
all pairs is D =
D . The difference between the means of the two groups of
N
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 96
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
observations is equal to the mean differences, i.e., x1-x2 =D for any pair.
Summing over N pairs yield x1 x2 D . Dividing by N we obtain
x1 x2 D . Since the mean difference is the difference between the two
means, we may test for the significance of the difference between two means by
testing whether or not D is significantly different from zero. Here, we treat D as
a variable.
The unbiased estimate of the variance of D is:
(D D )
2
SD
2
N 1
2
S
D
2
SD
N
To test whether D is significantly different from 0, we use the t-ratio of:
D
t
SD
An equivalent formula is:
t
D
N D 2 ( D) 2
N 1
Example:
The following are the pre and post-test scores of 12 students on a test
which determines whether learning has taken place as a result of a new teaching
strategy.
Test the significance between the two means at the 5% level.
Subject No. Pre-Test Post-Test
1 18 22
2 14 11
3 9 10
4 17 15
5 7 11
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[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
6 16 19
7 12 14
8 11 13
9 11 13
10 17 20
11 15 16
12 8 10
H O : There is no significant difference between the mean of the pre-test and
post-test.
H1 : There is a significant difference between the mean of the pre-test and
post-test.
Subject No. Pre-Test Post-Test D D2
1 18 22 -4 16
2 14 11 3 9
3 9 10 -1 1
4 14 15 -1 1
5 7 11 -4 16
6 16 19 -3 9
7 12 14 -2 4
8 11 13 -2 4
9 11 13 -2 4
10 17 20 -3 9
11 15 16 -1 1
12 8 10 -2 4
D 78
2
D 22
Use t
D
N D 2 ( D) 2
N 1
22
t = -2.95
12(78) (22) 2
12 1
22
t
936 484
11
22
t
41.09
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 98
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
22
t = 3.43
6.41
Tabular value of t at 11 df , 5% = 2.201
Observed Value of t = -3.43
Conclusion:
Since observed value of t < tabular value at 5% level of significance, then
the null hypothesis is not rejected. This means that the post-test mean is not
significantly different from the pre-test mean. It further means method did not
increase achievement exposure to the new teaching method.
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO MEANS FOR
DEPENDENT SAMPLES IN SPSS
Select Analyze, Compare Means, Paired-Samples T-test... from the Data
Editor window
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 99
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
From the Paired Sample t-test window, select pre test as variable 1 and
post test as variable 2. Then, click the “ok” button.
The following table will show the result.
Paired Samples Statistics
Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pair 1 pre_test 12.6667 12 3.57601 1.03231
post_test 14.5000 12 4.03395 1.16450
Paired Samples Correlations
N Correlation Sig.
Pair 1 pre_test & post_test 12 .889 .000
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 100
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Std. Std. Error Difference Sig. (2-
Mean Deviation Mean Lower Upper t df tailed)
Pair pre_test - -
1.85047 .53418 -3.00907 -.65760 -3.432 11 .006
1 post_test 1.83333
MORE SPSS APPLICATION: PAIRED SAMPLES t-TEST (DEPENDENT)
A researcher is interested whether a training course increases or
decreases the teaching performance of the teachers who attended the training.
The researcher randomly selected 25 teachers and measured their teaching
performance before and after they attended the training courses. The data are
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. The Teaching Performance of 25 Teachers
Before and After a Training Program
Case Teaching Performance Teaching Performance
Before Training After Training
1 85 95
2 84 98
3 86 97
4 87 92
5 89 96
6 82 93
7 80 94
8 84 95
9 86 90
10 82 82
11 89 97
12 87 98
13 82 95
14 81 95
15 86 92
16 89 91
17 89 94
18 84 95
19 85 96
20 88 97
21 81 99
22 80 98
23 86 99
24 87 91
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 101
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
25 89 98
Step 1. Enter your data in the SPSS Data Editor.
Figure 3.1 Paired samples t-test data entered in SPSS Data Editor
Step 2. Run Paired Samples t-test.
Click on Analyze.
Click on Compare Means.
Click on Paired Samples T Test
A dialog box will appear. Click on both the variables you want to include in
the analysis, and then click on the small black arrow to the left of the white
box headed Paired Variables. The variables will move into the white box
as in shown in Figure 3.2.
Click OK.
Figure 3.2 Entering variables in a paired samples t-test
The output will be as follows
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 102
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Paired Samples Statistics
Std. Std. Error
Mean N Deviation Mean
Pair 1 before_TeachingPerfor
85.1200 25 3.00444 .60089
mance
after_TeachingPerform
94.6800 25 3.70495 .74099
ance
Mean Number of Cases Standard Deviations
s
Paired Samples Test
Paired Differences
95% Confidence
Std. Std. Interval of the Sig.
Deviatio Error Difference (2-
Mean n Mean Lower Upper t df tailed)
Pair before_Teac .92390
1 hingPerforma
nce - - .000
4.61952 -11.46685 -7.65315 -10.347 24
after_Teachin 9.56000
gPerformanc
e
The mean Teaching Performance was 85.12 (SD = 3.00) before the
training course
t-valueand 94.68 (SD = 3.70)
Degrees after the training
of freedom course.
Significance level: The difference
The probability of a difference in
the means as great as the one here if the null
between the mean level of Teaching Performance before and
hypothesis after
is true. Thisthe
valuetraining
needs to be below to
the assigned level of significance (alpha) for
course was examined with a paired samples t-test. Teaching Performance was
statistical significance.
significantly higher after the training course than before it t(24) = 10.347, p-value
< 0.05.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 103
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Analysis of variance commonly abbreviated as ANOVA is an interval
model used to compare the means of three or more groups. For example, if you
want to compare the mean achievement test scores in science and math in the
National Achievement Test (NAT) of students in three (3) schools in Metro
Manila, you use ANOVA.
Assumptions in the use of ANOVA.
The variable/s must be normally distributed.
Random sampling method was used in the selection of the samples
The variances of the subgroups must be homogeneous
The samples that constitute the subgroups have been drawn
independently.
A typical ANOVA Table
Source of Degrees of Sum of Mean F-ratio 𝜌
variation Freedom Squares Square
Between
groups
Within
groups
Total
ANOVA relies on the F-ratio to test the hypothesis that the two variances
are equal; that is, the subgroups are from the same population. “Between
groups” refer to the variation between each group mean and the grand or overall
mean. “Within groups” refer to the variation between each subject and the
subject‟s group mean.
F = Between group mean square
Within group mean square
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 104
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Computational Technique for Single Classification
Sample Data
Squares
i Group A Group B Group C A B C
1 15 16 8 225 256 64
2 12 15 6 144 225 36
3 16 17 16 256 289 256
4 10 16 6 100 256 36
5 8 10 8 64 100 64
6 14 15 14 196 225 196
7 12 8 16 144 64 256
Total 87 97 74 1129 1415 908
Group
Means 12.43 13.86 10.57 258/21 = 12.29
X 258 x 3452
2
TOTAL SUM OF SQUARES
Variation of all the observed values from the grand/overall mean:
SST = X2 – (X)2/N
= 3452 – (258)2/21 = 282.28
BETWEEN SUM OF SQUARES
Variation of the group means fro the grand/overall mean
( X X g ) ni , ni = group sample size
2
SSB =
This can be written as:
ni ( X i ) ( X ) / n
2 2
SSB =
= (872/7 + 972/7 + 742/7) – (258)2/21 = 38
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 105
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
WITHIN SUM OF SQUARES
Sum of the variations within the groups
SSW = SSGi
X A ( X A ) / nA
2
1. SSGA =
= (152+122+162+102+82+142+122) – (87)2/7
= (225+144+256+100+64+196+144) – 1081.29
= 1129 – 1081.29 = 47.71
X B ( X B ) / nB
2 2
2. SSGB =
= (162+152+172+162+102+152+82) – (97)2/7
= (256+225+289+256+100+225+64) – 1344.14
= 1415 -1344.14 = 70.86
X C ( X C ) / nC
2 2
3. SSGC =
= (82+62+162+62+82+142+162) – (74)2/7
= (64+36+256+36+64+196+256) – 782.29
= 908 – 782.29 = 125.71
SSW = 47.71+70.86 + 125.71
= 244.28
RELATION OF THE SUMS OF SQUARES
SST = SSB + SSW
SSW = SST - SSB
= 282.28 – 38 = 244.28
ANOVA Table
Source of Variation Df Sum of squares Mean square
Between groups 2 38 19
Within groups 18 244.28 13.57
Total 20 282.28
Calculating the F-Ratio
F= Between group man square
Within group mean square
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 106
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
In this example, the computed F-ratio is given by:
F = 19/13.57 = 1.4 (with 2 and 18 d.f.)
On the other hand, the tabulated value for F with 2,18, d.f. is 3.55 for
0.05.
Interpretation of the result:
Since the computed F-ratio of 1.4 is less than F0.05 (3.55), we can accept
the null hypothesis and say that the variability between subgroup is not
significant to say that they belong to the same population.
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) in SPSS
To run analysis of variance in SPSS, select Analyze, Compare Means, One way
ANOVA…from the data editor window.
Then, specify scores in dependent variable box and student in the factor
box. Then click “ok” button.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 107
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
The following table will show the ANOVA result.
ANOVA
Scores
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 38.000 2 19.000 1.400 .272
Within Groups 244.286 18 13.571
Total 282.286 20
MORE SPSS APPLICATION ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
In this example a researcher is interested whether teachers‟ “employment
status” differ in relation to teaching performance. To investigate this the
researcher selected 8 teachers in each type of employment status and measured
their teaching performance. The data are shown in Table 4. Teachers are coded
1 if they are part-timer, 2 if they are temporary and 3 if they are permanent.
Table 4. The teaching Performance of 24 Teachers in
Three Types of Employment Status
Case Employment Status Teaching Performance
1 85 1
2 84 2
3 86 3
4 87 1
5 89 3
6 82 2
7 80 1
8 84 3
9 86 2
10 82 1
11 89 3
12 87 2
13 82 1
14 81 3
15 86 1
16 89 2
17 89 1
18 84 3
19 85 2
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 108
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
20 88 1
21 81 3
22 80 3
23 86 2
24 87 2
Step 1. Enter your data in the SPSS Data Editor.
Figure 4.1 Independent Samples ANOVA data entered in SPSS Data Editor
Step 2. Run Paired Samples t-test.
Click on Analyze.
Click on Compare Means.
Click on One-Way ANOVA…
A dialog box will appear. Click on the dependent variable. It will be
highlighted in black. Click on the black triangle to the left of the box
headed Dependent List (Teaching Performance). The dependent
variable will be moved across to this box.
Click on the independent variable. It will be highlighted in black. Click on
black triangle to the left of the box headed Factor (Employment Status).
The dependent variable will be moved across to this box (see Figure 4.2).
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 109
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Click on Post Hoc … A dialog box will appear.
Click on the white box next to Tukey. A tick will appear in the box (see
Figure 4.3).
Click on Continue.
Click on Options…
Click in the white boxes next to Descriptive (see figure 4.4)
Click on Continue.
Click OK.
Figure 4.2 Entering the independent (Factor) and dependent variables when
carrying out in independent samples ONE-WAY ANOVA.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 110
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Figure 4.3 Specifying Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons when carrying out an
independent samples ONE WAY ANOVA
Figure 4.4 Entering the options when carrying out (Descriptive) an independent
samples ONE WAY ANOVA
Descriptives
Teaching_Performance
95% Confidence
Interval for Mean
Std. Lower Upper
N Mean Deviation Std. Error Bound Bound Min Max
Part-Timer 8 84.8750 3.22656 1.14076 82.1775 87.5725 80.00 89.00
Temporary 8 85.7500 2.12132 .75000 83.9765 87.5235 82.00 89.00
Permanent 8 84.2500 3.53553 1.25000 81.2942 87.2058 80.00 89.00
Total 24 84.9583 2.95590 .60337 83.7102 86.2065 80.00 89.00
The number of cases
at each level of the The means for each of The standard deviation
independent variable the three samples of each sample
ANOVA
Teaching_Performance
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between 9.083 .615
2 4.542 .497
Groups
Within Groups 191.875 21 9.137
Total 200.958 23
The probability that the null hypothesis is true,
given the differences between the means of
The test statistic, F the groups examined. The value needs to be
less than to the assigned level of significance
Basic Statistical Concepts (apha)
and Tools in Educational Management
for statistical significance 111
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Multiple Comparisons
(I) (J) Mean 95% Confidence Interval
Employme Employme Difference (I-
nt_Status nt_Status J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound
Part-Timer Temporary -.87500 1.51137 .833 -4.6845 2.9345
Permanent .62500 1.51137 .910 -3.1845 4.4345
Temporary Part-Timer .87500 1.51137 .833 -2.9345 4.6845
Permanent 1.50000 1.51137 .590 -2.3095 5.3095
Permanent Part-Timer -.62500 1.51137 .910 -4.4345 3.1845
Temporary -1.50000 1.51137 .590 -5.3095 2.3095
These values give the probability, based on Tukey’s honestly significance
difference test (HSD), that there is a difference between a given pair of
independent variable levels. In this example the first value is concerned with the
difference between Part-Timer and Temporary (p= 0.883), the second between
Part-Timer and Permanent (p=0.910), and so on.
All p-values is greater than to the assigned level of significance which is
0.05, therefore all pairs are not significantly different.
The mean levels of teaching performance were compared between teachers
with employment status of part-timer, temporary and permanent. The mean
levels of teaching performance were 84.8750 (SD= 3.22656) for part-timer,
85.7500 (SD = 2.12132) for temporary and 84.2500 (SD=3.53553) in permanent.
An independent samples one-way analysis of variance showed that there is no
significant difference between the teaching performance across the types of
employment status F(2,21) = 0.497, p> 0.05.
Reading Assignment:
E-Journals/E-Books:
PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
Password: powersearch
Exercises/Written Assignments:
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 112
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
1. Ten teachers who applied for the Licensure Examination for Teachers
(LET)were given a test to measure their readiness. They were
subjected to refresher courses after which a second test was given to
determine if the course affects their readiness. The results were given
below.
Teachers T1 T2
1 125 157
2 89 131
3 135 155
4 119 162
5 190 245
6 135 148
7 186 225
8 147 170
9 180 195
10 145 135
Is the refresher course effective?
2. Ten students are paired in terms of age and year level. One member
of each pair taught Physics in English and the other member using
Filipino. At the end of the course, a proficiency test was administered.
The data are tabulated below.
Student 1 English Filipino
1 70 82
2 80 80
3 70 81
4 69 70
5 80 86
6 90 55
7 87 82
8 75 35
9 82 78
10 80 85
Is there a significant difference?
3. The following represent the test scores of three (3) groups of
respondents
A B C
12 6 7
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 113
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
11 8 4
10 6 10
9 10 9
14 8 12
12 6 4
13 7 3
14 9 6
11 12 5
10 13 6
a. Apply analysis of variance to see if the groups differed significantly
in their performance. Use alpha = .05.
References/Bibliography
Downie, N. M. & Heath, Robert W. (1984). Basic Statistical Methods (Fifth
Edition).
Edwards, Allen L. Statistical Analysis. (1988). New York, Holt, Rinehard
and Winston.
Ferguson, George A. (1989). Statistical Analysis in Psychology and
Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Field, Maurice H. (1997). Statistics for Graduate Research Projects.
Tennessee.
Guilford, J.P. (1985). Fundamental Statistics in Psychology and
Education. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Kumar, R. (1996). Research Methodology, pp. 1-15. Busy Book
Distributors.
Leedy, P.D. and Ormrod, Jean E.(2005). Practical Research Planning
and Design, 8th edition, pp. 1-6, Prentice Hall.
Naval, Victoria C. et al. (1988). General Statistics. Conanan Publishing.
Ostle, Bernard B. (1988). Statistics in Research: Basic Concepts and
Techniques for Research Workers. Ames: Iowa State University
Press.
Van Dalen, Deobold B. (1982). Understanding Educational Research.
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 114
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
Basic Statistical Concepts and Tools in Educational Management 115
[Introduction to Statistical Concepts]
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