—— The Complete Mineral Guide ‘Over 1000 illustrations in full colour This book is a comprehensive quide to all the common, and many of the uncommon, rocks fand minorals of the world. Every mineral of Commercial value oF of chemical, geological oF ‘esthetic interest is included. The minerals were specially prepared for this book and show, in full colour, all the visible characteristics that ‘can be used in the identification of minerals. ‘They are complemented by diagrams of crystal structures and chemical compositions, The maps to show collectors what minerals they are likely to find where in the British Iles. The paintings The text Opposite eech painting isa concise description fof each minoval, gi ‘abundance, whare i ‘occurs, hardness, specific gravity, erystal system and other relevant information. The intioduction describes the origin of the major typee of rock. the atomie structures, of tninerels, and the different types of chemical onds at lve they affect orystal structures. There isalso advice on how to build up amineral Collection and on how to prepare and store min- ‘eral specimens. based on the physical and chemical properties of minerals such as cleavage, hardness, specific fravity, colour, lustre, opacity, solubility in fcids, magnetism, and even taste, are described. ‘These provide the essential quidelines for iden- tification of minerals in the field or in the home. Simple tests ISBN 0.00 21986824 @ THE ROCKS & MINERALS OF THE WORLD A guide to field identification. Over 1000 i/lustrations in colourne 7 ] How to Use This Book THe & Nie THE MINERALS are described in terms of dance, F thelr physical and chemical properties, and where they are most likely to be found. If you wish to refer to a specific minoral, the index will direct you to the correct text entry and illustration. If you don’t know the name of the mineral, but Il know the group to which it belongs, the entry can be found ws OF'THE'WORLD by turning to the relevant section of the text. (For a note on the classification used in this book see pj Ifyou know neither the name nor the group, the id key (see below) can be used, THE ILLUSTRATIONS are in colour, and ate arranged to {face the text, They show not only the minerals themselves, as they are likely to ocour naturally, but idealised crystal struc- tures, atomic structures, and the forms into which precious or | semi-precious minerals can be cut and polished. The maps (pp. 263-4) show selected mineral localities in the British Isles and te areas of most interest to the British collector. IDENTIFICATION. A key to rocks and minerals, based on 5 the two readily observable properties colour and hardness, Charles A. Sorrel! Appears on p, 268. This will diect you to the pages on which 5 youre likely to find the mineral concerned. Further clues can \ George F. Sandstrom 2 be obtained by reading the section on Properties of Minerals } (pp. 52-8), which will tell you what properties are: par. +f ; ticularly valuable in the identification of minerals, and ’ oneroaea ees eae describes some simple tests ~ streak tests, specific gravity, Herbert 8, zim 4 solubility and others - which can be carried out in the «a field or, using simple equipment, in the home. The best aid to identification is experience. You can \ become more familiar with rocks and minerals by reading the i comprehensive introduction; by following up the referen 1 in the bibliography (pp. 270-8); and by visiting and stuc # ing collections of minerals (see page 278) I € Collins, St James's Place, Londor 1Willan Collins Sons & Co Ld } London » Glasgow » Sydney» Auckland Toronto ~ Johennesburg Copyright © 1979 by Western Publishing Company Inc. Allright eserved © in additional material Wm Collins Sons & Co Lid, 1977 Foprinid 1978 Paperback edition: ISBN 0:00 219682 4 Haraback edition: ISBN 0.00 219694 8 Mads and Printed in Great Britain by Wiliam Collins Sons & Co Ltd, Glasgow CONTENTS Mineralogy asa Science Mineralsin Rocks .....6....005 Metamorphic Rocks Sedimentary Rocks . Atomic Structure of Minerals... Solid Solutions Crystals Crystal Systems Twinned Crystals. Crystal Habit Imperfections in Crystals Crystal Inclusions Properties of Minerals... ss. Determination of Crystal Structures Lunar Minerals and Rocks Mineral Descriptions . Gotting Familiar with Minerals Identification oo... eesecseseee Classification of Minerals Native Elements - Metals Native Elements ~ Nonmetals Vitligumite Acanthite 10 14 18 2 36 38 44 46 48 50 52 59 60 63 65 or 68 70 76Stromeyerite Native Elements ~Semimetals Sulfides..... Sulfosalts .......0.+5 Halides Oxides and Hydroxides Borates Silicates .., Independent Tetrahedral Silicates Double Totrahodral Silicates Ring Silicates Single Chain Silicates Double Chain Silicates Shoot Silicates Clay Minerals Framework Silicates The Foldspar Group Carbonates Nitrates Sulfates.... 198, 168 170 174 182 186 198 204 214 Phosphates, Arsonates and Vanadates ... Chromates oss... ‘Tungstates and Molybdates . Collecting Mine! Mineral Hunting in Britain Learning more about Minerals The Chemical Elements. Index. . 4 Colite 82 2 . 118 128 152 154 228 236 238 248 282 284, - 258 262 270 279 . 282 INERALOGY AS A SCIENCE Minerals ore the natural crystalline materials that form the Earth and make up most of its racks. Though minerals have been used and metals exiracied from them for all of recorded history, mineralogy as a science is rolatively young. Serious study of minerals begon in the 1800's, after the development of the petro araphic microscope (for studying rocks) and the reflecting goni- ometer (for accurately measuring angles between faces of & mineral’s crystals). During thet contury most af the minerals known today were described, optically studied, and chemically analyzed. Largely from these studies grew the schemes used today to clossify minerals. The internal crystal structure of miner- als, however, could only be guessed from thelr external sym- metry and optical properties, Wilhelm Roentgen’s discovery of X-rays in 1895 provided min- eralogists with the tool they needed to study crystal structures, but it was not until 1912 that Max von Laue and his assistants Proved that when X-rays are scattered by a crystal thoir behavior gives clues to the internal arrangement. Since then, the structures of all important mineral groups have been analyzed. By correlat ing this structural knowledge with physical, chemical, electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties, mineralogists have gained fan understanding of the forces that hold crystalline matter to- gether. This understanding has in turn enabled scientists 10 synthesize crystalline compounds with properties to fill special needs. These compounds have been used in the manufacture of high-temperature ceramics, electrical insulators, transistors, and many other items. Knowledge of the behavior of erystels ot high temporatures fond pressures has been applied to research on the formation of mountains, the eruption of volcanoes, and other geologic proc- ‘26805, The forces that cause these activities become more under standable when analyzed in terms of structural changes In the mineral components of rock, Rocks, metals, concrete, bricks, plaster, paint pigments, paper, rubber, and ceramics all contain mineral or synthetic crystals. In fact, almost all solids except glass and organic materials ore erystelline, This is why knowledge of the structure and behavior of crystals is important in nearly all industcial ond technical er deavors. Even organic materials form erystals when isolated © pure state, By studying these crystals, biologists and medical researchers have learned much about life processes and heredily. Unquestionably mineralogy is a subject of widespread impor tance in all of scienco. Consequently, persons trained in mineral: ‘ogy and crystallography may be found doing work in the parent science, geology, or may ke engaged in research in metellurgi cal, ceramic, or polymer materials, in solid stata physics or chemistry, or in the biological sciences. Interdisciplinery cooper. ‘mong scientists has led to many important discoveries,MINERALS IN ROCKS Minerals are the constituents of rocks, which make up the entire inorganic, solid portion of the earth. Mineral formation and rock formation are, in fact, one process, To know minerals, therefore, it's important to know rocks. A single mineral may form a rock, but usvally rocks are cohesive aggregates of two or more minel als. Depending on how they were formed, racks are divided into three types: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary. IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed by the cooling and hardening of magma, a complex molten material that originates within the earth. Some important types of igneous rocks are shown in the illustration on the facing page. The mojor mineral constituents of acid, intermediate, and basic rocks shown provide the basis for the classification given on page 9. IGNEOUS MINERALS important in the formation of Igneous rocks cre relatively few in number. This is because the magma from which the minerals crystallize is rich only in certain elements: silicon, oxygen, aluminum, sodium, potassium, calcium, iren, and magnesium. These are the elements that combine and form the silicate minerals (pp. 154-227). A limited number of the silicates =the olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feldspers, and quartz—account for over 90 percent of all igneous rock: ‘As magma cools, minerals crystallize at different temperatures, ivine and calcium feldspar form at high temperatures and may separate early from the melt. Other minerals solidify as the ten perature falls (see Bowen's Reaction Series, pp. 82-83). The last to crystallize are potassium feldspar, muscovite mica, and quartz, the major constituents of granite. Finally, water in the magma, carrying valuable metals and sulfur in solution, moves outward through fractures in the surrounding rock and deposits sulfides in veins. The water is also important because it affects the tems perature at which crystallization occurs and the types of minerals formed during cooling. INTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS, also called plutonic rocks, crystallize from magma that cools and hardens within the earth. Surrounded by pre-existing rock, called country rock, the magma cools slow- ly. As a result, these rocks are coarse-grained, Central cores of major mountain ranges consist of large masses of plutonic rock, generally granite, intruded as a part of # mountain-building process. When exposed by erosion, these cores, called batholiths, may occupy millions of square miles of surface area, Offshoots of batholiths bear different names, such as lacco. liths and sills, depending on their size and their relationship to the country rock. The term abyssal is commonly used to describe coarse-grained rocks formed at depth; hypabyssal is used to de. scribe intrusive rocks formed near the surface. 6 Gabbro (asic) IGNEOUS acriviTy LoeeolthEXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS, also called volcanic rocks, are formed ot the earth’s surface as a result of volcanic activity. Like batholith formation (p. 6), this activity Is associated with moun- tain-building forces within the earth. Temperatures only a few miles beneath the earth's surface are higher than the tempera- tures at which most rocks would melt at the surface. The below- surface rocks remain solid, however, because of the pressure ‘exerted by overlying rocks. If the rocks fracture—as the result oF mountain-building forces, for example—the pressure may be re- leased, and a sizable volume of rock will melt. The resulting magma will be forced through the fractures to the surface, form. ing a volcano, Molten rock, or lava, will flow from the volcano and spread ‘onto the ground. Because the lava cools and erystallizes rapidly, it is fine-grained. Material may be blown violently from the voleanic pipe as blocks, pellets, and dust, or as a liquid that hardens before it falls to the surface. Those pyroclastics may fall nearby, forming part of the volcano, or may be spread great distances by winds, CLASSIFICATION of the many and greatly different kinds of ign ous rocks can provide important information as to the conditions of formation. Two obvious variables that may be used as criteria for classification are particle size, which depends largely on cooling history, and composition, both chemical and mineralogi- cal. Because feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, ‘and micas are the important minerals in the formation of igneous rocks, they are basic to the classification of thase rocks, All other minerals are nonessential (accessory). {n the simplified classification on the opposite page, rock types ‘ore separated on the basis of the type of feldspar present, the Presence or absence of quartz, and, in rocks with no feldspor or Quartz, the type of iron and magnesium minerals present. Rocks with crystals large enough to be seen by the eye are called phaneritic; those with erystals too small to be seen are called aphanitic. In general, phoneritic implies an intrusive origin; cophanitic, an extrusive origin. Porphyritie refers to erystals em. bedded in a fine-grained rock, More detailed classifications using these terms are given in geology and petrology texts, GRANITES show evidence of being the result of either igneous ‘or metamorphic processes. Some granites obviously have crys: tallized from a melt; blocks of partially assimilated country rock may bo found in granite, clearly indicating that the country rock foll into a liquid magma that hardened around it. Other granites, however, bear evidence of having been formed by metamor. phism (p. 10); variations in composition of pre-existing sedimens tory rocks are reflected in banding preserved in the granite, The conversion of sedimentary rock 10 granite by metamorphism is called granitization. 8 (Intermediate lava) Toit Obsidian Cinder Gonealed atl (Pyrodastie debris) lean glass) EXTRUSIVE IGNEOUS ROCKS CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS Ha Tatermediate Tale Decroesing slew content FEL] E] ovonte Cabbro Bg) |= 23 z ell F113] Rhyote Andesite a 2 fe Ath. Cinders, Blocks, Bombs ii aedaiten Varese 33METAMORPHIC ROCKS Rocks formed under one set of temperature, pressure, and chem: ical conditions and then exposed to a differant set of these con- ditions may undergo structural and chemical changes, without ‘melting, that produce rocks with different textures and new min- terals. This process is known as metamorphism (change in form). Metamorphic racks are formed deep beneath the earth's surface by the great stresses and high pressures and temperatures asso. sisted with mountain building, They are also formed by the intrusion of magma into rock, particularly al the place of contact where the temperatures are high. The study af metamorphic rocks provides valuable information about temperatur pressures at groat depths. Laboratory studies of the stabil ‘minerals at temperatures end pressure similar to those w the earth are essential METAMORPHIC MINERALS form only at the high temperatures fond pressures associated with metamorphism. Among these are kyanite, staurolite, sillimanite, andalusite, ond some garnet Other minerals—the olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, micas, feld- spars, and quartz—may be found in metamorphic rocks, but are not necessarily the result of metamorphism. These minerals, formed during crystallization of igneous rocks, are stable at high temperatures and pressures and may remain unchanged during metamorphism of the rock, All minerals, however, are stable only within certain limits of pressure ond temperature, Thus the pres- tence of some minerals in rocks indicates the approximete tems peratures and pressures gt which the rocks were formed, RECRYSTALLIZATION is the change in particle size of miner ols during metamorphism. Small gray calcite erystals in’ lime stone, for example, change to large white crystals in marble, Both temperature and pressure contribute to recrystallization. High temperatures ollow the atoms and ions in solid erystals 10 migrate, thus reorganizing the crystals. High pressures. cause solution of erystals ot their contacts and deposition in the pore spaces between them, FOLIATION is a layering in metamorphic rock. It occurs when @ strong compressive force is applied from one direelion to a re: «rystalling rock. This causes the platy or long crystals of such minerals es mica and tourmaline to grow with their long axes Perpendicular to the direction of the force. The result is a banded, or foliated, rock, the bands showing the colors of the minerals that form them. Rocks subjected to uniform pressure from all sides or lacking minerals with distinctive growth habits will not be foliated. Slate is a very fine-grained foliate, Phyllite is a coarse foliate, schist coarser, and gneiss very coarse. Marble is commonly a nonfoliate, 10 4 @oQ Sehiat banding Fine bonding ‘4 Heat and Limestone (Fonlifeovs) FOLIATION OF ROCKS Ns Foliction (Sloty cleavage) Apalied pressure ORIGIN OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS Rock Increosing temperature and pressure a 1 temps pr Shale Sondstone Limestone Grenite coolSOLID-STATE REACTION is one of the important mechanisms of metamorphism, 11 is a chemical reaction between two minerals without either of them melting. In the process atoms are ex- chonged between the minorals, and new minerals are formed Consider the minerals quartz and calcite. Each is stable clone af high temperatures, Together in a siliceous limestone, they do no! change at low temperatures, but at high temperatures thay react with one another and form the matamorphic mineral wollas- tonite. The chemical equation of the reaction is: SiO; (quartz, solid) + CaCO, (calcite, solid) > CaSiO; (wollastonite, solid) + CO, (carbon dioxide, gas). Many complex high-temperature re- getions take place among minerals, and each mineral assem- loge produced is a clue to the temperature and pressure at the time of metamorphism: METASOMATISM is a drastic change in the bulk chemical compo: sition of @ rock that often occurs during metamorphism. It is due fo the introduction of chemicals from other rocks. Water can transport these chemicals rapidly over great distances, Because. of the role played by water, matemarphie rocks generally contain, many elements that were absont from the original rock and lack some that were originally present. The introduction of new ehem- icals fs not necessary for recrystollization and solid-state reaction to take place, but it does speed up metamorphic processes, CONTACT METAMORPHISM doscribes the chemical changes thet eke place when magma is injected into cold rock (country rock). These changes in the rock are greatest wherever the magma comes in contact with it, for temperatures are highest at this boundary and decrease with distance from it. Around the igneous rock formed by the cooling of the magma is a metamorphosed zone called @ contact metamorphic aureole (halo). Aureoles are important in the study of metamorphism because @ single rock type may show oll degrees of metamorphism from the contact area to the unmetamorphosed country rock some distance away. Formation of important ore minerals may occur by metasomatism 41 or near the contact; limestone is particularly susceptible to this type of mineralization, REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, in conirosi 0 contoct metamor- phism, involves changes in great masses of rock over wide areas, The high temperatures and pressures in the depths of the earth gre the cause. If the resulting metamorphosed rocks are uplifted ‘ond exposed by erosion, they-mey cover many thousands of square miles. Their mineralogy and texture pravide important information about mountain building and earth processes, The metamorphism, howaver, destroys features that would have re- vealed the rock's previous history. Recrystallization destroys fos sils and sedimentary textures; solid-sicte reaction and metaso- matism change the original compositions, 2 Onheating, And 8 Anew crystal, the Diffusion « diffuse through the compound AB, forms or folids across crystal Between tho erystal, le are fully boundaries. THE SOLID-SOLID REACTION A } B —> AB Seca Quert2 veinlet in Mica ans Schist formed by introduction Potassium feldiper erystole of silica formed by Introduction of potessivm CONTACT METAMORPHIC ZONE CONTACT METAMORPHISM NEAR SMALL INTRUSIVE. Intensely folded sedimentary layers metamrphed to Sehists and Cneittet REGIONAL METAMORPHISM ACROSS MANY MILES 13SEDIMENTARY ROCKS All rocks disintegrate slowly os a result of mechanical and chemical weathering. Rock particles—in the form of clay, sand, and gravel—and dissolved materials are transported by the agents of erosion (water, ice, and wind) to new locations, gene! ally at lower elevations, and depssited in layors. The deposited particles eventually become comented together, forming elastic sedimentary rocks. The dissolved materials may precipitate os crystals that accumulate in layers in oceans and lakes and are cemented to form chemical sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks provide abundant information about the most recent half-billion years of the earth's history. They comtai in fossil form the preserved remains of evidences of ancient ai mals and plants. The mannor in which particles of sediment ore ‘worn and deposited, the relationships of the different layers, the color and composition, the presence of ripple marks or raindrop. impressions—these are among the features that enable geologists to reconstruct ancient landseapes and climotes as well as the general sequence of geologic events, MECHANICAL WEATHERING is tho breakdown of rock into parti- cles without changing the identities of the minerals in the rock. is the most important agent of mechanical weathering, Water Percolates into cracks and pore spaces, freezes, and expands. The force exerted is sufficient to widen cracks and break off pieces, in time disintegrating the rock. Heating and cooling of the Fock, with resulting expansion and contraction, also helps. Me- chanical weathering contributes further to the breakdown of rock by increasing the surface area exposed to chomical agents. The breakdown of rocks and erosion of the fragments has been grectly accelerated over the past several centuries by the ac- tivities ef man through farming and construction. CHEMICAL WEATHERING is the wearing down of rock by chemi cal reaction. In this procoss the rock's minerals are changed into finely divided products that can eosily be.carried away. Air and water are involved in the many complex chomical reactions, which include oxidation, hydrolysis, hydration, and solution, Ig- neous minerals are unstable under normal atmospheric condi- tions, those formed at higher temperatures being more readily attacked than these formed ot lower temperatures. Igneous minerals are commonly attacked also by water, particularly ac or alkaline solutions. All the common rock-farming igneous mins erals (excep! quartz, which is very resistant) are changed in this ‘way 10 clay minerals and chomicals in solution. Silica is leached from silicate minerals and removed os a calloidal material thet can be deposited later os opal or chert. Clay, quartz, colloidal silico, and chemicals in solution—the commen products of weath- ered rocks—are the building materials of the sedimentary rocks, 4 SIZES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK PARTICLES sdimentary Roch 1161/8 am V64-1/16 roms Y yi wagers} ert Joss then 1/256 mm _Sroeth Shoreline Conglomerates © Sandatonos << Shales Limestone SORTING BY WAVE ACTION NEAR SHORELINE ‘Wave and current action is most vigorous near shore, Finer pertiles ore carried to deeper woter CONSTITUENTS OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Magretite Teurmeline K-feldspar Gernot Plagtoclases| Amphibole Roek frogments | Hemaiito. Others Quarts Clay minorcle Miece Cee Quartz (chee) Calcite Gypsum, Anhydret Dolomite Helite Hematite 15TRANSPORTATION AND DEPOSITION of weathered particles i provided by water, wind, and ice. These agents reduce the size Of the particles and deposit them in new localities. Sedime dropped by sireams form alluvial fans, flood plains, deltas, and deposits in lakes and oceans (p. 15). Winds may move large ‘amounts of sand and emaller particles, Glaciers transport and deposit great quantities of rock materials, Co sediments provides clues to the nature of the or rock. Differences between successive layers indicale changes that have occurred with time. PRECIPITATED SEDIMENTS are made up of sodium, potassium, calelum, magnesium, chloride, fluoride, sulfate, carbonate, and phosphate ions. Because these chemicals are very soluble in Weter, they can be removed from existing rock in solution, Once ssolved in water, they may be procipitated by inorganic proc testes in oceans or lakes, or may be extracted by living organisms, Calcite (CaCO), for example, will precipitate from solution in warm waters and settle fo the bottom, where it consolidates into limestone rock. Corals, mollusks, end algae also remove CaCO, from solution. Halite and other very soluble salts normally pre- cipitate only from bodies of water that have no outlet after evaporation produces a saturated solution. Limestone is by far the most abundant precipitate, but salt, gypsum, and phosphate deposits are common. CLASSIFICATION of sedimentary rocks begins with the broad divisions of clastic and chemical rocks (p. 14), though there is no clear distinction between the two processes of deposition. Cham cal rocks are classified on the basis of composition as salt, ayp- tum, limestone, chert, phosphate rock, nitrate beds, borate beds, ete. Specialized characteristics may be noted by such modifying terms as fossiliferous (containing fossils) and nodular (lumpy). Classification of clastic rocks is more complex becouse of many variables. Particle sizes (average and range of sizes), composition of the particles, the coment, the matrix (smaller particles in the spaces among larger grains)—all must be considered. The Went- worth scale is @ broad classification based on average particle size, Shale or mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate tore names given to rocks with particle sizes ranging from very fine to very coarse. Shales, which consist mainly of clay materials with very fine grains of quartz and feldspar, are generally clas- sified further only on the basis of composition and bedding. Coarser clastics are classified according to composition and par- ticle sizes. Orthoquarizite is o very pure quartz sandstone; arkose, © sondstone with quartz and abundant feldspar; graywacke, a sandstone with quartz, clay, feldspar, and metamorphic rock fragments. The classification on the facing page provides only general terminology, without the specialized names or the de- scriptive adjectives that are commonly us 16 DD Shele Conglomerate Sondtone clastic Rocks Limertone Gypsum im Me &S Rock Salt Bituminous Geel (CHEMICAL ROCKS CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Desreasing pertcle size v7@® Proton @ Nevtron HELIUM ATOM consists of o nucleus of 2 protons and 2 nevirons with 2 lecvone revalving around i ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF MINERALS. Like all matter, minerals are composed of the minute particles called toms. The kinds of atoms in minerals and the patterns in which these ctoms are arranged determine the composition cond characteristics of minerals. It ie obviously important ther fore to understand et least generclly the atomie structure of ATOMS ore the building blocks of matter. Too small to be seen ‘even under the most powerful electran microscopes, they are made up of three kinds of even smaller particles—the proton, neviron, and electron. Protons and neutrons are located ot the center of the atom, forming its nucleus. Protons carry o positive electrical charge of fixed magnitude (+1; nevirons carry no charge. Electrons revolve around the nucleus and carry a fixed negative charge (—1) equal in magnitude to the charge of the proton. A single, isolated atom is electrically neviral, its number of electrons (negative charges) is equal to its number of protons (positive charges), ELEMENTS ore fundamental substonces such as iron, carbon, and ‘oxygen. There are over 100 differen! elements, each having ‘atoms of a particular kind, The identity of an element is deter- mined by the number of protons in the nucleus of its atom, this number being known as the atomic number. Carbon, for ©x- ‘ample, has 6 protons in its atom. The number of nevirons is not fixed; the carbon atom may have from 5 to 10 neutrons, but whatever the number the atom remains chemically the same. An element's atomic weight is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in its atom. Atoms of the some element with different otomic weights are called isotopes. A carbon atom with neu: trons, the most abundant isotope of carbon, is indicated by ,Cl? ( being the atomic number, 12 the atomic weight), Cerbon with 8 neutrons is ,C't. Some isotopes are not stable, carbon 14 ((C", for example, is radioactive, disintegrating at a fixed rate into an isotope of nitrogen GNM). 18 Hydrogen Heltom ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION doscribes the distribution of trons in en atom end explains why the atoms of some elements feact with others, and why some da not react at all Tho electrons ‘occupy space near the nucleus in well-defined energy levels (rep resented by concentric shells) Electrons in the level nearest the nucleus have the lowest energy, and those farthest from the tiueleus hove the highest level. Each level ean hold o limited number of electrons. The innermost level may contain 2 electrons, the second shell 8, the third shell 18, and each succeeding shell may contain as many os 22. The number of levels occupied by electrons depends on the number of electrons in the atoms of @ particular element. As # humbar of electrons increases, levels ore filled from the inner- tmost one outward. No outer leval, however, contains more than 8 electrons; when it contains that number, it remains unfilled Unf the next level is started, making it the outer one. Elements are very stable if the outer energy levels of their atoms have 8 locirons (a stable octet). Elements react easily ifthe outer shells of their atoms are not filled or do nol have 8 electrons. The ‘atoms of these elemonts tond ta react with other atoms and lose, ‘gain, oF shore the number of electrons necessary to fil the cuter shell or abtain the stable octet. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF THIRTEEN ELEMENTS 2o2@6©®O Sedivm (Na) GOOO Aluminum (Al) Phosphorus (F) Chlorine (C)——_Argen (Ar) 19PERIODIC TABLE arranges the elements in @ way that shows re: lationships among them. Long before the electronic structures of ‘atoms became known, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev and others observed that some elements exhibit remarkably similer chemical behavior. Lithium (Li), sedivm (Na), potassium (Kl, rubi dium (Rb), and cesium (Cs), for example, are very metallic, and their atoms tend to lose their electrical neuirality, becoming ions ‘with one positive charge each. These elements, the alkali metals, ‘were therefore grouped together. Fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bro: ‘mine (Br), ond iedine () are very nonmetallic, and their atoms form ions with one negative charga each, These elements, the halogens, were clso grouped together. Fram such observations the periodic classification of the elements was davised. Gaps in the original periodic table have been filled with elements dis- ime. Indeed, the development of the periodic table cided materially in the search for unknown elements, Elements in vertical columns of the periodic table have similar choracteristics. Elements listed horizontally have characteristics that grade from left to right. The chemical similarity among ele: ments in vertical columas (groups) and the gradetic elements in horizontal columns (periods) are due to the electronic configurations of the outer levels of their atoms ip, 19). A detailed summary of the chemical characteristics of the groups and pe- Fiods cannot be given here, but the follawing generalizations can be noted # Elements on the left side (the metals) cen ottain a stable octet (8 electrons in the outer level) by giving up elecirons and becom- ing positive ions. Those on the right side (nonmetal:) can attain a stable octet by gaining electrons and becoming negative ions. Those in the center (somimetals) can attain a stable octet by either giving up or gaining electrons, If a metal atom and a nonmetal atom are brought together, the metal atom gives up one or more electrons which the non. metal atom accepts. The resulting oppositely charged ions are held together by © strong electrostatic force (the ionie bond, p. 22). # If metal atoms are brought together, neither holds the outer electron (or electrons) strongly, so a metallic crystal is formed, with free electrons moving among the atoms (the metallic bond, p. 26). # If nonmetal atoms are brought together, both atoms aitract ‘extra electrons strongly; they “shara'” their outer electrons, form- ing free neutral molecules (the covalent bond, p. 24). # If semimotals ere brought together, thejr atoms form crystals that have properties between metals and nonmetals {intermedi ote bonds, p. 28). © Transition metals (elements 21-30, 49-48, 57-80, and 89-103) ere chemically similar to other metals in the same period. Their outer levels hove about the same electronic configuration, but their inner lovels differ. 20 PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS the grovps (vertical columns). Chemical properties very systamoticaly inthe perieds (horizontal rows) Trensition Elements 34567 ae Elements 57-71 ore th fare eerths, slenenis lanthanides, commonly called the ‘om 89 on ore the ettinides, All 1 lonthanides ore chemicelly similor, as ore the actinides, ELECTRONIC STRUCTURES shown by ‘moans of concentric shlls with the electrons in. “orbits” around the hulous ere. informotive about the tnorgy levels of the electrons but may’ convey & misleading impeot Sion of the structura of on atom, One of the alfielties in defining W> srueture of an atom fe thet ony ‘experimental method red 10. de Termine the postion oF momentum of on electran will change ‘one or both The fect that the momentum ‘and position af an electron cannot he determined simultaneously i Moted by the Helsenberg uncer: feinly principle and hos force physicals fo veo sftistiel methods fo define the structure of the com. ELECTRONIC ORBITALS define the locations of the elsctront insta Alsi torms. An rubshall of ony pace about the nucleus ot any given fine. The spherical sorbital ‘fines the soca in which iti prob: tron. is located. ons, with opposite likely inthe volume of space defined by o “dumbbell” shaped orbital Electrons. in the d-subshell occupy the "dovble dumbbell” orbital vel ‘ume; those in the fsubshell occupy ven mare complex. rites, d FLECTRONIC ORBITALS aTHE IONIC BOND is the force that holds together en atom of a distinctly metallic clement to an atom of a distinctly nonmetallic clement. Atoms of the more metallic elements have on outer level with 1, 2, 0F 9 electrons and tho next shell with 8. The ovter Slectrons, in general, are not held tightly and can be removed by the energy available in ordinary chemical reactions. The sodium {Na} atom, for example, has 11 electrons~2 in the inner Shell, B in the second shell, and 1 in the outer shell. The atom achieves stability by losing the outer electron; the second shell with its @ electrons than becomes the outer shell. Since 1 negative Charge is thereby removed, the otom has | excess positive charge in the nucleus and is called a positive ion, or cation. It is assigned the symbol Na ‘Atoms of distinctly nonmetallic elements, in contrast, have 5, 6, oF 7 electrons in the ovter shell. These aioms obtain the stable octet of ouler electrons by attracting electrons from other atoms, The fluorine (F) atom has 9 electrons—2 in the inner shell and 7 in the ovier shell; when it borrows 1 electron, it becomes nega tively charged. The atom is then called @ negative jon, or an anion, and is assigned the symbol F If an etom of sodium (a metal) and an atom of fluorine (a non- metell are brought together, the fluorine atom removes the loose Ty held electron from the outer shell of the soclivm atom. The two toms thus become oppositely charged. The singly charged cation No"! and onion Fare attracted 19 each other (unlike charges oliract one another). The attractive force is the ionic bond. Not ail tons are singly charged. The magnesium (Mg) atom must lose 2 electrons and the oxygen (0) atom must gain 2 elec. Irons to achieve a stable octet; the cation Mg’? and the anion O7 fore thus doubly charged, The resulting bond between the 2 fons js therefore cbout twice as strong as betwoon 2 singly charged ions. In a similar fashian, the aluminum atom forms the Al’? ion and the nilrogen atom forms the N° ion. In ionic bonds, the attractive forces are exerted in all directions so that overy cation becomes completely surrounded by anions ‘and vice versa. The result is that throo-dimensional periodic ar- rays—erystals—are formed. lons are packed closely in erystal Siivelures ond the bonds are non-directional. Only two require: ments must be fulfilled: (1) cations are surrounded by a meny tanions os is geometrically possible, and (2) the total number of positive charges in the crystal equals the totel number of nega~ tive charges. Tons with different charges can form erystals. For example, 2 Fo" fons combine with 3 O° fons, forming Fe,O; (hematite), an electrically neutral crystal. Some elements can exist as two or more ions; ferrous iron, Fo", and ferric iron, Fe", are both com mon in minerals. Chemically the 2 ions behave as different lements, In magnetite, Fe;0,, the formula is written as Fe Fes" (0 -*. The Fe" ion is surrounded by 6 © * ions, and the Fe” ion is surrounded by 4.0? fons. 22 ! | Net! pe F FI Fluorine Atom Fluoride lon Ne Sizes of fons common in minerals THE 1ONIC BOND A= 1 Angstrom = 1/100 month em i ° @ 7 PE Boma si 045A AI) 050A uh! 040A age on oe MK No’! 095A Nor ‘The Si" noade four O° fons ‘round 110 shield it from ther positive Q chore The lorger Ma” jon needs she OF fons te shield Fi This determines, the crystal chiara S# 184A 23THE COVALENT BOND js the force that holds together 1wo non. metallic atoms, When brought together, these tend not to bacome jonized because both have a strong affinity for alectrons. A chlo» rine atom (Cli, for example, has 17 olectrons—2 in the inner shell, 8 in the second shell, and 7 in the outer shell. It will attain a stable octet of electrons in the outor sholl if a metallic atom is ayveilable to donate an electron, Because the energy required 10 remove 7 electrans is very large, the atom cannot attain a stable ‘actet easily by giving up elecirons. Two chlorine atoms brought to- gether can attain stable octets, however, if each shares one of its electrons with the other, Tha resulting Cl; molecule, having recch- fed stability, hos little tendeney to form a crystal af ordinary tem- peratures, The sharing of a pair of electrons is the covalent bond. The bonding energy is gained by reduction of the energies of the two atoms, This bond forms the strongest of all chemical ties ‘Atoms that form covalent bonds with other atoms will portici- pate in the formation of crystals of five types, depending on the humber of covalent bonds the atoms can Form 1, Molecular crystals consist of distinet covalently bonded molecules held together by van der Woals forces (very weak forces due to small residual charges on the surface of molecules) Solidified gases, such 8 carbon dioxide (dry ice) and chlor ‘and many organic compounds form crystals of this type. 2. tonic erystals ore formed by complex fons that ore held o- gether by covalent bonds and carry chargas. The ammonium ion, (NHJ, and the carbonate ion, (CO,)%, within which the bonds ‘are covalent, are bonded to CI and Ca’? ions by ionic forces in NH.CI (sal ammoniae) and CaCO; (caleite) 3. Crystals with chain structures, as in the semimotals seleni and tellurium, have atoms linked together with covalent bonds in infinite chains. The cheins are held together by van der Waals ‘and metallic bonding forces. 4, Crystals with sheet structures have atoms linked together with covalent bonds in infinite layers. The layers are held to- gether by van der Waals forces. Graphite is the most striking example of this type structure. 5. Crystals with framework structures form if an atom can share electrons with four adjacent atoms, as in dicmend. Bond- ing is infinite in all three dimensions, and the crystal can sidered a molecule of infinite size, Since covalent bonds are very sirong, their distribution minos the characteristics of a crystal. It explains the spitt ‘graphite into flaky layers, the hardness of diamond, the low melting point of dry jee, and the formation of complex ions in solution—HCO3)" and (NH4I”, for example. 24 Chlorine (Cl) Meleeule COVALENT BOND in Chlorine Molecule Molecular Crystal Todine Graphite, C Water, HO Ammonia, Nis chain structure Complex lonie Sucve Coleito, Coco; Framework Stusture Diamond, C 25THE METALLIC BOND is the force that binds together aioms of the metallic elements. These include the first, second, and third groups of the periodic table and the iransition elements (p. 20) All have one feature in common: 1, 2, oF electrons in the outer energy leval of their atoms, If two of these atoms with loosely held outer electrons are brought togother, covalent bonds (p. 24) fr ionic bonds (p. 22) normally do not form. Rather, « crystal forms in which the atoms are packed together tightly. The outer electrons are attached 10 no atom in particular, but are free to move through the structure. The bonding energy may be thought of a3 an attraction between the positive nuclei of the atoms and the negative charges of the frae-moving electrons. The metallic bond imparts certain vory distinct charactoristics to the crystal The atoms in metal crystals are packed together to occupy the maximum amount of space, resulting in three common metal structures: the fece-centered cubic and the close-packed hex. agonal, representing the densest packing possible; and the body- centored cubic, only slightly less dense. More complex structures fore the result of some covalent or ionic character of the band, Because the free electrons can move through the structure, on sleciric potential applied across the crystol results in high elec- trical conductivity. Heat applied to one side of the erystal will cause agitation of the electrons, which impart eneray to other electrons and conduct heat through the crystal very rapidly, Shearing forces applied to metal crystals can couse gliding long atomic planes without brittle fracture; the metals are thus ductile ond malleable, Metallic luster and opacity ore caused by interaction of light with the free electrons. ‘Metallic bonds con be important in nonmetallic crystals, nok obly the sulfides. Sulfides can be described best by considering their structure as covalently bonded. Many sulfides, however, contain metal atoms that are not wellsshielded from one another, and some metallic bonding has developed between them. A siriking result of this is the strong metallic luster of some sulfides {5 in galena (PbS), which looks much like lead metal (Pb). Because the covalent bond generally controls the mechanical properties of sulfides, thoy are brittle There are few crystals in the crust of the earth that consist of metals held together by metallic bonds, Because metals easily lose their outer electrons and because there are abundant non- metals available 10 accept them—oxygen (0) and sulfur (8), for exomple—most metals are chemically combined in compounds. Thus motal oxides and sulfides are the common minerals, The native metallic elements (pp. 70-75) are those which do not form very stable oxides or sulfides, such os gold (Av), silver (Ag), and platinum (Pi), or are formed in oxygen-deficient en- iranments, such as copper (Cu) and iron (Fe). The core of the earth, however, mos! probably consis's of nearly pure metel, iron (Fo} and nickel (Ni), the inner portion of whieh is liquid. ‘Many meteorites have a composition similar to the earth’s core, 26 Body. centered Focecentred Close packed Coe Coble Hexcgonal (os in ron) {er in copper) (esi sed EXPANDED MODELS OF THE MORE COMMON METALS Octehedion feco <— Sheer stress couses deformation of metal etystoly, metalie bonds con be broken and reformed without fieeluring. tho erystal, of shown. This characteristic Ts known 0+ malleabilty << hear ‘motal bor & Heat flows rapidly through metals becavse ree electrons. cen Iignamiterargy, then they collide) Eeciricty ts weaned by, slecrons else. end motels ate good elecrcal condudters. Galen, shows matali Lead, with matelie loner, bot i bite bonding, is malleable. 7INTERMEDIATE BONDS lie betwoon the three extremes represented by metallic, covalent, and ionic bonds: (1) very metallic elements (with low electron affinity) combine to form metallic bonds; (2) very nonmetallic elements (with high eleciron affinity) combine to form covalent bonds; and (9) very metallic and very nonme tallic elements combine to form ionic bonds. If all elements were either very metallic or very nonmetallic, all erystals would be characterized by one of these three bond types. But elements range between the very metallic elements of Group | of the peri dic table and the very nonmetallic elements of Group Vil Elements near the middle of the periodic toble are neither metals nor nanmetals. In silicon (Si), for example, the energy re- quired to ramove or fo add the 4 electrons needed for a stable etet is quite large, Pure silicon therefore forms a covalent erysial essentially identical with that of diamond. But silicon has a dis- tinet metallic luster and is opaque, indicating that the shared lectrons are less strongly bonded than in diamond. In other words, the bond is covalent, but with some metollic character. When silicon is in chemical combination with oxygen (©), @ co» valent bond is possible, with the 4 outer electrons of silicon pairing with electrons of oxygen. An ionic bond, with Sit bonded to OF ions, is another possibility. Silicon is neither strongly metal- lic nor nonmetallic, so the bond is neither purely covalent nor purely ionic. The Si-O bond appears to involve both ionization ‘ond electron sharing; itis stronger than the pure ionic bond, but not as strong as a pure covalent bond. Moreover, Si ond O can form complex ions of finite oF infinite size (pp. 154-7) In general, elements that appear near each other on the left side of the periodic table (the metals) form metallic crystals (crys- tals with metallic bonds). Elements near each other on the right side of the table (the nonmetals) form molecules with covalent bonds, Elements near each other in the central portion form co velent erystals with some metallic characteristics, or metal crys- tals with some covalent charecteristics, Elements on opposite sides form ionic crystals. The farther ‘part they are the more ionic cheracter the bond will have. The sedium-oxygen (Na-O) bond, for example, is quite ionic. The magnasium-oxygen (Mg-0) bond is ionic, but shows moro cova- lent character. The cluminum-oxygen (Al-O) bond is even less ionic, and the silicon-oxygen (Si-O) bond appears fo be about half ionic and half covalent. Crystals having chemical bonding intermediate between co- valent and metalile are perticviarly important in solid state elec: tronics, Silicon, for examples is a semi-conductor; It conducts electricity only above a certain voltage, when doped with small impurities, and then in only one direction. This rectifying charac- twristic makes silicon useful in transistors. Understanding this concept of intermediate bonds is particularly important because the physical and chemical behavior of erystals is directly related to the bond type. 28 CHARACTERISTICS OF BONDS AND CRYSTALS Compeunds 1, No, K, Rb, Cs, a, $r,80 Be, Mg, Al, Ge, In, Th, Go, Sn, Fb, Sb, 8, Po 8,€,5i,P, As Se, Tel, At N,0,5,F Ci, Br KCI, No ete. i105 $102, 8102 ‘AsnSa, Sba5s, ete Bond Charccteristies ncrly 100% motaifc with some covotent charactor: covalent with some. metallic charector loniecovelent Solid solutions of certain compositions, a+ 50-80, tond to order Those ordered crystals have propertios ike compounds rather than. intermediates. Disordered solid solutions have properties intermediate between those of the end membors 33,LIMITED SOLID SOLUTION occurs in & mineral when two elements thot substitute for one another do not form all possible propor. tions. Solid solution in the olivines is complete because iron and magnesium ions ore nearly the same size. But in many other min- crals, only limited amounts of one ion can substitute for another because the two ions are of differant size, Anhydrite, CaSO,, and barite, BaSO,, are chemically similar, but have different struc: tures because the Ba"? ion is considerably larger thon the Cat jon. Chemical analyses, nevertheloss, show that anhydrite can contain up to 8 percent BoSO, and barite can contain up 10 6 percent CoSQ,. Substitution of more ions cannot take place with- ut disrupting the structure at either end of the series; the amount of solid solution is thus limited 10 narrow ranges of composition at each end, Similarly, potassium feldspar (KAISi,0,) and sodium feldspar (NaASi,0,) do not form complete solid solutions except at high temperatures. To sum up, the extent of solid solution is ‘governed by the relative sizes and chemical similarity of the substituting elements ond by the temperature, COUPLED SUBSTITUTION involves simultaneous substitutions that balance one another. It results ina more complex type of solid solution, either complete or limited, that occurs in some minerals. The feldspars are an example. Calcium feldspar (anorthite, CaAl,Si;0,) and sodium feldspar (albite, NaAlSi;0,) hove the some basie structure. The calcium ions (Ca") in calcium feldspar are in the same positions as the sodium fons (No) in sodium feldspar; the aluminum ions (Al) and silicon ions (Si) occupy identical positions in both minerals, but occur in different propor- tons. Because the Ca? ion and the Na” ion are nearly the same size and can substitute for each other, a complete solid-solution series is possible between the wo minerals. But because Ca? and Na" have different charges, the substitution of one for the other would unbalance the neutrality of the over-all structure and could therefore not occur. It becomes possible, however, because Al? and Si can also substitute for one another. When both sub- stitutions occur simultaneously, neutrality is maintained. The “exchange” can be written Ca? 4. Al: Na’) + Sit, 5 charges replacing 5 charges. Feldspars with all possible Ca:No ratios eon be found, with the Ali ratio varying accordingly. Members of this complete solid-solution series, all similar in appearance, are called plagioclase feldspars. IMPORTANCE OF SOLID SOLUTION is great because most mi rals exhibit it at least to a limited extent. Variations in compo- tition provide valuable clues to lemperatures and chemical environments during formation. Solid solution explains why some elements are nearly always found in irace emounts in minerals land are thereby "comouflaged.”” Analyses of trace elements in rocks can lead to the discovery of concentrations of valuable elements in other nearby rocks. 34 ii SOLID SOLUTION IMPORTANT IN MINERALS OLIVINES Substitution of Ma” F Forsteite~Fayalite: Na ForseriteTephoites MgSiO. * end Hn’ (pp 164-188) 810, Complete MnSiO, Complete ‘CORDIERITES— substitution of Fe" for Mg" (op 172-172) ‘Cordierite—tron Cordierte: Mg,Al(SiAN1On ~ FevAh(SiADOs Compl MELILITESCoupfed subutittion of Si* + Mg" for 241 pp 168-169) GehleniteAkermenite: Co,ANSIANO) — Ca:Masi:O; Complete PYROXENES—Substtuion of Mg"? and Fe'? (pp 174-181) Diopside-Hedlenbergite: CaMg(SiOr)s ~ CoFe(SiO,): Complete Cat (Mg, Fo) vores ever limited range Intermediate compositions ore called pigeonite ‘Augite is iniermediote but has Al" in composition AMPHIBOLES—Substiuion of Mg"* and Fe'? Complete (pp. 182-185) TremliteFerroactnelite: CarMgx(SiOn) (OH) ~ CeuFexSiOu) (OH); Complete Tremelite-cetinaie, or simply eclinalite [MICAS-Covpled substitution of 3Fe" Ipp 194197) ‘Mascorlte-Annites KAls (SAI) Ove (OW), — Kes (Sh Al] O14 [OW]: is KiMg, Fe) (SuAl) Ove (OH): with Ma:Fe less thon 2:1 Palogite is KiMgfe) (ShAl) ©: (OH), with Mate grecter then for 2A + Vacancy PLAGIOCLASE FELOSPARS—Covplad sub: Na" + Si" (pp 218, 219) Albite-Anartite: NeAISIO ~ CaAkSiO, Comple competitions are called plagioclase nef Co™ + AN for Inermediats ‘ALKALI FELDSPARS-Substiution of K"! and Ne“ (pp 214-217) Microcline (Sanidin)-Albit: KAISI,O, — NoAISh,Oy Complete cbove abou! 870°C At ordinory temperatures about 20% substtulion of Nov! in Iilerecline end about Se eubstilution of Kin lite 35CRYSTALS Crystals have always been of great interest because of th trinsic beauty. To mineralogists they also provide clues to the arrangement of atoms within a mineral and offer an Important means of mineral identification. Only @ few minerals, such as ‘opal and silica glass, lack a crystal structure. A CRYSTAL is a solid material with @ regular internal arrange- ment of atoms. Because of this orderly internal arrangement, a crystal may form the smooth external surfaces called feces. Faces represent planes in the crystal on which there are closely spaced ‘atoms end on which growth ean oecur rapidly. The orientation of these faces is an excellent indicator of the internal symmetry possessed by the structure and of the nature of the chemical bonding (p. 20), Though we usually think of crystals as having faces, these smooth surfaces are not always prasent. The majority of mineral specimens, in fact, consist of aggregates of crystals that heve not developed faces because of mutual interference during farma- jon (anhedral erystels), Crystals exhibit well-developed facos (ouhedral crystals) only when they grow unhampered, as on the ‘walls of an open cavity, on a surface, in the early stages of erys- tollization of an igneous melt, oF in other Unusual circumstances. THE LAWS OF SYMMETRY prove thot all erystals con be placed in 1 of 7 categories called systems. These 7 systems can be further subdivided into 32 symmetry classes and 230 groups bosed on internal arrangement. Treatment of these subdivisions consti tutes the study of crystallography, an intriguing subject that is beyond tho scope of this book. On the following pages the 7 ‘crystal systems, with illustrations of representative crystal types, dare treated briefly THE FACES observed on @ crystal can be described in terms of regular polyhedra—for example, cubes and octahedra. All facos of polyhedron are of equal size and like shape and are referred 10 collectively as a erystallographic form. Some crystals exhibit ‘only one form; others exhibit two or mare forms, some having large faces and others small. Tn a real crystal, the different faces of a form are not neces: sorily the same size or shape, Growth of the crystal in one direc tion more rapidly than in other directions results In malformed polyhedra, often producing forms that are difficult to recognize. But the angles between the faces of a form are the same, re gardless of the distortion. Real erystal faces, moreover, mey not be perfectly smooth and flat, but may hove undulations or other irregularities, caused by irregular growth or by interference from externel forces during crystal growth. Illustrations of real erystals (pp. 70-257), compared with ideal crystals (pp. 38-43], demon- strate many of these distortions and irregularities. 36 crystal (Rock sal) HAUITE CRYSTALS (dealized) Quorts exystole | (rains) in Quorte crystal trenite with focer . Hlongated cube Ditections of posible crystal fae is "more. probable than B; Bix more probable than C, ete Perfect dodecahedron Malformed Partach ciate ddodecchedron eclahedron eeaien 37CRYSTALS Crystals have always been of great interest because of th trinsic beauty. To mineralogists they also provide clues to the arrangement of atoms within a mineral and offer an Important means of mineral identification. Only @ few minerals, such as ‘opal and silica glass, lack a crystal structure. A CRYSTAL is a solid material with @ regular internal arrange- ment of atoms. Because of this orderly internal arrangement, a crystal may form the smooth external surfaces called feces. Faces represent planes in the crystal on which there are closely spaced ‘atoms end on which growth ean oecur rapidly. The orientation of these faces is an excellent indicator of the internal symmetry possessed by the structure and of the nature of the chemical bonding (p. 20), Though we usually think of crystals as having faces, these smooth surfaces are not always prasent. The majority of mineral specimens, in fact, consist of aggregates of crystals that heve not developed faces because of mutual interference during farma- jon (anhedral erystels), Crystals exhibit well-developed facos (ouhedral crystals) only when they grow unhampered, as on the ‘walls of an open cavity, on a surface, in the early stages of erys- tollization of an igneous melt, oF in other Unusual circumstances. THE LAWS OF SYMMETRY prove thot all erystals con be placed in 1 of 7 categories called systems. These 7 systems can be further subdivided into 32 symmetry classes and 230 groups bosed on internal arrangement. Treatment of these subdivisions consti tutes the study of crystallography, an intriguing subject that is beyond tho scope of this book. On the following pages the 7 ‘crystal systems, with illustrations of representative crystal types, dare treated briefly THE FACES observed on @ crystal can be described in terms of regular polyhedra—for example, cubes and octahedra. All facos of polyhedron are of equal size and like shape and are referred 10 collectively as a erystallographic form. Some crystals exhibit ‘only one form; others exhibit two or mare forms, some having large faces and others small. Tn a real crystal, the different faces of a form are not neces: sorily the same size or shape, Growth of the crystal in one direc tion more rapidly than in other directions results In malformed polyhedra, often producing forms that are difficult to recognize. But the angles between the faces of a form are the same, re gardless of the distortion. Real erystal faces, moreover, mey not be perfectly smooth and flat, but may hove undulations or other irregularities, caused by irregular growth or by interference from externel forces during crystal growth. Illustrations of real erystals (pp. 70-257), compared with ideal crystals (pp. 38-43], demon- strate many of these distortions and irregularities. 36 crystal (Rock sal) HAUITE CRYSTALS (dealized) Quorts exystole | (rains) in Quorte crystal trenite with focer . Hlongated cube Ditections of posible crystal fae is "more. probable than B; Bix more probable than C, ete Perfect dodecahedron Malformed Partach ciate ddodecchedron eclahedron eeaien 37CRYSTAL SYSTEMS. The seven systems in which crystals can be placed are defined by three or four imaginary axes of equal or unequal length that intersect ot the center of any perfect, undistorted erystal form. The lengths of the axes and the angles between them define the crystal’s shape, Because erystals can grow to different sizes, the felative lengihs of the axes, os indicated by a specimen, Commonly noted, Absolute lengths are determined by X-ray anole ais and are expressed in terms of a "unit cell,” the smallest unit Exhibiting all the symmetry of tho whele crystal. Axes of unit Calls are a few hundred-millionths of centimeter long (2.54 em 1 ind. Unit cells of many minerals, with atoms shown, are lusirated on pages 70-257 of this book. CUBIC SYSTEM includes crystals with three mu tually perpendicular axes of equal length. The ‘axes are conventionally drawn perpendicular to the three pairs of facos of a cube or through the three pairs of corners of an octahedron ‘Common forms of cubie erystals include the tetrahedron (4 faces), the cube (6 faces), the octahedron (8 faces), the dodecahedron and pyritohedron (both 12 faces), the cubic tropezohedron (24 faces), and the hexoctahedron (48 faces). ‘A cubie erystol may have any one of these forms or any com- bination of these forms, Some of the possible combinations ore shown on the opposite page. To make recognition of the forms More readily apparent fo the reader, different colors have been Used for the different erystallographic forms, It hote the different appearances caused by different deg development of two form: Crystals containing several forms may appear to be quite com- plex. Important in recognizing which forms ore present are the Gngles between the individual faces of « form, since th ‘seme regardless of the number of forms pr the degree of malformation. Many minerals commonly develop some forms and not others, which makes the recognition of forms important in mineral identifieation. The characteristic forms and the kinds of malformations are referred to os the mineral’s habit, (Discussion of hobits on p. 46.) ‘Many chemical compounds, including minerals, form cuble crystals, Simple compounds (those with one, two, or three ele- ments) tend to crystallize in either the cubic system or the hex- agonal system (p. 40). Ineluded in this category are some of the lements, simple sulfides, oxides, and halides. More complex compounds—the silicates, for example—tend to form crystals with i of unequal lengths, which places them in the other crystal Systems. Garnets and some feldspathoids, among others, are holable exceptions; in spite of their relative complexity, they form eubie erystals. 38 Cube Cobe and Oetchedron Octehedron ‘ond Cube Cube and Dodesahedron ‘ond Cube Cube ond Pyritchedren Tetrahedron CUBIC CRYSTALS ctehedron and Dodecahedron Cube, Octchedron, ‘ond Dedecahedron Positive and Negative Tetrahesre 39,