Structural Control

of Mineral Deposits
Theory and Reality
Edited by
Alain Chauvet
Printed Edition of the Special Issue Published in Minerals

www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals
Structural Control of Mineral Deposits
Structural Control of Mineral Deposits
Theory and Reality

Special Issue Editor

Alain Chauvet

MDPI • Basel • Beijing • Wuhan • Barcelona • Belgrade

Special Issue Editor
Alain Chauvet
University of Montpellier
France

Editorial Office
MDPI
St. Alban-Anlage 66
4052 Basel, Switzerland

This is a reprint of articles from the Special Issue published online in the open access journal Minerals
(ISSN 2075-163X) from 2018 to 2019 (available at: https://www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals/
special issues/structural control deposits).

For citation purposes, cite each article independently as indicated on the article page online and as
indicated below:

LastName, A.A.; LastName, B.B.; LastName, C.C. Article Title. Journal Name Year, Article Number,
Page Range.

ISBN 978-3-03897-784-1 (Pbk)

ISBN 978-3-03897-785-8 (PDF)

Cover image courtesy of Alain Chauvet.


c 2019 by the authors. Articles in this book are Open Access and distributed under the Creative
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Contents

About the Special Issue Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Preface to ”Structural Control of Mineral Deposits” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Alain Chauvet
Editorial for Special Issue “Structural Control of Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality”
Reprinted from: Minerals 2019, 9, 171, doi:10.3390/min9030171 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Alain CHAUVET
Structural Control of Ore Deposits: The Role of Pre-Existing Structures on the Formation of
Mineralised Vein Systems
Reprinted from: Minerals 2019, 9, 56, doi:10.3390/min9010056 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Alexandre Cugerone, Emilien Oliot, Alain Chauvet, Jordi Gavaldà Bordes, Angèle Laurent,
Elisabeth Le Goff and Bénédicte Cenki-Tok
Structural Control on the Formation of Pb-Zn Deposits: An Example from the Pyrenean
Axial Zone
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 489, doi:10.3390/min8110489 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Antonio Funedda, Stefano Naitza, Cristina Buttau, Fabrizio Cocco and Andrea Dini
Structural Controls of Ore Mineralization in a Polydeformed Basement: Field Examples from
the Variscan Baccu Locci Shear Zone (SE Sardinia, Italy)
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 456, doi:10.3390/min8100456 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

Valery Y. Fridovsky, Maxim V. Kudrin and Lena I. Polufuntikova

Multi-Stage Deformation of the Khangalas Ore Cluster (Verkhoyansk-Kolyma Folded Region,
Northeast Russia): Ore-Controlling Reverse Thrust Faults and Post-Mineral Strike-Slip Faults
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 270, doi:10.3390/min8070270 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

Yang Song, Chao Yang, Shaogang Wei, Huanhuan Yang, Xiang Fang and Hongtao Lu
Tectonic Control, Reconstruction and Preservation of the Tiegelongnan Porphyry and
Epithermal Overprinting Cu (Au) Deposit, Central Tibet, China
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 398, doi:10.3390/min8090398 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Johann Tuduri, Alain Chauvet, Luc Barbanson, Jean-Louis Bourdier, Mohamed Labriki,
Aomar Ennaciri, Lakhlifi Badra, Michel Dubois, Christelle Ennaciri-Leloix, Stanislas Sizaret
and Lhou Maacha
The Jbel Saghro Au(–Ag, Cu) and Ag–Hg Metallogenetic Province: Product of a Long-Lived
Ediacaran Tectono-Magmatic Evolution in the Moroccan Anti-Atlas
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 592, doi:10.3390/min8120592 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Alexis Grare, Olivier Lacombe, Julien Mercadier, Antonio Benedicto, Marie Guilcher,
Anna Trave, Patrick Ledru and John Robbins
Fault Zone Evolution and Development of a Structural and Hydrological Barrier: The Quartz
Breccia in the Kiggavik Area (Nunavut, Canada) and Its Control on Uranium Mineralization
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 319, doi:10.3390/min8080319 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

v
Ingrid B. Maciel, Angela Dettori, Fabrizio Balsamo, Francisco H.R. Bezerra,
Marcela M. Vieira, Francisco C.C. Nogueira, Emma Salvioli-Mariani and
Jorge André B Sousa
Structural Control on Clay Mineral Authigenesis in Faulted Arkosic Sandstone of the Rio do
Peixe Basin, Brazil
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 408, doi:10.3390/min8090408 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Tao Sun, Ying Xu, Xuhui Yu, Weiming Liu, Ruixue Li, Zijuan Hu and Yun Wang
Structural Controls on Copper Mineralization in the Tongling Ore District, Eastern China:
Evidence from Spatial Analysis
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 254, doi:10.3390/min8060254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

Safouane Admou, Yannick Branquet, Lakhlifi Badra, Luc Barbanson, Mohamed Outhounjite,
Abdelali Khalifa, Mohamed Zouhair and Lhou Maacha
The Hajjar Regional Transpressive Shear Zone (Guemassa Massif, Morocco): Consequences on
the Deformation of the Base-Metal Massive Sulfide Ore
Reprinted from: Minerals 2018, 8, 435, doi:10.3390/min8100435 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

vi
About the Special Issue Editor
Alain Chauvet (Dr. HDR) is a senior CNRS Researcher at the Géosciences Montpellier laboratory,
France. After a Ph.D. in Structural Geology devoted to the late-orogenic extension in Norway,
he specialized in Tectonic Control of Ore Deposits with a focus on the perigranitic mineralizations
of South America, China, Europe, . . . , and the characterization of the relationships between Large
Igneous Provinces and Mineralizations in North Africa. He is involved in several collaborative
projects and expertises with industrial mining companies.

vii
Preface to ”Structural Control of Mineral Deposits”
This compilation of publication results from more than 20 years of questioning and of applying
structural geology in mining geology by the guest editor. If it is common to place the various deposits
of the earth into large classes that allow recognizing and identifying some characters useful to detect,
explore, and find other similar deposits, experience demonstrates that each deposit is unique and
cannot answer perfectly to a generic model. This is why we suspect that there exists a gap between
theory (i.e., the classical model) and reality that needs to be estimated and taken into account in
any type expertise or study of an unknown mineral deposit. The following publications try to be
concerned by this way of working.
My knowledge and interest in the structural control of mineral deposits benefited from several
discussions, suggestions, and field trip shared with a lot of persons that are greatly acknowledged
here. An exhaustive list is impossible, but I want to particularly acknowledge the CVRD (Vale),
Buenaventura, Cedimin, Managem, Kasbah Resource, CMS, SMI, and CTT mining companies and
all geologists that took the time to discuss with me of structural problems in mining geology, with
a special mention of A.S. André, L. Badra, L. Bailly, L. Barbanson, Y. Branquet, X. Charonnat,
A. Ennaciri, C. Ennaciri, M. Faure, L. Fontboté,. A. Gaouzi, S. Gialli, E. Gloaguen, M. Iseppi;
K. Kouzmanov, J. Onezime, P. Piantone, S. Sizaret, E. Tourneur, J. Tuduri, N. Volland. All the reviewers
that significantly improved the quality of this book are also warmly acknowledged.

Alain Chauvet
Special Issue Editor

ix
 minerals
Editorial
Editorial for Special Issue “Structural Control of
Mineral Deposits: Theory and Reality”
Alain Chauvet
UMR 5243, Géosciences Montpellier, University of Montpellier, cc 60, CEDEX 5, 34095 Montpellier, France;
[email protected]; Tel.: +33-(0)4-67-14-48-57

Received: 7 March 2019; Accepted: 8 March 2019; Published: 11 March 2019

“Structural Control” remains a crucial point that is frequently absent in scientific and/or economic
analyses of ore deposits, whatever their type and class, although a selection of references illustrates its
importance [1–5]. The case of lode deposits is particularly adapted, but other types, like breccia pipes,
stockwork, massive sulphides, skarn, etc., also concern Structural Control. Works on the Structural
Control of ore deposits are not abundant in the recent literature, and, as frequently suggested, structural
geology often is not sufficiently developed in the exploration programs of many mining camp’s
strategies. A few compilations have been devoted to this theme in the last two decades, such as (i) the
special publication of the Geological Society of London, concerned with the link between fracturing,
flow, and mineralization [6], (ii) the review of the Society of Economic Geology, devoted to Structural
Control [7], (iii) a special publication of the Geological Society of London, looking to study the genetic
link that can exist between mineralization and orogenic domains [8], and finally, (iv) a special issue
of the Journal of Structural Geology, devoted to the application of Structural Geology in mineral
exploration and mining [9]. In addition to these four compilations, only a few publications have been
concerned with this theme, and most of them are dated before the year 2000. These publications mostly
concerned vein internal infilling textures [10,11], the vein formation model, with the contribution and
controversy of the crack seal, dissolution-precipitation, diffusion, and seismic-valves mechanisms
(e.g., [12–16]). In his review, Chauvet [17] discussed of some of these concepts, in order to highlight
the role and the significance of pre-existing structures in the formation of vein-style deposits.
Three publications of this volume explore the development of mineralization in the specific
context of orogenic domains. Cugerone et al. [18] offer a detailed study of a rather complex Pb–Zn
mineralisation developed within the orogenic Hercynian Pyrenees during two mineralization stages,
each of them linked with a deformational event. The syntectonic primary mineralization is remobilized
and helps the formation of the second one. The same approach is used within the two following
contributions on the same theme [19,20]. Funedda et al. [19] and Fridovsky et al. [20] also used
a detailed description of the relationships between mineralization and deformation in deformed
domains, such as the Variscan domain of Sardinia and the Verkhovansk-Kolyma folded region of
NE Russia. Funedda et al. [19] pay close attention to the opening process of structures that will
serve as traps for mineralised fluid catching, a fact that is fundamental in any tectonic understanding
of a mineralised vein system [17]. Fridovsky et al. [20] also proposed a pluri-deformational model
associated with multiple stages of mineralisation formation.
The relationship between magmatism, regional tectonic context, and mineralization remain a
question that has still been debated in several recent publications [21,22], thus demonstrating that
this question is still relevant and may help in the distinction between intrusion-related, orogenic
deposits and the Cu–Au-rich porphyry types. Two contributions explore new methods of investigation
that provide an innovative vision of the relationship between magmatism and mineralization.
Song et al. [23] examine the consequences of the telescoping of two mineralized systems (a subsequent
epithermal system affects a primary porphyric one within the Tiegelongnan Porphyry and the
epithermal overprinting Cu (Au) deposit, Central Tibet, China) with a focus on the role of the

Minerals 2019, 9, 171; doi:10.3390/min9030171 1 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2019, 9, 171

dislocation effects on ore reserve calculations and future deposits discoveries. Tuduri et al. [24]
suggest an original way to demonstrate the genetic link between mineralization and magmatism by
establishing that both are developed in the same regional tectonic context, in the highly mineralised
Moroccan Anti-Atlas. This contribution represents an indirect but efficient way to relatively date the
emplacement of magmatism and mineralization formations, and their relationships.
In the past, the concept of a gold-bearing shear zone has not given satisfying results in terms of
our understanding of gold deposits, and has been more or less totally abandoned, except within few
specific sectors of the Canadian shield in which the role of major crustal faults is still at the centre
of the accepted models [25]. In the domain of economic geology, faults are fundamental structures
that can have two contrasting behaviours: (i) Hydrogeological barriers that help the concentration
of ore, as demonstrated by the contribution of Grare et al. [26] in the case of the Kiggavik uranium
example (Canada), and (ii) a zone of permeability that can favour fluid circulation and can serve
as a guide for the mineralisation trapping. The work of Maciel et al. [27] proposes a surprising
example in which fault occurrences have a negative role for clay authigenesis efficiency; this work also
discusses the consequence on reservoir characteristics. Sun et al. [28] end the section on relations with
brittle tectonics by presenting an innovative GIS-based spatial analysis of mineral deposit patterns
in correlation with detailed structural features, in order to propose some implications on Structural
Control. The chosen example was provided from the Copper deposit of the Tongling Ore district of
Eastern China.
Concerning other orebodies than vein-type ones, volcanic-hosted massive sulphide deposits
(VHMS) have been recently the subject of much debate, specifically with the suggestion of a significant
contribution of “replacement processes” in their modes of formation [29,30]. In addition, it has
been demonstrated that stockwork within VHMS environments can result in subsequent syntectonic
veining instead of earlier veins related to feeder zones [31]. Indeed, the observation of stockwork
within a VHMS context needs to be considered with particular attention because of the possible
coexistence of the two types of stockwork: the one related to the feeder zone and the other the result of
subsequent deformation [17]. It has been suggested that the second event and associated metal may
contribute significantly to a relative enrichment in VHMS environment. Without any reference to some
replacement process, the contribution of Admou et al. [32] ends the special issue with a very attractive
formation model of the Moroccan Guemassa VHMS deposit, strongly involving the active role of
normal faults and Structural Control, since the beginning of the volcanic activity. In fact, it appears
that most of the VHMS deposits certainly do not present the classical geometrical model exhibited
within all teaching books, but instead form by wall-rock replacement (metasomatism) strongly helped
by the re-using of pre-existing structures, such as folds, unconformities, and/or fault and deformation
features. Such a contribution is frequently underestimated.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest.

References
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18. Cugerone, A.; Oliot, E.; Chauvet, A.; Gavaldà Bordes, J.; Laurent, A.; Le Goff, E.; Cenki-Tok, B. Structural
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20. Fridovsky, V.Y.; Kudrin, M.V.; Polufuntikova, L.I. Multi-Stage Deformation of the Khangalas Ore Cluster
(Verkhoyansk-Kolyma Folded Region, Northeast Russia): Ore-Controlling Reverse Thrust Faults and
Post-Mineral Strike-Slip Faults. Minerals 2018, 8, 270. [CrossRef]
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formed during magmatic-hydrothermal transition and hosted within granite. Ore Geol. Rev. 2018, 102,
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22. Tuduri, J.; Chauvet, A.; Barbanson, L.; Labriki, M.; Dubois, M.; Trapy, P.H.; Lahfid, A.; Poujol, M.; Melleton, J.;
Badra, L.; et al. Structural control, magmatic-hydrothermal evolution and formation of hornfels-hosted,
intrusion-related gold deposits: Insight from the Thaghassa deposit in Eastern Anti-Atlas, Morocco. Ore Geol.
Rev. 2018, 97, 171–198. [CrossRef]
23. Song, Y.; Yang, C.; Wei, S.; Yang, H.; Fang, X.; Lu, H. Tectonic Control, Reconstruction and Preservation of
the Tiegelongnan Porphyry and Epithermal Overprinting Cu (Au) Deposit, Central Tibet, China. Minerals
2018, 8, 398. [CrossRef]
24. Tuduri, J.; Chauvet, A.; Barbanson, L.; Bourdier, J.L.; Labriki, M.; Ennaciri, A.; Badra, L.; Dubois, M.;
Ennaciri-Leloix, C.; Sizaret, S.; Maacha, L. The Jbel Saghro Au(–Ag, Cu) and Ag–Hg Metallogenetic Province:
Product of a Long-Lived Ediacaran Tectono-Magmatic Evolution in the Moroccan Anti-Atlas. Minerals
2018, 8, 592. [CrossRef]
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Evolution and Development of a Structural and Hydrological Barrier: The Quartz Breccia in the Kiggavik
Area (Nunavut, Canada) and Its Control on Uranium Mineralization. Minerals 2018, 8, 319. [CrossRef]

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27. Maciel, I.B.; Dettori, A.; Balsamo, F.; Bezerra, F.H.R.; Vieira, M.M.; Nogueira, F.C.C.; Salvioli-Mariani, E.;
Sousa, J.A.B. Structural Control on Clay Mineral Authigenesis in Faulted Arkosic Sandstone of the Rio do
Peixe Basin, Brazil. Minerals 2018, 8, 408. [CrossRef]
28. Sun, T.; Xu, Y.; Yu, X.; Liu, W.; Li, R.; Hu, Z.; Wang, Y. Structural Controls on Copper Mineralization in the
Tongling Ore District, Eastern China: Evidence from Spatial Analysis. Minerals 2018, 8, 254. [CrossRef]
29. Aerden, D.G.A.M. Formation of Massive Sulfide Lenses by Replacement of folds: The Hercules Pb–Zn Mine,
Tasmania. Econ. Geol. 1993, 88, 377–396. [CrossRef]
30. Perkins, W.G. Mount Isa lead-zinc orebodies: Replacement lodes in a zoned syndeformational
copper–lead–zinc system? Ore Geol. Rev. 1997, 12, 61–110. [CrossRef]
31. Chauvet, A.; Onézime, J.; Charvet, J.; Barbanson, L.; Faure, M. Syn- to late-tectonic stockwork emplacement
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Tharsis-La Zarza areas. Econ. Geol. 2004, 99, 1781–1792. [CrossRef]
32. Admou, S.; Branquet, Y.; Badra, L.; Barbanson, L.; Outhounjite, M.; Khalifa, A.; Zouhair, M.; Maacha, L.
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© 2019 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

4
 minerals
Review
Structural Control of Ore Deposits: The Role of
Pre-Existing Structures on the Formation of
Mineralised Vein Systems
Alain CHAUVET
CNRS-UMR 5243, Géosciences Montpellier, University of Montpellier, cc 60,
34095 Montpellier CEDEX 5, France; [email protected]; Tel.: +3-34-6714-4857

Received: 29 October 2018; Accepted: 15 January 2019; Published: 17 January 2019

Abstract: The major role played by pre-existing structures in the formation of vein-style mineral
deposits is demonstrated with several examples. The control of a pre-existing decollement level on the
formation of a crustal extension-related (collapse) gold deposit is first illustrated in the Quadrilátero
Ferrífero from Brazil. Shear zone and decollement structures were also examined and shown to control
veins formation by three distinct processes: (i) re-aperture and re-using of wrench shear zones in the
case of Shila gold mines (south Peru); (ii) remobilisation of metal in volcanic-hosted massive sulphide
(VHMS) deposit by subsequent tectonic events and formation of a secondary stockwork controlled by
structures created during this event (Iberian Pyrite Belt, Spain); (iii) formation of economic stockwork
by contrasting deformation behaviours between ductile black schist versus brittle more competent
dolomite (Cu-Ifri deposit, Morocco). Two examples involve changing of rheological competence
within zones affected by deformation and/or alteration in order to receive the mineralisation (case
studies of Achmmach, Morocco, and Mina Soriana, Spain). The last case underscores the significance
of the magmatic–hydrothermal transition in the formation of mesothermal gold deposits (Bruès
mine, Spain). All these examples clearly demonstrate the crucial role played by previously formed
structures and/or texture in the development and formation of ore deposits.

Keywords: vein; structure; textures; infilling; breccia; comb quartz; pull-apart; exploration;
pre-existing structures; decollement

1. Introduction
Numerous studies have been devoted to the process of vein formation mainly because of their
significance in term of tectonics and deformation (stress and strain determination), e.g., [1–5], but
also because of their significant economic interest in the case of metal-bearing veins, e.g., [6–8].
Several works have concentrated on the external geometry of veins and their relationships with the
mode of opening and, consequently, the local or regional stress field during vein formation [9–11].
Complementary studies have also integrated information that can be deduced from vein infilling
textures, such as the classical tripartite division in syntaxial (inward growth), antitaxial (outward
growth) and stretching veins (complex pattern with no consistent growth direction) [12–14]. In
economic geology, and particularly in vein-type deposits, the study of the nature and texture of vein
infilling is particularly important because it lies at the base of the ore-forming process itself. No recent
works have been concerned by this kind of analysis. The latest contributions [15–17] only deal with the
internal texture of ore deposits without considering the (external) geometry of the veins themselves.
This paper, as an introduction to the Minerals Special Issue “Structural Control of Ore Deposits,
Theory and Reality” focuses on the relationships between the shape and internal texture of ore-bearing
veins with the objectives to better understanding vein formation processes and, consequently, to
improve mining exploration strategies. I will present and discuss seven case studies of metal-bearing

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Minerals 2019, 9, 56

veins with different modes of formation that highlight the role of pre-existing features on their
development. This aspect seems to be frequently underestimated, at least in the case of vein deposits,
and this work aims to demonstrate its significance in the development of exploration and exploitation
programs. The re-using of some previously formed structures has, in that case, a significant but passive
role with respect to the formation of the economic feature. This concept is already exemplified in
another contribution of this volume [18]. Each of the seven cases presented herein include a brief
overview of the regional geology and deformation history, followed by a detailed geometrical and
textural analysis of ore-bearing veins and a regional-scale genetic model that integrates these data. The
relationships between neo-formed structures versus pre-existing ones will be highlighted in each case
as well as its implications for regional vein distribution and, consequently, exploration programs.

2. Methodology: Structural Analysis Applied to Metallogeny

The literature on structurally controlled vein-style mineral deposits, e.g., [7,8], has provided a
number of theoretical concepts that link vein orientation and geometry with respect to the tectonic
stresses. However, only a few studies have integrated regional tectonic context, vein shape and internal
vein texture [19–21].
The present work emphasises the importance of multidisciplinary work on vein-style
mineralisation combining (micro) structural, textural, and mineralogical analyses, in order to answer
to the following questions:

- What tectonic context is responsible for trap formation? (the geometrical analysis)
- What is the mode and condition of filling? (the internal analysis)

2.1. Trap Formation

Figure 1 illustrates three classic tectonic traps found frequently in the literature [22] and described
in this work. We can distinguish (i) vein opening during flexural folding of multilayers with contrasted
lithology with a void being created within competent levels by (re-)opening of the coeval axial plane
cleavage (Figure 1a); (ii) gaps formed by differential shearing due to fracturing and boudinage of
more competent layers leading to stockwork development (Figure 1b); (iii) aperture controlled by
extensional relay (pull-apart) associated with either fibrous/comb veins or breccia veins (Figure 1c).
The factors determining these alternative types will be treated further. These three mechanisms are the
ones most commonly invoked to explain vein formation in economic interest with probably more cases
resembling Figure 1c. Figure 2 illustrates the mechanism of re-using a previously formed structure left
lateral shear zone showing a main shearing vein with breccia and secondary cleavage parallel veins
that opened during a subsequent tectonic event with different stress directions as when the shear zone
originally formed. Internal filling for each stage is drastically different: brecciation without infilling
in the case of the main shearing plane and comb or fibrous crystallisation in the secondary cleavage
parallel veins (Figure 2).

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Figure 1. Three examples of traps and voids mode of formation. (a) Model of formation of sigmoidal
veins by antithetic bedding-controlled gliding during fold development (a1). Example from the
Bourg-d’Oisans area (a2). (b) Stockwork formation in accommodation of shearing affecting some
multi-layers rocks with contrast of competence (b1, b2 and b3). Conceptual sketch (b4) in which yellow
veins represent the stockwork formed in more competent layers. (c) Trap opening within left lateral
pull-apart (c3). The two sketches c1 and c2 illustrate the process and show the two types of filling
encountered within these structures. See text for explanation.

It may be surprising to see that Figures 1a and 2, propose that a cleavage plane, reputed to be
a plane of maximum flattening, is used as a syntectonic trap for mineralisation during its formation.

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However, this solution has been adopted and demonstrated within two works on this topic [23,24].
We will see, in the following examples, what are our arguments to defend this unconventional concept.
The case of Figure 2 should not raise the same concern because, here, cleavage serves as a receptacle
for ore concentration in a late deformation event that causes dilation parallel to a pre-existing cleavage.

Figure 2. Example of re-using and re-opening of a previously formed left-lateral shear zone during
two different states of stress. Red and green arrows correspond to the shortening direction of each
stage. Note that main infilling is realised during stage 2.

2.2. Internal Texture

The following internal texture of ore-bearing veins can be distinguished.

- Massive or buck texture: rare examples of this texture have been interpreted to result where voids
are filled after, not during their formation. This texture is frequently characterised by euhedral
or anhedral grain of variable size throughout the vein [15] due to uniform growth rates. Grain
orientation can also be highly variable. In fact, such a texture provides limited information about
the tectonic conditions prevailing during vein formation.
- A fibrous or comb crystal shape corresponds to crystallisation coeval with vein opening and
represents the more interesting texture for the topics of this study (Figure 3). Whether comb or
fibrous textures develop depends on the rate of trap opening versus crystal growth (see below).
Comb quartz is commonly related to (Figure 3a) (i) a supersaturated fluid invading an open space
(the initial fracture) with competitive crystal growth normal to the walls [16,25,26]; and (ii) a slow
opening rate of the fracture keeping pace with the rate of crystal growth [15,27]. Veins formed
by this process only differ from crack-seal veins [28–30] by the lack of fibrous crystallisation and
evidence for incremental cracking, such as successive and parallel inclusion trails. Indeed, fibrous
textures result from the same process as comb infilling, except that crystal growth is incremental
instead of continuous. In this case, the crack is caused by fluid overpressure and crystallisation
occurs immediately after the aperture with a unique free direction for crystal growth—the vein
centre. The succession of cracking event and, consequently, of immediate filling, explains the
continuous crystallisation and, therefore, the fibres (Figure 3b) [31]. By contrast, comb texture is
supposed to form where the rate of crystallisation is lower than the opening rate. In this case,
the crystallisation only covers the vein wall, and crystals are larger as in the case of fibrous veins
and can develop during multiple growth stages (Figure 3a), sometimes associated with a change
of fluid composition and chemistry [15]. It is still uncertain, though, if all fibrous veins form by
the crack-seal mechanism, or whether they can also form by continuous fibre growth, where
diffusion keeps pace with the rate of dilation [26,32].

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Figure 3. Examples of comb and fibrous textures from the Hercynian mining district of Tras-os-Montes,
Galicia, Spain. Red lines illustrate the elongated quartz and feldspar grains indicate the opening
direction. Note the difference between fibres that cross-cut the veins and comb grains that do not
traverse the vein.

- Breccia textures are witnesses of complex processes for which we have to take into account three
parameters based on the recognition between fragments and matrix in order to understand their
process of formation:

 The nature of the matrix or cement (rock flour, sediment, volcanic, magmatic,
hydrothermal, . . . );
 The nature and shape of the fragments (circularity, size, distribution, fabrics, monogenic
or polygenic, lithological nature);
 The relationships between fragments and matrix/cement (matrix-supported or
grain-supported).

As a function of these three parameters, a genetic classification of breccia has been proposed
by [33], which is frequently used as an indicator of the conditions of vein formation [34–39]. The most
used in lode-related economic geology are the tectonic, hydrothermal, magmatic, collapse-related,
crackle, hydraulic and dilational breccia. Their recognition is based on the following features (Figure 4):

- Tectonic breccia is easily recognisable because of grain reduction and oriented fragments (Figure 4a).
Depending of its maturity (function of the strain intensity), fragments can be in contact
(grain-supported breccia, beginning of fragmentation and subsequent comminution) or finally
flooded in a largely developed matrix (matrix-supported breccia). Tectonic breccia is more

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frequently monogenic. With respect to the intensity of the deformation and the presence or lack
of clay minerals, they can be called cataclasite, ultracataclasite or gouge.
- Hydrothermal breccia is characterised by more-or-less rounded fragments of the same nature (not
always) in place within a hydrothermal matrix. Frequently, the final voids are filled by cement
that can frequently contain some metals in economic contexts (Figure 4b).
- Magmatic breccia is more or less similar to the hydrothermal ones, except that the matrix is only
magmatic and there is no cement (Figure 4c). In this case, the fragments are rounded and never
in contact (matrix supported breccia). Due to the explosive processes, magmatic breccias are
frequently polygenic. The differentiation between matrix and fragments, both magmatic, is
sometimes difficult, especially in thin sections.
- Collapse breccia is easy to recognise because they show a large variation of fragment size, the
presence of cement, and grain-supported texture (Figure 4d). Their geometry is clearly consistent
with their mode of formation: (i) collapse of the fragments in response to an underlying explosion
or void formation by dissolution and (ii) posterior cementation.
- Crackle breccia is an early stage of what is going becoming a hydrothermal, tectonic or hydraulic
breccia. Due to their mode of formation, they are monogenic, with a low matrix and they can be
assimilated to early fragmentation in response to either tectonic stress or fluid-related fracturing.
Some parts frequently exhibit the host rocks being not totally disrupted whether other parts can
be more mature with well-expressed breccia texture (Figure 4e).
- Hydraulic breccia is the result of hydraulic fracturing. It exhibits typical jigsaw geometry with
a monogenic character and a very regular pattern (Figure 4f). The matrix is well represented,
and fragments are never in contact. The mode of formation is only due to cracking due to
fluid overpressure. Dilational breccia forms within extensional relay or pull-apart (Figures 1c,
2 and 5). In this case, breccia formation is explained by the fact that void creation causes the
fragmentation of the hosted rock affected by the pull-apart formation. Fragments are weakly
transported and sometimes rotated and the occurrence of cement is common. Why some
pull-aparts are filled by fibrous/comb crystals or dilational breccia remains an open question
(Figure 2c). The outcrop in Figure 5 can help because the two types of infilling have been observed
within the same structure. Since dilational breccia has been observed on the wall of the secondary
formed comb infilling (Figure 5b), we suspect that both types of texture can be developed in the
same structural context. Field relationships demonstrate that dilational breccia texture can form
at the beginning of the process, when rates of aperture are weak and late and rapid opening can
explain the superposition of fibrous/comb infilling. Indeed, the alternative formation of dilational
breccia or comb texture in the core of pull-apart can appear as a function of opening velocity,
crystal growth rate, and fluid saturation. We guess that dilational breccia in the core of pull-apart
can be created during all main tectonic contexts (i.e., compression, extension, transtension, etc.)
and not restricted to the only case of wrench tectonics, as this has been established for the
large-scale pull-apart-related basin formation along crustal-scale faults [40].

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Figure 4. Breccia texture classification frequently used in ore geology. Each case is described in detail in
the text. A conceptual sketch is indicated for each photograph in order to correctly interpret the image.
The scale of these sketches is the same as the corresponding photograph. In red, some indications
about the process responsible for breccia formation are provided.

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Figure 5. Superposition of dilational breccia texture and fibre/comb ones within similar left-lateral
pull-apart structures (see text for explanation of the cause of occurrence of fibrous or breccia texture).

3. Vein Formation Process and Tectonics: Examples from Ore Deposit Study

3.1. Gold Concentration during Collapse Tectonics

A pluridisciplinary approach has been undertaken with the study of gold-bearing quartz veins
of the Quadrilátero Ferrífero (Minas Gerais, Brazil) [41]. This deposit has been classically interpreted
as a strongly deformed pre-tectonic one on the basis of the sigmoid shape (Figure 6) exhibited by
ore-bearing veins and, also, as a typical Archean orogenic gold deposit [42]. The internal vein texture
study combined with regional tectonic constraints suggests an alternative model in which veins are
formed in response to the late collapse tectonics, later with respect to the nappes emplacement [41].
During these movements, sigmoid voids were created and filled by elongate quartz grains associated
with sulphides, tourmaline and carbonates (Figure 6a). Such a normal motion has been facilitated by
the existence of mica-rich levels (Figure 6b) that underline the foliation of the hosted meta-sediments.
This result has been obtained essentially because the internal texture has revealed that quartz grains are
un-deformed and that their formation was the result of only one opening episode, within free tectonic
stress context. The superposition of sigmoidal pull-apart formation on earlier shearing deformational
event has been clearly observed (Figure 6c). The process of formation is similar to the conceptual sketch
of the Figure 2 with re-using and re-opening of pre-existing shear zone. Here, the sigmoidal shape
of the mica-rich level due to the earlier thrust event is re-used. Inferred hydrothermal effects were
responsible for the formation of illite, sulphides, carbonate, garnet and green biotite within the matrix.

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Figure 6. (a) Formation of sigmoid vein during late-orogenic collapse tectonics (red arrows) within
the Quadrilátero Ferrífero (Minas Gerais, Brazil). Note that vein re-used an early level formed by
mica alignment related to the nappe emplacement (b). The sigmoidal shape reflects thrust-related
emplacement (black arrows). Extensional pull-apart post-dated thrust-related structures and controlled
gold-bearing quartz-sulphide veins (c).

This study demonstrates that the Ouro Preto mesothermal gold deposit was formed in context of
late-orogenic collapse, drastically different from the conventional auriferous shear-zone model, model
that has been intensively used during the 1990s [43,44]. A recent study confirms this hypothesis by the
demonstration of resetting of older zircons by ca. 496 Ma old hot fluid rock interactions in the area of
Passagem [45].
This example clearly illustrates the importance of the systematic observation of the internal vein
texture before concluding on the mechanism of vein formation based only on the geometrical analysis.

3.2. Vein Opening and Filling Controlled by Regional-Scale Structures within Volcanic Domains
The Shila-Paula district is one of the numerous Au/Ag low sulfidation epithermal one of
Southern Peru. It is characterised by numerous veins hosted by the tertiary subaerial volcanics
of the Western Cordillera. Field studies shown that most of the mineralised bodies consist of the
systematic association of main E–W veins and secondary N120–135◦ E veins (Figure 7) [46]. Two
main stages of ore deposition are identified [47]. Stage 1 consists of a quartz–adularia–pyrite–galena
–sphalerite–chalcopyrite–electrum–Mn silicates and carbonates assemblage that fills the main E–W
veins (Figure 7a,b,e). Stage 2, also called the bonanza stage, carries most of the precious mineralisation
and consists of quartz, Fe-poor sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, adularia, galena, tennantite–tetrahedrite,
polybasite–pearceite, and electrum. This stage is mainly observed within secondary veins, in final
geodic filling (Figure 7c,f) and in veinlets that cut stage 1 assemblage (Figure 7d,g). In main veins,
the ore is systematically brecciated, whereas tectonic-free environment characterised the filling of
secondary veins. The age of veins was estimated to be around 10.8 Ma using 40Ar/39Ar ages on
adularia crystals from different veins [47].
A two-stage model is proposed to explain vein formation. The first stage was assumed to
correspond to the development of E–W sinistral shear zones and associated N120◦ E cleavages under

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the effects of a NE–SW trending shortening direction, which has been previously recognised at the
Andean scale (Quechua II phase) (Figure 7a). These structures serve as a receptacle for the emplacement
of stage 1 ore assemblage that was brecciated during ongoing deformation (Figure 7b). The second
event operates a re-opening of the previously formed structures under a NW–SE trending shortening
direction that allowed the re-opening of pre-existing cleavage and the formation of scarce N50◦ E
trending S2 cleavages (Figure 7c), such as in the model in Figure 2. This stage was followed by
the bonanza ore emplacement both within geodes in core of the main E–W veins and in secondary
N120–135◦ E veins (Figure 7d). The two directions of shortening, NE–SW for the first event and NW–SE
for the second one, are also recorded by the orientation of fluid inclusion planes within quartz crystals
from the host rocks.
This study represents a unique example, constrained by combined tectonic, textural, mineralogical,
geochronological, and fluid inclusion data, of the establishment of a complete model of deposit
formation in which the re-using of previously formed tectonic features as a factor of gold concentration
in epithermal environment is evidenced.

Figure 7. Example of vein formation by the re-using of pre-existing structures within the Volcanic
domain of South Peru (see text for explanation). (a) Formation and filling of sinistral shear zone
and creation of associated cleavage under the effect of NE–SW shortening direction (red arrows). (b)
Formation of Mn-rich breccia under the same shortening direction. (c) Formation of secondary veins
by re-opening of the cleavage by N120◦ E trending shortening direction (green arrows). Formation
of geodic structures filled by stage 2-related paragenesis and subsequent “bonanza” stage and richer
veins (Veta 75) (d).

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3.3. Tectonic Stockwork Development in Fold and Thrust Belt Environment

3.3.1. The Iberian Pyrite Belt Example

The Variscan Iberian Pyrite Belt is affected by a continuous and progressive deformation that
integrates the formation of south-directed folds and thrust vs. north-verging features [48]. In the
light of this structural model, a microtectonic, textural, and mineralogical study of the stockworks
associated with the volcanic-hosted massive sulphide (VHMS) deposits has been performed [24].
In addition to the first and primary stockwork assimilated to represent the feeder veins of
the VHMS, a second stockwork occurs under the form of undeformed veins frequently emplaced
within cleavage and shear planes characteristic of the south-verging deformation (Figure 8a). The
characteristic mineral of both stages is pyrite. Within the primary stockwork, sulphides have
Co–As-rich rims that are interpreted as overgrowths formed during the second event. Instead of
that, the base metal assemblage that characterised the second stockwork is similar to the one seen
within the primary stockwork, especially when developed at its contact. Conversely, second stockwork
is observed far away from the primary one and VHMS is only filled by quartz and pyrite. The internal
texture indicates that pyrite is systematically fractured by ongoing deformation and quartz fibres
develop within asymmetric pressure consistent with the south-verging tectonics. Geochemical analysis
of pyrites emphasises the discrimination between both stockworks and pyrites from early stockwork
are S-depleted/Fe-enriched with respect to those of the second stockwork. Since sulphides are
located within the cleavage and shearing plane (Figure 8b,c) and quartz fibres systematically develop
around pyrite grains, the second stockwork is interpreted as developing during the south-directed
tectonics [24]. Moreover, the second stockwork has been encountered within axial plane cleavage
related to the south-directed tectonics (Figure 8d), similar to the conceptual trap formation within
cleavage of Figure 1a. This is strongly confirmed by sulphide textural analysis that demonstrates
the co-existence of deformational effects (pyrite subgrain boundary, blow-up pull-apart, Figure 8e)
and post-tectonic pyrite overgrowth (Figure 8f). If the mineralised fluids responsible for this second
stockwork result from the VHMS and early stockwork remobilisation or from external metamorphic
source remain uncertain.

3.3.2. The Moroccan Palaeozoic High-Atlas Example

The mineralised district of the High Seksaoua (Western High Atlas, Morocco) is characterised by
a lithological succession marked by an alternation of schists and limestones attributed to the Cambrian
and affected by the Hercynian orogeny. The existence of stratiform masses of pyrite first suggests
that this deposit can be a VHMS (Figure 9a) [49]. However, copper mineralisation, the first economic
goal, is absent from the stratiform pyrite levels but systematically localised close to the dolomite/black
schist contact in which a top-to-the-N–NW décollement-type tectonics [50,51] has been identified
(Figure 9b). The economic mineralisation is a syntectonic stockwork (Figure 9c,d) formed in response
to this top-to-the-N–NW shearing event that only affects the black schist layers (Figure 9). We suggest
that vein formation is a brittle response, within competent dolomite levels, of the ductile deformation
that affects the black schist (Figure 9a) [51], as described in the conceptual model of the Figure 1b.
This tectonic has been correlated to the late-Hercynian tectonics on the base of the Permo-Triassic
age (ca. 270 Ma) given by 40 Ar/39 Ar dating realised on white micas related to the stockwork [51]. This
important result questions the syngenetic interpretation accepted until now for this mineralisation, and
allows us to propose a new model of formation in which the “décollement”-type tectonics represent
the main factor of ore concentration.
The Iberian and Moroccan examples illustrated the role of decollement structures in the
emplacement of stockworks associated with metal-rich minerals. If no economic concentration can be
deduced from the remobilisation process during Hercynian orogeny in the case of the South Iberian
Pyrite Belt and, moreover, compared to the huge metal mass represented by the VHMS, a similar
process applied to the Ifri deposit led to the formation of the Cu-rich economic orebodies.

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Figure 8. Schematic illustration showing the relationships between first stockwork and secondary one
around the VHMS of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (south Spain). (a) Schematic distribution of the different
stockwork and mineralised features close to a VHMS body. Occurrence of second stockwork within
meter-scale shear bands (b) and within axial planar cleavage (d). (c) Stratiform pyrite-rich level cut
by secondary pyrite-rich veins. (e) Small pull-apart filled by syntectonic quartz and pyrite. (f) Pyrite
metablasts and overgrowths (2 and 3) formed close to a synkinematic second stockwork.

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Figure 9. (a) Illustrations of the Ifri Cu mine model showing some images of the Cu-rich stockwork
formed in response of ductile decollement within black schist. Each photograph is associated to a
schematic cartoon in order to explain the geological process. (b) Example of vein formation within
competent dolomite rich level in response of the ductilely deformed black schist. (c) Opening of
chalcopyrite/quartz-rich veins due to NW-directed shearing. (d) Stockwork formation by contrasted
behaviour of dolomite and black schist.

3.4. Rheological Control on Ore Concentration

In this chapter, we illustrate the significant role of rheological conditions on the development
of ore deposits. Here, we will highlight two cases in which changing rheological conditions due to
intensive tourmaline-rich alteration process favoured the formation of lode-related deposits.

3.4.1. Sn-rich Breccia Formation of the Achmmach Prospect (Moroccan Central Massif)
The Achmmach tin mineralisation occurs within the NE part of the Massif Central domain
of Morocco, hosted by Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian low-grade meta-sediments affected by
the Hercynian deformational events, weakly represented in this area. The region concerned by the
deposit exhibits a regular, N030–045◦ E trending cleavage mainly within the Silurian calc-schists.
The mineralisation is the result of a long-lived process that includes four events that occurred in
a transtensional tectonic regime associated with the late magmatic-hydrothermal evolution of the
Hercynian orogeny (see details in [52]).

- The first event is the formation of tourmaline-rich halos in core of the calc-schist. These halos
have ellipsoidal shape resembling tension gashes and are supposed to have formed during E–W
trending shortening. Since they follow the N070◦ E trend of the cleavage, most halos are “en
echelon” and indicators of a right-lateral potential shearing. Conjugate left-lateral “en echelon”

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tourmaline halos also exist but are less common. The rock shown in Figure 10 was collected in
the core of one of the alteration halos and is entirely affected by the tourmalinisation.
- The second event is link to the development of right-lateral shearing only in levels affected by
the tourmalinisation (Figure 10a,c). It is noteworthy that this deformation is consistent with the
same tectonic context and therefore probably result from ongoing transtension controlled by E–W
shortening. Main shear bands are oriented N070◦ E.
- Third, we have evidence of transformation of the previously formed shear band in tourmaline-rich
breccia levels (Figure 10a,c). Such levels can reach thickness of 2 or 3 meters. The breccia is
matrix-supported with a well-developed tourmaline-rich matrix, and can exhibit some domains
with fragment-preferred orientation thus translating to tectonic- and hydrothermal-type breccia.
- The fourth texture is the most important because it is associated with cassiterite and thus
representative of the economic stage. Transtension is transformed in extension and normal
faults developed with the formation of a clast-supported breccia with numerous voids formation
and cassiterite crystallisation (Figure 10b). These mineralised structures are systematically formed
at the core of the first breccia levels and always in association with the tourmaline halos.

To conclude, mineralisation in the case of Achmmach prospect is clearly the result of polyphase
deformation during the late orogenic evolution of this Hercynian domain and certainly associated
with some granite emplacement. Granite remains hidden except for the occurrence of some rare
outcrops. Magmatic affinity is demonstrated by the ubiquitous presence of tourmaline at each stage of
the process. It is suggested in this case that ore concentration benefitted from the change of rheology
due to tourmaline invasion (tourmaline-rich halos). The process was achieved by ongoing successive
structures until the final formation of mineralised orebodies (shearing, brecciation and cassiterite
crystallisation).

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Figure 10. Deposit history and evolution of the four stages that explain the formation of the Achmmach
tin deposit (Morocco) recognised in a unique block (a). (b) Image of the “North Zone” area in which the
succession of structure can be observed. Note the limit of the tourmaline alteration halo that delimitate
the zone where mineralisation developed. (c) Parallelism between ductile shear bands and mineralised
breccia showing that breccia re-used the earlier plane of deformation to develop.

3.4.2. The Sn–W-rich Perigranitic Mineralisations of Beariz (Galicia, Spain)

The Hercynian orogenic cycle is reputed for abundant calc-alkaline granites that were emplaced
during late orogenic Carboniferous extension (collapse of the thickened crust) [53]. This event also
related to an intensive ore formation frequently starting with Sn–W mineralisation close to the granitic
bodies grading to As–Au towards more distal parts [54]. This event has been called “Or 300” by
the French school, and recognised throughout the European Hercynides from the Bohemia Massif to
Maghreb [55,56]. In Galicia (NW Spain), the Tras-os-Montes area is a segment of the Hercynian orogen

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and characterised by voluminous magmatic complexes emplaced between 325 and 300 Ma (from G1 to
G4 granitic events, [57]). The area is the site of abundant ore deposits (Au, W, Sn, REE). The example
shown herein concerns the Sn–W deposit of the Mina Soriana in which mineralised veins were formed
during a tectonic context dominated by NS extension linked to EW shortening [58]. The veins formed
with E–W strike normal to a NS stretching lineation. This phenomenon is clearly exposed within the
Mina Soriana outcrop. The Mina Soriana outcrop (Figure 11a) exposes a horizontal sill of leucogranite
that was injected into mica schist during the N–S lineation-related tectonic event. Tourmaline halos
(50 cm of thickness) are developed along the upper and lower host rocks (Figure 11b). Steeply dipping
veins mainly filled by quartz and tourmaline occur normal to the magmatic sill and only within the
tourmaline-rich halo (Figure 11c). This indicates that micaschist affected by the alteration had changed
its competence and reacted differently than the surrounding unaltered micaschist. Veins are limited
to the alteration halo although some of them cross cut the magmatic sill, as in boudinage-related
structures (Figure 11a). Since tourmaline grains are aligned N–S within the alteration halo but also at
the margin of quartz vein (Figure 11d), all features, i.e., magmatic sill emplacement, tourmaline-rich
halo, and quartz vein development, are coeval and controlled by the same tectonic event.
In this case, the different behaviour, as explained in Figure 1b, lies at the origin of vein formation
and, hence, of the formation of the Mina Soriana main vein, which outcrops further north, with the
same orientation as the small-scale quartz veins and is mined as the main orebody. The difference with
Figure 1b is that, in this case, the variation of rheology is not a pre-existing lithological feature, but was
created during the same process that produced the ore concentration.

Figure 11. (a) Mina Soriana outcrop, Galicia (Spain), showing the development of mineralised quartz
veins thanks to tourmaline-rich alteration halos developed in response to granitic sill emplacement
(modified from [59]). (b) Close view of the granitic sill, tourmaline halo and vertical quartz veins. (c)
Microscopic view of quartz vein rim showing tourmaline syntectonic growing. (d) Development of
vertical quartz mineralised veins limited to the tourmaline-rich alteration halo.

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3.5. Re-Use of Magmatic Structures: The Magmatic-Hydrothermal Transition

In the same geological context as the Mina Soriana outcrop, gold mineralisation exists, but close
to the G3 granites (the Bruès one, in this case). Gold is associated with quartz-bearing veins that
form a regular network emplaced at the Northern cupola of the Bruès G3 granite [58]. This network
is also E–W oriented, and veins dip steeply to the north. A link with the G3 granite emplacement
has been demonstrated by field and microstructure analysis [57,58]. Few direct arguments have been
advanced, but the fact that mineralised quartz veins are systematically emplaced at the contact with
the aplite–pegmatite dikes (Figure 12a), which are both controlled by the same structural context,
is probably the strongest evidence. In thin sections, the transition from the magmatic stage to the
hydrothermal is illustrated (Figure 12b) by an intermediate stage (magmatic-hydrothermal) marked by
the crystallisation of K-feldspars that are larger than the ones in the surrounding granite (Figure 12b).
In addition, comb shapes confirm that feldspars are syntectonic, neo-formed, and indicate the vein
opening direction. Internal fractures show that opening continued after feldspar crystallisation, as
evidence for a continuous process. In the centre of the vein and after comb quartz crystallisation (the
hydrothermal stage), we find a thin fracture in which small white micas, recrystallised quartz, and
sulphides (essentially arsenopyrite and pyrite) occur. White micas and oblique fabrics of recrystallised
quartz (Figure 12c) also indicate a normal shearing consistent with the direction of vein opening. This
demonstrates that a similar tectonic control prevailed from the late magmatic stages (border of the
vein) until the final ore formation (sulphide and white mica at the centre of the vein).
This example confirms the indisputable spatial relationship between early magmatism, late
magmatism and hydrothermalism. We highlight, here, the fact that we can follow, mineralogically
and texturally, the continuity between late magmatic features (the border of the vein with K-feldspar
formation), hydrothermal quartz and late sulphide growth. Once more, the role of the pre-existing
network (the magmatic dike on top of the Bruès granite) seems essential for the development of the
mineralised system.

Figure 12. Relationships between gold-bearing quartz vein and granitic dike within the Bruès granite
cupola, Galicia. (a) Outcrop view showing the close relationship between quartz vein and granitic dike.
(b) Sample view showing the transitional contact between granite and quartz hydrothermal vein. (c)
Thin section of the central part of the hydrothermal vein representative of the mineralised stage. Note
the occurrence of dynamic recrystallised quartz and white mica indicating a normal sense of shearing.
Red arrows indicate the sense of motion.

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Minerals 2019, 9, 56

4. Discussion and Conclusions

(i) Detailed study of geometry and composition of vein associated with ore deposits, combined
with mineralogical and textural constraints, is indispensable in order to understand the mode of
formation of mineralised systems. In the case of the epithermal veins of the Shila deposit, the
model of formation suggests that the formation of the economic deposit is strongly dependent on
the pre-existing structuring of the area.
(ii) Without studying internal textures, the interpretation of (external) vein shape can be ambiguous
and is not enough to constrain the vein formation process. The example shown of epithermal
veins in southern Peru is highly illustrative in this sense. Vein geometry (main vein and associated
cleavage) indicates left-lateral shearing, but the opposite conclusion is deduced when taking
into account the fact that the veins and, particularly, the secondary ones, are characterised by
aperture and stress-free textures that are not consistent with the classical status of what we call
a cleavage. This highlights the importance of examining internal vein texture in addition to
tectonic and geometrical analyses of any type of ore deposit. A similar conclusion can be drawn
from the Passagem gold-bearing veins that were originally interpreted as pre-tectonic but later
recognised to have formed during late-orogenic collapse affecting the area. This has significant
implications for exploration and exploitation strategies because of the different age and predicted
local geometries (angle, elongation) of the potential orebodies.
(iii) Two examples demonstrate the existence of syntectonic stockwork, i.e., metal remobilisation
within the huge VHMS of the Iberian Pyrite Belt and the copper mineralisation of the Moroccan
High Atlas. Few studies have really demonstrated this hypothesis, but our results provide strong
evidence for the synchronism between stockwork formation/emplacement and deformation.
Even if secondary stockwork formation does not represent an economic goal within the Iberian
Pyrite Belt, such a process led to the formation of the economic orebodies of Ifri (Moroccan High
Atlas). This highlights the importance of detailed study of any type of mineralised veins, even if
at first inspection they do not seem to be of direct economic interest.
(iv) Although the term “magmatic-hydrothermal transition” may sound old fashioned [60], we
demonstrate with the example of Bruès (the last one) that, even though we cannot prove that the
mineralising fluid were magmatic, ore formation is intimately associated with the late evolution of
magmatic systems in many orogenic and/or mesothermal gold deposits [61]. The Bruès outcrop
is a wonderful demonstration of continuity between late magmatic process and hydrothermal
mineralisation. It is remarkable that, although detailed absolute geochronology is lacking, the
evidence for the same tectonic control from the earliest magmatic stages to the latest hydrothermal
stage strongly favours a continuous process. This cannot be enough for affirming the link between
mineralisation and granite activity but strongly argued for this and re-addressed the discussion
concerning the characteristics of orogenic and intrusion-related gold deposit (IRGD) [62,63].
(v) Competency contrasts in a volume of rock also appear to be a favourable factor for ore
concentration and vein formation [64], as shown herein for the Achmmach tin deposit and Mina
Soriana W. In these cases, rheological variation was not due to original lithological differences,
but induced during early stages of the mineralisation event itself, by heterogeneous alteration.
It has been argued that tin mineralisation could not have formed in the Achmmach domain
without earlier development of a tourmaline halo within the monotonous calc-schist. These
alteration halos, formed during an early stage of transtension tectonics, create a drastic contrast in
competency contrast, which controlled the partitioning of ongoing deformation and, eventually,
the mineralisation. The case of Mina Soriana is similar, but the link with magmatism is, here,
highlighted by the occurrence of a granitic sill responsible for the tourmaline-rich alteration.
Nonetheless, in both cases, a link with late magmatic activity can be inferred in view of the above
discussion about the role of the magmatic-hydrothermal transition.

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Minerals 2019, 9, 56

In the light of these results, the importance of tectonic and microtectonic analysis at different
scales in modern metallogenic studies is underlined. This work should be realised at the regional scale
down to the scale of internal vein textures. The complementarity nature of pluridisciplinary works,
even though already adopted in many previous studies, has been again demonstrated by the examples
proposed and discussed in this paper. Change of scale and integration within the regional, geological
and tectonic context are two additional conditions for a comprehensive analysis. The benefits of
such an approach are both fundamental, leading to a better understanding of the mechanism of vein
formation process, and economics, leading to better knowledge of specific orebody geometry and
distribution and hence highly recommended in any type of exploration program.

Funding: This research was partly funded by Projects CAPES-COFECUB and CNRS GDR Transmet.
Acknowledgments: The mining companies SEIMSA (Iberian Pyrite Belt, Spain), CVRD (Vale group, Brazil),
CEDIMIN and BUENAVENTURA (Peru), MANAGEM (Morocco), SMS (Seksaoua, Morocco) and KASBAH
RESSOURCES (Achmmach, Morocco) are gratefully acknowledged for their constant help, support and fruitful
discussions. L. Badra, L. Bailly, L. Barbanson, Y. Branquet, P. Chaponnière, P. Couderc, M. Dardennes, A.
Gaouzi, J.M. Georgel, E. Gloaguen, M. Majhoubi, M. Menezes, J. Onezime, J. Rosas, and J. Tuduri, are tanked
for their contribution. Two anonymous reviewers and D. Aerden are kindly acknowledged for their fruitful and
constructive review.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to
publish the results.

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 minerals
Article
Structural Control on the Formation of Pb-Zn
Deposits: An Example from the Pyrenean Axial Zone
Alexandre Cugerone 1, * , Emilien Oliot 1 , Alain Chauvet 1 , Jordi Gavaldà Bordes 2 ,
Angèle Laurent 1 , Elisabeth Le Goff 3 and Bénédicte Cenki-Tok 1
1 Géosciences Montpellier, UMR CNRS 5243, Université de Montpellier, Place E. Bataillon, CC 60,
34095 Montpellier, France; [email protected] (E.O.); [email protected] (A.C.);
[email protected] (A.L.); [email protected] (B.C.-T.)
2 Conselh Generau d’Aran, Vielha, 25530 Lleida, Spain; [email protected]
3 Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM), Territorial Direction Languedoc-Roussillon,
1039 Rue de Pinville, 34000 Montpellier, France; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +33-643-983-585

Received: 21 September 2018; Accepted: 23 October 2018; Published: 26 October 2018

Abstract: Pb-Zn deposits and specifically Sedimentary-Exhalative (SEDEX) deposits are frequently
found in deformed and/or metamorphosed geological terranes. Ore bodies structure is generally
difficult to observe and its relationships to the regional structural framework is often lacking. In the
Pyrenean Axial Zone (PAZ), the main Pb-Zn mineralizations are commonly considered as Ordovician
SEDEX deposits in the literature. New structural field analyzes focusing on the relations between
mineralization and regional structures allowed us to classify these Pb-Zn mineralizations into three
types: (I) Type 1 corresponds to minor disseminated mineralization, probably syngenetic and from
an exhalative source. (II) Type 2a is a stratabound mineralization, epigenetic and synchronous to
the Variscan D1 regional deformation event and (III) Type 2b is a vein mineralization, epigenetic
and synchronous to the late Variscan D2 regional deformation event. Structural control appears
to be a key parameter in concentrating Pb-Zn in the PAZ, as mineralizations occur associated to
fold hinges, cleavage, and/or faults. Here we show that the main exploited type 2a and type 2b
Pb-Zn mineralizations are intimately controlled by Variscan tectonics. This study demonstrates the
predominant role of structural study for unraveling the formation of Pb-Zn deposits especially in
deformed/metamorphosed terranes.

Keywords: Pb-Zn deposits; Pyrenean Axial Zone; SEDEX; remobilization; structural control; sphalerite

1. Introduction
The world’s most important Pb-Zn resources consist in Sedimentary-Exhalative (SEDEX)
mineralizations [1]. These types of ore deposits are syngenetic sedimentary to diagenetic. Occurrence
of laminated sulfides parallel to bedding associated to sedimentary features (graded beds, etc.) are the
key geological argument [2]. These important deposits occur often in ancient metamorphosed and
highly deformed terranes for example in Red Dog, Alaska [3,4]; Rampura, India [5]; or Broken Hill,
Australia [6]. In these cases, the processes of ore formation are still largely debated. In consequence,
unraveling the relationships between mineralization and orogenic remobilization(s) is essential in
order to understand the genesis of Pb-Zn deposits in deformed and metamorphosed environments.
For example, in Broken Hill [6–8] and Cannington [9] deposits in Australia some authors argued
for a metamorphogenic and epigenetic mineralization as large metasomatic zones may have refined
pre-existing Pb-Zn rich rocks. Other authors consider a pre-metamorphic and syngenetic origin with
only limited remobilization linked to tectonic events [10–12]. In the world-class Jinding Pb-Zn deposit,
the host rock has undergone a complex tectonic deformation [13]. Some authors proposed a syngenetic

Minerals 2018, 8, 489; doi:10.3390/min8110489 27 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 489

origin of the deposit [14,15] whereas others argued for an epigenetic genesis of the deposit based on
field study, textural evidences [16–19], fluid inclusion [19,20], and paleomagnetic age [13]. Nowadays,
these high-tonnage Pb-Zn deposits are the preferential target of numerous academic and industrial
studies also for the presence of rare metals like Ge, Ga, In, or Cd associated with sulfides.
The Pb-Zn deposits hosted in the Pyrenean Axial Zone (PAZ) area that has suffered Variscan
tectonics [21–23] are usually considered to be SEDEX. As an example, due to their geometry and
the presence of distal volcanic rocks, Bois et al. [24] and Pouit et al. [25] considered as SEDEX
the Pb-Zn mineralizations located in the Pierrefitte anticlinorium. In Bentaillou area, Fert [26] and
Pouit [27,28] demonstrated that the stratigraphic and sedimentary controls were dominant processes
during the genesis of these mineralizations. In the Aran Valley, deposits (Liat, Victoria-Solitaria, and
Margalida) have been studied by Pujals [29] and Cardellach et al. [30,31]. These authors concluded
on a stratiform and possibly exhalative formation of Pb-Zn mineralizations associated with a poor
remobilization during Variscan deformation. Only few authors have documented the impact of
Variscan tectonics on the genesis of these mineralizations. These are Alonso [32] in Liat, Urets, and
Horcalh deposits or Nicol [33] for Pierrefitte anticlinorium deposits. In the Benasque Pass area, south
of the Bossòst anticlinorium, Garcia Sansegundo et al. [34] indicated probable Ordovician stratiform
or stratabound Pb-Zn mineralizations intensely reworked during Variscan tectonics. The Pb isotopes
study realized by Marcoux [35] showed a unique major event of Pb-Zn mineralization interpreted as
sedimentary-controlled and Ordovician or Devonian in age. Remobilization processes of Pb isotopes
seem however poorly constrained and a complete structural study related to these analyzes is lacking.
Pyrenean sulfide mineralizations are an excellent target for investigating the links between
orogenic deformation(s) and the genesis of associated mineralization(s), as well as finding key
arguments to make the distinction between strictly syngenetic or rather epigenetic mineralizations
and structurally remobilized mineralizations. In this work we will demonstrate that Pb-Zn deposits
from five districts in the PAZ, previously largely considered SEDEX, were actually formed through
processes involving a strong structural control.

2. Geological Setting
The Pyrenean Axial Zone (PAZ, Figure 1) is the result of the collision between the Iberian and Eurasian
plates since the Lower Cretaceous. Deep parts of the crust were exhumed during this orogeny. The PAZ
is composed of Paleozoic metasedimentary rocks locally intruded by Ordovician granites deformed and
metamorphosed during the Variscan orogeny, like the Aston or Canigou gneiss domes [23,36].

Figure 1. (a) Location of the Pyrenean Axial Zone (PAZ) within the Variscan belt of Western Europe.
(b) Schematic map of the Pyrenean Axial Zone (PAZ) and location of all recognized Pb-Zn deposits
(based on BRGM (French geological survey) and IGME (Spanish geological survey) databases). Note
the abundance of these deposits especially in the central and western domains of the PAZ.

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The PAZ is generally divided in two domains [21,36–39]: (i) a deep-seated domain called
Infrastructure, which contains medium to high-grade metamorphic rocks and (ii) a shallow-seated
domain called the Superstructure, which is composed of low-grade metamorphic rocks. The Infrastructure
presents flat-lying foliations but highly deformed domains appear locally with steep and penetrative
crenulation foliations. Alternatively, the Superstructure presents moderate deformation associated to a
slaty cleavage [40,41] These two domains are intruded by Late-Carboniferous granites, like the Bossòst
and the Lys-Caillaouas granites [37,42,43].
In the PAZ several deformation phases essentially Variscan in age (325–290 Ma) are recognized.
The first deformation event (D1 ) is marked by a cleavage (S1 ) that is often parallel to the stratification (S0 ).
Regional M1 metamorphism is of Medium-Pressure and Low-Temperature (MP/LT) and synchronous of
this first D1 deformation [22]. The second deformation event (D2 ) is expressed by a moderate to steep axial
planar (S2 ) cleavage. M2 is a Low-Pressure and High-Temperature (LP/HT) metamorphism linked to the
Late-Variscan granitic intrusions, and it is superposed to the M1 metamorphism [44,45]. Late-Variscan
and/or Pyrenean-Alpine D3 deformations are locally expressed as fold and shear zones like the Merens
and/or probably the Bossòst faults [41,46,47].
The Pyrenean Pb-Zn regional district is the second largest in France with ~400,000 t Zn and
~180,000 t Pb extracted [48,49]. These sulfides deposits are localized in the PAZ in the Pierrefitte
and Bossòst anticlinoriums (Figure 1b). Sphalerite (ZnS) and galena (PbS) are essentially present in
Ordovician and Devonian metasediments. Few Pb-Zn deposits are hosted in granitic rocks [50].
This study focuses on Pb-Zn deposits located in the Bossòst anticlinorium (Figure 1) [42,44,51] and
includes a comparison with Pb-Zn deposits occurring in the Pierrefitte anticlinorium. The southern
part of the Bossòst anticlinorium forms the Aran Valley synclinorium. The northern part is limited by
the North Pyrenean fault (Figure 2a). It is mostly composed of Cambrian to Devonian rocks and an
intruding Late-Variscan leucocratic granite named the Bossòst granite.

Figure 2. The Bossòst Anticlinorium. (a) Geological map with positions of the three districts: (1)
Bentaillou-Liat-Urets district, see Figures 3 and 4; (2) Margalida-Victoria-Solitaria district, see Figure 5;
and (3) Pale Bidau-Argut-Pale de Rase district, see Figure 6. Pb-Zn deposits are numbered as follows:
1: Solitaria; 2: Victoria; 3: Margalida; 4: Plan del Tor; 5: Urets; 6: Horcall; 7: Mauricio-Reparadora;
8: Estrella; 9: Liat; 10: Malh de Bolard; 11: Bentaillou; 12: Crabere; 13: Uls; 14: Pale Bidau; 15: Pale de Rase;
16: Argut. Lithologies are based on geological map of BRGM (France [52–54]) and IGME (Spain, Aran
Valley; Garcia-Sansegundo et al. [55]). Metamorphic dome boundaries are related to andalousite isograd
presented by Zwart; (b) Structural map with foliation trajectories of S0 -S1 , subvertical S2 , and related F2
folds. Note preferential apparition of Pb-Zn deposits when S2 cleavage is well-expressed. (c) Schmidt
stereographic projections (lower hemisphere) of poles to S0 -S1 and S2 subvertical foliation planes.

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Figure 3. (a) Structural map of the Bentaillou-Liat-Urets district based on field study and BRGM/IGME
geological maps. Location in Bossòst anticlinorium is indicated in the small sketch map (see also
location on Figure 2a); (b) Structural NNE-SSW cross-section of the Liat-Bentaillou area. Location of
the cross-section is indicated in the Figure 3a (modified from Garcia-Sansegundo and Alonso [56]).
Note presence of Pb-Zn mineralization at rock competence interface and close to F1 fold hinge in
Bentaillou mine.

Three main Pb-Zn districts are recognized in the Bossòst anticlinorium (Figure 2): (I) The Bentaillou-
Liat-Urets district is located in the eastern part of the anticlinorium and was the most productive
in the Bossòst anticlinorium, ~1.4 Mt at 9% of Zn and 2% of Pb metals [32,33]. (II) The Margalida-
Victoria-Solitaria district is located in the southern part of the anticlinorium, close to the Bossòst granite.
Production reached ~555,000 t with 11% Zn and 0.1% Pb [49]. (III) The Pale Bidau-Argut-Pale de Rase
district is located in the northern part of the anticlinorium. Pb-Zn production did not exceed ~7000 t of
Zn and ~3000 t of Pb [57].

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Figure 4. Field observation and structural models in the Bentaillou-Liat-Urets deposits (see location in
Figure 3a). (a) Stratigraphic log of Bentaillou areas with position of the Pb-Zn deposits; (b) F1 fold in
Bentaillou marble with S1 cleavage marked by calcite recrystallization; (c) pull-apart geometry of Pb-Zn
mineralization in Bentaillou area; (d) oriented sample of typical mineralization in Bentaillou marble;
and (e) relationship between sphalerite mineralization and host rock structure. Note that sphalerite
is not folded by F1 folds and intersect S0 stratification; (f) 3D structural model of Bentaillou deposits
with Pb-Zn mineralization in cm to pluri-m pull apart geometry; (g) stratigraphic log of Liat-Urets area
with position of the Pb-Zn deposits; (h) stratabound mineralization in top of folded schist beds in Liat
area; (i) brecciated Pb-Zn mineralization in Liat area with clast of schist and quartz in sphalerite matrix;
(j) 3D structural model of Liat deposit with dm to m stratabound and vein mineralizations; (k) vein
Pb-Zn mineralization in Liat deposit; (l) stratabound mineralization in F2 fold hinge in Urets deposit;
(m) 3D structural model of Urets deposit with pluri-dm to m Pb-Zn mineralization in F2 fold hinge.
Mineral abbreviations: Qtz-quartz; Sp-sphalerite.

Pierrefitte anticlinorium is located north of the Cauteret granite and intersected by the
Eaux-Chaudes thrust (ECT; Figure 1). It is essentially composed of Ordovician rocks in the West
and Devonian terranes in the East. Two districts are studied: (I) Pierrefitte mines is the largest district
in the PAZ which produced ~180,000 t of Zn, ~100,000 t of Pb and ~150 t of Ag [48]. (II) Arre and
Anglas mines are located west to Pierrefitte mines. Pb-Zn production did not exceed ~6500 t of Zn [48].

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3. Structural Analysis of Three Pb-Zn Districts in the Bossòst Anticlinorium

The Bossòst anticlinorium is a 30 × 20 km E-W-trending asymmetric antiform hosting a metamorphic
dome (Figure 2a). Pre-Silurian lithologies are dominated by Cambro-Ordovician schists. Locally,
other lithologies are present like the Cambro-Ordovician Bentaillou marble or the late-Ordovician
microconglomerate and limestone (Figure 2b).
Two distinct cleavages can be observed in the Bossòst anticlinorium. S1 transposes the S0
stratification and is roughly oriented N090–N120◦ E with varied dip angles both to the north and
to the south (Figure 2b,c). S0 -S1 dip angles are low in the metamorphic dome (Figure 2b) but this
pattern is not restricted to the core of the anticlinorium. In the eastern part of the anticlinorium,
foliation is generally low to moderately dipping (0–45◦ N or S, Figure 2b) and Garcia-Sansegundo and
Alonso [54] supposed the presence of large recumbent F1 folds in the Bentaillou and Horcalh-Malh de
Bolard areas. The presence of a Late Ordovician microconglomerate at the base of Bentaillou limestone
is described by Garcia-Sansegundo and Alonso [56] and confirms this hypothesis. Furthermore, the
presence of these folds is inferred by the observation of dm- to pluri-m north-verging recumbent F1
folds in Bentaillou marble in the underground levels of the mine and also by their presence in the
Devonian schists.
Close to the southern boundary of the Bossòst granite, S0 -S1 foliation in high-grade schists is
steeply dipping (Figure 2b). The S2 cleavage trends N080–120◦ E and is generally sub-vertical (Figure 2c)
as axial plane of F2 south-verging folds. S2 cleavage and related F2 folds are particularly well developed
in the southern part of the Bossòst anticlinorium (Figure 2b).
In the PAZ districts, three Pb-Zn mineralization types are commonly observed and two of these will
be described below: Stratabound mineralization is subparallel to S0 -S1 and Vein mineralization is parallel
to S2 . Disseminated mineralization is not a key mineralization type and is spread in the host rocks.

3.1. District of Bentaillou-Liat-Urets

This district is located in the southeastern part of the Bossòst anticlinorium. Three main extraction
areas are present in this district: (i) Bentaillou mine is located in the north of the district (Figure 3a).
Exploitation finished in 1953 and produced ~110,000 t of Zn and ~40,000 t of Pb. At that time, it was the
second largest mine in the Pyrenees [58], (ii) the Liat mine lays southwest of the district and (iii) Urets
is located southeast of the district (Figure 3a). Both produced ~60,000 t of Zn [49]. Mineralization
occurrences will be described in the following parts.

3.1.1. Bentaillou Area

Mineralization lays close to the hinge of a N090–110◦ E kilometer-size F1 recumbent fold (Figure 3b)
and is essentially located at the top of the Cambro-Ordovician marble, below the Late-Ordovician
schists (Figure 4a). Mineralized stratabound bodies are broadly parallel to S0 -S1 which is sub horizontal
with a progressive increase of the dip from 45◦ N to 80◦ N to the lowest underground mine levels in
the north (Figure 3b). Relicts axial planar S1 of F1 recumbent isoclinal folds are locally underlined by
recrystallized calcite in N090–100◦ E axial planes (Figure 4b).
Pb-Zn stratabound mineralizations are present in cm- to pluri-m N-S open-filling structures which
can be assimilated to pull-apart features (Figure 4c) that were formed in association with a dextral top
to the north kinematic. These mineralized bodies show typical impregnation textures (Figure 4d) and
sphalerite presents mm to cm grain sizes. Pb-Zn mineralization is absent in weakly D1 deformed areas
whereas it occurs in highly deformed domains associated to the appearance of S1 cleavage in F1 fold
hinges (Figure 4e,f).

3.1.2. Liat Area

Pb-Zn mineralization is located at the rock interface (Figure 4g) and can be hosted in Bentaillou
marble, especially on top of the marble, between the microconglomerate and Liat beds or between

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Liat beds and the Silurian black-shale. The large hm-size open F2 fold is bordered to the south by a
Silurian synclinorium (Figure 3a,b). S1 cleavage is strictly parallel to S0 in the area. D2 deformation is
well expressed in the south at the contact between Silurian black-shale and Late Ordovician schists.
Mineralized stratabound bodies with pluri-dm to m-thickness appear parallel to the shallow
dipping S0 -S1 . Folds in Liat schists are present locally at the base of the mineralization (Figure 4h).
It presents a brecciated texture (Figure 4i) with clasts of quartz and schists. Sphalerite presents cm
grain sizes. At the contact with the Silurian black-shale the dip of Late Ordovician schist increases
and a normal fault is inferred. Vertical Pb-Zn vein mineralization parallel to S2 is present in this
fault. It intersects S0 stratification, S1 cleavage as well as stratabound mineralizations (Figure 4j,k).
Vein mineralization also presents a brecciated texture and sulfide grains are oriented parallel to S2 .
Sphalerite presents an infra-mm grain size.

3.1.3. Urets Area

This Pb-Zn mineralization is hosted in Liat schist. D2 deformation is intensively present in this
area, with numerous N100–130◦ E F2 open to isoclinal folds associated to a subvertical N90–120◦ E
S2 cleavage. Stratabound pluri-dm to m Pb-Zn mineralization is mainly located in F2 fold hinges
(Figure 4l) and can locally intersect S0 stratification (Figure 4m). Pb-Zn mineralization has a brecciated
texture with mm sphalerite grains and mm to cm quartz clasts.

3.2. District of Margalida-Victoria-Solitaria

This district is located south of the Bossòst anticlinorium (Figure 2a). Three main extraction areas
are present in this district from north to the south (Figure 5a): (i) Margalida mine is located close to the
Bossòst granite next to the Bossòst fault, (ii) Victoria mine, and (iii) Solitaria mine lays south of the granite
and north and west to Arres village. Margalida and Solitaria mine produced less than 50,000 t of ore with
~10% of Zn and 1% of Pb [49]. Victoria produced ~504,000 t with 11% of Zn and 1% of Pb [49].

Figure 5. Margalida-Victoria-Solitaria district (see location on Figure 2a). (a) Structural map (lithologies
are based on IGME geological map (Spain, Aran Valley; Garcia-Sansegundo et al. [1]) and location on the
Bossòst anticlinorium (pre-Silurian rocks); (b) stratigraphic log; (c) stratabound Pb-Zn mineralization
in Margalida mine hosted in Sandwich limestone level; (d) typical stratabound folded mineralization
(F2 isoclinal folds) in Victoria; (e) structural NNE-SSW cross-section of Victoria-Solitaria area; and
(f) structural model of Margalida and Victoria-Solitaria mines. Mineral abbreviations: Cal—Calcite;
Qtz—Quartz; Sp—Sphalerite.

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3.2.1. Margalida Area

Pb-Zn mineralization is located in Late-Ordovician sandwich limestone (Figure 5a,b) which
forms the core of an anticlinal presenting a vertical N100◦ E-trending axial plane (supposed F2 fold).
Mineralization is located in the damaged zone of the Bossòst N090◦ E-trending fault. Mineralization
appears as pluri-dm lenses generally parallel to S0 -S1 . Still mineralization is not always concordant
to S0 -S1 (Figure 5c). The texture of sulfide mineralization in Margalida area is different to this in
Victoria-Solitaria area as sulfide grain size is infra-mm.

3.2.2. Victoria-Solitaria Areas

Pb-Zn mineralization is hosted by Late Ordovician schists (Figure 5a,b,d) and generally parallel to
S0 -S1 . Locally S0 -S1 is intensively folded by F2 asymmetrical isoclinal N090–N120◦ E folds and a vertical
S2 N070–110◦ E axial planar cleavage can be observed. Stratabound mineralization appears only in
domains where F2 folds imprint is intense (Figure 5e). Furthermore, in Victoria and Solitaria mines
exploitation was preferentially undertaken in F2 fold hinges. Pb-Zn mineralization is thicker in fold
hinge (dm to m in thickness) and probably reworked during this D2 deformation phase (Figure 5e,f).
Sphalerite grains are often sub-millimetric. The presence of vein mineralization cannot be completely
excluded as vertical galleries are present.

3.3. District of Pale Bidau-Argut-Pale de Rase

The general structural description of the district is given in [53]. In this section more details are
given on the structural features of the Pale Bidau area (see location on Figure 2a).
Two different Pb-Zn mineralization geometries appear: a first stratabound mineralization is
hosted only in F2 fold pelitic level and concordant to S0 -S1 , marked by cm to pluri-m box-work texture.
The second mineralization consists of veins oriented N090–120◦ E and consists of dm to m veins largely
developed when D2 deformation is important. Various dips are present for this mineralization but
is mainly subvertical. Geometry of this mineralization can be interpreted as a pull-apart (Figure 6a)
opened in a dextral top to the north movement and controlled by S2 cleavage. Where S2 cleavage is
less pronounced, mineralization is thinner and seems to present in the sub-horizontal to 45◦ N S0 -S1
cleavage (Figure 6b,c). Sphalerite crystals did not reach mm grain size.

Figure 6. Field observations and 3D structural model of Pale Bidau deposit (see location in Figure 2a).
(a) Vein Pb-Zn mineralization that occurs in pull-apart geometry; (b) 3D model presenting the relations
between stratabound and vein Pb-Zn mineralizations; and (c) vein mineralization with presence of
breccia at the base of a pull-apart mineralized structure.

4. Comparison with the Pierrefitte Anticlinorium: Pierrefitte and Arre-Anglas-Uzious Districts

The Pierrefitte anticlinorium is a 25 × 10 km NNW-SSE anticlinorium located in the western
part of the PAZ (Figures 1b and 7a). Its core is composed of Ordovician schists and Late-Ordovician
carbonated breccias. Upper stratigraphic levels are made of Silurian black-shales and Devonian rocks.

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In western parts km-scale Valentin NNW-SSE anticlinal is included in the Pierrefitte anticlinorium.
Compared to the Bossòst anticlinorium, the volume of late-Variscan granite or pegmatitic rocks
outcropping is smaller and there is no metamorphic dome in the core (Figure 7a).

Figure 7. The Pierrefitte anticlinorium. (a) Simplified structural map showing the location of (b,e);
(b) structural map zoomed on Pierrefitte mine (Lithologies are based on BRGM geological maps [59];
(c) photograph of typical stratabound Pb-Zn mineralization in Pierrefitte mine; (d) Schmidt stereographic
projections (lower hemisphere) of poles to S0 -S1 foliations measured in the Pierrefitte anticlinorium;
(e) structural map of the Pierrefitte-Valentin anticlinorium zoomed on Anglas-Uzious and Arre mines
(Lithologies are based on BRGM geological maps); (f) photograph of Arre vein mineralization parallel to S2
cleavage; (g) photograph of Anglas-Uzious vein mineralization; and (h) Schmidt stereographic projections
(lower hemisphere) of poles to S0 -S1 and S2 foliations measured in Anglas-Uzious and Arre areas.

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The Pierrefitte anticlinorium is structured by several thrusts within Silurian levels (Figure 7b,c)
associated to D1 deformation. S2 vertical N090–100◦ E cleavage is well expressed in Devonian levels at
the rim of the anticlinorium but is less visible in the Ordovician core.
Numerous Pb-Zn mines are present in Late-Ordovician and Devonian terranes. These have
produced ~3 Mt (average 9% of Zn and 5% of Pb).

4.1. Pierrefitte District

The Pierrefitte mines (Garaoulere, Couledous, Vieille-Mine) are located at the contact with Late
Ordovician rocks mainly carbonate breccia. N100–110◦ E S0 -S1 foliation moderately dips (20◦ to 60◦ ) to
the south (Figure 7d).
Stratabound mineralization lays at the top of the Late Ordovician series at the contact or within
the Silurian black-shales (Figure 7c), which follows a regional thrust parallel to S0 -S1 . The presence
of a thrust in Pierrefitte area is reported in [21,60,61] and this observation is supported in galleries
by the occurrence of dm-scale dextral shear bands with a top-to-the-north-east kinematic. The mine
galleries and the main exploited ore follow this regional thrust zone. S1 cleavage often transposed S0
stratification and corresponds to axial planes of isoclinal recumbent F1 N090–120◦ E folds.

4.2. Arre-Anglas-Uzious District

Arre and Anglas-Uzious mines are hosted by Devonian schists and Lower Devonian limestone
respectively (Figure 7e). S2 cleavage is well-expressed even in Devonian limestone in the area and
subvertical with a N090–100◦ E trend.
Arre mine is located in the western hinge of the Pierrefitte anticlinorium close to the contact of
limestone and schistose rocks. The mineralization is composed of two ore bodies showing a trend of
N040–090◦ E and a dip of 70◦ N to 90◦ N. Mineralization appears parallel to S2 cleavage and discordant
to S0 -S1 (Figure 7f) which is typical of a vein mineralization. Anglas and Uzious mines are located in
the northern part of the Pierrefitte anticlinorium. Mineralization consists in multiple pluri-centimeters
to m vein orebodies, with several orientations from N060◦ to N100◦ E and subvertical dips. Uzious
veins intersect magmatic aplite with a N050◦ E trend and have a pull-apart geometry (Figure 7g) linked
to the presence of N090–100◦ E S2 weak structures (Figure 7h). Many conjugate fractures N030–50◦ E
with various dips are filled with mineralization close to the veins but their extension is limited to
few dm.

5. Ore Petrology and Microstructures

A synthetic paragenetic sequence of the three Pb-Zn mineralization geometries investigated in
this study is presented in the Figure 8. Disseminated mineralization represents the primary layered
ore that is essentially composed of sparsely disseminated pluri-μm to mm grains of sphalerite, pyrite,
magnetite, and galena. In all the studied deposits this mineralization is minor and does not constitute
the exploited ore. Sulfides may appear in graded-beds or have a typical framboidal appearance
(Figure 9a).
Stratabound and vein mineralizations constitute the main sulfides mineralizations. Sphalerite is
the more widespread sulfide in these two mineralizations. Pyrite, galena pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, and
arsenopyrite are present in minor amounts. Metamorphic muscovite, chlorite, or biotite are intimately
associated to sulfide mineralization. In Victoria-Solitaria, metamorphic Zn-spinel or gahnite is present
in the host rocks and in breccia clasts in stratabound sulfide mineralization. The presence of gahnite
in Victoria was previously reported [62]. In the host rock gahnite is elongated parallel to S1 and is
intersected by stratabound mineralization (Figure 9b).

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Figure 8. Paragenetic succession of ore and gangue minerals for all the eleven Pyrenean-studied Pb-Zn
deposits. Minerals in grey are common to both stratabound and vein mineralizations and minerals in
black are only present in stratabound or vein. Minerals only reported in a deposit are noted with the
deposit circle. Several minerals like apatite, ilmenite, or tourmaline are only present in stratabound
mineralization. Ge-minerals, graphite zinc carbonates or oxides, and Mg-Fe-Mn carbonates are only
observed in vein mineralization (n = 110).

Stratabound Pb-Zn mineralization is a post-disseminated mineralization. SEM images show a

primary framboidal galena intersected by a secondary stratabound pull-apart mineralization in the
Bentaillou mine (Figure 9a).
In the Pierrefitte anticlinorium stratabound magnetite is abundant, especially in the Pierrefitte
mine. It has crystallized prior to sphalerite. In the Pierrefitte mine syn-cinematic sphalerite crystallizes
in asymmetric pressure shadows around a clast of magnetite (Figure 9c). Sphalerite appears parallel
to S1 cleavage and intersects S0 stratification in an isoclinal F1 fold hinge (Figure 9d). In the Bossòst
anticlinorium and especially in Liat mine, sphalerite and quartz mineralization intersect F2 folded
pelitic rocks (Figure 9e). The same quartz associated to sphalerite is present in crack and seal veins
(Figure 9e). In Margalida a typical durchbewegung texture with quartz spheroids in a sphalerite matrix
shows a deformational imprint on this mineralization.

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Figure 9. Microphotographs showing characteristics textures in the three mineralization types.

(a) Bentaillou disseminated mineralization truncated by stratabound mineralizations (reflected light);
(b) stratabound Victoria folded mineralization which intersects gahnite D1 metamorphic mineral
(reflected light); (c) syn-kinematic sphalerite which crystallizes in asymmetric pressure shadows around
clasts of magnetite in Pierrefitte mine (transmitted light); (d) sphalerite mineralization from Pierrefitte
mine parallel to S1 and in F1 isoclinal fold hinge. Mineralization intersects S0 stratification (transmitted
light); and (e) stratabound sphalerite and quartz mineralizations which intersect pelitic host rock in Liat
mine. Sphalerite is interpreted syn-kinematic D1 (transmitted light); (f) vein mineralization in Anglas
mine which intersect S0 -S1 and parallel to S2 cleavage marked by metamorphic cordierite (transmitted
light); and (g) deformed and recrystallized vein sphalerite in Arre deposit. The two textures are
identified with white line Recrystallization area in yellow marked S2 cleavage (transmitted light).
Mineral abbreviations: Cal—Calcite; Ghn—Gahnite; Gn—Galena; Mag—Magnetite; Ms—Muscovite;
Qz—Quartz; Sp—Sphalerite.

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Stratabound mineralization contain apatite, ilmenite, and tourmaline minerals that are only
observed in this mineralization. In the Pierrefitte mineralization, the abundance of chlorite and
muscovite associated to the mineralization is remarkable compared to other Pyrenean deposits.
Vein mineralization intersects S0 at the micron scale (Figure 9f). In the Anglas deposit, vein
mineralization is essentially composed of sphalerite, galena, quartz and calcite. The hanging wall
of the vein is parallel to S2 foliation and is marked by cordierite crystallization. Sphalerite in vein
mineralization appears highly deformed and recrystallized with mm relictual grains and recrystallized
μm-size crystals (like in Arre deposit, see Figure 9g). In Pale Bidau deposit, vein mineralization is
only present in domains where the S2 cleavage is well-marked. Note that Ge-minerals are exclusively
present in the vein mineralization (Figure 8).

6. Discussion

6.1. Types of Pb-Zn Mineralizations in the PAZ

The presence of three major types of Pb-Zn mineralizations is demonstrated in this study:
Disseminated but layered mineralization, which is now defined as Type 1, appears with graded-beds
and framboidal appearance (Figure 9a). Stratabound mineralization (now defined as Type 2a) is a
syn-D1 mineralization concordant to the S1 foliation. Vein mineralization (now defined as Type 2b) is a
syn- to post-D2 vein-type mineralization, parallel to the subvertical S2 foliation. Type 2a and Type 2b
are undoubtedly epigenetic and were formed as a consequence of Variscan tectonics.
The first and earlier Type 1 mineralization (Figure 10) is recognized in all the studied deposits
in the Bossòst and Pierrefitte anticlinoriums, but it is not the main exploited resources. Its formation
may be linked to the early volcanic Ordovician or Devonian events as proposed by Pouit [27] and
Reyx [63]. In Pierrefitte anticlinorium, Nicol [55] proposed a unique Devonian source for the Pb-Zn
mineralizations. Syngenetic formation is preferred for the Type 1 mineralization as sulfides appear
layered and with sedimentary affinities. Nevertheless, framboidal texture may as well form in a
post-sedimentation environment like in hydrothermal veins [64].

Figure 10. Schematic 3D sketch displaying the three main mineralization types which are typically
observed in the studied area and related to each studied deposit. Note cm to pluri-m pull apart
geometries in Bentaillou Type 2a mineralizations and in Type 2b mineralizations. Type 2b vein
mineralizations are located in intensely S2 deformed domains. Other structural traps like saddle-reef
formation in fold hinge or rock competence interfaces are represented for Victoria-Solitaria, Urets,
Pierrefitte, and Liat deposits respectively.

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The second stratabound Type 2a mineralization (Figure 10) is deposited parallel to S0 -S1 .
It corresponds to the main Pb-Zn mineralization episode in the PAZ (~95% of the total exploited
ore volume). In the Bentaillou area, Type 2a mineralization intersects S0 stratification and is hosted by
S1 cleavage (Figure 4e), which is axial planar to isoclinal F1 folds. Fert [26] and Pouit [27,28] proposed
a syngenetic model for the Bentaillou deposit and described a normal stratigraphic succession that
has been later folded by F2 folds. F1 isoclinal recumbent N090◦ E folds are absent in their model.
Here we observe that Bentaillou Pb-Zn mineralization is localized essentially close to F1 fold hinges
at the interface between marble and schist or microconglomerate (Figure 4c). The source for Type 2a
sulfides may be related to layered and supposed syngenetic Type 1 sulfides that are disseminated
in the Ordovician and Devonian neighboring metasediments, or to Late-Variscan granitic intrusions,
probably at least temporally close to the Type 2a mineralizations. Opening of top to the north
cm to pluri-m pull-apart-type structures (Figure 4c) enables the formation of the large amount of
mineralizations in Bentaillou. Pb-Zn ore is not observed at the base of Bentaillou marbles due to
important karstification (Cigalere cave, Figure 3a), however it is deposed at Bularic [65] both above and
below this marble level. In the Liat area, Pujals [29] described a syngenetic or diagenetic mineralization
with apparent limited reworking. Our model shows that Type 2a stratabound mineralization is linked
to the Variscan D1 deformation. In the Victoria-Solitaria area, Type 2a stratabound mineralization
occurs where D2 -related structures are present and can be locally remobilized in fold hinges. These
thicker mineralizations in fold hinge may be linked to the saddle-reef process [66–68] associated with
formation of the dilatation zone during folding. These deposits have been studied by Pujals [29],
Cardellach et al. [30,69], Alvarez-Perez et al. [70], and Ovejero-Zappino [49,71]. These authors argued
for a SEDEX origin based on syngenetic mineralization associated to the presence of syn-sedimentary
faults. These models differ from our hypothesis: here we report that S1 cleavage is parallel to axial
plane of recumbent km-size isoclinal folds and transposes the S0 stratification. F2 folded Type 2a
stratabound mineralization is thicker in fold hinge and intersects metamorphic minerals as gahnite.
Presence of this Zn-spinel may be linked to a primary minor sulfide mineralization (Type 1, Figure 10)
or to a D1 metamorphic fluid rich in Zn. Chemistry of gahnite was analyzed by Pujals [29] and its
composition is typical to metamorphosed zinc deposits. This testifies that Type 2a Pb-Zn mineralization
is syn- to post-M1 metamorphism. Alonso [32] demonstrated a predominant role of mechanical
remobilization associated to deformation in the Bossòst anticlinorium and, especially, F2 folds in
Horcalh and fault in Liat. Our model is similar as we consider that the Variscan D2 deformation locally
remobilized Type 2a mineralization. The Margalida deposit records an additional deformational event
compared to Victoria and Solitaria. Hosted in a ductile deformed marble and close to the Bossòst
ductile fault, the Type 2a mineralization appears largely deformed with a typical durchbewegung
texture. No sedimentary structure is recognized in the marble [70]. This attests for a Late Hercynian
and/or Pyrenean deformation associated to the fault on the mineralization. Comparison with the
Pierrefitte anticlinorium shows the same syn-D1 Type 2a mineralization associated to regional thrust
tectonics. The main exploited Pb-Zn mineralization in Pierrefitte mine was pluri-m scale levels parallel
to S0 -S1 and the regional thrust (Figure 10). Our work comforts the study of Nicol [60] which has
shown an important remobilization of the mineralization in Ordovician and Devonian metasediments
linked to D1 deformation. On the contrary, Bois et al. [24] proposed a syngenetic deposition related
to the activity of Late-Ordovician syn-sedimentary faults and volcanism that may have induced
these mineralizations. In this case, remobilization is weak and sulfides crystalize prior to Variscan
metamorphism [24]. But the presence of sphalerite parallel to S1 cleavage and in pressure shadows
around magnetite clast concordant to S1 rather attests for a syn-D1 mineralization event.
The third Type 2b vein mineralization (Figure 10) is parallel to S2 cleavage. It intersects S0 -S1 cleavage
and former Type 2a stratabound mineralization. It has been recognized in the Pale Bidau-Argut-Pale de
Rase districts [57] and Arre-Uzious-Anglas districts. It appears in a limited number of deposits in the
PAZ. Type 2b mineralization is present in pluri-dm veins with restricted extension and highly differs
structurally and mineralogically. The presence of Ge-minerals and absence of apatite, tourmaline, or

40
Minerals 2018, 8, 489

ilmenite are remarkable here. Nonetheless, possible Type 2a remobilization with external contribution
is not excluded in the Type 2b vein formation. In the Uzious mine mineralization intersects magmatic
aplite. Therefore it has probably emplaced syn- or post-Cauteret granite and is certainly late-Variscan
in age (aplite from late-Variscan Cauteret granite) as supposed by Reyx [63]. Deformation of sphalerite,
which is supposed to be syn-D2 and/or syn-D3 , and the unusual sulfide paragenesis are inconsistent
with a Mesozoic age as described in Aulus-Les Argentieres undeformed sphalerite [72]. Other Pb-Zn
deposits, like the La Gela deposit [73] or Carboire deposit, could be attached to this third type as they are
characterized by vertical Pb-Zn veins and presence of Ge-minerals. These late-Variscan Pb-Zn deposits
have been recognized in Saint-Salvy (cf. M2 mineralization) even if the main Pb-Zn mineralization event
is Mesozoic [74].

6.2. Genetic Model of PAZ Pb-Zn Deposits Formation Linked to Regional Geology
The genetic model comprises four stages (Figure 11) based on the regional tectonic event model
of Mezger and Passchier [22] and Garcia-Sansegundo and Alonso [56].

Figure 11. Genetic model for the formation of the three main Pb-Zn mineralization types. Stage 1
is the disseminated Type 1 mineralization that is supposed to be syn-sedimentary. Stage 2a is the
syn-D1 Type 2a stratabound mineralization which is followed by the formation of F2 folds and local
remobilization of Pb-Zn mineralizations (saddle reef). Stage 2b represents the Type 2b late-Variscan
vein mineralizations.

41
Minerals 2018, 8, 489

Stage 1 represents the syn-sedimentary layered mineralization (SEDEX deposit, Pb-Zn Type
1 disseminated mineralization). Primary sulfides were recognized in all pre-Silurian stratigraphic
succession in the Bossòst area (Figure 11) and in Devonian rocks in Anglas-Uzious-Arre district. In the
Pierrefitte area primary sphalerite is absent, which is probably linked to important hydrothermal
low-grade alteration and D1 overprint.
Stage 2a starts during the D1 Variscan deformation and induces Type 2a stratabound mineralization.
This mineralization occurs preferentially where a rheological contrast exists between two lithologies
(e.g., marble-schist; schist-microconglomerates) and in highly D1 deformed area (Figure 11). Stage 2a
continues with D2 Variscan deformation and the formation of N090–110◦ E F2 upright folds. Granitic
intrusions occur at that stage (Figure 11). This D2 deformation locally reworked mineralization like in
Victoria mines where the mineralization is remobilized in fold hinges. Horcalh mineralized fault [32] is
interpreted as synchronous to D2 deformation.
Stage 2b occurs during the doming phase and the late-Variscan Type 2b vein mineralizations
(Figure 11). This mineralization type preferentially occurs parallel to the vertical S2 cleavage and is
mostly observed in the Pierrefitte and Bossòst anticlinoriums. Pull-apart-type structures are observed
in Pale Bidau and Uzious mines. A late deformation D3 corresponds to faults like the Bossòst mylonitic
fault close to Margalida district.
We have shown that the Pb-Zn deposits in the PAZ were polyphased and closely linked to Variscan
tectonics. There are at least three Pb-Zn mineralization-forming events, and two of them are evidently
structurally controlled. Type 1 may be syngenetic, but little ore is present. The main exploited ores are
Type 2a and Type 2b which have emplaced under a marked structurally control, either associated to S1
and trapped in F1 fold hinge, at lithology interface or in highly D1 or D2 deformed areas.

6.3. Is Pb-Zn Deposits Emplacement Sedimentary- or Structurally-Controlled?

SEDEX deposits are sedimentary controlled and syn- to diagenetic, and sulfides in them are laminated
and included into the bedding [2]. In our study area, Pyrenean Pb-Zn mineralizations have been previously
described as SEDEX by many authors [24,28–30,75,76]. The origin of several world-class Pb-Zn deposits
is debated as well. For example, the geneses of Broken Hill-type deposit [6–12] or Jinding deposit [14–20]
are still not understood and the authors have not yet decided between syngenetic or epigenetic models.
In the Pyrenees, authors interpreted stratiform and lenses ore body shapes. The stratiform argument is
not relevant because frequently S0 stratification is parallel to the S1 axial plane of isoclinal recumbent
folds, typical of intensively deformed areas. Crystallization of sphalerite secant to isoclinal recumbent
fold hinges attests that the main mineralization is parallel to S1 and not to S0 . Structural observations
are supported by the mineralogical study. The three PAZ Pb-Zn mineralization types contain the
same constitutive minerals, like sphalerite, galena, and pyrite, but various trace minerals are present
according to the type. These mineralogical differences are key parameters to distinguish between
different Pb-Zn mineralization events in a single deposit.
In intensely deformed and metamorphosed terranes, the simple geometric link between
mineralization and stratification is not relevant enough to distinguish between sedimentary or
structural control. Structures are often parallelized due to pervasive tectonic events which makes the
structural analysis difficult. Reworking of the ore-body during deformation can have obliterated
geochemical tracers like isotopic data, especially Pb isotopes [77–79]. Consequently, a detailed
structural study from regional to micro-scale focusing on the relationships between mineralization and
cleavages is crucial. Pinpointing locations where structures like cleavage are secant (fold hinge), as
well as deciphering textural relations between metamorphic minerals and mineralization, will lead to
a better understanding of the ore-body genesis.

7. Conclusions
Three main types of Pb-Zn mineralizations have been distinguished in the Pyrenean Axial
Zone. A minor type (Type 1) is a stratiform disseminated mineralization that presents syngenetic

42
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characteristics. The two other mineralization types, previously described as SEDEX, are in reality
post-sedimentation and formed as a result of Variscan polyphased tectonics: Type 2a is a syn-D1
stratabound mineralization that is parallel to S1 foliation. Type 2b is a syn to post-D2 vein-type
mineralization that is parallel to subvertical S2 cleavage. Structural control is thus a key parameter
for the remobilization of Pb-Zn mineralizations in this area like in (D1 and D2 ) fold hinges (saddle
reef), high (D1 ) deformed zones, rock contrast interfaces, and S2 cleavages. A multiscale detailed
structural study is essential for unraveling the formation of Pb-Zn deposits, especially in deformed
and/or metamorphosed terranes.

Author Contributions: A.C. (Alexandre Cugerone) and B.C.-T. conceived the research within the framework of
the A.C. (Alexandre Cugerone)’s PhD project; A.C. (Alexandre Cugerone), E.O., A.C. (Alain Chauvet), B.C.-T.,
J.G.B., and A.L. participated in field work; A.C. (Alexandre Cugerone) acquired the samples and performed all
the analytical work under the guidance of A.C. (Alain Chauvet) and B.C.-T.; A.C. (Alexandre Cugerone) wrote the
paper with contributions from E.O., B.C.-T., E.L.G., and J.G.B.
Funding: This research was funded by the French Geological Survey (Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et
Minières; BRGM) through the national program “Référentiel Géologique de France” (RGF-Pyrénées).
Acknowledgments: The authors gratefully acknowledge Kalin Kouzmanov and Stefano Salvi for their involvement in
the project. We thank the ARSHAL association for Bentaillou mine access and Jean-Marc Poudevigne, Louis de Pazzis,
and Bernard Lafage for their precious knowledge of the Pyrenean Pb-Zn mines. We acknowledge Christophe Nevado
and Doriane Delmas for thin section preparation. The authors are thankful for the editorial handling of Jax Jiang and for
the constructive comments of the three anonymous reviewers.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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69. Cardellach, E.; Alvarez-Perez, A. Interpretación genética de las mineralizaciones de Pb-Zn del Ordovícico
Sup. de la Vall de Aran. Acta Geol. Hisp. 1979, 14, 117–120. (In Spanish)
70. Alvarez-Perez, A.; Campa-Vineta, J.A.; Montoriol-Pous, J. Mineralogénesis de los yacimientos del área de
Bossost (Vall d’Aran, Lérida). Acta Geol. Hisp. 1977, 4–6, 123–126. (In Spanish)
71. Ovejero Zappino, G. Mineralizaciones Zn-Pb del Ordovicico Superior del Valle de Aran (Anticlinorio de
Bossost). Pireneo de Lerida (Espana). Bol. Soc. Esp. Mineral. 1987, 10, 35–37.
72. Munoz, M.; Baron, S.; Boucher, A.; Béziat, D.; Salvi, S. Mesozoic vein-type Pb-Zn mineralization in the
Pyrenees: Lead isotopic and fluid inclusion evidence from the Les Argentières and Lacore deposits.
C. R. Geosci. 2015, 348, 322–332. [CrossRef]
73. Militon, C. Métallogénie polyphasée à Zn, Pb, Ba, F et Mg, Fe de ma région de Gèdre-Gavarnie-Barroude
(Hautes-Pyrénées). Ph.D. Thesis, University d’Orléans, Orléans, France, 1987. (In French)
74. Munoz, M.; Boyce, A.J.; Courjault-Rade, P.; Fallick, A.E.; Tollon, F. Multi-stage fluid incursion in the
Palaeozoic basement-hosted Saint-Salvy ore deposit (NW Montagne Noire, southern France). Appl. Geochem.
1994, 9, 609–626. [CrossRef]
75. Pouit, G. Les minéralisations Zn-Pb dans l’Ordovicien des Pyrénées centrales-Etude préliminaire.
Rapp. BRGM 1974, 74, 50. (In French)
76. Pouit, G.; Bois, J.P. Arrens Zn (Pb), Ba Devonian deposit, Pyrénées, France: An exhalative-sedimentary-type
deposit similar to Meggen. Miner. Depos. 1986, 21, 181–189. [CrossRef]
77. Wagner, T.; Schneider, J. Lead isotope systematics of vein-type antimony mineralization, Rheinisches
Schiefergebirge, Germany: A case history of complex reaction and remobilization processes. Miner. Depos.
2002, 37, 185–197. [CrossRef]
78. Marcoux, E.; Moelo, Y. Lead isotope geochemistry and paragenetic study of inheritance phenomena in
metallogenesis: Examples from base metal sulfide deposits in France. Econ. Geol. 1991, 86, 106–120. [CrossRef]
79. Kamona, A.F.; Lévêque, J.; Friedrich, G.; Haack, U. Lead isotopes of the carbonate-hosted Kabwe, Tsumeb,
and Kipushi Pb-Zn-Cu sulphide deposits in relation to Pan African orogenesis in the Damaran-Lufilian Fold
Belt of Central Africa. Miner. Depos. 1999, 34, 273–283. [CrossRef]

© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Article
Structural Controls of Ore Mineralization in a
Polydeformed Basement: Field Examples from the
Variscan Baccu Locci Shear Zone (SE Sardinia, Italy)
Antonio Funedda 1, * , Stefano Naitza 1 , Cristina Buttau 1 , Fabrizio Cocco 1 and
Andrea Dini 2
1 Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche e Geologiche, Università degli Studi di Cagliari,
Cittadella Universitaria (Blocco A), S.S. 554 bivio per Sestu, 09042 Monserrato (CA), Italy;
[email protected] (S.N.); [email protected] (C.B.); [email protected] (F.C.)
2 Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR)-Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse, 56100 Pisa, Italy;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 2 July 2018; Accepted: 11 October 2018; Published: 16 October 2018

Abstract: The Baccu Locci mine area is located in a sector of the Variscan Nappe zone of Sardinia
(the Baccu Locci shear zone) that hosts several type of ore deposits mined until the first half of the
last century. The orebodies consist of lenses of Zn–Cu sulphides, once interpreted as stratabound,
and Qtz–As–Pb sulphide ± gold veins; the implication of structural controls in their origin were
previously misinterpreted or not considered. Detailed field mapping, structural analyses, and ore
mineralogy allowed for unraveling how different ore parageneses are superimposed each other and
to recognize different relationships with the Variscan structures. The sulphide lenses are parallel
to the mylonitic foliation, hosted in the hinges of minor order upright antiforms that acted as traps
for hydrothermal fluids. The Qtz–As–Pb sulphide veins crosscut the sulphide lenses and are hosted
in large dilatational jogs developed in the hanging wall of dextral-reverse faults, whose geometry
is influenced by the attitude of reverse limbs of late Variscan folds. The ores in the Baccu Locci
shear zone are best interpreted as Variscan orogenic gold-type; veins display mutual crosscutting
relationships with mafic dikes dated in the same district at 302 ± 0.2 Ma, a reliable age for the
mineralizing events in the area.

Keywords: sulphide lenses; hinge trap; dilational jogs; orogenic gold; mafic dikes; mineralization
chronology; arsenopyrite; late Variscan strike-slip faults

1. Introduction
Structural controls of ore deposits hosted in poly-deformed low-grade metamorphic basements
are often not easy to recognize, even more so when there are multiple generations of mineralization,
mostly because the relationships between structures and ore bodies are often not clear. The correct
understanding of the structural controls is, in fact, relevant for defining the characteristics of the
deposit, its emplacement style, its age, and therefore, its origin. In some cases, the difficulties in
unravelling the tectonic structures prevent the understanding of the ore bodies’ geometry, leading
to mistakes in mineral exploration, evaluation of ore deposits, mine planning, and even mineral
exploitation. Recognizing whether the structural controls on ore deposits are “passive”, and therefore
attributable to tectonic structures developed before mineralization, or, conversely, “active,” i.e., related
to tectonic structures progressively evolving with mineralization, can provide valuable indications
in this sense. Indeed, passive structural controls imply that there are no direct correlations between
tectonic and mineralizing events; the physical parameters that characterized the deformational

Minerals 2018, 8, 456; doi:10.3390/min8100456 47 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 456

events, e.g., thermo-baric conditions, presence of fluids, state of stress, etc., were independent from
mineralization processes and they had no influence on ore formation. Conversely, in the case of active
controls, these features were critical for mineralization and shaped both the deformational context and
the genesis of the ores.
In the nappe zone of the Variscan basement of SE Sardinia, several Sb–W, As-Au, and As–Pb–(Cu,
Zn, Ag, Au) ore deposits are located along a lower green-schist facies mylonitic belt, folded by a
plurikilometric antiform (the Flumendosa Antiform) during the Variscan collisional phases and then
affected by extensional tectonics. During the postcollisional extension, early phases were characterized
by ductile-type structures that, with progressive exhumation of deeper tectonic units, further evolved
in brittle–ductile to brittle regimes [1], supporting large-scale hydrothermal fluid circulation in the crust.
In this frame, mineralization processes and ore deposition were structurally controlled, both passively
and actively, at all scales.
In this work, we present a case study of the mineralized systems occurring in the Baccu Locci
mine area, located in the core of the Flumendosa Antiform. In this area, several stacked tectonic
units are separated by thick mylonitic zones and folded together [2]. Exhumation of the antiformal
core is evidenced by the superposition of brittle–ductile and brittle structures over ductile ones;
accordingly, different kinds of structurally controlled mineral deposits exposed in the area allow a
distinction between passive and active emplacement styles, also leading to a relative chronology of
tectonic and mineralizing events. Recent studies in the Baccu Locci mine area [1,3–5] highlighted
that: (1) ore formation was structurally controlled and related to the tectonic evolution, during late
Variscan extensional phases, of the Baccu Locci regional shear zone, and (2) the relationships between
different ores materialize a superposition of tectonic events, further complicated by mafic magmatism
and diking. Apart from this general picture, however, several unsolved issues still persist: (1) type
and timing of different mineralization, (2) their relationships with tectonic structures and structural
controls, (3) ore mineral associations and mafic dikes, and (4) relationships with regional and local
stress fields.
In this paper, we intend to contribute to the first two issues and provide some new data for the
third one.

2. Geological and Ore Deposits Outline of Baccu Locci Mine District

2.1. Regional Geology

The section of Variscan chain exposed in Sardinia consists of three tectono-metamorphic
zones: (1) an inner zone in the north, with medium- to high-grade regional metamorphism,
thrust on (2) a nappe zone in central-south, with low-grade regional metamorphism, in turn thrust
on (3) a foreland zone in the southwest, non-metamorphosed or with very low-grade regional
metamorphism (Figure 1a,b). The emplacement of the tectonic units is generally from the top to
the south, with some exceptions [6]. At the map scale, in the nappe zone a distinction can be made
between external nappes in the south, displaying a well recognizable lithostratigraphic succession,
and internal nappes in the central-north, where it is not easy to recognize the litho-stratigraphic
succession. The study area is part of the external nappe zone (Figure 2) and it consists of three tectonic
units (from the bottom: Riu Gruppa, Gerrei, and Meana Sardo units) stacked one above the other
during the Variscan shortening phases and then affected by late orogenic extension (Figure 3).

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Figure 1. (a) Geological sketch map of the Variscan basement of Sardinia. (b) Tectonic sketch of the SE
Sardinia Variscan basement. (c) Geological cross-section of the Gerrei-Sarrabus region in SE Sardinia;
modified after [7], reprinted with permission.

Figure 2. Tectonic sketch map and mineral deposits of the Gerrei district.

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Minerals 2018, 8, 456

Figure 3. Structural schematic map of the Baccu Locci shear zone and geological cross-section, after [2].
In the geological cross-section, red circles point out D2 folds that are schematically represented in
Figure 15.

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2.1.1. Stratigraphic Outline

The tectonic units share a similar lithostratigraphic outline (with some differences, especially
in the Middle Ordovician volcanic sequences), which consists of four middle Cambrian to lower
Carboniferous successions, separated by three large regional unconformities [8]. They are:
• a mainly siliciclastic succession, with rare interlayered volcanic rocks, of middle Cambrian to
Early Ordovician age (Arenarie di San Vito Fm.);
• a Middle Ordovician volcano-sedimentary succession with tuffites, metavolcanoclastites,
and interlayered epiclastites, andesitic in the lower part (M. S. Vittoria Fm.) and rhyolithic
in the upper part (“Porfiroidi” Auct. Fm.); the basal contact of this succession is marked by some
discontinuous conglomerates (Metaconglomerato di Muravera Fm.);
• a siliciclastic to carbonatic succession of Late Ordovician to early Carboniferous age, with lithic
sandstones and arkosic arenites (Metarcose di Genna Mesa Fm., Late Ordovician), siltstones and
marls (Scisti di Rio Canoni Fm., Late Ordovician.), black shales and limestones (“Scisti neri a
graptoliti” Auct. Fm., Silurian to Early Devonian; “Calcari di Villasalto” Auct. Fm., Early Devonian
to early Carboniferous);
• a lower Carboniferous siliciclastic sequence with conglomerates, sandstones, and olistoliths of the
older formations that unconformable rests on the Devonian formations, which does not crop out
in the study area (Pala Manna Fm., early Carboniferous); it is the youngest formation involved by
the Variscan orogeny in Sardinia.
The metamorphic basement of SE Sardinia is then intruded by an upper Palaeozoic (upper
Carboniferous to lower Permian) intrusive complex. Lower Permian leucogranitic rocks outcrop
close to the study area in the Quirra sector [9]; they belong to a calc-alkaline, ferroan, F-bearing,
ilmenite-series intrusion, part of a magmatic suite dated at 286 ± 2 Ma [10]. The entire period of
granitoid magmatism is associated with calc-alkaline volcanism [11] and with widespread mafic and
felsic diking [12]. Early diking phases are represented by swarms of calc-alkaline (spessartitic) mafic
dikes; one of them, crosscutting the same tectonic unit in a nearby area, is dated at 302 Ma [13].
The early Eocene Monte Cardiga Fm., made up of conglomerates, sandstones, and marls that
are deposited in littoral environments lies unconformably on the metamorphic basement and the
intrusive complex. In the surrounding areas, the oldest deposits that unconformably cover the Variscan
basement are Middle Pennsylvanian continental deposits [14].

2.1.2. Structural Outline

The oldest tectonic features that are recognizable in the Baccu Locci mine district involve the
lower Carboniferous rocks and are related to the Variscan orogeny. Indeed, there is no evidence of
the pre-Middle Ordovician tectonic structures recognized in adjacent areas [7], as they were probably
obliterated by Variscan deformation. The overlap of several early to late Carboniferous deformation
events is evidence that a D1 collisional phase with crustal thickening and subhorizontal shortening
occurred under ductile conditions and a D2 postcollisional extension with the reactivation of some of
D1 structures occurred in the ductile–brittle transition (Figure 4) [6,8,15]. The D1 phase is characterized
by a general SSW-directed nappe emplacement, regional folding and thrusting, and syntectonic
regional lower green-schist facies metamorphism. An exception is represented by the Sarrabus unit,
the shallowest nappe of the stack, which crops out south of the study area and it is emplaced from the
top to the west [16]. The D1 early shortening structures are large kilometer-scale recumbent isoclinal
folds facing southward, with well-developed penetrative axial plane foliation—generally a slaty
cleavage produced in lower green-schist facies metamorphism—followed by almost contemporary
south-southwest thrusts that produced thick mylonitic belts. Development of such shear zones between
the different tectonic units, thick up to several hundred meters, is common in the Variscan basement of
Sardinia [17–24]. Among them, the Baccu Locci shear zone is one of the most noteworthy [3]. It can
be followed in the field for more than 30 km; the study area is located on its eastern side. The Baccu

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Locci shear zone is characterized by widespread and penetrative mylonitic foliation with a mineral
assemblage typical of lower green-schist facies metamorphism that is parallel to the large thrust and
generally cuts at a low angle the early D1 axial plane foliation [3]. The deformation is highly partitioned;
in the core of the shear zone, it is not possible to recognize the mylonite protolith, although several slices
of less deformed rocks have been recognized and mapped [2,3,19]. (Note that, following the choice
by [2,3], in Figures 3 and 5 we distinguished the mylonite whose protolith is not recognizable from the
mylonite whose protolith is still recognizable). At a later stage during the collisional phase, a late-D1
(LD1) N-S shortening event led to development at a regional scale of large, weakly east-plunging
upright folds, with axes up to 50 km long that refolded both isoclinal folds and ductile shear zones.
Of these late folds, the main fold is the Flumendosa Antiform [1] (Figures 1 and 2), which runs roughly
from WNW to ESE for more than 50 km, folding the D1 nappe stack. In detail, the Flumendosa
Antiform consists of some minor order antiforms and synforms with km-size wavelength. One such
northern minor order folds crops out in the study area. The LD1 axis is generally east-plunging,
and at the hinge zone, a subvertical spaced crenulation cleavage discontinuously developed. Then,
the LD1 folds were in turn deformed during the D2 postcollisional extensional phase. The limbs of
the LD1 antiforms are deformed by several asymmetric recumbent folds with subhorizontal axial
planes and axes parallel to the LD1 limb attitude [1] (Figure 4). The D2 folds are overturned away
from the antiformal hinge zone [1]. They are often associated with low-angle normal shear zones that
allowed for the exhumation of deeper units and enhanced the antiformal structure. They have opposite
structural-facing direction in the fold flanks: north-facing in the northern limb and south-facing in
the southern limb. Their major order wavelength exposed in the field is about 30 to 40 m. Folds with
“outer” structural facing and low-angle normal faults are interpreted as produced by vertical shortening
of steeply inclined bedding and earlier foliations. During exhumation, rocks were progressively carried
to shallower structural levels, where brittle behavior became prevalent. Thus, the deformation style
changed, and the final stage of postcollisional extension was accommodated by high-angle normal
faults [6]. A D3 folding event, with vertical axial planes and axis trend changing from N-S to N 40◦ ,
is also recognized, but it is still not clear whether it could be related to a final stage of postcollisional
extension or to the following D4 strike slip faulting [8]. Finally, D4 strike-slip faults affected the
exhumed basement but did not involve the Permian to Eocene successions that crop out in the study
area. At the Variscan Realm scale, a late strike-slip tectonics is from far recognized. Moreover, is clearly
observable in the field that the lower Permian granitoids postdate the D1, D2, and D3 structures,
whereas there is less evidence about their relationship with strike-slip tectonics. As we will describe
below, LD1 and D2 folds, as well as late faults, played a significant role in controlling the geometry
of orebodies.

Figure 4. Schematic relationships between D1, LD1, and D2 structure. Note the development of
recumbent D2 folds in the limb of upright LD1 antiform (modified after [1]). The red dashed box
indicates the location of the scheme in Figure 15.

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Figure 5. Mineralized outcrops in the Baccu Locci mine area, after [2].

2.2. The Gerrei-Sarrabus Metallogenic District

The Gerrei-Sarrabus region has been historically the second most important mining area in
Sardinia and the most important antimony district in Italy (Villasalto–Ballao district). Several reviews
of the district’s mineral deposits have been done in the past [25–27], including a recent attempt to
interpret some of the main mineral associations in the Variscan metallogenic epoch of Sardinia [28].
The main mineral deposits of the region include the following (Figure 2):

(a) Zn–Cu–Pb sulphide lenses, disseminations, and ores;

(b) Sb–W, As–Au, and As–Pb–(Cu, Zn, Ag, Au) mesothermal systems with quartz–sulphide veins,
stockwork, and disseminated ores;

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(c) Mo–W–F greisen and vein-type ores;

(d) F–Ba ± Pb–Ag–Cu–Zn vein systems.

Ores of (a) and (b)-types are hosted in the Palaeozoic metamorphic basement, and mostly occur
in the northern part of the district (Gerrei); (c) type ores are hosted in and/or related to the suite
of F-bearing Permian granites of San Vito and Quirra intrusions [9,29]; and, (d) type ores occur
prevalently in the southern part of the district (Sarrabus), are broadly typified by the “Sarrabus Silver
Lode” [30] and Silius [31] deposits, and they are possibly related to another suite of F-rich Permian
granites (Sette Fratelli and Monte Genis intrusions [9]). Although still very lacking and non-systematic,
some isotope and fluid inclusion data on different Gerrei-Sarrabus ore deposits are available from
several recent studies [10,25,30–32].
Only (a) and (b) type ores are present in the study area, and thus will be considered in detail in
this work. Both types are structurally controlled and are located at different structural levels.

3. Materials and Methods

To reconstruct the orebodies and their relationships with the tectonic structures, detailed field
work was performed, mapping at 1:5000 and 1:10,000 scale both mineral deposits and tectonic features
(foliations, folds, faults, kinematic indicators). The surface data have been integrated with the
subsurface data, in rare cases directly sampled in the mine when still accessible, but generally taken
from 1:500 scale exploitation maps related to the last period of mining activities in 1961. The grade
of detail reported in those maps allows us, in some cases, to recognize not only the mine works,
but also the geometries of the ores. Importing and processing these data in the three-dimensional (3D)
workspace of Rhinoceros© and Move (©Midland Valley, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK), allow minimization
of the unbalanced area and validation of the geological-structural map (see description in [2]).
The kinematic analysis of fault slip data was performed using FaultKin 5.2 by Allmendinger [33].
The slip direction and the sense of slip were inferred from several types of kinematic
indicators—slickenlines, tension gashes, drag folds, and S-C structures—all collected along the D4
transpressive faults and related orebodies. They all indicate similar kinematics, suggesting that the
paleostress remained the same during vein formation. The occurrence of different types of kinematics
indicators during the same tectonic event (i.e., D4 faulting), sometimes exactly along the same fault,
can depend on the mechanic behavior of the involved rocks. In general, when the damage zone is
large enough and there is a relevant grain-size reduction in cataclased rocks, S-C-like fabric easily
developed, although physical condition and deformation mechanisms are those typical of shallow
structural levels [34,35]. The orientation of the principal strain axes that was achieved from fault slip
data analysis gives an idea about the paleostress field accounting for the fault kinematics.
In this study, ore mineralogy and microtextural studies were performed on polished sections by
optical microscopy in reflected light. Several transmitted light studies on thin sections of ores and their
host rocks have been performed in past works [3,5,7,19].

4. Results

4.1. Structures and Mineralization in the Baccu Locci Mine Area

The mineralized deposits of the Baccu Locci mine area (NE Gerrei, Figures 2 and 5) occur in a key
area for studying the structural and metallogenic evolution of the region. In Baccu Locci, the ores are
exposed at different structural levels along the hinge zone of the Flumendosa Antiform, hosted by the
strongly mylonitized siliciclastic metasediments and felsic metavolcanics of the Gerrei tectonic unit [3].
Both Zn–Cu–Pb sulphide lenses (type a mineralization) and Qtz–As–Pb sulphide hydrothermal vein
deposits (type b mineralization) are represented in the area, where it is also possible to recognize spatial
relationships of ore deposits with coeval mafic dikes [4].

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4.1.1. The Zn–Cu–Pb Sulphide Lenses (Type a Mineralization)

Zn–Cu–Pb sulphide lenses occur in the Su Spilloncargiu mine sector (Figure 5), hosted in phyllitic
quartz–mylonite rocks (Figure 6a–e), whose protolith was made mainly by siliciclastic sediments,
with a high occurrence of recrystallized quartz and muscovite, metamorphosed in lower green-schist
facies during the Variscan Orogeny. Due to supergene alteration (Figure 7b), the Spilloncargiu primary
ore is not well exposed on the surface; access to underground works is not easy, but some samples can
be found in the dumps of the lowermost mineworks.

Ore Mineralogy and Textures

At the outcrop scale, the mineralization shows a laminated texture, with the sulphides being
disposed along the mylonitic foliation. At the microscopic scale, it is possible to recognize that the
deposition of ore minerals is polyphasic. The first event is characterized by dark ferroan sphalerite
with abundant and finely dispersed chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite inclusions (chalcopyrite disease [36]).
This early sphalerite is the prevailing sulphide in the ore (Figure 7a) and it displays an evident
cataclastic texture. Voids and fractures in cataclased sphalerite aggregates are filled by abundant
galena, chalcopyrite, and pyrite, while arsenopyrite and tetrahedrite-group minerals are usually
subordinate (Figure 7b). Galena crystals show only slight evidence of deformation and have not
suffered the cataclastic deformation that involved the sphalerite. Gangue minerals are subordinate to
sulphides and consist of two recognized generations of gray quartz: early quartz, macrocrystalline,
and cataclased, is related to the sphalerite stage of mineralization; late quartz is microcrystalline,
fills the microfractures, and is associated with galena and other sulphides (Figure 7c). Wall rock
hydrothermal alteration is difficult to recognize, due to late superposed supergene phenomena, but it
certainly included silicification and pervasive dispersion of carbonaceous matter, possibly precipitated
during mineralization, which gave the sulphide-bearing mylonite a distinctive black color. No free
gold was ever identified in this ore, whose Au geochemical contents are very low [2,26,37].

Structures
The old mine exploited several lenticular sulphide orebodies that were located in the hinge zone of
a km-size open, upright antiform (a minor order structure of the largest Flumendosa Antiform) related
to the LD1 collisional phase (see cross-section in Figure 3 and the scheme in Figure 4). The antiform
axis weakly plunges toward N120 (Figures 3 and 8); the structure deformed the foliated isoclinal
folds related to the early stage of shortening (D1 Variscan phase) and the mylonitic shear zone that
separates the Riu Gruppa and Gerrei tectonic units. The exploited sulphide lens-shaped orebodies
developed parallel to the D1 mylonitic foliation, which in this area is at a low angle with the D1
axial plane foliation (Figure 9). There is no evidence of the primary bedding, completely transposed
during the D1 tectonic phase. The lenses attain a maximum thickness of 6–7 m for maximum extension
in a strike of 80–100 m. Although located in the hinge zone of an antiform, they cannot simply be
classified as typical saddle reefs, as they do not display the classical triangular shape related to hinge
collapse. The main dip of the mineralized lenses is up to 20◦ toward N 140◦ , so more or less in the axis
plunge direction. The shape of the orebodies is well detectable by studying the old room-and-pillar
mineworks, still being partially accessible.
In detail, it is possible to recognize crosscut relationships between different events of
mineralization. The large lens-shaped orebodies are mainly characterized by abundant Zn–Cu
sulphides forming veinlets 1 to 10 cm in size hosted in the mylonite (Figure 6a), being generally
parallel to the mylonitic foliation of the hinge zone (Figure 9). Galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and other
sulphides are arranged in cm-sized veinlets that involve the hosting rocks for about 1 m of thickness;
they cut at low angle the Zn–Cu lenses (Figure 6e), thus postdating them. In the field, these veins
became progressively steeper and more arsenopyrite-rich (Figure 7c).

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Figure 6. Outcrop pictures of the Baccu Locci mineral deposits: (a) Su Spilloncargiu mineworks:
Zn–Cu–Pb sulphide lens ore (type a mineralization). The thin sulphide “beds” (dashed line) are parallel to
the Variscan mylonitic foliation (solid line). (b) Baccu Trebini outcrop (type b mineralization): Qtz–As–Pb
sulphide sheeted veins along a SW-dipping brittle shear zone. (c) Along Rio Baccu Locci, close to San
Riccardo mineworks (type b mineralization): Qtz–As–Pb dm-size vein with subhorizontal slickenlines.
(d) Baccu Trebini outcrop (type b mineralization): Fault breccia with Qtz–As–Pb sulphides wrapping
wall rock clasts along SW-dipping fault. (e) Su Spilloncargiu mineworks (type a mineralization): in a
pillar of the exploited mine a type b Qtz–As–Pb sulphide vein (white dotted line) crosscuts a sulphide
lens that is parallel to Variscan foliation (white lines).

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Figure 7. Microtextural features of ores in the study area (polished sections, reflected light):
(a) Su Spilloncargiu mineworks, early mixed sulphide ore (type a mineralization): Brecciated
quartz–sphalerite layer infilled by late galena; the mineralized layer follows the Sm foliation and
exhibits sharp contact with a phyllosilicate layer in the mylonitic matrix; high-Fe sphalerite shows
a distinct chalcopyrite disease with large chalcopyrite and pyrrhotite exsolutions. (b) Su Spilloncargiu
mineworks, early mixed sulphide ore (type a mineralization cementation zone): Brecciation of
sphalerite, infilled by primary galena, is particularly highlighted by cementing fine veinlets of
secondary galena. (c) Su Spilloncargiu mineworks, quartz–arsenopyrite veins (type b mineralization
crosscutting type a mineralization): Arsenopyrite aggregates enveloping early sphalerite aggregates
(with some galena) from mixed sulphide ore. (d) Su Spilloncargiu mineworks, quartz–arsenopyrite
veins (type b mineralization): Typical brecciated arsenopyrite texture, with large aggregates of
fractured sub-idiomorphic crystals. (e) San Riccardo mineworks (type b mineralization): large galena
(chalcopyrite) enveloping arsenopyrite crystals. (f) San Riccardo mineworks (type b mineralization):
Detail of the late ore, with abundant fractured galena infilled by late chalcopyrite and inclusion poor
sphalerite; sphalerite only displays very fine chalcopyrite exsolutions along crystallographic planes.
Qtz, quartz, gl, galena, sp, sphalerite, asp, arsenopyrite.

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Figure 8. Stereographic projection (equal area, lower hemisphere) of D1 tectonic foliation (black dot),
LD1 axial surface (dashed line), and calculated axis (red circle), attitude of sulphide orebodies (red dot).

Figure 9. Schematic relationships between lens-shaped sulphide orebodies, D1 fold axial plane foliation,
and D1 mylonitic foliation in the hinge zone of LD1 antiform at Spilloncargiu mine works (not to scale).

4.1.2. Qtz–As–Pb Sulphide Vein Systems (Type b Mineralization)

Swarms of quartz–As–Pb (Zn, Cu, Ag, Au) sulphide hydrothermal veins occur frequently in the
Baccu Locci mine area and in several nearby localities along the highly mineralized Baccu Locci shear
zone. The best exposition occurs in the San Riccardo/Su Spinosu mine (Figure 5), where the veins
reach the maximum mapped thickness.

Ore Mineralogy and Textures

Textural and mineralogical observations of the Qtz–As–Pb sulphide vein ores are the basis for a
general paragenetic sequence that includes: (1) a pre-ore stage, with large precipitation of coarse-grained
white quartz and rare scheelite [37]; (2) an As–Fe sulphide stage, following the diffuse cataclasis
of white quartz, with abundant arsenopyrite (I) and pyrite in quartz macro- and microfractures,
after an initial arsenopyrite–pyrite dissemination in the wall rock; (3) a sulphide/sulfosalts stage, after
new cataclasis (Figure 7), with infilling of gray microcrystalline quartz, Pb–Zn–Cu–Ag sulphides
(galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, argentite), euhedral arsenopyrite (II), phyrrothite, Cu–Ag–Sb–As
sulfosalts (tetrahedrite–freibergite, bournonite, stephanite), rare stibnite, and gold/electrum [37,38];

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and, (4) a late stage, with cryptocrystalline quartz and pyrite. In the sulphide/sulfosalts stage, textural
evidence indicates an initial deposition of galena, which is the most abundant mineral (Figure 7);
sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and other sulphides followed. Fine disseminations of euhedral (sometimes
needle-shaped) arsenopyrite (II) in cataclased wall rocks are probably related to this stage. Sphalerite
in type b ores is distinctly different from that in type a sulphide lenses, being much less abundant,
less deformed, less dark (it shows more evident internal reflections), and much less affected by
chalcopyrite disease. Wall rock alteration occurred from the earliest stages, but it is substantially limited
to narrow zones close to the veins, commonly marked by intense sericitization, sulphidation (fine
pyrite dispersion), and silicification; in many outcrops, the footwall of the veins is strongly cataclastic
and displays a characteristic black color (black cataclasite), further indication of diffuse precipitation
of carbonaceous matter during some of the mineralizing phases. A system of E-W quartz–feldspar
cm-thick veinlets has been locally observed; it distinctly crosscuts the quartz–sulphide veins and
may be related to a different (and very late) phase of fluid circulation in the area. Gold grades in
sulphide veins are 1–12 g/t [27,38], with good persistence in the whole mineralized vein system;
silver grades are 1000–1200 g/t [27]. The Au/Ag ratio in gold grains is <1, in opposition to regional
trends [37]. According to Bakos et al. [37], 10 μm sized gold grains are particularly associated with
chalcopyrite and galena/bournonite myrmekitic intergrowths that infill microfractures in cataclased
arsenopyrite aggregates.

Structures
Qtz–As–Pb sulphide veins are generally hosted in narrow brittle shear zones, usually not thicker
than 10 m, of high-angle faults dipping about 70◦ toward N 230◦ , confirming the structural trend
recognizable at the scale of the entire district for type b mineralization [26,27]. The faults generally
involve both the quartz mylonite, whose protolith is not possible to ascribe to one of the mapped
formations, and the Ordovician rhyolitic volcanites with augen-textures (“Porfiroidi” Fm.) that
constitute some hectometer-sized tectonic slices inside the shear zone (Figure 3).
The faults clearly cut all the ductile D1, LD1, D2, and D3 structures (shear zone, folds, and
foliations) and are sealed by the lower Eocene sediments. From the structural map (Figure 3), it is
evident that the mineralized faults are parallel to the LD1 antiform axis and are mainly located in
the hinge zone. We can interpret this occurrence considering two likely types of reactivation of
previous structures, both occurring at a shallower structural level than the LD1 phase. They could
be hinge-parallel fractures developed in the fold outer arc, parallel to the bc plane according the
fold-related joints classification by Hancock [39]; or, more probably, the faults reactivated the
noncontinuous, spaced crenulation cleavage that discontinuously developed just in the hinge zone of
LD1 antiforms.
The mineralized bodies are lenticular, elongated to laminated veins that are typical of a fault-fill
vein system. They can vary from isolated veinlets no more than 1 cm thick to sheeted veinlets and
laminated veins in which the hydrothermal mineral component prevails over the host rock component
(Figure 6b). Along the fault zones hosting the veins, several kinematic indicators are found, frequently
at the contact between veins and wall rocks. In some damage zones there are fault breccia with wall
rock clasts wrapped by dominant hydrothermal quartz (Figure 6d); furthermore, some shear zone is
characterized by a foliated black cataclasite showing S-C type fabric. Slickensides and striated surfaces
occur also on the contact between the fault-fill veins (Figure 6c). Slickenlines, tension gashes and
S-C type complex foliations collected along the SW-dipping faults hosting the main quartz–sulphide
veins all indicate a dextral strike-slip kinematic with a small reverse component (a tectonic transport
direction from the top to the NW, some data are plotted in Figure 10b). A kinematic analysis was
performed also considering faults hosting Qtz–As–Pb sulphide veins but with a different orientation
allow for us to reconstruct a strain ellipsoid with a subvertical intermediate axis (λ2 , and subhorizontal
shortest (λ3 ) and longest (λ1 ) axes, respectively, oriented roughly N-S and E-W (Figure 10). Although
parallelism between strain and stress ellipsoid cannot be demonstrated and we did not perform a

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paleostress inversion, the kinematics suggests a paleostress field with a subhorizontal σ1 in agreement
with strike-slip tectonics.

Figure 10. (a) Stereographic projection (equal area, lower hemisphere) of poles to Qtz–As–sulphide
main orebodies in the Baccu Locci zone; (b) Kinematic analysis of the SW dipping faults hosting quartz
Qtz–As–sulphide veins. λ1 , λ2 , and λ3 are the directions of maximum, intermediate, and minimum
strain ellipsoid axes, respectively.

Typical economic orebodies exploited in the past mine were sulphide-rich ore shoots up to 8–9 m
thick, extending along the SW-dipping faults 100–300 m along strike, and over 100 m down dip.
By using the available detailed maps of mineworks, it is possible to construct a 3D model of these
orebodies, particularly for the San Riccardo/Su Spinosu mine (Figure 11b). Along the stretched
mineralized zones, the orebody thickness increases where the fault surface is less inclined, almost
subhorizontal, and decreases where the fault is steeper, generally becoming no thicker than 2 m. At the
underground level 214.68 in the San Riccardo mineworks, which is unfortunately hardly accessible
today, this geometry has been observed exactly along section C-C’ in Figure 11a, where the fault plane
and the sulphide veins are subhorizontal (Figure 12). Although no longer accessible, from the 3D
model and from the old mine reports, the room-and-pillar exploitation between levels 201.68 and
179.68 can be considered as a less inclined sector of the fault, marked by an increase in thickness of the
orebody (section A-A’ in Figure 11a). From these observations, the more relevant economic orebodies
of type b mineralization may be associated with very large dilational jogs developed on the hanging
wall of the transpressive faults (Figure 11a), where the occurrence of less inclined segments connecting
the subvertical ones (Figure 11c) produced room for the emplacement of the orebodies during the
fault activity.

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Figure 11. The Baccu Locci/San Riccardo mine, type b mineralization (numbers are elevation above
sea level, a.s.l.): (a) schematic vertical sections that point out the sigmoid shape of the sulphide veins
of the San Riccardo orebodies (see trace in b), interpreted as large dilational jogs; (b) minework plans
based on the original mine maps (different levels are identified by colors; and, (c) three-dimensional
(3D) model of the northern part of mineworks in b, in the area of section A-A’; note that the orientation
is different from the map in b.

4.1.3. Mafic Dikes

Detailed mapping of the Baccu Locci mine area [2] revealed a wide occurrence of mafic dikes,
verifying complex mutual geometrical relationships among them and the ores (see also [26,38]).
Dikes are variable in size (0.1–10 m thick) and orientation (from subvertical to subhorizontal), with a
prevalence of N-S direction. They distinctly crosscut the foliation of the hosting mylonites, extending
along for tens of meters. In different outcrops there is clear evidence that the dikes cut across and partly
follow the structural pattern of the quartz–sulphide veins. Moreover, they are also locally crosscut by
type b quartz–sulphide veins. Of particular interest is the relationships along the large dilational jogs
that were observed at the San Riccardo mineworks; there, a mafic dike abruptly changes its attitude
from subvertical to subhorizontal, following the tectonic foliation in the reverse limb of a D2 recumbent
fold, and becoming parallel to the fault plane hosting the type b veins (Figure 12a).
Zucchetti [38] first classified the mafic rocks as spessartitic lamprophyres: under the microscope
they show an aphanitic to porphyritic (doleritic) texture, with small labradoritic–bytownitic
plagioclase, idiomorphic hornblende phenocrysts, and corroded quartz xenocrysts in a strongly
altered groundmass; accessory phases are apatite, titanite, magnetite, ilmenite. These features allow
for us to frame them among the calc-alkaline mafic dikes widely intruded in the SE Sardinia basement

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during the late Variscan extension [12] and recently dated, in the Gerrei district, at 302 ± 0.2 Ma (U–Pb
dating on zircon [13]).

Figure 12. Outcrop relationships between Late Variscan mafic dikes and type b ores in the southern
branch of San Riccardo underground mineworks: (a) sub-horizontal Qtz–As–Pb sulphides veins parallel
to a mafic dike (mf) about 1.0 m thick (contact is highlighted by dashed white line); and, (b) Qtz–As–Pb
sulphide ore (underlined by dashed white line) that progressively became less steep toward the left
(ESE). The dashed box in the small picture indicates the location of the outcrop respect to the whole
lens-shaped orebody. Photo in a is about 2 m to the left (i.e., west) of photo in b.

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5. Discussion
As previously discussed, the basic approach of this study was mainly focused on finding field
and ore microscopy elements that are able to: (1) unravel the reciprocal relationships between ore
deposit types and (2) provide indications on the controls operated by the Variscan tectonic structures
during mineralization events in the Baccu Locci mine area.
Previous works have usually considered the occurrence of type a sulphide lenses in the Baccu Locci
mine area as a single ore. This was interpreted in different ways, essentially trying to establish genetic
links with different phases of mineralization and with the type b ores. Thus, according to a proposed
“synsedimentary” model, the Zn–Cu–Pb sulphides would represent an initial (predeformation)
concentration of metals (proto-ore) that, remobilized during Variscan deformation, provided the
sulphide component to type b veins [37,40]. An interesting issue was first raised by the study of
Zucchetti [38], which evidenced a partial superposition of mineral assemblages in both ores. This was
considered as indicative of an origin of Zn–Cu–Pb sulphides by lateral infilling from Qtz–As–Pb
sulphide veins, but without clearly distinguishing the two mineralization in space and time.
Structural data and ore mineralogy observations that were carried out with this study document
a complex mineralization history, including two distinct kinds of polyphasic ores (here, type a and type
b ores in this text) that show different minerals assemblage and different spatial relationships with
tectonic structures (Figure 13).

Figure 13. Evolution of mineralizing events in the Baccu Locci mine area and their relationships with
tectonic events.

5.1. Relationships between Ore Type Deposits

The type a ore crops out in the Spilloncargiu mine, where the Zn–Cu sulphide lenses are cut by
a swarm of type b veins (Figure 14). Ore microscopy evidence corroborates the relationships at the
outcrop scale; in fact, type a minerals (mainly sphalerite, calcopyrite, and pyrrhotite) are strongly
cataclased and type b minerals (mainly galena and chalcopyrite with subordinate arsenopyrite and
tetrahedrite) infill the voids that were created by cataclasis. These textures confirm that type b postdates
type a mineralization and that a brittle tectonic event occurred in between. In turn, the type b minerals

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show mutual crosscutting relationships that demonstrate the progressive and polyphased deposition
of white quartz (pre-ore stage in Figure 13), arsenopyrite (As–Fe stage), and galena (Pb–Zn–Cu–Sb–Au
stage) as the most abundant mineral phases. This type b mineral assemblage is well represented in the
San Riccardo/Su Spinosu ore, where the ore paragenesis is not associated with a type a ore and linkage
between the ore and transpressive dextral faults is manifest. Furthermore, ore microscopy shows that
between the several type b mineralizing stages, there are progressive mutual relationships of cataclasis
and successive mineral infilling, showing that type b was synkinematic with a brittle deformation.
The post-ore stage of mineralization (cryptocrystalline quartz, pyrite) is widespread and crosscuts
all of the previous mineral assemblages, so it postdates the main mineralizing events. Only in type
b veins does gold occurrence assume economic relevance. On the contrary, a lack of significant gold
grades in type a mineralization is noteworthy; it could be related to lower content in arsenopyrite,
which has been recorded in other areas of the Gerrei–Sarrabus district as a probable first carrier for
gold (Brecca mine: [5,41]).

Figure 14. Sketch of the mutual relationships between type a and type b ores located at the top of LD1
antiform hinge zone.

5.2. Orebody/Tectonic Structure Relationships and Structural Control

The type a ore is hosted in the mylonites that characterize the Baccu Locci shear zone and it
is located at the top of the hinge of a large LD1 antiform that folded together bedding, D1 folding
axial-plane foliation, and mylonitic foliation. Interpreting the mylonite as Silurian black shales,
some previous studies considered the tectonic foliation as primary bedding and classified the ores
as stratiform and synsedimentary of probable volcano-exhalative origin [37,40]. From the definition
of the Baccu Locci mylonitic shear zone [3], it is well established that the Zn–Cu sulphide lenses
developed parallel to D1 Variscan foliations, in both the axial plane and mylonitic (Figure 6a).
Furthermore, type a Zn–Cu sulphides show no physical relationship with the Ordovician metavolcanics
(“Porfiroidi” Fm., Figures 3 and 5) that crop out as less deformed tectonic slices in the Baccu Locci
shear zone. On the whole, these geometric relationships clearly rule out the possible syngenetic
(“stratiform” or ”stratabound”) options for mineralization, excluding any connection between the
primary bedding (now completely obliterated by the Variscan tectonic imprint) and orebodies.
Similarly, field relationships and ore textures exclude possible syn-D1 (“syn-metamorphic”) deposition;
in fact, the sulphides infill the D1 foliations but they are not in turn affected by them. In this
way, the LD1 hinge zone operated as a typical structural trap, but it essentially exerted “passive”
structural control, because there is no evidence of synkinematic formation of mineral deposits. At the
Gerrei–Sarrabus district scale, type a ores have not been recognized in places other than hinge zones of
LD1 folds, also by the extensive surveys that were made during mine exploitation. Further confirmation
may be found in an adjacent LD1 antiform, a few kilometers west of the study area (Riu Gruppa

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antiform, Sa Lilla mine; Figure 2), where previously reputed “stratoid” orebodies of sulphides, similar
by mineral association and texture [42] to those of Baccu Locci/Spilloncargiu, are located at the top of
a comparable hinge zone, in which development of sulphide “beds” was once again parallel to the D1
tectonic foliations.
Some speculation can be made about the modality that allowed the brittle reactivation of
horizontal tectonic foliations to create space for type a mineral deposition. Structural data point
out that type a ores postdate D1 and LD1 structures. Further, the creation of horizontal lens-shaped
voids now filled with mineral deposits during the D2 extensional phase sounds unrealistic, because
the vertical stress σ1 (that we can image roughly higher than the lithostatic stress) operating during
the rocks’ exhumation would have prevented the opening of subhorizontal discontinuities. So, we can
argue that type a ores could have been developed after the Gerrei and Rio Gruppa tectonic units got to
shallower crustal levels, where the fluid pressure could overcome the lithostatic stress, possibly when
the vertical stress σ1 related to the extensional dynamics ceased. The role of decreased lithostatic stress
in allowing for the development of open spaces that are suitable for mineralization should be confirmed
by the absence of similar orebodies in deeper parts of the hinge zone. Anyway, this interpretation
can be demonstrated when data about the baric environment are available. Up to now, the only
available data from fluid inclusions [10] highlight that a metamorphic environment can be excluded,
thus mineralization might postdate D2 deformation.
The type b Qtz–As–Pb veins are hosted in narrow brittle–ductile shear zones, generally developed
inside the quartz–mylonitic rocks. We described their occurrence in the Spilloncargiu mine at the top
of an LD1 antiform, where they cut at low angle type a ore, but they reach their main thickness in
the San Riccardo/Su Spinosu mine. There, the availability of detailed mineworks plans permitted
the recognition of the tectonic relationship and highlighted the occurrence of large dilational jogs
(Figure 13). Interestingly, there are close relationships between jog geometry and older D1–LD1–D2
structures, although jogs clearly postdate them. In fact, the San Riccardo main fault is a generally
WSW-steepening dipping transpressive fault that mostly cuts at high angle the NE-dipping D1 foliation
in the northeast limb of LD1 antiform (Figure 15). The fault abruptly changes the dip direction to
WSW, gently dipping just where it crosses gently SW-dipping D1 foliation in the reverse limb of a D2
recumbent fold (Figure 15). So, dilational jogs developed when the D4 fault reactivated preexisting
anisotropies (in this case, D1 tectonic foliations) if they had the right attitude. Ore mineralogy
shows repeated cataclasis and mineral infilling during the several mineralizing stages of type b veins,
suggesting a progressive brittle deformation that in some cases produced large dilational jogs that
were suitable to host orebodies with economic relevance [43,44]. Actually, the most important mineral
assemblage—the galena- (and gold-) rich ore related to the Pb–Zn–Cu-Sb–Au stage of mineralization
(Figure 13)—is associated with the largest jogs. The jog structures are not perfectly cylindrical, so their
geometries can change slightly along strikes (Figure 11). This is probably due to a change in the D1
foliation attitude in the reverse limbs of D2 recumbent folds or to a change of the local stress field.
The recognition of such large dilational jogs is not very common [44] and it has been possible by
the availability of observations at different scales. Moreover, the case of Baccu Locci/San Riccardo
reveals that the occurrence of previous reactivable foliation, possibly with different attitude due to a
polyphase deformation, can be one of the situations suitable for the development of large jogs. In the
study area, the understanding of such active structural control would allow a different way to find new,
possibly more fruitful, orebodies. In the case study, the change in dip direction of D1 tectonic foliation
on the limbs of LD1 folds could be ignored, because it is not directly linkable with the mineralized
veins, but it could be a clue to identify the occurrence of large dilational jogs.
Finally, some considerations might be given to the relationships between mafic dikes and the
Qtz–As–Pb sulphide vein system, which is problematic. The definition of possible genetic links between
the mafic magmatism and the mineralization processes falls well outside the scope of this work,
requiring a wider geochemical study at the district scale. However, field mapping and explorations
into the old mineworks showed several mutual relationships between dikes and ore veins (Figure 12).

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These spatial relationships suggest a coeval emplacement. Mafic dikes may have intruded in an
interval between the main mineralizing events of type b ore, in particular, between the first and
second mineralization stages (pre-ore/As–Fe sulphide stages) and the third stage (sulphide/sulfosalts
stage) of the paragenetic sequence, producing apparently contrasting timing relationships in the field.
Under this hypothesis, considering the age available for these rocks in the neighboring areas [13],
mafic dikes assume a chronological constraint, suggesting an age of mineralizing events around
302 Ma; that is, an age in which the Variscan basement of southern Europe suffered a widespread
tectonic extension. This age is, in fact, consistent with: (a) 40 Ar-39 Ar dating of hydrothermal white
mica in quartz–arsenopyrite–gold veins in the nearby Monte Ollasteddu area (307 ± 3 Ma) [10],
and (b) several geological constraints occurring in the whole Gerrei district [26], indicating that the
quartz–arsenopyrite–gold vein systems clearly predate the previously described mineralized vein
systems related to F-bearing granites, dated at 286 Ma [9,12], and they are unconformably covered by
lower Permian sediments dated at 295 Ma [13]. However, it cannot be excluded that the latest stages
of mineralization in Baccu Locci (including the type b Pb–Zn–Cu–Sb–Au sulphide/sulfosalts stage
that affects the mafic dikes) could be related to events referable to the younger part of the outlined
chronological interval. Overall, these constraints allow for us to consider the ore deposits of the
Baccu Locci mine area as part of a much wider metallogenic event that affected various massifs of the
Variscan orogen between 310 and 300 Ma [45,46]. From their geological, mineralogical, and geochemical
characteristics, they can be best classified as Variscan orogenic gold type [47]. As in other massifs
of European Variscides, in Sardinia this metallogenic event involved a crustal-scale flow of fluids
during the late Variscan extension, resulting in widespread mineralizing processes in major regional
structures, such as the Flumendosa Antiform. Large shear zones, such as the Baccu Locci shear zone,
are part of the main plumbing system through which deep fluids were focused toward the shallower
parts of the crust.

Figure 15. Baccu Locci/San Riccardo mine: scheme of the geometric relationships between foliation,
faults, mafic dikes, and Qtz–As–Pb sulphide veins. See the location of this structure in the larger LD1
antiform in the cross-section in Figures 3 and 4.

6. Conclusions
The ores in Baccu Locci are a good example of structurally controlled mineralization in a basement
characterized by the overprinting of several tectonic phases, from ductile to brittle, during both
compressive and extensional regimes. The control exerted was either a passive reactivation of older
foliations to create space for mineral deposition, or an active syn-kinematic deposition of minerals
during the progressive evolution of the hosting structure. In particular, the emplacement of the older
types of ores exposed in Baccu Locci emerges as the result of the opening of previous discontinuities

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(foliations) in the hinge zone of large antiforms, where they are subhorizontal, after their exhumation
to shallow structural levels when postcollisional extension ceased. Afterward, a different stress field
produced transpressive faults that reactivated anisotropic surfaces parallel to the axial plane in the
hinge zone. Along the transpressive dextral faults, large dilational jogs developed, whose geometry
was influenced by sudden changes of the attitude of Variscan foliation in the reverse limbs of recumbent
folds. The jogs formed together with mineral deposits, exerting in this way an “active” control of
mineralization and hosting the more economically relevant ores. As a general statement, the occurrence
of older tectonic foliations and folds might be taken into account not only because they can be directly
presumed to be hosting mineralized veins, a common concept in the study of structure–orebody
relationships, but also when considering the influence that they could have in modifying hosting
structures and favoring the formation of more significant orebodies, being in this way a good tool for
prospecting new relevant ores.
Although the overprinting relationships between the different ores and the mafic dikes are now
clearer, more data are needed to better constrain the thermobaric environment in which the minerals
were deposited, the time interval between them, the source of the ore fluids, and finally the role of
mafic dikes in the large frame of the Late Variscan metallogenic epoch in Sardinia.

Author Contributions: A.F., A.D., and S.N. conceptualized the study. A.F. performed the geological mapping.
A.F., C.B, and F.C. performed the structural analysis and 3D structural modelling. A.D. and S.N. performed the
orebodies' survey. S.N. performed the macro to micro-scale ore mineralogy. A.F. and S.N. wrote the original
draft and with C.B. and F.C. reviewed and edited the draft. Funding acquisition and project administration were
performed by A.F. and S.N.
Funding: This research was funded by FdS-RAS Fondazione di Sardegna and Regione Autonoma della Sardegna
grant number F72F16003080002 and by Italian Government, project PRIN-2005 grant number 2005047008.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to two anonymous reviewers for their comments that improved the
quality of the paper and thank the editors for the careful editorial management.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Article
Multi-Stage Deformation of the Khangalas Ore
Cluster (Verkhoyansk-Kolyma Folded Region,
Northeast Russia): Ore-Controlling Reverse Thrust
Faults and Post-Mineral Strike-Slip Faults
Valery Y. Fridovsky 1, *, Maxim V. Kudrin 1 and Lena I. Polufuntikova 2
1 Diamond and Precious Metal Geology Institute, SB RAS, Yakutsk 677000, Russia; [email protected]
2 M.K. Ammosov North-Eastern Federal University, Yakutsk 677000, Russia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +7-4112-33-58-72

Received: 4 May 2018; Accepted: 22 June 2018; Published: 26 June 2018

Abstract: This study reports the results of the analysis of multi-stage deformation structures of
the Khangalas gold ore cluster, northeast Russia. Four Late Mesozoic-Early Eocene deformation
stages were identified. The first deformation event (D1) was characterized by the development
of NW-striking tight to isoclinal folds of the first generation (F1) and interstratal detachment
thrusts. Major folds, extensive thrusts, boudinage, cleavage, auriferous mineralized fault zones
and quartz-vein gold mineralization were formed in the reverse and thrust fault stress field during
the progressive deformation stage (D1), with NE-SW-oriented σ1. Post-ore deformation is widely
manifested in the region. Structures D2 and D3 are coaxial. Sinistral strike-slip motions (D2 and D3)
occurred along NW-trending faults under prevailing W-E compression. They were accompanied
by the formation of NS- and NE-striking F2–3 folds with steep hinges and by bending of the earlier
formed structures, among them ore-controlling ones. The last deformation event (D4) was represented
by normal-dextral strike-slip faulting, refolding of rocks, pre-existing structures and ore bodies
and by the development of folds with steep hinges. Key structural elements of varying age are
described, the chronology of deformation events and mineralization reconstructed and their relation
to geodynamic events in northeast Asia established.

Keywords: Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded region; Khangalas ore cluster; orogenic gold mineralization;
deformation structure; thrust fault; strike-slip fault

1. Introduction
The Khangalas ore cluster (KOC) is located in the southeastern part of the Kular-Nera slate belt of
the Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded region in northeast Russia. It was discovered in the 1940s. Rich placer
deposits with large gold nuggets are known there. Commercial exploitation of the KOC commenced
in the latter half of the 20th Century and continues to present day. At an early stage of geologic
investigation (1940–1980), considerable attention was given to concordant ore bodies confined to the
limbs of brachyanticlinal folds [1]. Then, in the late 1980s to the early 2000s, mineralized fault zones of
complex structure with diverse mineralization were identified and investigated, which considerably
enlarged the mineral resource potential of the KOC [2,3]. Southeasterly, in the Upper Kolyma gold
district with a similar geological-structural setting, several small- and medium-sized gold deposits
are found, such as Vetrenskoye, Chay-Yuruye, Svetloye, etc. [4,5]. Gold mineralization of the KOC
is of the orogenic type, which is characterized by a close relationship with Late Jurassic-Neocomian
tectonomagmatic events in the Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded region [6–10]. The paper presents new
data on the KOC geology obtained by the authors in the last few years, which provide a better
understanding of the relations between folds, faults and mineralization in the region.

Minerals 2018, 8, 270; doi:10.3390/min8070270 70 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 270

2. Materials and Methods

Structural-tectonic factors are among the most important in controlling localization of orogenic
Au-quartz deposits [11,12]. Structural-kinematic studies in the Khangalas ore cluster were conducted
using up-to-date methods [13–17]. The morphology of ore veins in natural exposures and mine
workings was studied and their relations to geological structures established. Interactions between
the veins and faults were studied using the belt method [18]. This is based on the regular position
of vein poles relative to faults in stereographic projection. The method enables determination of the
sense of displacement during vein formation [18]. Measurements of planar and linear structures
(bedding, cleavage, vein-veinlet bodies, faults, ore zones, jointing, fold hinges, boudinage, slickenlines,
etc.) were made. The kinematics of main deformation stages and the paleo-orientation of stress were
reconstructed relative to major deformation structures of NW strike. Structural data were statistically
analyzed and plotted on the upper hemisphere of the Wulff stereographic net.
In 2005, detailed field studies and structural mapping were conducted at the Nagornoye deposit
and the Dvoinoye, Ampir and Klich-Kontrolnoye occurrences, at Mudeken and other localities
and in 2014 and 2017 at the Khangalas deposit and Ozhidaniye occurrence. The nomenclature
of structural elements is taken from [19]. Planar structures (S) are given as dip azimuth/dip angle
(e.g., 90/60 denotes eastward dip at 60◦ ). For linear deformation elements (l), denotation plunge
azimuth/plunge angle is used (e.g., 215/45 means plunge azimuth of 215◦ and plunge angle of 45◦ ).
Signs S1 and l1 denote the relation of a structural element to a particular deformation stage (D1) event.
The studies enabled refining the general architecture of the region, revealing the particularities of
the ore-controlling structures, identifying key structural elements, reconstructing the chronology of
deformational events and mineralization and establishing their relationship with regional geodynamic
events in northeast Asia.

3. Geology of the Southeastern Part of the Kular-Nera Slate Belt and the Khangalas Ore Cluster
The Kular-Nera slate belt (KNSB) is situated in the central part of the Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded
region [6]. It is mainly composed of Upper Permian, Triassic and Lower Jurassic terrigenous rocks.
Extensive faults separate the belt from adjacent tectonic structures. In the northeast, it is separated from
the In yali-Debin synclinorium by the Charky-Indigirka and Chai-Yureye faults, and in the southwest,
the Adycha-Taryn fault separates it from structures of the passive margin of the North Asian craton.
The structural pattern of KNSB is defined by linear folds and faults of NW strike that developed over
several deformation stages. Within the KOC, NW-striking faults represent branches of the Nera Fault,
which manifests itself as 4 km-wide zones of intensive deformations and subvertical foliation of the
rocks. Dextral strike-slip motions have been reported along the Nera Fault [20].
Magmatism is poorly manifested in KNSB. It is mainly represented by granitoid massifs,
subvolcanic magma of dacite composition and dikes belonging to the NNW-striking Tas-Kystabyt
magmatic belt. They were formed in Late Jurassic-Albian times [21]. Various tectonomagmatic
events characteristic of the Late Jurassic-Late Cretaceous history of the eastern margin of the North
Asian craton are manifested within KNSB [6,22,23]. The Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous was marked
by accretion and collision of the Kolyma-Omolon microcontinent against the craton margin and
by subduction processes in the Uda-Murgal island arc. These events produced different-age fold
and thrust structures, S- and I-type granitoids and orogenic gold deposits. In the Late Neocomian,
the direction of the Kolyma-Omolon microcontinent motion and of subduction in the Uda-Murgal arc
changed [6]. At that time, left-lateral strike slip motions first occurred in KNSB along NW-trending
faults. Post-accretionary tectonic events and Au-Sb and Ag mineralization events were related to Late
Cretaceous subduction within the Okhotsk-Chukotka arc [24].
The Khangalas ore cluster is located in the arch of the Nera anticlinorium that is represented
in the study area by the NW-striking Dvoinaya anticline composed of dislocated Upper Permian
and Lower-Middle Triassic terrigenous rocks (Figure 1). The Upper Permian (P2 ) deposits make up
the core of the Dvoinaya anticline. The lower part of the section consists of massive brownish-grey

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and grey greywacke sandstones with thin siltstone interbeds. The upper part is dominated by an
800 m thick sequence of dark-grey and black siltstones with inclusions of pebbles of sedimentary,
magmatic and metamorphic rocks. The limbs of the Dvoinaya anticline are made of 680–750 m
thick Lower-Middle Triassic deposits (T1 ), mainly dark-grey shales, mudstones and siltstones with
rare interbeds of light-grey sandstones. The Middle Triassic deposits of the Anisian stage (T2 a) are
represented by a 700–800 m thick sequence of alternating sandy siltstones and siltstones with rare
fine-grained sandstone interbeds. The Ladinian strata (T2 l) are chiefly made of interbedded siltstones
and sandstones with a total thickness of 850–950 m.
The main ore-controlling rupture dislocations are the Khangalas, Dvoinoy and Granitny faults
represented by zones of breccia and fracture, low sulfidation of rocks and quartz-carbonate vein
mineralization (Figure 1). The Khangalas Fault crosscuts the Khangalas ore cluster in a northwest
direction. It controls localization of the Khangalas deposit and Ampir and Klich-Kontrolnoye
occurrences. Within the study area, the exposed fault changes its strike from NW-SE to E-W and has a
dip direction to S-W and S. The bedding of rocks exposed in the S-W wall strikes N-W, and rocks of
the N-E wall strike NE-SW and E-W. The Dvoinoy Fault strikes E-W, and its fault plane is subvertical.
In the central part of the KOC, northward of the Klich-Kontrolnoye occurrence, the Dvoinoy Fault
adjoins the Khangalas Fault. The northeastern branch of the Dvoinoy Fault controls mineralization at
the Nagornoye deposit. The rocks of the S wall of the fault have a N-E strike, while those of the N one
strike E-W. The Granitny Fault is located in the southwestern part of the KOC. Outside the Khangalas
ore cluster, the Ala-Chubuk massif of biotite granites is confined to it.
Magmatic activity is manifested by rare mafic and intermediate dikes of the normal and
subalkaline series of Late Jurassic (Nera Complex (J3 n)) and Late Cretaceous (Khulamrinsk Complex
(K2 ch)) age (Figure 1). The Nera magmatic complex includes basalt, gabbro and diorite porphyry dikes
that extend for a distance from a few tens of meters to 2 km and have NE strike and a thickness of
1–20 m. The dikes underwent alteration. They contain quartz-carbonate veinlets. The Khulamrinsk
magmatic complex consists of rare trachybasalt dikes extending for 200–500 m. They have a NW strike
and are 1–10 m thick.
At 7 km to the northwest of the Khangalas ore cluster is the exposed Ala-Chubuk massif of
biotite granites. The K-Ar age of the massif determined on orthoclase from porphyry phenocrysts is
145.0 ± 3.0 Ma and on biotite from the groundmass 149.0 ± 3.0 Ma [25]. The available geophysical
data imply the presence of unexposed intrusions of similar composition at the Nagornoye and
Khangalas deposits [25]. The Khangalas, Dvoinoye and Duk ore fields are identified within the
KOC. The first field occurs in the southeast of the ore cluster and includes the Khangalas deposit
and the Ozhidaniye occurrence. To the northwest of them are the Klich-Kontrolnoye, Dvoinoye and
Ampir occurrences belonging to the Dvoinoye ore field. The Duk ore field includes the Nagornoye
deposit. The ore bodies consist of extensive mineralized fault zones and concordant and cross-cutting
gold-quartz veins and veinlets with simple mineral composition. The amount of ore minerals does
not exceed 1–3%. These are arsenopyrite, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite and native gold with
820–830‰ fineness and rare antimonite and Pb-sulfosalts. Quartz is the main gangue mineral, with less
abundant carbonates (calcite and siderite) and chlorite. A series of successive mineral assemblages
are identified in the ores of the deposits. These are pyrite-arsenopyrite-quartz metasomatic,
quartz-pyrite-arsenopyrite vein, chalcopyrite-sphalerite-galena and sulfosalt-carbonate assemblages.
The early pyrite-arsenopyrite-quartz mineralization is developed in wall-rock metasomatites. It is
represented by irregular disseminations of pyrite and arsenopyrite metacrysts and by thin quartz
streaks. Pyrite prevails over arsenopyrite. Minerals of the metasomatic assemblage are characterized by
euhedral and subhedral crystals and a streaky-disseminated structure. Pyrite and arsenopyrite grains
show evidence of deformation and corrosion. Pyrite and arsenopyrite of the early vein assemblage
occur as disseminated euhedral grains and intergrowths. Pyrites of the vein assemblage contain Co,
Sb, As, Ni, Cu and Zn trace contaminants. Minerals of the productive chalcopyrite-sphalerite-galena
assemblage sporadically occur as disseminations and small aggregates in milk-white quartz and

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as microinclusions in early sulfides. The principal mineral of the sulfosalt-carbonate assemblage is

siderite. Sulfosalts are represented by boulangerite, tetrahedrite and bournonite.

Figure 1. Geological sketch map, sections and location of gold deposits and occurrences of the
Khangalas ore cluster, modified and supplemented from [2]. The inset map shows the position
of the Khangalas ore cluster. Faults: Ch-I, Charky-Indigirka; Ch-Yu, Chai-Yureye; N, Nera;
A-T, Adycha-Taryn.

Microthermometric studies of the fluid were conducted at the laboratory of the M.K. Ammosov
North-Eastern Federal University on an optical microscope AxioScope.Al fitted with a motorized
heating stage (up to 600 ◦ C) and a liquid nitrogen sample cooling system (down to −196 ◦ C) (LNP95).
Analyses were made on milk-white quartz samples from the ore veins. The results of thermo-

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and cryo-metric studies showed that ore-forming fluids of the KOC originated at temperatures of
310–330 ◦ C and a pressure of 0.9 kbar. The data obtained suggest that gold mineralization was formed
at a depth of about 3.5 km.
Age determinations are scarce for the KOC mineralization. The K-Ar sericite age of the
Nagornoye deposit is 130.0 ± 4.0 Ma [23]. The authors of the given paper conducted Re-Os
dating of gold (Sample Number X-45-14) from a quartz vein from the Yuzhnaya ore zone of the
Khangalas deposit at the Center of Isotope Research of the Karpinsky All-Russian Scientific-Research
Geological Institute (St. Petersburg, Russia). The isochron Re-Os age of gold was 137.0 ± 7.6 Ma.
This indicates that productive orogenic gold-quartz mineralization of the region was formed in
Valanginian-Hauterivian times.
The mineralized brittle fault zones consist of breccias and blocks of quartzose sandstones and
siltstones and are often accompanied by concordant (a few cm to 1–2 m thick, in swells up to 5 m) and
cross-cutting quartz veins and veinlets and disseminated sulfide mineralization (Figure 2). They are
mainly localized in sandstones and at their contacts with siltstones and have conformable and crossing
relations with the host rocks. The ore zones underwent strong supergene alteration as indicated by
the presence of Fe oxides, sulfates, clay minerals, etc. Nesterov N.V. [26] has reported on a secondary
gold enrichment at the Khangalas deposit. The quartz veins are often deformed in the mineralized
fault zones, which is indicative of post-ore deformation. The host siltstones and sandstones contain
disseminated sulfide mineralization (Figure 2D) represented by fine to coarse crystalline arsenopyrite
and pyrite occurring as crystals, nests and veinlets.

Figure 2. Khangalas Fault (A) and types of mineralization in the Khangalas ore cluster (KOC):
(B) concordant veins, Centralnaya zone of the Khangalas deposit; (C) vein-veinlet mineralization;
(D) veinlet-disseminated mineralization.

4. Deformation Structures of Key Deposits and Localities of the Khangalas Ore Cluster
This section presents the results of the analysis of the deformation structures of
accretionary-collisional and post-accretionary stages in the formation history of the Khangalas and
Nagornoye deposits, Dvoinoye occurrence and Mudeken locality.

4.1. Khangalas Deposit

The deposit occurs in the southeastern part of the KOC, on the right bank of Levy Khangals Creek,
in the area between its Uzkiy and Zimniy tributaries (Figure 1). The host rocks are represented by
Upper Permian sandstones and, more rarely, siltstones. Mineralization is localized in five fault zones

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(Severnaya, Promezhutochnaya, Centralnaya, Yuzhnaya and Zimnyaya, length up to 1400 m) with

concordant and cross quartz veins 0.1–5 m thick in the crest of the Dvoinaya anticline (Figures 3 and 4).
Ore zones with a thickness of up to 32 m dip S-W, S and S-E at 30–50◦ to 70–80◦ . The reserves exceed
11 tons of gold with an average grade of 11.2 g/t Au [27].

Figure 3. Geological sketch map (A), cross-section (B) and stereograms of the quartz veins poles (C–F),
Khangalas deposit, (G) Schematic block-model of Khangalas deposit. In (A), the I-I line shows the
position of the cross-section (B). Mineralized fault zones: S, Severnaya; P, Promezhutochnaya; C,
Centralnaya; Yu, Yuzhnaya; Z, Zimnyaya. Symbols in stereograms and figures hereafter are: S, position
of fault or ore zone; l, calculated direction of rock motion; n, number of measurements; dashed line,
belt of vein poles. Contours of poles to planes (per 2% area).

Various deformation structures are manifested at the Khangalas deposit (Figures 3 and 4).
Early isoclinal and tight concentric folds (F) with N-W strike and subhorizontal hinges (b) occur
in narrow (up to a few tens of meters) zones (Figure 4D). In the study area, such folds were first
mapped on the northeast limb of the Nera anticlinorium, in the zone influenced by the Chay-Yureye

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Fault [8]. Early folds are draped during progressive deformation into late folds, so that crests of late
folds can often be seen on the limbs of early folds (Figure 4C). F1 folds are the most widespread in the
KOC area; they have NW-SE strike and gentle hinges (b1) (Figure 4A). These are for the most part open
folds that pass into tight ones nearby the fault zones. On the right side of Uzkiy Creek, folds and ore
zones have E-W and, less frequently, N-E strike due to superimposed strike-slip deformation. F1 folds
are accompanied by Cl cleavage (Figure 4). It is platy, rarely shelly-platy, and its intensity depends
on the rock composition. The most intense cleavage is observed in siltstones, whereas in sandstones,
it becomes coarse-platy. Its regional NW strike changes to NE-SW and E-W in areas of superposed
strike-slip deformation.
The Severnaya mineralized zone is the most extensive one. On the western side of the Khangalas
deposit, the Promezhutochnaya, Centralnaya and Yuzhnaya zones branch off from the Severnaya zone
forming a horse tail termination structure, and on the eastern side, the Zimnyaya zone diverges from it
in the E-W direction. The ore-controlling structures are confined to the core of the Dvoinaya anticlinal
fold. The strike of the ore zones varies from NW-SE to S-W and, locally, to NE-SW.
Analysis of the attitude of quartz veins and veinlets revealed five variously-oriented systems
(Figures 2 and 3). Veins of the first system have persistent parameters; they are conformable with
the host rocks (Figures 2B,C and 3). Quartz veins of the second system follow the orientation of the
bedding plane and ore zones, but they dip in the opposite direction. Low-angle veins of the third
system localized in tension fractures in sandstones are rather common. The orientation of the fourth
vein system is normal to the strike of mineralized faults. In some areas, all five systems of veins and
veinlets are present, which form stockworks. Such systems of quartz vein mineralization, which are
related to the reverse and thrust fault stress field, are also found at other gold deposits in the central
part of the Kular-Nera slate belt (Bazovskoye, Malo-Tarynskoye, Levoberezhnoye and Sana) [7,28–32].

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Figure 4. Bing Maps-satellite image (B), panoramic photo (C) and folds (A,D) of the Khangalas deposit. (E–I) Stereograms of bedding poles; Cl, cleavage. Mineralized
fault zones: S, Severnaya; P, Promezhutochnaya; C, Centralnaya; Yu, Yuzhnaya; Z, Zimnyaya.
Minerals 2018, 8, 270

4.2. Nagornoye Deposit

The deposit is located in the northwestern part of the KOC within the Duk ore field (Figure 5).
Ore bodies are between bedding planes within faults of an ESE-WNW trend. In some places, the fault
zones are accompanied by concordant (up to 100 m in extent) and feathering quartz veins and veinlets
(Figure 5E,F). The faults have reverse fault and strike-slip kinematics. The thickness of ore zones on
the Nagornoye deposit varies from 0.6 to 3–4 m (average 1.0 m). Ore minerals include native gold,
pyrite, arsenopyrite, Fe-gersdorffite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tetrahedrite, bournonite and the
rutile-group minerals [33]. They constitute up to 3% of the veins’ volume. The host rocks are mostly
represented by Upper Permian sandstones with siltstone interbeds. They have an ESE-WNW strike
and a steep (70–75◦ ) to vertical, sometimes overturned bedding. They are deformed into ESE-WNW F
folds with horizontal b hinges in which limbs with NNE-striking open folds with steep hinges have
developed (Figure 5C,D).

Figure 5. Geological sketch map and section of the Nagornoye occurrence. In (A), the I-I line shows
the position of the cross-section (B). The diagrams show: (C,D) bedding poles; (E) quartz vein poles in
Ore Zone 1; (F) quartz vein poles in Ore Zone 2. Contours of poles to planes (per 2% area).

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The most extensively studied is Ore Zone 2 (Figures 5 and 6A). It is exposed over much of its
length in a mining trench, where it parallels a subvertical sequence of quartzy sandstones interlayered
with siltstones (Figure 6A). Statistical analysis of the attitude of quartz veins showed that on the
diagrams, fields of poles of veins are grouped, in spite of their significant scatter, along the great
circle arcs corresponding to the projection of mineralized ore zones (S) (190/85) conformable with the
rock bedding (S0) (Figure 5E,F). This indicates that feathering veins are mainly localized in extension
fractures oriented at an obtuse angle to ore-bearing structures. Concordant veins of the first system are
common (Figure 5E,F).
Variously-oriented slickenlines are established (Figure 6B). One can observe subvertical
slickenlines (l-178/81) of the early thrust-faulting stage of deformation on E-W fault planes (Figure 6B).
Strike slip accretionary slickenlines are manifested at the contacts of ore bodies (Figure 6C).
These structural elements are associated with low-amplitude zones of warping observed on the
northern wall of a trench that exposed Ore Zone 1. The axes of the warping zones plunge to SE
(120/59) and are orthogonal to (l-290/30).

Figure 6. Ore Zone 2 (A), reverse-faulting (B) (red lines on the diagram) and strike-slip faulting (C)
(blue lines on the diagram) slickenlines, Nagornoye deposit. Arrows show the direction of displacement
of the faults’ hanging walls.

4.3. Dvoinoye Occurrence

The occurrence is located on the left side of the valley of Dvoinoy Creek (Figure 1). The host
rocks are dominantly Late Permian sandstones with lesser siltstones. The ore bodies are represented
by mineralized fault zones with quartz veins and veinlets ranging from 0.3–1.8 m (average 1.0 m) in
thickness. The gold grade varies from 0.5–30.7 g/t Au.
At Dvoinoye, one can observe two systems of boudinage-structures on the limbs of folds (Figure 7).
The first system is characterized by a subhorizontal long axis (Figure 7B), and the second system
plunges to SE (120/54) (Figure 7C).

Figure 7. Dextral strike-slip fault (A) and boudinage-structures (B,C), Dvoinoy Creek.

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4.4. Mudeken Locality

Mudeken is located on the right side of the same name creek, ~6 km upstream from the Dvoinoy
Creek mouth (Figure 1). Two faults and several folds are seen in an exposure of interlayered sandstones
and siltstones along the creek bank (Figure 8). Fault S (77/60) is made of brecciated siltstones and
sandstones with quartz veinlets. Two shelly-platy cleavages are manifested in its walls. The first Cl
cleavage dips to W (265/80) and is subconformable with S0 (278/50). The second Cl cleavage dips
gently to SE (130/35–49) following the strike of fault S (160/40), which is traced by an 8 cm thick
quartz-carbonate vein of banded structure. In the lying and hanging walls of the fault are observed
several en echelon systems of quartz-carbonate veins: V-SE (220–260/55), V-NE (75/80) and V-SE
(136/42). Kinematic reconstructions of the vein systems revealed their relation to dextral strike-slip
motions (Figure 8H).
To the east, in the footwall of S fault, one can observe widely developed folds with the axial
planes conformable with the fault plane. The folds are asymmetric, with gentle and extensive SE limbs
and steeper SW limbs; commonly, they are overturned due to dextral strike-slip motions along the
bedding plane (Z-shaped folds) (Figure 8D). Bedding poles measured on the fold limbs form a belt
along the great circle arc, which is characteristic of cylindrical folds (Figure 8F). Fold hinges (b) mostly
dip S-SE at 35–60◦ . Early cleavage (Cl) is deformed in folds (Figure 8G). The cleavage poles presented
in Figure 8G show that early cleavage was deformed during dextral strike-slip motions.

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81
Figure 8. Dextral strike-slip deformations in Upper Triassic sandy siltstones, Mudeken Creek. (A,B) Fold and fault structures; (C) ladder veins in sandstone beds
(plan view); (D) shaped overturned fold (plan view); (E) dextral strike-slip fault (plan view); (F–I) diagrams: (F) bedding poles, (G) cleavage poles, (H) projection of
quartz-carbonate veins shown in (C,I) projections of faults and hinges of folds; l, direction of tectonic transportation. Contours of poles to planes (per 2% area).
Minerals 2018, 8, 270

5. Discussion
Structural-kinematic analysis of deformation elements within the KOC revealed specific structures
of deposits and occurrences. Figure 9 shows stereograms of major structural elements of the KOC
(bedding, cleavage, quartz veins and veinlets, as well as mineralized fault zones). Fold structures of
the Khangalas deposit have NW-SE to E-W strike. Fold hinges (b1) dip to WSW at angles varying
from 4–28◦ . Steep dip angles are due to superposed strike-slip deformations. Hinges of the third order
F1 folds smoothly undulate in the direction of NW regional folding within the Nera anticlinorium.
Cl1 cleavage at the Khangalas deposit has a NW-SE strike. In the fault zones, cleavage is deformed
by late strike-slip faulting, as well as bedding. In stereographic projections, poles of quartz veins
and veinlets are arranged along subvertical belts. From the aforesaid, it appears that the formation
of auriferous quartz veins and veinlets is related to major fold and thrust deformations of D1 stage
(J3 -Knc). Faults and ore zones at the Khangalas deposit have sublatitudinal and, more rarely, northeast
and northwest strike. The majority of them dip S at 30–60◦ .
F1 compressed folds of sublatitudinal strike are deformed, like Cl1 cleavage at the Nagornoye
deposit, by late strike-slip faults. This led to the formation on the limbs of F1 folds of F4 open folds with
steep (b4) hinges plunging to NNE and SSW. On the stereogram, vein bodies form a steeply-dipping
belt of poles. Faults and ore zones are, for the most part, interstratal and have latitudinal to NE-SW,
rarely NW-SE orientation.
Bedding of rocks in the Dvoinoy ore field is characterized by NW-SE and NE-SW strike related to
two different deformation stages: D1 and D4, respectively. Cleavages of NW-SE and E-W orientation
are recognized. The first cleavage Cl1 is associated with the D1 stage. It was formed in relation to
early fold-and-thrust dislocations. Cleavage Cl4 is related to the right-lateral strike-slip stage (D4).
Fault zones within the Dvoinoye ore field have mostly WNW-ESE strike.

Figure 9. Stereograms of poles of bedding, cleavage, veins and faults, Khangalas ore cluster.
Dashed line, belt of vein poles. Contours of poles to planes (per 2% area).

The results of studying other deposits within the Kular-Nera slate belt [22,31–36] in
combination with the available information on the general tectonic and metallogenic evolution of the
Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded region [6,7,9,37] and the data on the relationships between the mapped

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structural elements obtained in this study indicate that deformation occurred in four stages: D1, D2,
D3 and D4 (Table 1).

Table 1. Evolution of tectonic events and associated mineralization in the southwestern part of the
Kular-Nera slate belt.

Deformation Event
Characteristic
D1 D2 D3 D4
Geodynamic
Frontal accretion Oblique accretion Post-accretionary Post-accretionary
setting
Kinematics of NW
Thrust Sinistral strike-slip Sinistral strike-slip Dextral strike-slip
faults
Interstratal detachment thrust,
interstratal ramps, thrusts, Dextral strike-slip,
Sinistral strike-slip, Sinistral strike-slip,
cross and oblique ramps, NW W-E and NW-SE
NE-SW and NE-SW and
Structural tight and isoclinal folds, fold (F4),
NW-SE folds (F2), NW-SE folds (F3),
paragenesis NW-SE open and tight folds sublatitudinal
horizontal horizontal
(F1) with horizontal hinges cleavage horizontal
slickenlines slickenlines
(b1), boudinage, fault cleavage, slickenlines
downdip slickenlines
Veins V1 - V3 V4
Mineralization Au - Sb Ag
Attitude of σ1 Subhorizontal, NE-SW Subhorizontal, E-W Subhorizontal, E-W Subhorizontal, N-S

Graphic model

D1 and D2 deformations occurred in the Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous in response to frontal

(D1) and then oblique (D2) accretion of the Kolyma-Omolon microcontinent to the North Asian craton
margin, as well as subsynchronous subduction-related processes within the Uda-Murgal active margin.
The first Late Jurassic deformation event (D1) is characterized by development of NW-trending tight
and isoclinal folds (F1), interstratal detachment thrusts at the contacts of rocks with contrasting
physical-mechanical properties and ramps. The sense of tectonic transportation is SW. Mineralization
consists of rare non-auriferous quartz-chlorite or quartz-chlorite-calcite veins occurring throughout
the area. The thickness of the veins does not exceed a few tens of centimeters. Often, the veins are
concordant with the host rock bedding.
During subsequent progressive deformation, the early interstratal detachment thrusts are
deformed into reverse faults. Thrust deformations are associated with linear open and tight folds
(F1) of the concentric type with prevailing NW-SE strike and platy cleavage. Within the ore
zones, F1 folds form bands of intense deformation up to a few hundreds of meters wide. On the
limbs of F2 folds, one can observe rootless intrafolio fold hinges of the early F1 folds [8] and
slickenlines oriented in the direction of dip. This stage was marked by the origination of orogenic
ore-magmatic systems and intrusion of granitoids and mafic and intermediate dikes of the Late
Jurassic Nera complex, which produced vein, vein-veinlet and veinlet-disseminated gold-quartz
(gold-sulfide-quartz) mineralization. According to the mineralogical data, mineralization was formed
at a depth of about 3.5 km. The ore bodies are localized in mineralized fault zones, in the crests of folds
(saddle veins) and sandstone strata (vein-veinlet bodies).
D2: The Late Neocomian is the period when the direction of motion of the Kolyma-Omolon
microcontinent and of subduction in the Uda-Murgal arc began changing [6]. Within the Kular-Nera
slate belt, the second stage of accretion (Aptian, Lower-Cretaceous) is characterized by the first
left-lateral strike-slip motions (D2) on NW-striking faults, which occurred under prevailing W-E
compression. At that time, intrusions of subvolcanic granite-porphyry were formed [24]. Strike-slip

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deformations reworked hydrothermal-metamorphogenic and gold-quartz (gold-sulfide-quartz)

mineralizations causing their corrosion and remobilization, as well as the dynamic metamorphism of
ore bodies. In association with strike-slip faults, F2 open folds were formed. The width of the mapped
folds ranges up to a few hundred meters, but wider folds are likely, as well. Fold hinges plunge to
N-E and N. At the contacts of mineralized fault zones, one can see variously-oriented subhorizontal
slickenlines superposed on vertical ones.
D3: Post-accretionary tectonic events are associated with Late Cretaceous subduction in the
Okhotsk-Chukotka arc [6,24]. This stage is marked by the formation of N-S and NE-SW folds (F3) with
steep hinges and by activation of earlier structures, including ore-controlling ones. Note the similar
kinematics of D2 and D3 deformations. F3 folds have various morphologies: from open symmetric to
tight overturned ones. Characteristic are sinistral motions most widely manifested along the axial part
of the Adycha-Taryn Fault [36].
At that stage, gold mineralization was superposed by Late Mesozoic antimony mineralization [24].
As shown in [36], a strong influence of Sb-bearing fluid caused significant reworking of the
mineral complex of gold mineralization in the Adycha-Taryn zone. Formation of Sb mineralization
was related to leaching and replacement processes that led to the formation of new mineral
parageneses. Quartz-sericite metasomatites of the gold ore stage are characterized by the superposed
late carbonate-paragonite-pyrophyllite-dickite paragenesis. Pyrite and arsenopyrite metacrysts are
replaced by a mixture of antimonite and pyrophyllite. In the ore zones, late ore deposition is manifested
by berthierite and antimonite. They form numerous streaks in milk-white quartz cementing its
fragments and forming brecciated zones. The broken down milk-white quartz is freed from impurities
along the fluid conductors. Solution occurs along the quartz grain boundaries. Transparent regenerated
quartz forms streaks and aggregates of small (up to 1–2 mm) prismatic crystals, with pyramidal
terminations. The early sulfides and sulfosalts also underwent intensive corrosion, leaching and
redeposition, which led to the formation of an association of regenerated minerals. Microcrystals of
the regenerated high-fineness (900–1000%) gold are often surrounded by reaction rims of aurostibite
and antimony gold (Sb up to 8%) [36].
D4: The latest and fourth deformation event (D4) is characterized by dextral strike-slip faulting,
refolding of rocks, reactivation of the earlier ore-controlling structures, as well as the formation of
E-W folds and cleavage. Maastrichtian-Early Eocene strike-slip deformation is inferred to be related to
oblique subduction of the Pacific Ocean plates beneath the eastern margin of north Asia [6] and/or to
the formation of a transform margin in northeast Asia [38].

6. Conclusions
Studies of deformation structures of the Khangalas gold-ore cluster showed that they were
forming over a long time during the course of the Late Jurassic-Neocomian accretionary and Late
Cretaceous-Early Paleocene post-accretionary events in the Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded region.
The first deformation event (D1) was characterized by the development of NW-striking tight to
isoclinal folds of the first generation (F1) and interstratal detachment thrusts. Major folds, extensive
thrusts, boudinage, cleavage, Au-bearing mineralized fault zones and quartz-vein mineralization
were formed in the conditions of the tectonic stress field characteristic of reverse and thrust faulting,
with the horizontal σ1 and vertical σ3. The D1 stage was progressive deformation under a contractional
regime. In the zones of regional faults, where deformations are most intensely manifested, inter- and
intra-stratal reverse and thrust faults developed in sandstones and at their contacts with siltstones,
which were accompanied by intense, small-scale folding. These were favorable structural conditions
for localization of mineralized fault zones with concordant and cross Au-quartz veins.
Post-ore deformations are widely manifested within the KOC. The D2 and D3 structures are
co-axial. Sinistral strike-slip motions (D2–3) occurred along NW-striking faults. Associated with them
were submeridional and NE-trending folds (F2–3) with steep hinges, as well as warping of the earlier,
including ore-controlling, structures. The sinistral strike-slip stage is poorly manifested within the

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KOC, but its presence is established from the analysis of fractures, slickenlines and fault-line folds.
Faults of NE strike can also be assigned to this structural paragenesis. It is likely that sinistral strike-slip
deformations changed to dextral ones that are strongly manifested within the KOC.
The fourth event (D4) is represented by normal-dextral strike-slip motions, refolding of rocks,
earlier structural elements and ore bodies. At this stage, latitudinal structures (F4 folds, Cl4 cleavage
and S4 faults) were formed, which are more widespread here than in other metallogenic zones of
the Upper Indigirka district (Adycha-Taryn, Mugurdakh-Selerikan). It is assumed that large-scale
dextral strike-slip faults modified the structure of deposits and occurrences in the KOC. In the most
strongly-deformed areas, the strike of the structures changed to sublatitudinal and, more rarely, to NE
(Khangalas deposit). Ore zones of the Khangalas deposit were previously considered as “horse tail”
structures [2], but detailed analysis of the relationships between auriferous quartz veins, ore zones and
rock bedding permitted assigning them to the first-stage paragenesis (D1). The large scale and long
duration of post-ore strike-slip motions can be inferred from the observation that early Au-bearing
quartz veins are ground to “quartz flour” in the zones of later strike-slip faults. Also observed are
quartz breccias in which early milk-white quartz is cemented by later chalcedony-like grey quartz
typical for Ag-Sb mineralization known from the Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded region [39,40].
Thus, it can be concluded that tectogenesis within the Verkhoyansk-Kolyma folded region
followed a regular change from the Late Jurassic-Neocomian frontal accretionary regime to the
Aptian-Early Eocene strike-slip regime and that gold mineralization was related to orogenic processes,
as is exemplified by the Khangalas ore cluster described in this article.

Author Contributions: Idea of the study conceived by V.Y.F. Collection of field materials by V.Y.F., M.V.K. and
L.I.P. Treatment of data and writing the text of the paper by V.Y.F. and M.V.K. Figure drawing by M.V.K.
Funding: This research was funded by Diamond and Precious Metal Geology Institute, Siberian Branch of the
Russian Academy of Sciences, project number [No. 381-2016-004] and by Russian Foundation for Basic Research,
grant number [No. 18-35-00336].
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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33. Akimov, G.Y. Lithological-structural control of Au-quartz ores of the Nagornoye deposit, East Yakutia.
Ores Met. 2000, 4, 42–46. (In Russian)
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(In Russian)
35. Fridovsky, V.Y. Analysis of deformational structures of the El’gi ore cluster (East Yakutia). Russ. J.
Domest. Geol. 2010, 4, 39–45. (In Russian)
36. Fridovsky, V.Y.; Gamyanin, G.N.; Polufuntikova, L.I. Gold quartz and antimony mineralization in the Maltan
deposit in northeast Russia. Russ. J. Pac. Geol. 2014, 8, 276–287. [CrossRef]
37. Prokopiev, A.V.; Tronin, A.V. Structural and sedimentation characteristics of the zone of junction of the
Kular-Nera slate belt and Inyali-Debin synclinorium. Russ. J. Domest. Geol. 2004, 5, 44–48. (In Russian)
38. Khanchuk, A.I.; Ivanov, V.V. Meso-Cenozoic geodynamic settings and gold mineralization of the Russian Far
East. Russ. Geol. Geophys C/C Geol. Geofiz. 1999, 40, 1607–1617.
39. Gamyanin, G.N.; Goryachev, N.A. Subsurface mineralization of eastern Yakutia. Tikhook. Geol. 1988, 2, 82–89.
(In Russian)
40. Goryachev, N.A.; Gamyanin, G.N.; Prokofiev, V.Y.; Velivetskaya, A.V.; Ignatiev, A.V.; Leskova, N.V.
Silver-antimony mineralization of the Yana-Kolyma belt (Northeast Russian). Tikhook. Geol. 2011, 30,
12–26. (In Russian)

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Article
Tectonic Control, Reconstruction and Preservation of
the Tiegelongnan Porphyry and Epithermal
Overprinting Cu (Au) Deposit, Central Tibet, China
Yang Song 1, *, Chao Yang 2 , Shaogang Wei 3 , Huanhuan Yang 1,4 , Xiang Fang 1,2 and Hongtao Lu 1
1 Key Laboratory of Metallogeny and Mineral Assessment, Institute of Mineral Resources,
Chinese Academy of Geological Sciences, Beijing 100037, China; [email protected] (H.Y.);
[email protected] (X.F.); [email protected] (H.L.)
2 Department of Geology and Geological Engineering, University Laval, QC G1V 0A6, Canada;
[email protected]
3 First Crust Monitoring and Application Center, China Earthquake Administration, Tianjin 300180, China;
[email protected]
4 College of Earth, Ocean, and Atmospheric Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-010-6899-9087

Received: 9 May 2018; Accepted: 6 September 2018; Published: 10 September 2018

Abstract: The newly discovered Tiegelongnan Cu (Au) deposit is a giant porphyry deposit
overprinted by a high-sulfidation epithermal deposit in the western part of the Bangong–Nujiang
metallogenic belt, Duolong district, central Tibet. It is mainly controlled by the tectonic movement
of the Bangong–Nujiang Oceanic Plate (post-subduction extension). After the closure of the
Bangong–Nujiang Ocean, porphyry intrusions emplaced at around 121 Ma in the Tiegelongnan
area, which might be the result of continental crust thickening and the collision of Qiangtang and
Lhasa terranes, based on the crustal radiogenic isotopic signature. Epithermal overprinting on
porphyry alteration and mineralization is characterized by veins and fracture filling, and replacement
textures between two episodes of alteration and sulfide minerals. Alunite and kaolinite replaced
sericite, accompanied with covellite, digenite, enargite, and tennantite replacing chalcopyrite and
bornite. This may result from extension after the Qiangtang–Lhasa collision from 116 to 112 Ma,
according to the reopened quartz veins filled with later epithermal alteration minerals and sulfides.
The Tiegelongnan deposit was preserved by the volcanism at ~110 Ma with volcanic rocks covering
on the top before the orebody being fully weathered and eroded. The Tiegelongnan deposit was
then probably partly dislocated to further west and deeper level by later structures. The widespread
post-mineral volcanic rocks may conceal and preserve some unexposed deposits in this area.
Thus, there is a great potential to explore porphyry and epithermal deposit in the Duolong district,
and also in the entire Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt.

Keywords: tectonic control; overprinting; preservation; vein-filling; replacement; porphyry;

epithermal; Tiegelongnan; Tibet

1. Introduction
In the past two decades, some large porphyry deposits have been found in Tibet, China, such as
Yulong deposit (6.22 Mt at 0.99% Cu) [1], Qulong deposit (7.1 Mt at 0.5% Cu) [2], Jiama deposit
(7.4 Mt at 0.5% Cu) [3], Duobuza deposit (2.9 Mt at 0.46% Cu) [4], and Bolong deposit (3.8 Mt at
0.5% Cu) [5]. This indicates that Tibet can be considered one of the most significant potential porphyry
Cu systems in the world. Recently, epithermal deposits have also been discovered and reported in
Tibet. Epithermal deposits are genetically associated with porphyry Cu deposits, especially high and
intermediate sulfidation epithermal ones, which could be discovered at upper or lateral locations of

Minerals 2018, 8, 398; doi:10.3390/min8090398 88 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

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porphyry deposits in some cases [6]. However, the epithermal deposits do not always occur close
to porphyry deposits, because epithermal deposits are normally at shallow crustal levels (surface to
1–2 km depth), therefore they could be easily eroded by later orogenesis [6].
The Duolong porphyry Cu-Au district is located in the Bangong–Nujiang metallogenic belt
(BNMB), central Tibetan Plateau, which was discovered in 2007 and hosts several large porphyry and
epithermal deposits and ore prospects (Figure 1). The Tiegelongnan deposit was discovered in 2013,
containing the largest scale Cu resource within this district, and it was documented as a porphyry Cu
(Au) deposit overprinted by high-sulfidation mineralization [7]. The total Cu content persevered in
the Tiegelongnan deposit is around 1600 Mt at 0.51% Cu. The Au content is small at about 280 Mt with
a low grade of 0.13g/t Au on average.
Despite numerous studies on the metallogeny of the Tiegelongnan deposit, the tectonic control of
this type deposit has rarely been demonstrated. Formation of the porphyry and epithermal deposits in
the Duolong district was indicated to be associated with the magma arising from the closure of the
Bangong–Nujiang Ocean (BNO) in the Early Cretaceous [8,9]. However, how the tectonic activities
control the formation of the porphyry Cu system is controversial. The Tiegelongnan deposit is the
first high-sulfidation epithermal deposit being discovered in the Tibetan Plateau. Previous studies
suggested that the limited number of epithermal deposits found in the Tibetan Plateau is due to
the dramatic uplift and deep level erosion. The Tiegelongnan deposit is an example to study the
tectonic control, reconstruction and preservation process of porphyry Cu systems in the Tibetan
Plateau. In this study, we reviewed history of the tectonic setting, magma emplacement, multiple
episodes’ mineralization, exhumation, and preservation of the Tiegelongan deposit, based on published
literatures and the detailed drill core logging and deposit 1:500 scale mapping. Besides, we discussed
the implications of this study on exploration of porphyry and epithermal deposits in the Duolong
district and other places in Tibet.

2. The Duolong District

The Duolong ore district is located approximately at 100 km northwest of Gerze county, on the
western BNMB (Figure 1). This belt is supposed to be a suture zone as the remnants of the
Bangong–Nujiang Ocean (BNO) which records the evolution of the BNO during the period of
Permian to Cretaceous. This belt is over 2000 km-long striking to the east, and it is dominated
by Jurassic–Cretaceous flysch, mélange, and ophiolitic fragments [10,11]. The Bangong–Nujiang suture
zone extends across the central Tibetan Plateau, which separates the Qiangtang and Lhasa terranes
(Figure 1a) [12,13].
There are several porphyry deposits, epithermal deposits, and porphyry and epithermal ore
prospects in the Duolong district (Figure 1). The Duobuza [4], the Bolong [5], and the Naruo [14] are
porphyry Cu (Au) deposits. Whereas, the Tiegelongnan deposit is a porphyry deposit overprinted
by epithermal deposit [7,15]. In the Dibao, Nadun, Sena, Saijiao, and the Ga’erqin areas, there are
porphyry or epithermal ore prospects (Figure 1b). Li et al., (2011) and Lin et al., (2017) suggested these
deposits are related to granodiorite and quartz diorite porphyry intrusions being emplaced during
123–116 Ma, and their mineralization timing is between 120 Ma and 118 Ma [16,17].
The intrusions in the Duolong district are dominated by intermediate to felsic rocks with minor
gabbro. The granodiorite porphyry and quartz-diorite porphyry are more widespread than other
rock types—including diorite, granodiorite, and gabbro. The porphyry and epithermal deposits in
the Duolong district are hosted by the granodiorite and quartz diorite porphyries, and also by the
contact zone between these intrusions and the Jurassic quartz-feldspar sandstones. Volcanic rocks
like basalt, andesite, and basaltic andesite are also widespread in the Duolong district. These volcanic
rocks in this district all belong to the Meiriqiecuo Formation (K1 m) unconformably overlying on the
sedimentary rocks.
The sedimentary sequences in the Duolong ore district are dominated by Mesozoic
pelagic sediments and Cenozoic continental sediments including conglomerates and sandstones.

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These sequences are composed of the Upper Triassic Riganpeicuo Formation (T3 r), the Lower Jurassic
Quse Formation (J1 q), the Lower to Middle Jurassic Sewa Formation (J1-2 s), the Upper Cretaceous
Abushan Formation (K2 a), and the Upper Oligocene Kangtuo Formation (E3 k). The Riganpeicuo
Formation dominated by limestone is unconformably overlain by the Quse and Sewa formations.
The Quse Formation mainly occurred in the center and southwestern part of the ore district as
the main host formation of the Duobuza and Bolong porphyry deposits. It conformably contacts
with the overlying Sewa Formation, which is the predominant host formation of the Tiegelongnan
deposit. These two Jurassic formations are thought to be part of the metamorphosed accretionary
complex formed by north-dipping subduction of the BNO plate under the Qiangtang terrane [18].
They were also interpreted to be bathyal to abyssal flysch succession, implying a stable shallow-marine
continental-shelf sedimentary environment along the southern continental margin of the South
Qiangtang terrane [10]. Furthermore, Wei et al. (2017) [9] proposed that a continental margin arc
setting in the southern Qiangtang terrane during the Early Cretaceous.

Figure 1. Regional geological map of the Duolong ore cluster, modified after [8], ages are from [17].

There are three main faults in the Duolong district striking at NE–SW, E–W, and NW–SE,
respectively (Figure 1). The NE–SW fault is a major ore-controlling structure. A number of ore-bearing
granodioritic porphyry intrusions emplaced along this fault, and therefore, many large porphyry
copper deposits such as the Bolong, Duobuza, Tiegelongnan, and Naruo deposits occurred.
Most E–W thrust faults are large scale and traverse across the entire Duolong district, dipping to
the south with an angle between 49◦ and 16◦ [19]. There are some granodiorite porphyries (125–120 Ma,
unpublished data) beaded along this NE–SW fault. A mylonite sample obtained from the fault zone
was well constrained with a 40 Ar/39 Ar plateau age at 127.8 ± 1.1 Ma [19], which represents an early
period of thrusting. The NW–SE faults are normal slip faults dipping to the south, which might be
related to the neo-tectonic movements. These faults are characterized by sunken landform and valleys
with fault breccia exposed.

3. Tiegelongnan Alteration and Mineralization

The Tiegelongnan deposit is hosted by the Sewa Formation quartz-feldspar sandstones and some
intermediate and felsic porphyry intrusions. These rocks were mostly concealed by the andesite of
the Meiriqiecuo Formation which is currently well exposed (Figure 2a). The earliest diorite porphyry
within this deposit was intruded at 123 Ma before the mineralization, which is mainly distributed

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at the eastern and southern margins of this area [8]. Several phases of granodiorite porphyries are
syn-mineral intrusions with ages ranging from 121 Ma to 116 Ma [8,20,21]. They are indistinguishable
from petrology and crosscutting relationships, because subsequent strong alteration weakened their
differences and boundaries. Therefore, the geochemistry data, especially the mobile elements, could not
be used to discriminate their geochemical features.

3.1. Alteration
Drill core logging reveals concealed features of the Tiegelongnan deposit (Figure 2b). Five phases
of hydrothermal alteration were identified in the Tiegelongnan deposit, according to the dominant
alteration mineral assemblage, including: biotite alteration, sericite-pyrite-quartz (phyllic) alteration,
chlorite alteration, alunite alteration, and kaolinite-dickite alteration [22]. Alunite-kaolinite-dickite
assemblages are also named as advanced argillic alteration in high-sulfidation epithermal deposits [23].

Figure 2. Ground surface and cross-section map of the Tiegelongnan porphyry Cu (Au) deposit.

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Hydrothermal biotite occurs in wall-rock sandstones beneath an elevation of ~4100 m as

disseminated fine grains and less commonly as vein biotite-quartz. It is not typical potassic
alteration with no K-feldspar, and rare magnetite, rutile, and anhydrite. Sericite-pyrite-quartz
(phyllic) alteration is widespread in the Tiegelongnan deposit, hosting most of the ore minerals.
These granodiorite porphyries and their surrounding sandstones are mostly altered to sericite and
quartz. Some fluorite, rutile, anhydrite, and magnetite can be identified under the microscope.
There are some quartz-chalcopyite-pyrite and quartz-molybdenite veins occurring in the phyllic
alteration zone, not intensely. Chlorite alteration is in the southern and eastern part of the deposit,
which scattered in the sandstone and diorite and pyrite-chlorite veins. Alunite mostly occurs in the
alunite-sulfides veins, locally with kaolinite and dickite, distributed in a narrow and shallow place
at a height ranging from 4500 m to 4950 m. Kaolinite-dickite alteration occurs as more widespread
kao-dic veins than the alunite veins, which is featured with kaolinite replacing sericite (fine grained
muscovite) grains. Except for those minerals, some pyrophyllite occurs in the sericite-pyrite-quartz
alteration zone, and the rutile is widespread from the biotite alteration to alunite alteration zones.
Biotite, sericite, and chlorite are typical porphyry stage alteration minerals [24]. It is typical that
these porphyry alteration stage minerals are overprinted by epithermal alteration minerals in the
Tiegelongnan deposit, and these minerals formed in different occurrences, such as breccia, vein-filling,
or as replacement, which corresponds with the multiple dating results on the altered minerals.
Biotite and sericite display a 40 Ar-39 Ar age at ~121 Ma, whereas alunite indicates the age ranging from
117 to 100 Ma [21]. Alunite-kaolinite-dickite breccia is late epithermal stage products, breaking earlier
phyllic altered rocks (Figure 3a). Kaolinite-dickite veins cut the early phyllic and biotite alteration
stages’ quartz-sulfide veins. However, they are most commonly shown as kaolinite filling in biotite
veins (Figure 3b), and kaolinite fills the barren quartz-pyrite veins in phyllic alteration zone (Figure 3c).
Kaolinite also replaces fine muscovite grains in the phyllic alteration zone (Figure 3d). In some cases,
a mineral sequence is shown as a single vein, firstly with quartz crystalizing, followed by alunite
alteration, and ending up with kaolinite crystalized in the center of the vein. This alunite, kaolinite,
and dickite assemblage was documented as acidic minerals and epithermal products in condition of
low temperature and low pH value [25].

Figure 3. The epithermal alteration overprinted on the porphyry alteration. (a) Alunite breccia break
phyllic altered and mineralized host rocks, (b) kaolinite vein crosscutting biotite altered host rocks
and filling inbiotite-molybdenite vein, (c) kaolinite filling in cavity of quartz-pyrite vein, (d) sericite
replaced by kaolinite grains. Alu: alunite, Bio: biotite, Ser: sercite, Kao: kaolinite, Mol: molybdenite.

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3.2. Mineralization
Chalcopyrite, bornite, and pyrite are sulfide assemblage precipitating in biotite and phyllic
alteration zone with minor molybdenite, whereas the Cu (Fe)-As-S minerals enargite, tennantite,
and Cu-S covellite, digenite are the dominant sulfides in advanced argillic alteration zone [26,27].
Chalcopyrite and bornite in the biotite and phyllic alteration zone are the main Cu mineralization
of the porphyry stage, including quartz-chalcopyrite ± bornite veins and disseminated chalcopyrite
and bornite. This is the main porphyry Cu oreody, hosted as quartz-sulfides veins, and disseminated
sulfides in wall rocks. The enargite-tennatite-covellite-digenite assemblage mostly occurs in the alunite
and kaolinite alteration zone, which are the products of the high-sulfidation epithermal Cu orebody [8].
Epithermal stage Cu sulfides are mainly presented as alunite-kaolinite-sulfides veins.
These two stages of sulfide mineral assemblages display a complicated overprinting and
cross-cutting relationship. Kaolinite-sulfide veins crosscut quartz veins (Figure 4a), those sulfides are
mostly Cu (Fe)-(As)-S minerals, also some chalcopyrite and bornite were reported as result of solid
solution from those minerals [25]. Under the microscope, we find some enargite filling in the fractures
of quartz veins along with kaolinite. The pyrite occurs as early phyllic alteration product, because
it is the most easily being replaced by the enargite. Replacement textures of chalcopyrite, bornite,
and pyrite affected by Cu (Fe)-As-S and Cu-S minerals are common in the Tiegelongnan deposit.
The pyrite is replaced from the edge firstly by bornite, and then the bornite is replaced by digenite
and covellite (Figure 4b). Enargite and tennantite replace chalcopyrite (Figure 4c). There are some
arguments that replacement relationship between sulfides is supergene replacement textures, because
covellite and digenite are typical supergene sulfides also. However, δ65 Cu of covellite and digentie
in the Tiegelongnan are averaging at 0.25‰ [28], which is similar to the hypogene copper sulfides
δ65 Cu value [29]. In some cases, the Cu (Fe)-As-S and Cu-S minerals are filled in the fractures instead
of replacing Fe-bearing minerals (Figure 4d), which might indicate a brittle force condition before the
epithermal mineralization. This corresponds with the alunite and kaolinite breccia in Figure 3a. The Cu
(Fe)-As-S and Cu-S sulfides even cut through post-mineral porphyry and breccia rocks. Generally,
overprinting of the Cu (Fe)-As-S and Cu-S on chalcopyrite-bornite-pyrite assemblage is common in
the Tiegelongnan deposit, and it was demonstrated in different occurrences, including the former
replacing the latter minerals, the former filling in fractures of the latter sulfides, and the former cutting
the chalcopyrite-bornite mineralized rocks or veins.

Figure 4. Textures of epithermal sulfides overprinting porphyry sulfides. (a) Kaolinite-sulfide

veinlets cross-cut quartz-pyrite veins, (b) later covellite and digenite replacing borinite and pyrite,
(c) tennantite and engargite replacing chalcopyrite, (d) pyrite fractures filled with digenite. Bn: bornite;
Cpy: chalcopyrite, Cov: covellite, Dig: digenite, Eng: enargite, Mol: molybdenite; Kao: kaolinite,
Py: pyrite, Sul: sulfides, Ten: tennantite.

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4. Structures
The Tiegelongnan deposit and most of other deposits in the Duolong district are along the
NE–SW faults. It is widely accepted that these faults mainly controlled the emplacement of magma
and hydrothermal fluids in the Duolong district [30]. However, there were few convincing studies
clarifying the overlying volcanic rocks which conceal the whole porphyry and epithermal ore bodies.
The NW–SE faults, named as Rongna Fault, are characterized by geomorphologically linear sunken
terrain, valleys, with fault springs seen at the ground level. In the deposits area, the fault occurred as
a river valley, which is called the Rongna Valley (Figure 5). The fault divides the Meiriqiecuo Formation
andesite into two parts, suggesting the structural movement took place after andesite eruption, which
is dated at ~110 Ma [8].

Figure 5. Rongna Valley, topography of the Rongna fault in the Tiegelongnan deposit.

The audio-frequency magneto-telluric method (AMT) was applied to understand the fault features,
and further to predict the occurrences of the orebody in a deep level on the south side. From the ATM
tests, electrical properties of different rocks obviously vary from each other in the Tiegelongnan deposit.
The Cretaceous volcanic cap-rocks have low polarizability, whereas extremely high resistivity is shown
in the paleo-weathering crust. The Jurassic sandstone showed low resistivity and high polarization,
while the advanced argillic altered sandstone has high resistivity. We found the >0.5% grade Cu whole
porphyry and epithermal orebodies correspondent with the low resistivity zone (Figure 6). There are
two low-resistivity anomalies (C1 and C2) in the E103 AMT cross-section and the C1 anomaly coincides
with the explored orebody. Therefore, the C2 low-resistivity anomaly could be another part of the
whole orebody. The fault plane shown in the AMT cross-section is dipping to the south with an angle
of 70◦ to 80◦ (Figure 6).

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Figure 6. 2D inversion resistivity section of the audio-frequency magneto-telluric method (AMT) test
(a) north–south cross-section; (b) east–west cross-section.

5. Post-Mineral Weathering and Erosion

The epithermal Cu (Au) mineralization orebody found by diamond drilling is covered by the
Meiriqiecuo Formation volcanic rocks (Figure 7a). The dome-shaped and gently dipping andesite layer
was discovered by drilling at an elevation of 5110–4930 m above sea level at the ground surface and
5080–4620 m at the bottom. The average thickness of the andesite is 90 m, thinning from southwest to
northeast (Figure 7b).
A layer of weathered paleosoil is observed between the andesite and the underlying porphyry and
epithermal Cu (Au) orebodies, which suggests that prominent weathering occurred after mineralization
before the overlying andesite. Three types of erosional surfaces are recognized (Figure 8). The first type
is a weakly weathered eluvium without movement, containing detrital sandstone, with some malachite
and azurite. The second type of erosional surface is residual ancient soil, defined as a complex of
clay soil and illuvial soil with a small amount of debris, which is generally formed in the watershed
or on slope landforms. The third type is slope washes, which is weakly weathered eluvial material
transported by water, accumulated on a slope, and incorporated rounded fragments of the basement.
Slope washes form in the transitional area between erosional and depositional zones in this area.

Figure 7. (a) High-resolution remote sensing image, and (b) a 3-D map of the Meiriqiecuo Formation
andesite [31]. Red dotted lines: faults; the yellow dotted line: the boundary of the mineralized body.

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Figure 8. Photographs of typical weathering paleo-crusts in the Tiegelongnan deposit. ZK2412—The

first type weathering weakly weathered eluvium. ZK5604—The second type weathering residual
ancient soil. ZK4828—The third type weathering slope washes.

6. Discussion

6.1. Magmatism Indication of Tectonic Setting in the Duolong District

The Bangong–Nujiang ocean crust has started subducting northwards beneath the southern
Qiangtang terrane since the Middle Jurassic. This leads to the formation of the large intermediate
to felsic magmatic arc that emplaced inboard of the southern continental margin of the south
Qiangtang terrane in the Middle to Late Jurassic (170–145 Ma) [32–36]. Some authors argued that the
Bangong–Nujiang oceanic crust may subduct in two directions, both northward beneath southern
Qiangtang Terrane and southward beneath northern Lhasa Terrane, respectively [36,37]. From 145
to 130 Ma, however, there is a noticeable magmatic gap in the southern Qiangtang terrane. Similar
magmatic gaps occur in the Andes [38] and southern Gangdese areas [39] in response to the low-angle
or flat-slab subduction of the oceanic crust. After that, the Bangong–Nujiang oceanic basin was closed.
Although the closure time is controversial, it is generally as accepted as the period from Middle Jurassic
to Late Cretaceous [12,40–43]. Recent research narrowed the closure time within 10 Ma from 140 Ma
to 130Ma [37]. Based on the time constraints, it suggests that the collision between the Qiangtang
and Lhasa terranes occurred through an arc–arc ‘soft’ collision from the east to the west after the
BNO closure [32,40,41]. The Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous (<125 Ma) marine sedimentary rocks were

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transposed, intruded by granitoids, and were uplifted above sea level before around 118 Ma [40].
The extensive magmatism in the Duolong district is associated with the Qiangtang–Lhasa collision
event [9,37].
Numerous igneous rocks such as gabbro, basalt, basaltic andesite, andesites, rhyolite,
and intermediate to felsic porphyries are widely distributed in vicinity of the Tiegelongnan deposit.
Zircon U-Pb ages of the porphyry intrusions in the Tiegelongnan deposit range from 115.9 Ma to
123.1 Ma, which is consistent with the mineralization (molybdenite Re-Os) ages (119.0 ± 1.4 Ma [20];
121.2 ± 1.2 Ma [8]. This is also consistent with porphyry intrusions and mineralization ages of
other deposits in the Duolong district, such as Bolong and Duobuza deposits [17]. They are
temporally associated with this younger generation of magmatic emplacement which is related
with the Qiangtang–Lhasa collision. Intrusion rocks geochemistry and isotope studies have been
conducted to understand the genetic association between those porphyry deposits and tectonic settings.
Geochemistry data mostly obtained from the ore-bearing porphyritic intrusions in the Duolong district
indicate they are magmatic rocks and adakite-like rocks [11,14,44,45]. They have relatively high oxygen
fugacity (f O2 ) and high H2 O contents that are critical to the formation of porphyry and epithermal
deposits [46]. During the process of magma upwelling, adakite-like melts might get mixed with large
amount of copper and other metals and sulfur from either interaction with hot peridotite in the mantle
wedge region [47] or mixing with mantle-derived melts [48]. It eventually resulted in mantle-derived
juvenile materials, which are thought to bring heat and materials to generate juvenile mafic lower crust.
The magmas experience various degrees of fractional crystallization and crustal contamination during
its emplacement, when it is derived from the remelting of the juvenile mafic lower crust as a result of
previous arc magmatism. Some of these hybrid magmas formed calc-alkaline ore bearing porphyries
via the shallow magma emplacement, leading to the formation of giant porphyry and epithermal Cu
(Au) deposits [49–52].
The Jurassic (170–145 Ma) intermediate–felsic intrusive rocks of the southern Qiangtang terrane
primarily exhibit negative whole-rock εNd (t) and zircon εHf (t) and old Hf isotope crustal model ages,
indicating that those Jurassic rocks were largely derived from mature or recycled continental crust
materials [35,36,53]. This is compatible with what been observed in the Early Cretaceous Fuye pluton,
Caima pluton and Qingcaoshan pluton in the Qiangtang Terrane [53]. In contrast, εNd (t) and εHf (t)
value and Hf isotope model ages of the Early Cretaceous (~126–116 Ma) magmatic rocks from the
Duolong district indicate they were probably derived from magma as a mixture of the juvenile lower
crust and mature crustal materials [9]. In addition, previous studies on Pb isotopic compositions of
the porphyry intrusions, sulfides, and sulfate in the Tiegelongnan deposit suggest that the Pb of this
deposit is mainly derived from a crust–mantle mixed subduction zone [26,54,55].
Although there is no specific research on the geochemistry of the porphyry intrusions in the
Tiegelongnan deposit, owing to their strong alteration and leaching erasing its geochemical signature,
the features of the intrusions in the Duolong district could represent that in the Tiegelongnan
deposit. Thus, it suggests that plenty of juvenile crust materials are involved in the intrusions in the
Tiegelongnan porphyry Cu (Au) deposit. The juvenile crust materials have been becoming gradually
dominated during the Late Mesozoic since the vertical growth and thickening of the continental crust
of the southern Qiangtang terrane during the Early Cretaceous [9,56]. It is commonly accepted that
variable sources conjunctly contributed to the formation of magma in this district [53]. The dominant
crust signature from radiogenic isotopes is reported as features of the post-subduction products, which
is well explained by Richards (2009) [57]. All of these suggest that magmatism and mineralization
of the Tiegelongnan porphyry Cu (Au) deposit probably occurred in an active continental margin
environment after the subduction of BNO plate, as result of continental crust thickening and terranes
collision (Figure 9).

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Figure 9. Tectonic setting model for the formation of the Duolong deposit, Tibet.

6.2. Tectonic Reconstruction of Epithermal Overprinting Porphyry

The continental crust thickening resulted from the Qiangtang–Lhasa collision might be the
reason for the emplacement of magma and formation of porphyry deposits in the Duolong district.
An extensional condition is common during the post-subduction stage of two plates or terranes [57],
thus Sillitoe and Hedenquist (2003) explained that some arcs are subjected to neutral stress condition
or mild extension where high-sulfidation epithermal deposits formed [23]. This might be one of the
reasons that porphyry mineralization is overprinted by epithermal mineralization in the Tiegelongnan
deposit. Besides, water table decline is another possible reason for epithermal mineralization formed
at deep level where porphyry mineralization formed earlier at depth [58]. The paleosoil occurred
between the whole mineralization Cu orebody and the overlying andesite in the Tiegelongan deposit
indicates weathering and erosion took place before andesite covering at 110 Ma, which is possible
to decrease the water table. Furthermore, fluid inclusion pressure evidence suggests that rapid
mountains lifting and erosion took place between two stages of porphyry intrusions at 121 and at
116 Ma respectively in the Tiegelongnan deposit [22]. The occurrences of overprinting of epithermal
on porphyry alteration and mineralization in the Tiegelongnan deposit are mainly characterized by
veins and fracture filling, and the replacement between the typical minerals of two episodes. From the
absolute geochronology data, alunite was formed between 117 and 100 Ma, which postdates the ages
of biotite and sercite at 121 Ma [21]. Early formed veins were reopened under an extensional situation,
giving channels for later epithermal fluids. Reopening of early formed textures can improve rock
permeability. It enables magmatic-hydrothermal fluid to cool with low temperature isotherm dropping.
When the isotherm line decline to deep level of earlier formed porphyry deposit, epithermal minerals
formed and replaced porphyry minerals. Specifically, the low temperature minerals alunite and
kaolinite and high sulfidation state sulfides (tennantite, enargite, digenite, covellite, etc.) precipitated
and replaced porphyries stage alteration and sulfide minerals at a higher temperature and in a deeper
level. Although most porphyry deposits are formed in convergent and compressive settings [49],
high sulfidation epithermal can be generated in calc-alkaline andesitic-dacitic arcs under neutral stress
or mild extension conditions [23]. During the formation of this porphyry and epithermal deposit,
the extensional strain in the Duolong district might be related with the Bangong–Nujiang subduction
zone retreating after the BNO closure [9,10,44].
During the epithermal stage, some breccia formed, and straight veins break phyllic altered rocks,
indicate that epithermal events overprinting on the porphyry events. Plenty of breccia implies that
rocks are brittle in the epithermal stage. Hydrothermal processes in ductile and brittle rocks in a

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magmatic–epithermal environment study suggest that the ductile-brittle transition commonly occurs
about 370–400 ◦ C [59]. This is higher than epithermal hydrothermal fluid temperature 160–270 ◦ C [6].
Therefore, before epithermal events taking place, the wall rocks of the Tiegelongnan deposit is brittle
and could be easily broken by the accumulation of hydrothermal fluid or by fault events in the Duolong
district. This gives access to epithermal fluid arriving at shallow sites, and overprints porphyry system
along those faults, fractures, and other opened space.

6.3. Post-Mineral Erosion and Preservation

The crust thickening and terranes collision in the Bangong–Nujiang suture zone, combining with
later coming India–Asia plate collisions, resulted in rapid uplifting and erosion of the deposits in the
Duolong district. It also affects the uplifting and erosion of most parts of the Tibetan Plateau [33,41].
The large-scale uplift was activated by the Lhasa–Qiangtang collision [60,61], that resulted in the
angular unconformity contact between the continental Abushan Formation and the underlying marine
sediments [33]. The erosion of the Tiegelongnan deposit happened right after its formation, which is
observed from the weathered rocks under the andesite. The fluid inclusion study suggested the eroded
layers may reach a thickness of 600–1200 m before cover of the andesite at 110 Ma [27]. In the following
exhumation rate calculations, the youngest formation age of the Tiegelongnan deposit was used at
~118 Ma dated from the molybdenite. The exhumation rate of ground surface increased with the
elevation [62] and it has functional relationship with elevation. The smallest exhumation thickness and
interval of the protection can be used to calculate the smallest exhumation rate. Thus the Tiegelongnan
deposit has experienced exhumation for 6 to 7 m.y. and the exhumation rate is 0.1–0.2 mm/y.a,
averagely at 0.15 mm/y.a. This is consistent with the common exhumation rate of the epithermal
deposit at ~0.167 mm/y.a, and the porphyry deposit at 0.158 mm/y.a [63].
Northern Tibet has been elevated more than 5000 m, and it is continuously affected by the
India–Asia collision system, thus leading to a more intensive exhumation than other parts of Tibet,
while the southern Tibetan Plateau attained a 3–4 km elevation at ~99 Ma [64]. The Tiegelognnan
deposit was overlain by the andesite after small interval of exhumation which protected the
Tiegelongnan deposit from totally erosion. The erosion after andesite settle is still non-negligible.
The apatite HeFTy program [65] was used to model the prolonged thermal history of the Tiegelongnan
deposit [66]. It suggested that the Tiegelongnan deposit has experienced four cooling stages:
(i) relatively slow cooling from Early Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous (120–75 Ma); (ii) fast cooling
in Late Cretaceous (75–60 Ma); (iii) moderately fast cooling from Eocene to Oligocene (45–30 Ma);
(iv) very fast cooling since Late Miocene (<7.8 Ma). The exhumation thickness is at least 3600 m
since Late Cretaceous in the Duolong district. Yin et al., (2000) and Kapp et al., (2007) reported the
subsequent India–Asia collision led to 1400 km of shortening within recent 70 m.y. [40,41]. The andesite
has a thickness of ~500 m [67], which is not thick enough to withstand that intensive exhumation.
Therefore, the andesite is not the solely protective cover for the Tiegelongnan deposits. Post-mineral
sediments, such as the Upper Cretaceous Abushan Formation (K2 a) and the Upper Oligocene Kangtuo
Formation (E3 k), might also act as significant caps for protecting orebodies.
Along with the thickening of the continental arc, collapse of the crust may destruct the whole
porphyry and epithermal Cu (Au) orebodies. The Rongna Fault might be the result of the collapse of
the accumulated crust rocks. The inversion resistivity cross-section in Figure 6a showed that a normal
high angle fault breaks the high resistivity zone into two separated C1 and C2 zones. It also cuts
through the andesite from the Rongna Valley, and may dislocate and conceal the western part of the
Cu (Au) orebody to deeper places.
A simplified model (Figure 10) was applied to describe the porphyry Cu system in the
Tiegelongnan deposit. Epithermal Cu (Au) mineralization veins are mostly retained in the advanced
argillic alteration zone, which overprints phyllic alteration zone on top of porphyry Cu orebody
(Figure 10a). This is a transitional zone between the disseminated high-sulfidation epithermal precious
metal deposit and the porphyry Cu (Au) orebody (Figure 10b). There might have been disseminated

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epithermal precious metal deposit existing in theory. The reason of not being detected on the deposit
is that it either was not well preserved because of severe erosion or has not been found yet. Deep in
the porphyry Cu (Au) system, the bottom of the porphyry Cu orebody has not been detected yet.
We suggest there could be economic potential at depth, because biotite alteration is shown at depth,
if it could represent the typical potassic alteration, which usually is the core of mineralization orebody
in the porphyry Cu system [68]. Obviously, we did not reveal the whole biotite alteration, which might
be concealed at a deeper level.

Figure 10. (a) Simplified geology map of the A-B sections in Tiegelongnan [31]. (b) Anatomy of
a condensed porphyry Cu system showing the spatial interrelationships of porphyry Cu orebody,
high-sulfidation epithermal Cu ± Au orebody, and late-mineralization andesitic volcanic rocks [31].

7. Implications and Conclusions

The geological history of the Tigelongnan deposit is as follows: (i) Early Jurassic active continental
margin sandstone (pre-mineral stage); (ii) emplacement of multiple porphyry intrusions and formation
of the porphyry ore system (first mineral stage); (iii) overprinting of epithermal alteration and
mineralization (second mineral stage); (iv) weathering and erosion (≥600 m) and volcanic extrusion
(preservation); (v) continuous lifting and erosion/movement of the Rongna fault (dislocation).
This process is associated with the movement of the Bangong–Nujiang oceanic plate, following
Qiangtang-Lhasa terranes collision and the effect of the India–Lhasa terranes subduction and collision.
Marine sandstone was deposited before or during subduction of the oceanic plate in Jurrassic. Ignous
rocks emplacement and eruption are the results of the subduction of oceanic plate during 170–145 Ma,
and the Qiangtang–Lhasa terrane collision between 126 and 116 Ma. Hydrothermal fluid is induced by
those porphyry intrusions, and it contributes to porphyry mineralization. Shortly after that, younger
stage of epithermal fluid overprinted the porphyry mineralization because of erosion of the system
due to the extensional structures at around 116 Ma. With continuous collision of Qiangtang and
Lhasa terranes, rapid lifting and strong exhumation partly eroded the ore deposit. Volcanic andesite
(~110 Ma) covered on the top of the orebody protects it from entire erosion. Subsequent India and
Lhasa plates subduction and collision uplifted the plateau and caused the erosion of those deposits in
the Duolong district again. Post-mineral structure such as the Rongna Fault possibly dislocated the
main orebody of the Tiegelongnan deposit (Figure 6a).
This review of the Tiegelongnan deposit is significant for the future exploration programs, even for
exploration of porphyry and epithermal deposits in the Duolong district or even the Bangong–Nujiang
suture zone. The Rongna Fault dislocated the Tiegelongnan deposit in its western part. Another
part of the orebody on the hanging wall of the fault might slip southwestward and be concealed

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to a deeper domain. The nearly 11 Mt of Cu resource currently being explored might be part of
the entire Tiegelongnan porphyry and epithermal Cu (Au) orebody, which is similar to the San
Manuel-Kalamazoo porphyry copper deposit in South America [69]. Comparably, we are confident
on the great potential of the Tiegelongnan deposit. Further understanding of the dislocation of the
Rongna Fault should be conducted later, which would contribute to increasing the ore reserves of the
deposit at depth.
The volcanic rocks unconformably overlie on the whole porphyry and epithermal Cu (Au)
orebody, which prevents the orebody from being subject to further erosion. This might be the reason
for only epithermal copper orebody being found at the top the Tiegelongnan deposit so far, but not
anywhere else. There might be epithermal mineralization on the Duobuza and Bolong deposits,
but they might be fully eroded away due to the lack of overlying protection. Furthermore, due to the
large range of volcanic rocks in the Duolong district, more porphyry and epithermal copper and gold
deposits are of great potential to be preserved, and that could be the future exploration direction in the
Duolong district.

Author Contributions: Y.S. carried out the project and coordinated this study. All authors took part in the field
work, analyzed the results and wrote the manuscript; Y.S. and C.Y mainly revised and edited the paper.
Funding: This research was partly funded by the National Key R & D Program of China (No. 2018YFC0604106),
the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 41402178), and the Chinese Geological Survey
Program (DD20160026).
Acknowledgments: We thank three anonymous reviewers, the Editor Shi, and the academic editor of Minerals
Alain Chauvet for their positive and constructive comments that are helpful to improve the manuscript
significantly. Qing Zhang from the University of Wollongong provided major contributions to the English
editing of the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Review
The Jbel Saghro Au(–Ag, Cu) and Ag–Hg
Metallogenetic Province: Product of a Long-Lived
Ediacaran Tectono-Magmatic Evolution in the
Moroccan Anti-Atlas
Johann Tuduri 1,2, *, Alain Chauvet 3 , Luc Barbanson 2 , Jean-Louis Bourdier 2 ,
Mohamed Labriki 4 , Aomar Ennaciri 4 , Lakhlifi Badra 5 , Michel Dubois 6 ,
Christelle Ennaciri-Leloix 4 , Stanislas Sizaret 2 and Lhou Maacha 4
1 BRGM, F-45060 Orléans, France
2 ISTO, UMR7327, Université d’Orléans, CNRS, BRGM, F-45071 Orléans, France;
[email protected] (L.B.); [email protected] (J.-L.B.);
[email protected] (S.S.)
3 Géosciences Montpellier, cc. 060, Université de Montpellier 2, CEDEX 5, 34095 Montpellier, France;
[email protected]
4 MANAGEM, Twin Center, BP 5199, Casablanca 20100, Morocco; [email protected] (M.L.);
[email protected] (A.E.); [email protected] (C.E.-L.); [email protected] (L.M.)
5 Faculté des Sciences, Université Moulay Ismaïl, BP 11201 Zitoune, Meknes 50 000, Morocco;
badra_lakhlifi@yahoo.fr
6 Laboratoire de Génie Civil et géo-Environnement–Lille Nord de France, EA 4515, Département des Sciences
de la Terre, Université de Lille, Bât. SN5, 59655 Villeneuve d’Ascq, France; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +33-238-644-790

Received: 31 August 2018; Accepted: 10 December 2018; Published: 13 December 2018

Abstract: The Jbel Saghro is interpreted as part of a long-lived silicic large igneous province. The area
comprises two lithostructural complexes. The Lower Complex consists of folded metagreywackes
and N070–090◦ E dextral shear zones, which roughly results from a NW–SE to NNW–SSE shortening
direction related to a D1 transpressive tectonic stage. D1 is also combined with syntectonic plutons
emplaced between ca. 615 and 575 Ma. The Upper Complex is defined by ash-flow caldera
emplacements, thick and widespread ignimbrites, lavas and volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks with
related intrusives that were emplaced in three main magmatic flare ups at ca. 575, 565 and 555 Ma.
It lies unconformably on the Lower Complex units and was affected by a D2 trantensive tectonic stage.
Between 550 and 540 Ma, the magmatic activity became slightly alkaline and of lower extent. Ore
deposits show specific features, but remain controlled by the same structural setting: a NNW–SSE
shortening direction related to both D1 and D2 stages. Porphyry Au(–Cu–Mo) and intrusion-related
gold deposits were emplaced in an earlier stage between 580 and 565 Ma. Intermediate sulfidation
epithermal deposits may have been emplaced during lull periods after the second and (or) the third
flare-ups (560–550 Ma). Low sulfidation epithermal deposits were emplaced late during the felsic
alkaline magmatic stage (550–520 Ma). The D2 stage, therefore, provided extensional structures that
enabled fluid circulations and magmatic-hydrothermal ore forming processes.

Keywords: structural control; silicic large igneous province; ignimbrite flare-ups; ash-flow caldera;
epithermal; porphyry; IRGD; Anti-Atlas

1. Introduction
In northwest Africa, the Anti-Atlas, Ougarta and Hoggar domains consist of pericratonic terranes
located at the margin of the West African Craton (WAC, Figure 1a) and that were mostly amalgamated

Minerals 2018, 8, 592; doi:10.3390/min8120592 105 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 592

from Palaeoproterozoic to Phanerozoic times [1–5]. These terranes were the site of recurring tectonic
activity and periods of intense magmatic activity. The most important magmatic pulses occurred
during the Mesoproterozoic [6–8] and at the end of Triassic when the Central Atlantic Magmatic
Province (CAMP) was emplaced [9–11]. According to Ernst [12] and Ernst and Bleeker [13], both
events have been related to large igneous provinces (LIPs). Indeed LIPs consist of large volumes of
mainly mafic magma (>0.1 Mkm3 ) in provinces whose areal extent might exceed 0.1 Mkm2 . LIPs
are thought to emplace in a short duration pulse or multiple pulses (less than 1–10 Myr each) with
a whole maximum duration of ca. 50 Myr. Intense felsic magmatism may also occur as silicic
large igneous provinces (SLIPs) [12,14]. Dacite–rhyolite pyroclastic rocks (ignimbrites), along with
transitional calc-alkaline I-type [15] to A-type granites, mainly characterise these SLIPs [16]. Further,
LIPs are commonly related to a wide variety of metal deposits [17] including world-class deposits
such as magmatic sulfide ore deposits associated with mafic and ultramafic magmatism (Ni, Cu,
PGE, Cr, Ti, Fe [18,19]), with carbonatite and peralkaline complexes (Nb, Ti, REE, Zr [20,21]), or with
diamondiferous kimberlites [22]. Iron oxide copper gold (IOCG) deposit types [23] and epithermal
deposits of mostly low and intermediate sulfidation gold-based metal types [24–26] may be also
related to more silicic LIPs. Another magmatic event described in peri-Gondwanan terranes of, e.g.,
Avalonian and Cadomian types, is mostly characterised by huge volumes of pyroclastic flows and was
emplaced at the end of the Neoproterozoic era [27–30]. Conditions and geodynamical environment
at the origin of such a silicic province remain insufficiently understood, although Moume et al. [31]
recently proposed that this event might be related to the Central Iapetus Magmatic Province event
(CIMP) of Ediacaran-Cambrian age [13,32]. In the Moroccan Anti Atlas, world-class deposits occur in
an area mostly dominated by rhyolitic ignimbrites such as the giant Ag–Hg Imiter deposit, the Ag-Hg
Zgounder deposit and the Co–Ni–Fe–As(–Au–Ag) Bou Azzer district (Figure 1b).
In fact, the Moroccan Anti-Atlas hosts several precious and base-metal deposits affected by at
least four major tectonic phases: i.e., the Palaeoproterozoic, the Neoproterozoic, the Variscan and the
Alpine cycles [29,33–35]. Until recently, most of the ore deposits from the Anti-Atlas were considered
as Neoproterozoic in age due to their occurrence within Proterozoic inliers. One exception was the vein
and stratabound copper deposits hosted within the early Palaeozoic cover, which were assumed to be
syn-sedimentary or epigenetic and Variscan in age [36,37]. However, recent studies have reassessed
the age and origin of numerous metal deposits, assigning younger ages than previously admitted.
The arguments are essentially two-fold: (i) absolute dating and (ii) fluid chemistry by isotopic and
fluid inclusion study methods. Indeed geochronological methods (e.g., Re/Os, Ar/Ar) frequently give
younger ages than expected though possible resetting of dating materials and (or) ore remobilisation are
rarely discussed. For instance, the Imiter deposit would coincide with the Permo-Triassic boundary [38].
Similarly, a late Carboniferous age has been proposed for ore enrichment at BouAzzer with a possible
earlier pre-mineralising stage [39]. The strong association of mineral deposits with fluids of moderate
to high salinities, suggests interpretations favouring the influence of basinal brines in the ore-forming
processes [40,41]. Indeed, processes involving basin-related and(or) surface-related brines resulting
from evaporation of seawater in Triassic basins in the formation of ore deposits, up to now interpreted
as, deposits related to the late Neoproterozoic felsic magmatic event [42–48] have been defended by
several recent works [40,41,49] although the debate is still open [50]. This controversy mainly concerns
the Bou Azzer (Co–Ni–), Imiter (Ag–Hg) and Zgounder (Ag–Hg) mines that represent the main three
world-class ore deposits of the Moroccan Anti-Atlas after the Akka gold mine was closed few years
ago. The Imiter concentration has been proposed to be associated with the 550 ± 3 Ma rhyolitic
magmatism [51], a hypothesis recently controverted by Ar-Ar geochronology [38] and palaeo-fluid
geochemistry investigations [41]. The Zgounder deposit is supposed to be emplaced around 564 ± 5 Ma
at the same time as rhyolitic intrusions [46,52] although fluid geochemistry would suggest a Triassic
fluid contribution [41,49] sedimentary. The Bou Azzer Co–Ni–Fe–As(–Au–Ag) district hosts the only
mine in the world where Co is produced as a primary commodity directly from Co- and As-bearing

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arsenide minerals [53]. It is interpreted as having experienced many ore remobilisations from Late
Neoproterozoic, Variscan to Triassic magmatic-hydrothermal stages [39,40,44,54,55].

ȱ
Figure 1. (a) Location of the Anti-Atlas belt at the northern limit of the West African Craton, after
Thiéblemont et al. [56]. (b) Main geological units and major mining districts of the Moroccan
Anti-Atlas [5,7,29,48,57–59]. Inliers–BD: Bas Drâa; If: Ifni; K: Kerdous; TA: Tagragra d’Akka; Im:
Igherm; TT: Tagragra de Tata; Ig: Iguerda; AM: Agadir-Melloul; Z: Zenaga.

The debate as to whether the Anti-Atlas ore deposits are mostly Neoproterozoic in age and
magmatic-related, or Phanerozoic and disconnected from any magmatic input, is similar to the one that
exists between the orogenic and intrusion-related gold deposit models [60–65]. For instance, as applied
to the Variscan gold ore deposits in the French Massif Central and beyond, this debate is focused on the
involvement of magmatic fluids in the formation of mineralised systems. Arguments supporting the
orogenic model are mostly based on fluid inclusion studies and isotopic data on quartz-bearing veins
and highlight the meteoric and/or metamorphic signatures of the fluids [66,67]. In such cases, heat
production from possible synchronous granitoids is supposed to generate only thermal convection
cells. Arguments in favour of an intrusion-related model highlight the systematic spatial association
between granite and hydrothermal systems, while fluid compositions and metal source are interpreted
as showing a magmatic signature [68–70].

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Therefore, it may be relevant to clarify whether most of the ore deposits of the Moroccan Anti-Atlas
are linked to a Neoproterozoic magmatic input (the magmatic-related alternative), or to a more recent
stage related to the penetration and circulation of sedimentary brines and (or) metamorphic fluids
into the basement (the orogenic alternative). Indeed, as the Anti-Atlas domain may be considered
as an important Neoproterozoic magmatic province with respect to the abundance of plutonic and
volcanic rocks, evidences for a major Neoproterozoic metallogenetic province need to be deciphered.
In this work, we present a review of the global geology and metallogeny of the Jbel Saghro in the
Eastern Anti-Atlas with a specific emphasis on the formation, styles and tectonic controls of different
ore deposit occurrences in order to assess and discuss a tectono-magmatic evolution of the studied
area and a metallogenetic and geodynamic model. The world-class Bou Azzer deposit is not concerned
in this study because of its location far from the Jbel Saghro. Its characterisation will be the subject of
work currently in progress.

2. Geological Overview of the Anti-Atlas Mountains

The Moroccan Anti-Atlas belt, located in the northern part of the WAC (Figure 1a), constitutes an
important segment of the Pan-African orogeny, also known as the Cadomian orogeny, that occurred
from the Middle Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian. This area is currently elevated at altitudes
exceeding 1000 m in large areas due to a Caenozoic uplift [35,71,72] although they basically represent
a Variscan intra-cratonic, thick-skinned basement inversion belt [34]. Consequently, the Anti-Atlas
mountains present significant exposures of WSW–ENE trending inliers, (aka boutonnières), which consist
of Proterozoic rocks in core of Phanerozoic, mainly Palaeozoic, sedimentary sequences (Figure 1b).
During Precambrian times, the Anti-Atlas domain has recorded two major orogenic cycles: the
Eburnean, a Palaeoproterozoic cycle from about 2.1 to 2.0 Ga and the Pan-African/Cadomian cycle
from about 885 to 540 Ma [5,33,73–75]. The Pan-African orogeny is characterised by three main
tectono-magmatic events [29,73,75–77]. (i) The first event corresponds to an oceanic basin closure,
oceanic subduction and arc-craton accretion, coeval with calc-alkaline magmatism and ophiolite
obduction. This event is supposed to have occurred between 770 and 630 Ma and related formations
are mainly observable in the Central Anti-Atlas [29,59,78–80]. (ii) Then, the development of an active
margin along the amalgamated West African Craton was responsible for an intense high-K calc-alkaline
magmatism and transpressive tectonics between ca. 615 and ca. 560 Ma [29,48,59,74,75,77,81,82].
(iii) Finally, late to post-orogenic granites with cogenetic volcanic and volcaniclastic cover are
emplaced between ca. 560 and 550 Ma together with subsequent transtensional tectonics [5,29,47,74].
The transition from transpressive to transtensive tectonics remains the subject of debate but it likely
occurred between 580 and 560 Ma [29,48,74]. There is still also an ongoing debate on the origin of the
two late magmatic events, which are either described as arc-related [29] or as post-orogenic related to
an asthenospheric rise beneath the West African Craton, without any active subduction [74,83]. Then,
the Ediacaran–Cambrian transition is recognised as a carbonate-dominated succession (the Adoudou
formation) that unconformably overlies the late Ediacaran plutonic and volcaniclastic rocks [84–86].
This sedimentation period shows dramatic and rapid thickness changes, consistent with an active
extensional faulting related to incipient continental rifting [86,87]. Intercalated alkaline volcanic
ash and flows dated between 550 and 520 Ma confirm that deposition of the Adoudou formation
took place during the Early Cambrian and is in tectono-magmatic continuity with the Ediacaran
volcano-tectonism [74,88–90].
In the Eastern Anti-Atlas of interest here, Jbel Saghro, Palaeoproterozoic terranes are not exposed
(Figures 1b and 2), so, the oldest rocks outcropping consist of Middle Neoproterozoic (Cryogenian)
metasedimentary rocks [91,92]. These are slightly deformed and unconformably overlain by a thick
and widespread upper Neoproterozoic (Ediacaran) volcanic and volcaniclastic sequence (Figure 2).
Both Cryogenian and Ediacaran units are intruded by Pan-African plutons (Figure 2).
Prior to the Variscan compression, the Palaeozoic sedimentary cover reaches an overall thickness
of 8–10 km in the western Anti-Atlas and only 4 km in the eastern part of the Anti-Atlas, being

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mainly characterised by shallow marine sedimentary rocks [34,86,93–95]. Subsidence is assumed

to be regular and characterised by two main steps [34,96]. The first step occurs during the
Cambrian, from the Terreneuvian to the Miaolingian. It corresponds to a rifting episode [84,86,97,98].
The Adoudou formation and related alkaline volcanic rocks mentioned above belong to this step.
The second step occurs during the Upper Devonian and is characterised by a multi-directional
extension mainly controlled by NNW–SSE and ENE–WNW faults inherited from the Pan-African
basement [93]. Fission track dating on zircon [99] yields a peak temperature affecting the basement
around 328 ± 30 Ma (Carboniferous, Upper Mississipian). It is interpreted as the age of maximum
burial. The subsequent uplift is attributed to the Variscan compression [34,100] during the Upper
Carboniferous (early Pennsylvanian). It results in the inversion tectonics of these palaeofaults as thrusts
and strike-slip–reverse faults. The main shortening directions are assumed to be NW–SE to N–S in the
Western Anti-Atlas [34,100], and NE–SW in the Eastern Anti-Atlas [93]. The Precambrian basement is
actually uplifted and folded into huge antiformal culminations probably at the origin of the present
days inliers which characterise the Anti-Atlas fold belt. Thus, many authors e.g., [34,86,93,100] suggest
that brittle deformations related to the Variscan compression occur in the whole Anti-Atlas and reactive
structures from the Precambrian basement. Ductile deformation related to the Variscan tectonics has
not yet been described in the Anti-Atlas. It might be suggested in the Western Anti-Atlas because the
overall Palaeozoic rock thickness reaches 10 km making it possible a ductile–brittle transition. However,
with a maximum thickness of only 4 km such ductile deformations seem precluded in the Eastern
Anti-Atlas. Consequently, how and to what extent the Palaeozoic tectono-hydrothermal events may
have an influence on the main ore deposits of the Eastern Anti-Atlas remains an important topic. For this
reason, we focus our work below on the re-examination of the model of formation and structural control
of different ore-bearing deposits of the Jbel Saghro. We highlight the relevance of a pluri-disciplinary
approach involving analyses of regional tectonics, vein geometry, internal texture and mineralogy of
ore deposits in order to decipher the mode of formation for each deposits. The ore-forming processes
are specifically adressed with the view of their possible relationships with the Precambrian magmatism,
in order to better assess whether they could have been mainly formed during the Neoproterozoic times,
or mostly formed and remobilised during the Phanerozoic. We also stress that conventional approaches
of ore deposits involving kinematic criteria on slip surfaces of faults and palaeostress reconstructions
in the brittle regime are here excluded, since the whole Anti-Atlas is still an active seismic area [94].
So, the Precambrian or Palaeozoic features should be erased by recent tectonic reactivations.
The Jbel Saghro hosts numerous precious and base metal deposits (Figure 2). The most famous
are: the giant Ag Imiter mine (8.5 Mt @ 700 g/t Ag; [41,45,51,101,102]) and the Cu Bouskour mine
(21 Mt @ 1.3% Cu; [103]) and also the now closed Cu–Ag Tizi Mouddou (1.5 Mt @ 2% Cu, 250 g/t
Ag; [43]) and Cu–Au–Ag Tiwit (1.06 Mt @ 8 g/t Au, 65 g/t Ag, ~0.4% Cu; [43]) mines. Mining
activity in the Jbel Saghro area dates back a very long time as suggested for the Imiter and Bouskour
mining sites [101,103]. Although no precise dating is available, some historical texts suggest that
workings occurred since the beginning of medieval times. These sites were subsequently abandoned
and forgotten and were rediscovered under the French Protectorate between 1912 to 1956, leading
to subsequent intensive exploration and mining. Since the mid 1990s and after reinterpreting the
regional geology of the Anti-Atlas area, the BRPM (Bureau de Recherches et de Participation Minière,
currently ONHYM: Office National des HYdrocarbures et des Mines) and Reminex (a subsidiary of the
Managem Group) conducted several exploration campaigns. Indeed, before the 1990s, the Anti-Atlas
was mainly interpreted as a collisional belt and the formation of ore deposits was related to orogenic
processes, e.g., [43,73,76]. Then, the geology and the ore forming processes were related to the complex
evolution of active margin(s) in a subduction and accretion setting, e.g., [29,45,47,48,51,77,82]. This led
to the discovery of new Au–Ag occurrences such as those of the Issarfane (0.5 Mt @ 1.8 g/t Au), Qal’at
Mgouna and Thaghassa (Figure 2).

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110
ȱ
Figure 2. Simplified geologic map of the Jbel Saghro, after Hindermeyer et al. [104], Tuduri [47] and Tuduri et al. [48]. U-Pb radiometric ages obtained on
zircon [29,48,51,78,105–108].
Minerals 2018, 8, 592

3. Tectono-Magmatic Evolution of the Jbel Saghro

Until the early 2000s, the Precambrian terranes in Morocco were traditionally subdivided into
3 main epochs: the PI for the Palaeoproterozoic era or Archaean aeon; PII for the Tonian and Cryogenian;
and PIII for the Ediacaran periods [73,109–112]. These periods have been further subdivided into
various units (e.g., P.II1 , P.II-III, P.IIsup, P.III3m-1a . . . ) in order to take into account the extraordinary
complexity of the different areas [77,109,113]. Geologists then used a lithostratigraphic approach in
which rocks were correlated based on their lithological characteristics and grouped in Supergroups,
Groups, Subgroups, Formations and Members for layered sedimentary and volcanic sequences, and
in Suites for plutonic and metamorphic rocks [5,29,59,107]. However, these lithostratigraphic schemes
confuse the geological and tectonic messages and the resulting legends on geological maps. Indeed,
showing the cogenetic relationships in a volcano-plutonic setting where plutonic, hypabyssal and
volcanic rocks coexist as in the Anti-Atlas, remains a challenge, especially when tectonic controls are
combined. For the seek of consistency, we propose below a tectono-lithostratigraphic framework that
groups the sedimentary, plutonic and volcanic rocks of the Saghro area in Lower and Upper Complexes
with regard to the tectono-magmatic evolution of the eastern Anti-Atlas. Such a complex corresponds
to the definition of the ICS (International Commission on Stratigraphy), that is, a lithostratigraphic
unit composed of diverse types of any classes of rocks (sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic) and
characterised by irregularly mixed lithology or by complicated structural relationships. The definition
of the two complexes and rationale behind are given below.

3.1. The Lower Complex and the D1 Transpressive Tectonics

The Lower Complex is composed of a thick succession of slightly deformed volcano-sedimentary
rocks intruded by broadly coeval high-K calc-alkaline plutons (Figure 2). Volcano-sedimentary rocks
are deformed and tightly upright folded (Figure 3a,b). They are also affected by a metamorphism
below the amphibolite facies with hornfels around plutons [48,91,111]. Elsewhere, cleavage is well
expressed in the vicinity of the large-scale, regional, strike-slip faults that mainly trend N070◦ E
(Figure 2). The general structure is characterised by steeply dipping bedding (Figure 3a–c), large-scale
folds (Figure 3a,b) and intense fracturing (see below).

3.1.1. The Earlier Arc-Related Metagreywackes and Metavolcanic Rocks

These oldest formations belong to the Anti-Atlas supergroup, Saghro Group or MGouna Group
of Thomas et al. [5] or Habab Group of O’Connor et al. [107] and consist of metaturbidites with
intercalated thin mafic metavolcanic layers, exposed, from west to east, near the cities of Sidi Flah,
Qal’at Mgouna, Boumalne and Imiter (Figure 2). The metasedimentary sequences, hereafter, called
metagreywackes, are dominated by sandstones and silty mudstone [91,92,114–118]. Although slightly
deformed (Figures 3 and 4), they consist of 2000 to 6000 m of flysh-like turbiditic rocks [83,91,118] that
locally alternate with basaltic flows, volcanic breccias, hyaloclastite and pillow structures (Figure 3a,b).
Based on geochemical analyses, the interbedded mafic lava rocks may have a transitional character
between tholeiites and alkali basalts and may be related to a back-arc environment formed in an
extensional setting or correspond to the remnants of a passive-margin [91,115,118,119]. These rocks
have a mean Nd depleted mantle model age (TDM ) of 650 ± 30 Ma, the εNd range from +7.63 to
+8.08, and the initial 87 Sr/86 Sr from 0.704 to 0.706 that have been interpreted as indicating a mantle
origin without any old crust contribution [83,119]. These sedimentary sequences are considered
to be Cryogenian [91,115,116]. However, Liégeois et al. [120] in Gasquet et al. [83], using U/Pb
geochronology on detrital zircons from similar metagreywacke sequences in the Qal’at Mgouna area,
have shown that zircon grains become younger towards the top of the metasedimentary sequences.
They suggest that basins infilling were active until more recently than previously suspected, i.e., until
630–610 Ma. This corresponds to the onset of the Ediacaran Period and Pan-African magmatism that
culminated during the next stages (see below).

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ȱ
Figure 3. Structural maps of the (a) Imiter inlier modified from SMI (Société Métallurgique d’Imiter)
data and Ighid et al. [121] and (b) Boumalne inlier (from Tuduri et al. [48]). Note that metabasaltic
rocks with pilloid structures have never been observed in the Imiter inlier. Sills have been described
and discussed as possibly syn-sedimentary in origin [100]. Stereoplots of structural orientation data:
(c) bedding, (d) foliation and refraction cleavage, and (e) lineation. Bedding data are from the Qal’at

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MGouna, Boumalne and Imiter Lower Complex inliers whereas foliation, refraction cleavage and
lineation data are mainly from the Boumalne and Imiter Lower Complex inliers [47,48]. The dotted red
lines in the bedding stereoplot highlight zones where data are locally reoriented because of drag fault
zones and disturbance upon pluton emplacement.

3.1.2. The Intrusive Rocks

Diorites, granodiorites with minor gabbros and monzogranites [29,47,48,105,122–124], intrude
these metaturbiditic and metavolcanic sequences (Figures 2 and 3a,b). The most representative are
granodiorite and diorite intrusions that belong to the Ouarzazate Supergroup “precursor rocks” and
Bardouz suite of Thomas et al. [5]. They are composed of plagioclase (An20–56 ), biotite, amphibole
(Mg-hornblende to Fe-tschermakite and pargasite to Fe-edenite), rare pyroxene and accessory minerals
such as titanite, zircon, apatite and magnetite [47,119,123]. K-feldspar and quartz abundances vary
depending on pluton compositions. At the contact with the country rocks, cordierite, andalusite and
biotite related to contact metamorphism are observed [47,48,121,125].
Rock geochemistry shows that most plutons have moderate to high-K calc-alkaline affinities with
trends that are consistent with formation in an active continental margin [29,119]. Available ages
range from 677 ± 19 and 576 ± 4 Ma for this event, although most of the data are bracketed between
615 and 575 Ma in the Jbel Saghro [29,51,59,78,81,105–108]. With regard to the oldest intrusions, their
age and emplacement conditions remain unclear and debated in the Jbel Saghro [48] and are only
evidenced by poorly defined U-Pb zircon geochronology (i.e., >615 Ma) on calc-alkaline tonalite,
diorite and granodiorite intrusions [107,108,126]. However, in the Central Anti-Atlas, similar plutons
are widespread and were emplaced continuously between 660 and 615 Ma in a supra-subduction
setting [29,78]. One can therefore question on a possible diachronism of magmatic activity between the
Central Anti-Atlas and the Eastern Anti-Atlas during this period especially if we consider that some
rare ages reported in the Eastern Anti-Atlas are inherited (677 ± 19, 675 ± 13, 645 ± 12 Ma, [108,126]).
However, the following magmatic period spanning from 615 to 575 Ma is well expressed in both the
Central and Eastern Anti-Atlas. This is mostly plutonic in the Eastern Anti-Atlas and both volcanic
and plutonic in the Central Anti-Atlas.

3.1.3. The Main Pan-African D1 Deformation Event

At map-scale (Figure 3a,b), the overall style of the deformation suggests that steep bedding and
folds are the most conspicuous features of the metaturbiditic terranes [47,48,77,125–129]. Two types
of folds are observed. (i) At the regional scale, first-order folds are easily discernible such as in the
Imiter and Boumalne areas (Figure 3a,b). They are tight (Figure 3c) and the majority of the ENE–WSW
axial surfaces are moderately to steeply inclined (50–60◦ ), with a predominance of dips to the NNW
suggesting that folds roughly verges toward the SE [125,127,128]. Their hinge lines gently plunge
toward the ENE. (ii) At local scale, higher-order folds are metric and open to tight (Figure 4a). They
are asymmetric and probably unrelated to lower-order folds as they always show a right-verging
(dextral wrenching, [47]). Indeed, they are observed in shear zones where cleavage is well developed.
These folds are interpreted as drag folds below. Their axial surfaces are upright (NE–SW to ENE–WSW)
with a hinge line that steeply plunges toward the ENE or WSW [47]. In Figure 3c, most of the poles
to bedding falling in the NNW and SSE quadrants are related to the regional scale, first-order folds.
Gentle poles falling in the SW and NE quadrants are related to drag folds. However, these plots
and more generally the ones comprised within the dotted red lines (Figure 3c) highlight areas where
data are locally reoriented because of drag fault zones and plutonic interferences. Such interferences
are abundant in the Qal’at MGouna area where folds may be also interpreted as open and upright
(Figure 3c, [47]).
In detail, metaturbiditic rocks show finite strain markers including foliation and stretching and
mineral lineation [47,48,77,81,128–130]. Foliation that usually consists in a slaty cleavage is evident
throughout the entire inlier. It is noteworthy that both metamorphic planar fabrics and lineations have

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been only observed in the eastern part of the Jbel Saghro, in the Boumalne and Imiter areas. Indeed,
these fabrics (Figures 3 and 4b) remain difficult to observe except in the hornfels zone surrounding the
diorite and granodiorite intrusions described above (Figure 4b). Foliations show a constant ENE strike
and dip toward the NW (N075◦ E 60◦ N, Figure 3d), except when reoriented in fault drag areas (i.e.,
NW–SE strikes) or when refracted (NE–SW strikes). Such foliation is axial planar and, thus, is generally
parallel to the bedding of the metaturbiditic rocks when localised along the limbs of the first-order tight
folds. It is called herein S0–1 . A S2 cleavage refraction (Figure 4c) may also occur in specific areas, that
define an obliquity with respect to the S0–1 . It is caused by localised shear developed in incompetent
layers usually associated with the drag fold structures. Stretching and mineral lineations (L1 ) are
always carried by the S0–1 foliation. They are discrete and their orientation (Figure 3e) also appear
fairly constant with a rather low dispersion from NW–SE to N–S trending directions (average: N170◦ E
55◦ N). According to mineralogic and micro-structural evidences, at least 2 distinct metamorphic
assemblages are observed but appear to be related to the same tectonic event defined as a hornfels
assemblage and a regional chlorite to amphibole assemblage. (i) The hornfels zone is observed in the
contact metamorphic aureoles caused by the diorite and granodiorite intrusions within the Cryogenian
greywackes [48,121,130]. It consists of a spotted phyllite zone in which foliation (phyllitic cleavage to
gneissic foliation) and lineation are easily discernable. Rocks are mostly characterised by K-feldspar,
muscovite, biotite and small spots of retrogressed andalusite and/or cordierite (Figure 4b). The latter
frequently highlights the lineation and, therefore, suggests a probable relationship between pluton
emplacement and the D1 tectonics. Garnet-amphibole assemblage and spessartine occurrences are
associated with skarns and skarnoids as reported by Benziane [130] and Tuduri [47]. (ii) When
observable far from intrusions, foliation (slaty to phyllitic cleavage) is defined by a planar-linear fabric
mainly formed by phyllosilicates such as chlorite, sericite to biotite [48]. In both assemblages, rolling
structures and S-C fabrics (Figure 4d) define unambiguous south- to southeast-verging noncoaxial
shear criteria, parallel to the average lineation trending direction. These structures indicate reverse
sense top-to-the-south deformation in the Boumalne and Imiter areas [47,48,77,82,121,123].

ȱ
Figure 4. (a) Drag fold from the Qal’at Mgouna metagreywacke inlier. (b) Regional S0–1 metamorphic
foliation and related lineation marked by elongate contact metamorphic minerals that affect the
metagreywacke sequence. (c) S2 cleavage refraction, from the Imiter metagreywacke inlier, consistent
with a dextral shearing. (d) Microphotograph showing syn- to late kinematic metamorphic mineral,
a probable cordierite (Crd) showing rolling structure consistent with a top-to-the-south shearing sense.
Note the asymmetric tails composed of biotite (Bt), plane polar light.

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The D1 deformation is also well-expressed along the large-scale N070–090◦ E trending strike slip
faults, about 100 to 150 km long that occur in the northern and central part of the Jbel Saghro (Figures 2
and 3a,b). On both sides of these shear zones, deformation appears more intense especially in the
slaty to phyllitic cleavage domains where the S2 refraction cleavage oriented N040–050◦ E 80◦ N is
formed (Figure 4c) synchronously with drag-folds (Figure 4a). These structures are consistent with
a dextral sense of shearing [47]. Where plutons are emplaced within shear zones, they develop both
magmatic foliation and lineation (e.g., the Igoudrane pluton). There, the foliation is parallel to the
fault (N075–090◦ E 80◦ N) and the lineation roughly horizontal. All structures linked with the D1 events
and the geometry of the associated intrusions indicate that this first Pan-African event developed in
response to a NW–SE to WNW–ESE trending shortening.

3.2. The Upper Complex or the Inception of a Silicic Large Igneous Province

3.2.1. Generalities
Rocks of the Upper Complex cover nearly 80% of the surface of the Jbel Saghro (Figure 2).
This complex, only affected by very low-grade metamorphism and weak deformation, consists of
thick and regionally extensive felsic volcaniclastic sequences that are non-conformably above the more
deformed and metamorphosed rocks of the Lower Complex [29,30,47,112,131–133]. Related dykes
and plutons intrude both the rocks of the Lower and Upper Complexes. These rocks belong to the
Ouarzazate Supergroup that includes the lower Mançour Group and the upper Imlas Group [5,107].
Plutonic suites are attributed to the Tanghourt Suite. These plutonic and volcanic rocks were emplaced
between ca. 575 and 540 Ma [29,51,74,78,106–108,112,134,135]. Most of the volcanic rocks are ash-flow
tuffs, felsic lavas, resedimented volcaniclastic deposits with some andesitic lavas and rare mafic
intrusions [29,30,47,112,133] that cover an area of approximately 2000 km2 and reach a maximum
thickness of 1000–1500 m.

3.2.2. The Qal’at Mgouna Ash-Flow Caldera

In the vicinity of Qal’at Mgouna (Figures 2 and 5), the association of lava flows (rhyodacites,
rhyolites and andesites), pyroclastic rocks (ash-flow tuffs and ash falls), re-deposited volcaniclastics
and reworked volcanic rocks is consistent with an ash-flow caldera environment [47]. The pre-caldera
formations mostly consist of metagreywacke basement rocks and diorite and granodiorite intrusion
dated at 576 ± 5 Ma [29], all belonging to the Lower Complex. Related to the caldera formation
stage, plutonic rocks are mostly represented by monzogranites and coeval porphyries (Figure 5).
Volcaniclastic rocks are not deformed, but only tilted when localised inside the caldera (Figure 5).
The structural limit of the proposed Qal’at Mgouna caldera can be traced over 5–6 km. Tuduri [47]
interprets the near vertical arcuate lineament located at the margin of the caldera as a potential
ring-fault that trends E–W to NW–SE (Figures 5 and 6a). Evidence is given because this boundary
separates the near vertical Cryogenian metagreywacke bedding to the South from the NNW dipping
(50◦ to 80◦ ) monocline intra-caldera sequences, to the North (Figures 5 and 6b). Numerous rhyolite
dykes, 10 to 20 meters wide are located along this lineament (Figures 5 and 6a,b). Dykes are vertical or
near-vertical and intrude the Lower Complex rocks as well as the plutonic and volcaniclastic rocks of
the Upper Complex. Because these rhyolitic dykes are emplaced along the proposed structural limit
and generally present an arcuate shape, they are interpreted as ring dykes.

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ȱ
Figure 5. Detailed geologic map of the Qal’at MGouna district showing the extra- and intra-caldera
rock units (from Benharref [132], Derré and Lécolle [113] and Tuduri [47]).

All the data presented above argue for the existence of a collapse caldera structure as shown on
Figure 5 [136–139]. The peripheral structure of the ash-flow caldera where ring dykes occur is herein
interpretated as having accommodated both subsidence (caldera collapse and intra-caldera sequences
deposition) as well as subsequent uplift and tilting (magmatic resurgence and ring dykes injections).
The geometry given by the NW–SE trending structural limit favours an elliptic shape rather than a
sub-circular one for the caldera [41,140,141]. The consequence of such a shape will be discussed further.
From bottom to top and according to Tuduri [47], the intra-caldera volcaniclastic sequence is detailed
below (Figures 5–7):

(i). A lowermost pyroclastic layer consists of a 400–500 m thick, unwelded to slightly welded,
moderately crystal-rich dacitic lapilli tuff (Figure 6c,d and Figure 7a,b) interpreted as an ash-flow
deposit [142,143]. Internal stratification of the ash-flow tuff is crude, oriented N060–080◦ E 80◦ NW,
as highlighted by discrete layers which are either pumice-richer, lithic-richer or entirely devitrified
with spherulites. In a specific layer 40 m thick, greenish fibrous pumices displaying silicified
tubular micro-vesicles and a silky/fibrous fabric can reach up to 5 cm long. Lithic clasts up to
20 cm in size are common throughout and consist mainly of basement greywackes, lavas and
quartz-rich ignimbrite fragments. Phenocrysts are mostly broken plagioclase and K-feldspar,
in various ratios with minor amounts of chloritised ferro-magnesian crystals (biotite and probable
amphibole) and very scarce quartz.

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ȱ
Figure 6. (a) View of the structural limit of the caldera showing the contact between the intra-caldera
sequence, rhyolite ring dykes and basement, Taghia area (see location on Figure 5). (b) Detailed view
of the structural limit showing the ring dykes and the unconformity between the basement to the south
and the intra-caldera sequences to the north. (c) Microphotograph of the lower intra-caldera ash-flow
tuff. Slight compaction and welding of shards are characteristics of this tuff, Plane Polar Light. (d) View
towards the east showing the relationships between the lower and upper intra-caldera tuffs and
interbedded sedimentary ponded rock sequences Taghia area (see location on Figure 5). (e) Close-up
view of the upper intra-caldera tuff characterised by compacted fiammes (flattened pumices) and lithic
fragments of K-feldspar-rich granite. (f) In thin section, the upper ignimbrite shows strong compaction
and welding of shards, Plane Polar Light. Bt: biotite, Kfs: K-feldspar, Pl: plagioclase, Qtz: quartz.

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(ii). Above the ash-flow unit lies a ca. 200 m thick volcano-sedimentary (epiclastic) unit with very thin
bedding (Figures 6d and 7a,b). The lower part (100 m thick) is made of layered tuffaceous breccias
containing ignimbrites fragments. The upper part consists of laminated reddish and greenish
mudstones and sandstone oriented N070◦ E 70◦ NW. When preserved from important silicification,
the identifiable components are microscopic broken crystals and lithic fragments. Beds are broadly
continuous laterally, being only sometimes disrupted by syn-sedimentary normal faults and
slump-like structures. Faults are roughly oriented NW–SE. Fluid escape textures are common
and allow assessment of the polarity of the intra-caldera sequence. All sedimentological features
argue for a subaqueous emplacement, at least for the upper part of the epiclastic unit. In our
model, and as no marine sediments have been hitherto recognised in the entire Jbel Saghro in the
Ediacaran formations, such subaqueous environment may be reasonably related to a caldera lake.
(iii). Above the volcano-sedimentary unit lies a ca. 200–300 m thick crystal-rich rhyolitic ash-
and-lapilli tuff (Figures 6d and 7a–c). Plastic deformation due to significant compaction is
evidenced by reddish flattened pumices (Figure 6e). Glass shards and broken phenocrysts are
visible under the microscope (Figure 6f). Phenocrysts are quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar, and
scarce amounts of chloritised Fe–Mg minerals (biotite and amphibole). Up to 2 m-sized lithic
clasts are abundant, especially in the basal part, and consist of metagreywacke, ash-flow tuff
fragments, jasperoids and monzogranite (Figure 6e). This voluminous quartz- and pumice-rich
unit is readily interpreted here as a welded ignimbrite.
(iv). The top of the sequence is dominated by massive andesite lava flows and epiclastic polylithologic
breccias (Figures 5, 6d and 7a,b). The bottom of this whole sequence is intruded by a monzogranite
porphyry (Figures 5 and 7a,b). Plugs of similar porphyry facies also locally intrude the upper
parts of the sequence. Such porphyry is here interpreted as a resurgent pluton [137,144] that tilted
the intra-caldera sequence upon emplacement [47]. Because of the tilting, the thickness of the
intra-caldera sequence is exposed over 1500–2000 m, of which 800–1000 m consists of ash-flow
tuffs and epiclastic rocks. To the north, the intra-caldera sequence disappears beneath the young
sedimentary rocks of the Dadès valley (Figure 5).

Volcanic and pyroclastic rocks also occur outside the caldera structure to the south and west.
They form a broadly stratified pile up to 500 m thick with moderate dips toward the W–NW (Figure 5).
In the vicinity of the Awrir-n-Tamgalount (Figure 5), the extra-caldera sequences are made up of two
units overlain by the Tamgalount tuff (Figure 7d,e). The lower unit is dominated by hundreds of
meters of well bedded, normally graded crystal-rich sandstones and siltstones (Figure 7e). Under the
microscope some of the silt-sized layers are formed of formerly vitric, now devitrified, material and
might be primary ash fall deposit. The stratified lower unit dips towards the west at variable angles
(Figure 5), perhaps due to palaeo-topography effects and(or) syn-tectonic deposition. The upper unit
is dominated by rhyo-dacitic lavas that display distinctive spherulitic devitrification microtexture and
pilloïd texture in the field that suggests emplacement under water. The Tamgalount tuff (Figures 5
and 7d,e) is a porphyritic porphyritic rhyo-dacitic ash-flow tuff (ca. 25% phenocryst) with eutaxitic
texture. Broken phenocrysts consist of quartz, plagioclase, K-feldspar and chloritised Fe-Mg minerals.
Lithic fragments are abundant and composed of greywackes, ash-flow tuff fragments and jasperoids.
all extra-caldera units lie unconformably on the Lower Complex and are pervasively affected to various
degrees by hydrothermal alteration and/or silicification. The importance of this unconformity will be
discussed later.
Numerous intrusions are related to the Upper Complex (Figures 2 and 5). They have been
mapped according to their mineralogy, texture and geochemical features. Two types are distinguished:
(i) gabbros and biotite- and amphibole-rich, pink-coloured coarse-grained granites (monzo- to
syenogranites), which are calc-alkaline to highly potassic, abd coeval porphyries emplaced at shallower
levels (e.g., the intra-caldera resurgent granite and its apophyses); and (ii) Si-rich alkali (K-rich,
i.e., shoshonitic in composition) granites and related aplitic bodies (sills, dykes), which frequently
appear as late magmatic events in the Upper Complex history. The pink mozogranites contain

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quartz, albite-oligoclase, Fe-edenite, annite, K-feldspar and accessory minerals such as thorite, zircon,
allanite, apatite, magnetite, sulphides and W and Mo-rich minerals. By analogy with the Isk-n-Alla
monzogranite in the central part of the Jbel Saghro (Figure 2), they may have been emplaced around
555 Ma [29,106]. The alkali granites are mainly composed of quartz, albite and K-feldspar displaying
granophyric intergrowths. Accessory minerals include tourmaline (fluor-schorl) and metamict
zircon [47]. They are associated with late N–S rhyolitic dykes that also display shoshonitic compositions
(Figure 5). We assume they may have emplaced later, between 550 and 530–520 Ma [74,107,108].

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Figure 7. Simplified cross section and graphic logs of the Qal’at Mgouna volcanic sequences according
to Tuduri [47]. (a) Schematic N–S cross section across the Qal’at MGouna ash-flow caldera. Summary
stratigraphic sections for the (b) Taghia and (c) Awjja-n-Wizargane intra-caldera sequences, and
extra-caldera sequences from (d) Awrir-n-Tamgalount and (e) Tawrirt-n-Cwalh (See location on
Figure 5).

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According to the relative and absolute chronology of both volcanic and plutonic rocks in both
the Jbel Saghro and in the Qal’at MGouna area, three main ignimbrites flare-ups are herein evidenced.
The earliest flare-up corresponds to the lower intra-caldera ash-flow tuff emplacement. It is mostly
dacitic and may coeval with granodiorite plutons emplaced around 575 Ma [29,74]. Ignimbrites from
the Oued Dar’a caldera described by Walsh et al. [29] are herein interpreted as belonging to this earliest
flare-up. Then, the emplacement of the Tamgalount ash-flow tuff with rhyo-dacitic affinities, may
correspond to a second high-volume magmatic event emplaced around 565 Ma [78,107]. Such an
event would have produced similar tuffs that are coeval with the huge rhyo-dacitic dyke swarm [29]
observed in the western and southern parts of the Jbel Saghro (Figure 2). The later ignimbrite flare-up
corresponds to the upper intra-caldera rhyolitic ash-flow tuff and to the numerous rhyolitic lava
flows and domes reported in the literature [29,74,106], coeval with pink monzogranite plutons around
555 Ma.

3.2.3. The D2 Deformation Event

D2 is interpreted as a strike-slip faulting event [29,47] that is also controlled by a WNW–ESE
direction of shortening [47]. Tectonic features are faint, belong to the brittle regime, and affect both
the Lower and Upper Complex units. Indeed, large-scale structures (except faults) and intense
folding as observed in the Lower Complex are absent. It may be noted that some authors [29,78]
described gentle folds that only affect the lower ignimbritic sequences (i.e., the 575 and 565 Ma ones)
mainly in the western part of the Jbel Saghro and the Central and Western Anti-Atlas. Field works
document: (i) ca. NNW–SSE normal faulting emplaced perpendicular to the extensional direction (i.e.,
NNE–SSW); and (ii) N070◦ E strike slip fault systems and associated veining. In the Qal’at Mgouna area,
D2 -related normal faults control the emplacement and development of extra-caldera basins filled by
the volcaniclastic rocks (Figures 5 and 7d,e). In contrast to the D1 -related ones, structures related to the
D2 event are characterised by dominant opening and extensional features [47]. Some specific locations
(see below) demonstrate the re-activation of previously formed faults (i.e., the regional strike-slip faults
trending N070◦ E) and fractures under the state of stress link with D2 . Others structures were formed,
mainly in the Upper Complex. As fractures are favourable sites for fluid circulations and fluid trapping,
intense veining occur within domains were intense fracturing is coeval of significant magmatic activity
and related hydrothermal events. All these factors lead to the establishment of a general D2 -related
extensional/transtensional setting that is particularly favourable for the emplacement of fluid-filled
structures and, consequently, to the formation of the numerous ore deposits concerned by this study.
In the Qal’at Mgouna area, the structural map of the volcanic complex points to a control by a
combination between E–W to NW–SE faults and NNE–SSW normal faults (Figure 5). Both structural
direction controlled block-faulting, collapse and caldera formation. Because E–W to NW–SE faults are
more developed and have a longer extent, they are assumed to represent the structural limit of the
Qal’at Mgouna caldera (Figure 5). The orientation of these faults is consistent with a caldera formed
under the control of a transtensional regime with a WNW–ESE shortening direction and a NNE–SSW
extensional direction. Similar tectonic features have been described in the Oued Dar’a caldera which is
localised 60 km to the WSW [29]. Few examples of ash-flow calderas developed in strike-slip and(or)
extensional tectonic regimes have been documented [145–150].

4. Characteristics of Ore Deposits

Au–Ag showings and/or mines occur in several areas of the studied area (Figure 2). Four zones
were selected. These showings are hosted in rocks of the Lower Complex (i.e., Thaghassa), the Upper
Complex (i.e., Zone des Dykes area), or both (i.e., Imiter and Qal’at Mgouna) depending upon the
depth of their formation. Mineralisation formed during the D2 tectonic event within the four localities
herein described in detail.

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4.1. The Thaghassa Intrusion-Related Gold Deposit

The Thaghassa intrusion-related gold deposit (IRGD) is an exploration project with drill core
data showing the presence of several intersects of 1–2 m at 5 g/t Au, and up to 400 g/t Ag. It is
hosted in hornfelsed metagreywacke rocks (Figure 8a) that are adjacent to a large granodioritic
pluton [47,48,151], while the metagreywackes belong to the Lower Complex, the intrusion may
correspond to the earlier development of the Upper Complex. Two main tectono-magmatic stages
control the formation of the deposit. (i) The first stage corresponds to the top-to-the-south asymmetry
and the syn-kinematic Ikniwn pluton emplacement controlled by a transpressional strain regime.
Zircon U-Pb dating yields a Concordia age of 564 ± 6 Ma for the intrusion [48]. (ii) The second stage
(Figure 8b) is characterised, from older to younger and further away from the intrusion, by: metatexite
with leucocratic stromatic bands, aplo-pegmatite sills (Figure 8c), intermediate veinlets composed of
quartz, K-feldspar and muscovite (Figure 8d), and then gold-bearing striped foliation-veins (Figure 8e).
All these are assumed to have been emplaced under large-scale ENE–WSW dextral shearing that
results from an ESE–WNW shortening during transtensive tectonics (Figure 8b). Tuduri et al. [48]
suggested that the progressive and continuous shearing was initiated at the aplo-pegmatite stage
and achieved during the hydrothermal phase (Figure 8b–f). The existence of intermediate veins
characterised by quartz-rich core and apatite-muscovite-feldspar-rich rims demonstrates a progressive
evolution from a magmatic to a hydrothermal stage and the persistence of the magmatic character,
at least until the onset of the hydrothermal process. The main Au-mineralization was concentrated
at the end of such a magmatic-hydrothermal evolution. The ore paragenesis is characterised by
arsenian pyrite with refractory gold (<5 μm) arsenopyrite, sphalerite and scarce grains of chalcopyrite,
loellingite, pyrrhotite, tetraedrite, freibergite, argentite and cassiterite. Galena is abundant but always
in the form of microscopic inclusions within pyrite. Fluid inclusion characterisation, based on the
concept of fluid inclusion assemblages (FIA, [152]) as in all the cited references, combined with mineral
geothermometry [48] suggests that the system evolved from hot fluids (~550 ◦ C) dominated by N2
and CH4 to intermediate temperature (~300–450 ◦ C) and low salinity aquo-carbonic fluids in the
system (H2 O-NaCl-CO2 ) + CH4 . Salinities are low to intermediate, being lower than 11.5 wt. % NaCl
equiv. Gold precipitation is related to intermediate temperature mineralising fluids that have strongly
interacted with the hornfelsed country rocks. According to Tuduri et al. [48], such a metallogenetic
system is assumed to have developed due to migmatisation and partial melting of metagreywackes
country rocks in response to heat transfer from the underlying Ikniwn intrusion. Fluid and metal
sources may originate from magmatic processes (i.e., magmatic exsolution of incompatible elements
from newly formed peraluminous melts and perhaps from the Ikniwn intrusion) and from the
devolatilisation of the metamorphic host rocks. (iii) A third, later tectono-magmtic stage in the
area developed a large volcanic dyke swarm and brittle faulting and is assumed to belong to the
Upper Complex.

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ȱ
Figure 8. Main features of the Taghassa intrusion-related gold deposit (IRG) [47,48]. (a) General
map and stereoplots of structural orientation data of the Au–Ag Thaghassa intrusion-related gold
deposit. These reveal the high density of veins developed north of the 575–560 Ma Ikniwn granodiorite.
(b) Interpretative sketch illustrating the magmatic-hydrothermal model that involved a progressive
and continuous tectonic event including the aplo-pegmatitic dykes and sills emplacement, then
the intermediate veins and the hydrothermal and gold-rich striped quartz veins. (c) Pegmatite dyke

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showing a dextral pull-apart geometry. (d) N120◦ E trending intermediate veins filled by quartz,
muscovite and feldspar assemblage, cross polar light. (e) Macrostructure illustrating the gold-bearing
quartz vein stage. The layering texture defined the striped aspect of veins. (f) Microtextural
characteristics of gold-bearing quartz veins. The internal texture shows elongate quartz grains with
obliquity with respect to vein walls suggesting a dextral shearing, cross polar light.

4.2. The Qal’at Mgouna Au–Ag (Cu, Mo, Bi, Te) District
The Qal’at Mgouna district is composed of three main exploration projects: the Isamlal,
Talat-n-Tabarought and Tawrirt-n-Cwalh districts, all of which located outside of the caldera structure
(Figures 5 and 9). Based on mineralogical, chemical, textural and structural constraints, two distinct
ore deposit types have been identified: an older porphyry ore deposit on which a younger epithermal
system is superimposed [47,113,153,154].

4.2.1. The Isamlal Porphyry Au(–Cu–Mo) Deposit

The porphyry Au(–Cu–Mo) deposit type is related to high-temperature hydrothermal system
observed in the Isamlal and Talat-n-Tabarought areas (Figure 9a–e). The Isamlal project appears as
being the most promising [47,154–157]. Ore emplacement is assumed to be synchronous to slightly late
with respect to the emplacement of diorite and granodiorite stocks [158]. Most of these intrusive stocks,
that display porphyritic textures in drill cores (Figure 9e), present a preferential NW–SE orientation in
map (Figure 9a,b). Their age of emplacement is still unknown. However, a large pluton, the Wawitcht
granodiorite, displaying similar mineralogy and located ca. 4 km east of the Isamlal deposit, has been
dated at 576 ± 5 Ma (U-Pb radiometric ages on zircon, [29]). Alterations are mostly observed within the
Lower Complex and affect both the metagreywackes and diorite-granodiorite intrusions. The deposit
is characterised by a Au mineralisation hosted by the metagreywackes that is also elongated along
a ca. NW–SE trending direction (Figure 9b). Cu and Mo occurrences are additionally associated.
In paragenetic order, the mineralisation includes magnetite, K-feldspar and late forming and less
pervasive quartz veins that form a well developed stockwork. The stockwork occurs along a ca. N120◦ E
preferred orientation, highlighting a strong structural control (Figure 9c). It is localised in the vicinity of
the granodiorite intrusion or related apophyses but seems more developed within the metagreywackes
at the hanging-wall (Figure 9d). Veins range in size from 0.5 to 30 cm in width and are ≤10 m in
length except for the largest veins which are more than 30 m long. Such an important structural
control on the stockwork may suggest that the main opening direction (i.e., NE–SW) is controlled by an
ESE–WNW shortening direction. In drill cores, the central part of the mineralised zone is characterised
by potassic-altered rocks. K-feldspar mostly occurs in highly reactive igneous rocks (Figure 9e). Biotite
may coexist with K-feldspar but also occurs around the central zone whereas the propylitic alteration
is more distal [158] In the Isamlal area, the quartz-rich stockwork is characterised by K-feldspar,
magnetite, F-Cl-rich amphibole, Cl-F-rich biotite with scarce F-rich tourmaline, brannerite and rutile
in the central part of the deposit, and muscovite with scarce iron oxides more externally. Note that
such a stockwork has never been reported in rocks belonging to the Upper Compex [47]. Sulfides
mostly occur in the central zone and mainly consist of pyrite, chalcopyrite, with scarce molybdenite,
pyrrhotite, electrum, galena and tetradymite [47,155,157,158]. Fluid inclusions from the quartz-rich
stockwork veinlets were used to constrain the palaeohydrothermal conditions [154,155,159]. Primary
multiphase fluid inclusions are composed of liquid, vapour and halite cubes, as well as other salts
such as sylvite, and CaCl2 . In addition, uncommon mineral inclusions that may be abundant have
been identified, such as calcite, brookite–titanite, haematite, magnetite, and a solid phase with a very
high refringence identified as andradite.

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Figure 9. Main features of the Qal’at Mgouna deposit types [47,158]. (a) Detailed map of the
Au(–Cu–Mo–Ag–Te–Bi) Qal’at Mgouna district (from Tuduri [47]). Note that the kinematics shown
by shear zones are consistent with a WNW–ESE direction of shortening. (b) Kriging interpolation
revealed that gold anomalies are correlated with both the quartz stockwork and the NW–SE faulted
corridor in the Isamal porphyry deposit. The red colour is indicative of the highest Au grades [158].
(c) Stereoplots of structural orientations data for: the quartz stockwork related to the porphyry stage
(mean orientation N120◦ E); the aplitic dykes and sills related to the alkali–syeno–granite stocks (mean

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orientation N018◦ E); and the adularia-specularite-quartz veins from the epithermal stage (mean
orientation N008◦ E). (d) Quartz stockwork from the Isamlal porphyry Au(–Cu–Mo) system. (e) Typical
potassic alteration (pink coloured zones) of a porphyritic granodiorite (the Isamlal porphyry
Au(–Cu–Mo) system). (f) Typical alteration and vein development of the epithermal stage: pervasive
tourmalinites are cut by quartz and adularia-rich veins in the vicinity of the Tawrirt-n-Cwalh deposit,
plane polar light. (g) Economic paragenesis of the epithermal stage characterised by Au-Ag tellurides,
electrum and Bi-telluride veinlets within pyrite; Tawrirt-n-Cwalh deposit, SEM back scattered picture.

Chalcopyrite and gold were also observed in multiphase inclusions. Multiphase inclusions
have a high though variable salinity (30 to 45 wt. % NaCl equiv.) and are characterised
through homogenization by halite-disappearance. The large range of homogenization temperatures
(160–460 ◦ C) combined with a zoned potassic to propylitic alteration, stockwork structures and with
an Au(–Cu–Mo) paragenesis is interpretated as characteristic of Au(–Cu–Mo) porphyry environments.
This porphyry Au(–Cu–Mo) system is herein described as a vein-dominated deposit (stockwork)
that is consistent with the emplacement of a porphyry stock, then exsolution and cooling of a
magmatic-derived hydrothermal fluid. The overall system appears as mostly controlled by a ca.
WNW–ESE trending direction. Indeed, this pattern suggests that the stockwork structure both reflects
the magmatic stress associated with the porphyry emplacement and fluid exsolution, and also, a ca.
NNE–SSW-oriented minimum principal stress (i.e., extensional direction) associated with a regional
deformation that may be consistent with a WNW–ESE shortening direction although no clear tectonic
regime has been proposed for the hydrothermal stage.

4.2.2. The Qal’at Mgouna Au–Ag(–Bi–Te) Epithermal System

In contrast to the porphyry deposit type, this low sulfidation epithermal deposit type appears
more atypical (Figure 9a,c,f,g). From west (Timicha) to east (Isamlal then Tawrirt-n-Cwalh), the Qal’at
Mgouna area (Figure 5) displays a progressive and continuous tectono-magmatic activity initiated
as the plutonic stage (mostly observed to the west) and ending with a volcanic and hydrothermal
stage observed from west to east [47]. The magmatic stage produced small pink-coloured Si-rich
alkali granites, and sill and dyke intrusions with a typical fine-grained aplitic texture. Rhyolitic
K-feldspar-phyric dykes are also assumed to belong to this stage. Such intrusive bodies may intrude
rock units from both the Lower and Upper Complexes. The transition to hydrothermal stage is
characterised by fluid exsolutions from the alkali granites and the formation of (i) quartz, Fe- and
F-rich tourmaline with scarce F-rich muscovite miarolitic cavities; (ii) quartz, K-feldspar with scarce
tourmaline stockscheider; (iii) tourmaline-rich quartz veins and NW–SE chlorite-rich transtensive
cataclasites; and (iv) quartz, adularia, specularite veins with magnetite, fluorite, sulphides and gold
(Figure 9f,g; [47,158–160]). The magmatic-hydrothermal processes strongly affected rocks especially
the highly reactive volcaniclastic ones from the Upper Complex. These alterations correspond to a
strong pervasive silicification. In addition to quartz, andalusite, diaspore pyrophyllite, Mg- F-rich
tourmaline, F-rich phlogopite, F-rich muscovite, Cl-F-rich apatite occur along with rutile, haematite,
monazite, xenotime, thorite and uranothorite as well as pyrite with inclusions of galena, coloradoite,
hessite and altaite [47,113,153]. In some locations close to the Isamlal porphyry, the association of
andalusite, pyrophyllite and diaspore with phlogopite and muscovite may be associated with the late
epithermal or earlier porphyry stages [47,113,153]. Tourmalinisation is noteworthy and well developed
along pervasive axes. Chlorite appears later in the paragenesis and mostly occurs in fault breccias. Ore
concentration occurs during the hydrothermal stage with the quartz-adularia veins by crystallisation of
As- and Co-rich pyrite, minor chalcopyrite and precious metal (Au–Ag telluride, electrum, Ag-telluride
and Bi-telluride, Figure 9f) in the core of previously formed quartz–adularia–chlorite veins. Except
for the chloritic breccias, which are strongly oriented along the NW–SE trending direction, all sills,
dykes and veins related to the hydrothermal stage are roughly N–S with a maximum of 20◦ of
dispersion toward the NNW and NNE (Figure 9c). The structural control of this event remains poorly
evidenced as both extensional and transtensional features have been reported [47]. Paragenetic and

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microthermometric studies show the mineralising system is characterised by decreasing temperature

of formation [154,160]. Indeed quartz from the miarolitic and stockscheider stages are characterised by
high temperature of formation (400–600 ◦ C), multiphase highly saline fluid inclusions (22–32 wt. %
NaCl + CaCl2 equiv.), while the intermediate stages related to massive tourmalinisation show
temperatures of homogenization of 200–250 ◦ C. The system then evolves toward lower salinity
fluids probably belonging to the H2 O–NaCl–CaCl2 (11–27 wt. % NaCl equiv.) system, with the
absence of multiphase inclusions, and temperature around 180 ± 20 ◦ C for the quartz-adularia veins.
This hydrothermal stage corresponds to the formation of Au–Ag(–Te–Bi) epithermal showings in this
part of the Jbel Saghro [47]. The issue whether this system belongs to an alkaline, low sulfidation or
intermediate epithermal deposit remains open. The age of formation is unclear, although it may be
coeval with the slightly alkaline N–S rhyolitic dykes dated between 550 and 530–520 Ma in the eastern
Saghro [74,107,108].

4.3. The Zone des Dykes Intermediate Sulfidation Epithermal Au-Base Metal Deposit
The Zone des Dykes, also known as the Issarfane area, is located in the western part of the
Jbel Saghro inlier (Figure 2) in the vicinity of a huge N–S rhyolitic dyke swarm emplaced around
565 Ma [29]. The Zone des Dykes ore district consists of quartz veins systems hosted by two ash-flow
tuff units belonging to the Upper Complex (Figure 10). Therein, three mineralised systems, called
the F1, F5 and Bou Issarfane structures, respectively (Figure10a), are identified [47]. The F1 structure
consists of a 2 km long and 2 m width vein system that trends N180–160◦ E and dips about 50–60◦ to
the east. The vein system shows several step-over zones showing a left lateral pull-apart geometry
(Figure 10b) with a faint vertical component. The F5 structure also consists of a vein system, 1 km
long and 2 m width, that is roughly oriented N080◦ E 60–70◦ S and is characterised by right-lateral
shear structures (Figure 10c). The F1 and F5 structures are both interpreted as developed as conjugate
pairs (Figure 10d). Because cross-cutting relationships are observed, we interpret the N080◦ E direction
trend (i.e., F5) as the dominant direction. The F1 shear structures is herein interpreted as emplaced
along a pre-existing NNW–SSE fracture analogous to the ones occuring between the Bouskour and
Issarfane areas (Figure 2). The F5 structure is also emplaced along an important pre-existing fracture
set that corresponds to a main ENE–WSW regional fault. This may explain why the F1 and F5
shear fractures are almost orthogonal yet conjugated, but also why the F1 pull-apart structures are
always brecciated. The Bou Issarfane structure has a ca. N–S orientation like the F1 system, but
unlikely lies at dip angles of 20–40◦ to the east. It consists of a 1.5 km long and 5 to 10 m thick
silicified breccia system hosted by ignimbrites and rhyolitic tuff that is affected by E–W brittle faults
(Figure 10a). While an unsilicified rhyodacitic lava flow occurs at the hanging wall, the footwall
is made up of a 5–10 m thick anastomosed quartz stockwork. All veins are mostly filled in by
quartz (Figure 10e,g–i) with scarce amount of adularia, sericite, chlorite, calcite and rare fluorite [47].
Sulphides are also common and mainly consist of arsenian pyrite (Figure 10f). Chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
Pb–Cu–Bi assemblages (aikinite group) and electrum are accessory minerals and appear as inclusions
within the As-rich pyrites (Figure 10f). Chlorite has a pycnochlorite composition and a Fe/Fe + Mg
ratio close to 0.48 which is consistent with temperature of crystallisation bracketed between 210 and
280 ◦ C [47]. All veins are characterised by internal textures typical of epithermal deposits according to
Dong et al. [161]. The most representative quartz textures are those showing a partial replacement of a
silica gel precursor characterised by colloform and moss texture (Figure 10g). Such textures are specific
of siliceous sinters in active geothermal systems [161]. Ghost-bladed calcite textures [162] are also
observed (Figure 10h,i). The occurrence of platy calcite (ghost-bladed calcite) demonstrates that boiling
processes were active during vein formation [163–165]. Veins also show complex texture reflecting
several stages of crystallisation, replacement and re-crystallisation occur. Within this complex process
of vein formation, Tuduri [47] suggests that sulphides crystallised after the second stage of quartz
replacement while electrum is mostly located within fissures of the pyrite. While the structural control
of the F1 and F5 structures is clearly evidenced, the emplacement of the Bou Issarfane breccia remains

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unclear and needs to be discussed. Fragments from the Bou Issarfane breccia are silicified, sub-angular
and of dimensions lower than 1 cm. Their probable volcanic origin suggest minor distance of transport.
The matrix is highly silicified and seems composed by detritus of rock fragments (host rocks), and (or)
by comminuted gangue minerals.

ȱ
Figure 10. Main features of the Zone des Dykes deposits [47]. (a) General map of the Zone des Dykes
Au-Ag deposit at the crossing between the F1 and F5 vein systems and Bou Issarfane area (after
Tuduri [47]). (b) Pull-apart texture indicative of a left-lateral shearing movement along the F1 structure.

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The filling is composed by quartz. (c) Pull-apart geometry of the F5 structure mainly filled by
quartz and formed by dextral kinematics. (d) Global kinematic interpretation for the F1 and F5
structures integrating all the structural features observed in the field. (e) Microphotograph showing
internal microtexture of the F1 structure characterized by a saccharoidal layout of quartz grains, cross
polar light. (f) Typical gold-rich paragenesis of the F5 structure. Py: pyrite, Sp: sphalerite, Ccp:
chalcopyrite. (g) Microphotograph of silica spheroid aggregates displaying moss texture, cross polar
light. (h) Microphotograph of parallel ghost bladed calcites replaced by quartz, cross planar light and
(i) plane polarized light microscopy.

The origin of this breccia may be therefore compared with phreatic or phreatomagmatic breccia
pipes, although we cannot exclude a tectonic origin corresponding to a silicified cataclasite. According
to salinity and homogenization temperatures, two type of fluids are assumed to be at the origin of
the mineralised system [166]. The Bou Issarfane stockwork is characterised by primary multiphase
fluid inclusions composed of liquid, vapour and halite cubes. Values obtained using the FIA concept
indicate homogenization temperatures between 210 and 230 ◦ C and moderate salinities (14–17 wt. %
eq. NaCl). Secondary inclusions have lower homogenization temperatures between 130 and 180 ◦ C.
The F1–F5 veins consist of primary multiphase inclusions composed of liquid, vapour and halite cube
with CaCl2 assemblages.
Homogenization temperatures are bracketed between 160 and 180◦ C. Salinities are variable from
6% to 29% (wt. % NaCl + CaCl2 equiv.) and may reflect the effects of boiling processes. Such textural,
mineralogical and fluid characteristics suggest this hydrothermal Au–Ag(–Cu–Zn–Pb–Bi) system
is comparable with intermediate sulfidation epithermal deposits as the ones reported in the Sierra
Madre Occidental in Mexico [25,26,167]. The age of this ore deposit is still unknown. Considering
the N–S trending direction of the F1 and Bou Issarfane structures, and the N–S trending direction of
the rhyolitic dyke swarm, the mineralisation may have been formed coevally with this volcanic pulse
around 565 Ma, i.e., after the emplacement of the ash-flow tuffs, that host the mineralisation dated,
at 574 ± 7 and 571 ± 5, respectively [29]. However, we cannot exclude that the mineralisation is related
to a later magmatic-hydrothermal period (e.g., the 550 or 530–520 Ma event) whilst no study has so far
evidenced such later activity in the Bou Isserfane area.

4.4. The Giant Ag–Hg Imiter Deposit

The world-class Ag–Hg mining distirct of Imiter (Figures 2 and 11a) with 8.5 Mt of ore at a
concentration of 700 g/t Ag consists of mineralised quartz–carbonate veins hosted by metagreywackes
and more seldomly by the lower volcaniclastic units of the Upper Complex. The ore is located along
a major E–W faulted corridor (Figure 11a) and results from a two-stage model of formation [47,102].
The main economic stage 1 developed within a N070–090◦ E 75–90◦ N trending dextral vein system
filled by grey quartz, adularia and minor pink dolomite (Figure 11b,c, [102]). Satellite veins are
common (e.g., F0 South, F0 North, R7 and R6, Figure 11b) and were formed synchronously with
the main ones (e.g., F0 and B3, Figure 11b) within a global model of formation that involves double
restraining bends along a strike-slip system. Indeed, such a push-up geometry results from irregular
trends and stepovers developed along the N070–090◦ E dextral regional-scale faults (Figures 2 and
11a,b). The system also includes steeply-dipping, listric reverse faults and veins that flatten with depth
(N065◦ E 50◦ SE, Figure 11b,d,e) and therefore that become flat-lying faults/veins in deeper parts of
mine (N065◦ E 20–30◦ SE, Figure 11b). Reverse motions are clearly observed along all these structures
(Figure 11d,e) and are assumed to have been formed during transpression. They serve as receptacles
for the late emplacement of the high-grade silver deposit defined by Ag–Hg and Ag-rich minerals
(Figure 11f, [102]). The main economic paragenesis is characterised by massive deposition of Ag–Hg
amalgam (luanheite, eugenite), polybasite–pearceite, acanthite, stephanite, pyrargyrite-proustite and
imiterite [47,168–170]. Sphalerite and galena are abundant while no silver was detected. Arsenopyrite
is well represented but always as small euhedral crystals of a few hundred micrometers [47].

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ȱ
Figure 11. Main features of the world-class Ag–Hg Imiter mining district [47,102]. (a) General map
of the giant Ag–Hg Imiter mine (after Leistel and Qadrouci [127] and Tuduri [47]) and (b) stereoplots
of structural orientations and interpretative block diagram explaining the formation of the main
ore-bearing vein system. Thrusts are formed in core of transpressive push-up structures. Note
that the mineralised structures were everywhere controlled by a ESE–WNW direction of shortening.
(c) Pull-apart and tension-gashes structures of the economic stage filled by geodic quartz and formed

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during dextral kinematics, F0 North vein systems, view realised towards the top of the mining gallery,
Imiter I. (d) Pull-apart geometry of the economic stage indicative of a reverse shearing towards the
north and showing void formations, R6 structure, Imiter II. (e) Pull-apart texture of the F0 South vein
systems, thrusting towards the NW–NNW. The filling is composed by quartz (economic stage) and
scarce pink dolomite in core of pull-apart texture. (f) Typical paragenesis of the economic stage 1
composed by quartz veins and huge concentration of Ag–Hg alloys, Imiter I, F0 south. (g) Tension
gashes and left lateral pull-apart structures filled with pink dolomite of the stage 2, F0 structure, Imiter I.
(h) Typical features of the stage 2 pink dolomite stage with large patches of Ag-rich galena, F0 structure,
Imiter I. Since photographs c and h were taken towards the top of exploration galleries, kinematics
interpretation must be inverted.

Tuduri et al. [102] further demonstrated that a stage 2 reactivated the transpression-related
structures in the opposite sense, and developed normal left-lateral motions associated with massive
pink dolomite crystallisation, as well as prismatic quartz and variable amounts of Ag-rich galena
and sphalerite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite and freibergite (Figure 11g,h). Note that these
two economic stages were preceded by a barren quartz vein network stage associated with sericite,
illite-chlorite and base-metal sulphide minerals such as pyrite, galena, sphalerite with chalcopyrite
exsolutions [45,47,51,127,169–171].
The main driving mechanism for silver ore deposition is assumed to be the dilution of ore-bearing
fluids that were CaCl2 -dominated. Values obtained using the FIA concept [172,173] point to a general
temperature decrease from stage 1 (280–100 ◦ C) to stage 2 (110–60 ◦ C). Note that the deepest levels
of the mine workings (−220 m below the surface) record temperature in excess of 60 ◦ C (i.e., lowest
temperatures >160 ◦ C) with respect to the shallow levels (−100 m) where the lowest temperatures are
around 100◦ C. During stage 1, fluid salinities are moderate to high (8.4 to 26.1 wt. % NaCl + CaCl2
equiv.), whereas they are very high when stage 2 dolomite precipitates (24.6 to 30 wt. % NaCl + CaCl2
equiv.). Such value ranges are in agreement with data published by previous authors whether or not
they used the FIA concept [41,45,101,171]. At shallower levels, additional supergene enrichment has
been responsible for massive formation of native silver (1500 g/t Ag) associated with cerusite and
mimetite [164].
Work in progress shows that Ag–Hg sulfohalides could also be related to the supergene
processes [174]. Two opposing ore-forming models are strongly debated at Imiter. Some authors
taking into account halogen composition of fluid inclusions, stable (C, O, S) and radiogenic (Pb,
Re/O) isotope data together with noble gas (He) isotope compositions, suggest that the deposit is
consistent with an epithermal model related to the felsic volcanic event at the Precambrian–Cambrian
transition [45,47,51,101,127,170,175]. In that way, the huge Ag–Hg deposit would be comparable with
the ones from the Mexican Sierra Madre Occidental Ag–Pb–Zn–Au belt, and should be considered as
an intermediate sulfidation epithermal deposit [167,175]. On the other hand, a lithogene model [176]
has been alternatively proposed in which fluids, according to laser ablation inductively coupled
plasma-mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) data on fluid inclusions, halogen signatures, and stable
isotopes (H, C, O), are the products of diagenetic brine–evaporite interactions within a sedimentary
basin [41]. The ore deposit might also be the result of basin inversion that expelled deep Ag-rich
brines during, or at the end, of the Palaeozoic orogeny [41,175]. Recent 40 Ar/39 Ar age measured at
255 ± 3 Ma on adularia from stage 1 quartz vein supports the late Palaeozoic brine model [38].

5. Discussion

5.1. A Simplified Tectono-Magmatic Evolution Model of the Eastern Anti-Atlas

The evolution and transition between two main tectono-magmatic events is of importance in the
Eastern Anti-Atlas and deserves to be discussed extensively and integrated with metallogenetic issues.

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5.1.1. The Lower Complex and the D1 Deformation

The D1 deformation affects metagreywackes and metavolcanics and is associated with the
syntectonic emplacement of calc-alkaline diorite and granodiorite plutons (Figure 12a). It is consistent
with a NW–SE to WNW–ESE trending horizontal shortening. Structural studies have highlighted
several important deformation structures related to that D1 stage, i.e., upright tight folds with
large-scale anticline and syncline, development of an axial planar S0–1 foliation, regional-scale
N070–090◦ E trending dextral wrenching shear-zones, contact metamorphic minerals defining a
stretching lineation (L1 ) and rare S–SE-verging thrusts; Figures 2–4. Some plutons are inferred to be
coeval with the D1 deformation. Indeed, some of them are emplaced within the N070–090◦ E dextral
shear-zones where they develop penetrative magmatic foliation and lineation. Elsewhere, other plutons
seem to be emplaced in the core of folded sequences [47,121]. Furthermore, a tectonically-controlled
fabric is best expressed in the thermal metamorphic aureoles developed around such plutons. There,
foliations, lineations and related shear sense indicators show top-to-the-SSE–SE thrusting (Figure 4b,d)
and dextral shearing depending on the distance from major shear-zones [47,121]. For those reasons,
such diorite and granodiorite intrusions are herein interpreted as syntectonic and emplaced under
the control of a NW–SE to WNW–ESE trending shortening [47,48,121]. This is consistent with the
model of Saquaque et al. [77] who proposed that the main regional deformation results in top-to-the-SE
thrusting, right-lateral wrenching along ca. E–W to ENE–WSW shear zones and syn-tectonic plutons.
Since we herein combine strike-slip and shortening that is roughly perpendicular to the shear-zones,
we infer a global transpressive tectonic regime as dominant in the D1 stage. The characteristics of this
tectonic stage that associates transpressive tectonics, pluton emplacement, strike-slip and rare thrusts
explain the heterogeneity of the deformation observed within the entire Jbel Saghro.

Figure 12. Interpretative three-phase model (a–c) explaining the tectono-magmatic evolution as well as
the Lower and Upper Complexes definition of the Jbel Saghro and the formation of the ore-bearing
vein systems of the Zone des Dykes, Qal’at MGouna, Thaghassa and Imiter districts. The size of the
blue arrow relates with the inferred intensity of regional stress. See text for explanation. Note that the
Qal’at MGouna porphyry deposit may belong to either the late stage of event 1 or the earlier stage of
event 2 as the related porphyry stock emplaced at the transition between the two at 576 ± 5 Ma [29].

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Previous interpretations tried to link each type of structures or pluton emplacement to one distinct
tectonic event, increasing the complexity. From this study, it appears more appropriate to interpret
all these features by the occurrence of a single and unique D1 tectono-magmatic event. According
to Gasquet et al. [83], as basins infilling with greywacke sequences was active until the onset of the
Ediacaran period between 630 and 610 Ma; we suggest that the D1 deformation probably occurred
coevally with the syn-tectonic calc-alkaline magmatic occurrences, those being dated from ca. 615 Ma
until ca. 575–565 Ma. This upper 575–565 Ma limit for the D1 age is an important issue and will be
further discussed below.

5.1.2. The Upper Complex and the D2 Deformation

The Upper Complex is dominated by ash-flow tuffs emplaced in three main flare-ups and exposed
inside or outside caldera structures, and by plutonic intrusions, mostly granitic, that were coeval
with this D2 -related deformation (Figure 12b). Deformation was very weak and characterised by a
brittle regime mainly represented by fault zones and vein formation throughout the Jbel Saghro area.
Faults are mostly characterised by ca. N070–090◦ E orientations for the dextral strike-slip ones [47]
whereas the ca. NW–SE trending direction may correspond to conjugate strike slip faults. However
and according to Soulaimani et al. [86,87] and Azizi Samir et al. [177], the ca. NW–SE trending direction
also corresponds to normal faulting yielding tilted blocks with syn-sedimentation processes. Such
sedimentary deposits are volcaniclastic. The huge volumes of ash-flow tuffs associated with lava
flows and related intrusions is considered as evidence for ash-flow caldera such as in the Qal’at
Mgouna or Oued Dar’a areas (Figures 2 and 12b). We cannot exclude the presence of other caldera
structures elsewhere in the Eastern Anti-Atlas. Because the structural limits of these caldera structures
preferentially trend WNW–ESE to NW–SE [29,47], i.e., perpendicular to the direction of extension, the
caldera yields an elliptic shape and is interpreted to be structurally controlled [141].
Three main ignimbrite flare-ups have been defined in the Upper Complex formation. The first one
may have been emplaced at ca. 575 Ma and consists of dacitic ash-flow tuffs with related granodiorite
and monzogranites [29]. The second flare-up occurred probably around 565 Ma and is related to
monzogranite and granodiorite intrusions as well as the huge rhyo-dacitic dyke swarm in the western
part of the Saghro [29,48,78,107]. The third ignimbrite flare-up is related to rhyolitic ash-flow tuff
and cogenetic monzo-to syenogranite emplaced around 555 Ma [29,51,74,106,107]. Finally, a late
magmatic stage is composed of the alkali-syenogranite plutons and related rhyolite dykes (Figure 12c).
Such late alkali magmas highlight the persistence of the magmatism even after the emplacement of
caldera-related rocks although they are less abundant. No radiometric ages are currently available on
the alkali granites but related dykes provide ages bracketed between 550 and 520 Ma at the transition
between the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic aeon [51,74,107,108]. Note that most of the intrusives such
as aplitic and rhyolite dykes display a change in their orientation (i.e., ~N020◦ E, Figure 9c). Also, most
of the hydrothermal veins related to those dykes and alkali plutons have the same direction pattern
(Figure 9c). As no clear direction of shearing is evidenced in the horizontal plane, it is herein suggested
that an extensional tectonic setting may control and assist the emplacement of both magmatic and
hydrothermal structures in the ca. 550–520 Ma interval. The D2 event is controlled by a ca. NW–SE to
WNW–ESE direction of shortening and a ca. NE–SW to NNE–SSW direction of extension. Such control
may evolve later toward a ca. N–S shortening direction and a ca. E–W extensional direction during
the early Cambrian stage. This would be consistent with what is observed during the Adoudounian
rifting period [86,87,106].

5.1.3. About the Transition between the Two Complexes and the D1 and D2 Tectonics
In the Eastern Anti-Atlas, the transition between the Lower and Upper Complexes is characterised
by a significant increase of the magmatic addition rate [178] mostly evidenced by the Ediacaran volcanic
flare-ups and by a change in the tectonic regime. However, such a transition appears as diachronous
whether we consider the start of the volcanic activity or the change in tectonic regime.

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The key evidence highlighting such a transition is the existence of an angular unconformity
between the Lower and Upper Complex units [29,47,74,78]. However, the age of the transition remains
elusive and debated. If we consider the available ages earlier volcanics of the Upper Complex that
lie above the unconformity, the transition might occur between 580 and 570 Ma taking into account
the error bars of the radiometric ages. This has been well described in the Western Anti-Atlas on the
Tizgui geological map [29,179]. In the Central Anti-Atlas, Blein et al. [78] also suggest that most of
the regional deformation observed there was completed by ca. 580 Ma and followed by an important
erosional phase prior to the deposition of the Upper Complex volcaniclastic sequences. The 575 Ma
age, therefore, represents a mean value.
Dating the deformations and thus the change in the tectonic regime from D1 to D2 is matter
of more confusion. Indeed, the transition between the two complexes is estimated at ca. 575 Ma
with the incipient volcanic activity and the occurrence of a strong angular uncorformity. By contrast,
the transition between the two deformation events would be a little more recent and would have
occurred around 565 Ma. The age assigned to the D1 deformation appears thus mostly dependent on
the radiometric ages obtained on the syntectonic plutons, and the issue of what plutons are syntectonic
or not in the Eastern Anti-Atlas is clearly to be better assessed from field data. Currently, numerous
plutons emplaced between ca. 575 and 565 Ma have been interpreted as syntectonic as they develop
a coherent and homogenous ductile deformation in contact aureoles [48,105,106,121,123]. Given the
error bars on the ages, we can actually question on their belonging to the earlier Upper Complex
structuration, or to the later stage of the Lower Complex and D1 deformation. As a matter of fact,
discussions do exist about the possible intrusive character of some of these plutons in the lower part of
the Upper Complex (e.g., The Igoudrane, Taouzzakt and Ikniwn plutons, Figures 2 and 3), while they
may display an erosive roof on which lies Upper Complex volcaniclastics (at least the upper part of the
Upper Complex). In addition, we have shown above that magmatic mushes at the origin of plutons
emplaced around 575 and 565 Ma may be at the origin of the former ignimbritic flare-ups.
In any case, we assume that between 575 and 565 Ma, syn-D1 plutons have developed in the Lower
Complex metagreywackes, both contact metamorphism and ductile deformation that we interpret
as the ongoing tectono-magmatic evolution between the Lower and Upper Complex structuration
as suggested by Tuduri et al. [48]. Possibly, the S2 cleavage refraction that developed after the main
first-order folding event may be related to this transitional stage. It also remains difficult to assess
whether some plutons were intruded within folds (e.g., the Bou Teglimt granodiorite in core of the
Imiter inlier anticline, Figure 3a) and thus after the folding event (i.e., plutons would belong to the
earlier stage of the Upper Complex) or if their emplacement played a part in the anticline structuring
(i.e., plutons would belong to the Lower Complex tectono-magmatic history). Consequently, taking
the important dioritic and granodioritic plutonism as systematically belonging to the Lower Complex
might be misleading. As well, it is not straightforward to math the change in the tectonic regime
(D1 -D2 transition) with the transition between the Lower and Upper Complexes.
Therefore, we herein suggest that the reported tectonic transition must have been an ongoing
process through the Lower-Upper Complex transition, given the deformation features (cleavage, weak
upright folding) observed in the volcaniclastic rocks of the lower part of the Upper Complex in the
western Saghro and Central Anti-Atlas [29,78]. Indeed, Blein et al. [78] recall that rapid variations in
thickness of the volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks of the Upper Complex suggest they were deposited
during active tectonics and on highly variable basement (i.e., Lower Complex units) topography.
Such variations in the topography may be due to the earlier transpressive stage but also to later
extensional-transtensional tectonics. In the rest of the Jbel Saghro no clear evidence of deformation
(except cleavage) has been described affecting the lower part of the Upper Complex rocks. Note that
the “Série molassique du Dadès” described by Walsh et al. [29] in the northern Qal’at Mgouna area,
as being bedded, deformed and weakly metamorphosed in lower greenschist facies corresponds
to the tilted intra-caldera volcanic sequence which underwent propylitic hydrothermal alteration.
This formation herein belongs to the Upper Complex.

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The preservation of the same shortening direction and tectonic style (i.e., strike slip dominated)
further suggests that D2 is a continuation of D1 even though D1 was associated with transpressive
tectonics and D2 linked with transtension to extension. Eventually, the transition between the D1
and the D2 deformation regimes occurred, while the shortening direction (parallel to Z strain axis)
remained roughly constant (i.e., NWSE to WNW–ESE). However, one can note a shift in the two other
strain directions showing a decrease of the vertical extension that becomes horizontal. This explains the
numerous extensional features developed during the D2 stage (i.e., calderas formation and multiple
ore concentrations within open structures). We note that the transition from D1 to D2 must be achieved
prior the emplacement of the Thagassa IRGD around 565 Ma [48]. This transition is supposed to be
progressive and the earliest mineralisation stages, such as the ones emplaced in the Thaghassa area,
are the witnesses of this transition.
Therefore, we assume that the D1 deformation might affect the lower units of the Upper Complex.
Future works may focuse on testing this assumption. The contrasting structural levels that exist
between the Lower Complex and Upper Complex units may argue against such a continuum. However,
the combination of exhumation processes along strike-slip fault systems and of denudation history,
integrating erosion processes [180–182] provides the first elements of an answer. Moreover, ignimbrite
flare-ups and caldera formation are assumed to have been occurred rapidly as catastrophic events,
contributing unconformities between the volcaniclastic rocks of the Upper Complex and the Lower
Complex units.

5.2. The Mineralising Model

This study demonstrates the strong spatial link that exists between ore deposits and magmatism
in the Eastern Anti-Atlas. A common hypothesis for the source of the mineralisation is to involve
fluid exsolutions from intrusions. Even though we cannot demonstrate this assumption for all the
ore deposits, a progressive and continuous vein formation model that began in the magmatic stage,
developed an intermediate stage and finally ended under hydrothermal conditions is well constrained
at Thaghassa and Qal’at Mgouna. Such a model of ore formation thus involves a three-stage model as
stated in Table 1. About the economic stages, even though they were formed late during the veining
stage, they benefited from the existence of previously formed veins. This model again highlights the
significant role of the magmatism and related structures for ore deposition and concentration [183].

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 Table 1. Synthetic table summarizing the magmatic-hydrothermal features of main ore deposits of the Saghro area.

The Zone des Dykes

The Qal’at MGouna District The Thaghassa Deposit The Imiter Deposit
Deposit
Alkali-granite emplacement
with quartz, K-feldspar,
Granodiorite stock
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Stage I (strong magmatic F-tourmaline, F-muscovite in Aplite dyke emplacement

Not expressed emplacement and fluid Not expressed
affinities) miarolitic cavities and (500 < T ◦ C < 600 ◦ C) 1
exsolution
stockscheider
(400 < T ◦ C < 600) 1
Strong alteration with quartz,
Stage II (intermediate stage K-feldspar and magnetite F-tourmaline, F-Cl-micas, Quartz, K-feldspar, muscovite,
between magmatic and Not expressed alteration (disseminated andalusite, F-Cl apatite, apatite, tourmaline and Not expressed
hydrothermal conditions) and in veinlet stockwork) monazite apatite (T ◦ C < 500) 1
(250 < T ◦ C < 400) 1
Firstly, quartz-adularia veins
Quartz stockwork with Chlorite-rich breccias,
with silver-rich sulfides and
Quartz, adularia veins with Cl-biotite, Cl-amphibole, thenAdularia, specularite, Striped quartz veins filled by
alloys (100 < T ◦ C < 280) 1 and
Stage III (hydrothermal) calcite, chlorite, sulfides and muscovite, sulfides quartz veins with sulfides and quartz, sericite, sulfides and
then dolomite-quartz veins
gold (210 < T ◦ C < 280) 1 (Cu–Mo) and gold ”gold” gold (300 < T ◦ C < 450) 1
with Ag-rich galena and
(160 < T ◦ C < 460) 1 (160 < T ◦ C< 200) 1
sphalerite (60 < T ◦ C < 110) 1
1 Temperatures have been estimated using selected geothermometers applied on micas [184], chlorites [185,186], arsenopyrites [187,188], activity diagrams generated for tourmaline,

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albite, andalusite, paragonite and kaolinite [189] and microthermometric data results [41,45,48,155,159,160,166,170–173]. See Tuduri [47] for details.
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• The first stage shows strong magmatic influence. It is characterised by emplacement of porphyry
stocks, aplite dykes and sills at high temperatures from 400 ◦ C up to 600 ◦ C. At Thaghassa, this
stage was responsible for the partial melting of the metagreywackes in response to the Ikniwn
granodiorite thermal effect and for the related genesis of leucocratic S-type haplogranitic sills.
In the Qal’at Mgouna district, this stage was responsible for the formation of stockscheider and
miarolitic cavities within sills and dykes.
• The second intermediate stage consists of magmatic-hydrothermal vein emplacement and
associated pervasive alteration. The persistence of the magmatic character is shown
by the occurrence of high-temperature alteration phases such as tourmaline, micas,
andalusite, apatite, K-feldspar with quartz. In the Qal’at Mgouna district, at Isamlal,
this stage can be compared with the classical potassic and magnetite alteration in some
porphyry type systems [190]. It is also marked by the wide pervasive development of
Al-silicate–Al-hydroxide–phosphate–muscovite–F-rich phlogopite and F-rich tourmaline
alteration, related to the late Si-rich alkali granites. K-feldspar, apatite, white mica along vein
rims are observed at the beginning of vein aperture at Thaghassa. Temperatures of formation are
bracketed between 250 and 500 ◦ C.
• The third stage is hydrothermal and formed at lower temperature (60 < T (◦ C) < 300) producing
gangue minerals except for the Thaghassa and Isamlal deposits where high-temperature minerals
were also formed (350–450 ◦ C). This stage end with the emplacement of economic ore.

The conditions of vein formation vary depending on their location in the Lower or Upper Complex
and are reflected by variations in mineralogy and internal texture. Such variations are basically due to
different structural levels of formation. Indeed, the geometry of the mineralised structures is controlled
by tectonics, hydrostatic pressure, effective vertical stress and volcano-related effects. The Thaghassa
prospect, hosted by the Lower Complex metagreywakes, exhibits texture and mineralogy indicative of
high-temperature conditions of formation. The Zone des Dykes vein system, entirely developed in
Upper Complex ash-flow tuffs, shows internal textures consistent with low-temperature epithermal
deposits. The Qal’at Mgouna deposits are developed at an intermediate structural level. Veins hosted
by the Lower Complex rocks are related to high-temperature formation (i.e., the Isamlal porphyry
Au(–Cu_Mo) deposit) whereas those formed at shallower levels reflect low-temperature conditions
(Talat-n-Tabarought and Tawrirt-n-Cwalh districts). Tuduri et al. [154] suggest that high temperature
systems emplaced at ca. 150–200 MPa, whereas the lower temperature systems were formed at a
lower depth (20–50 MPa). The regional variations clearly document the transition from magmatic
to hydrothermal conditions, i.e., from somewhat high temperature fluids (350 ◦ C and higher) at
Thaghassa and Isamlal, to lower temperature hydrothermal fluids (below 300 ◦ C) at the Zone des
Dykes and Imiter.
For all ore deposits described in this study, the Ag and Au economic concentrations (with Cu,
Zn, Pb) correlate with ore-forming fluids with moderate to high salinity. This is consistent with
transport by chloro-complexes and confirms the importance of brines in such ore formation. If brines
are frequent in the formation of porphyry copper deposit [183,191] and probably IRGDs [64,68], their
role in intermediate sulfidation epithermal systems remains a matter of debate. In large Mexican
epithermal silver deposits of intermediate sulfidation state, Wilkinson et al. [26] suggested that the
ore forming fluids, were injected into a geothermal circulation system in response to the ascent of
a magmatic intrusion. Such hydrothermal diapirs would be sourced from a stratified hyper-saline
brine reservoir, formed in response to incremental exsolution of magmatic fluid, and intense brine
condensation at depth, with halite precipitation, being stored above the source magma reservoirs [26,
192,193]. By contrast, Essarraj et al. [40,41,49] suggested that the ore-forming fluids were related to
deep-basinal sedimentary brines and that metals had no genetic relationship with Neoproterozoic
magmatism, on the basis of numerous deposits they investigated in the Eastern and Central Anti-Atlas.
They suggested that ore brines resulted from evaporatively concentrated seawater in Triassic basins
producing hot basinal brines, comparable with conditions for Mississippi Valley-Type (MVT) deposits.

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We here suggest that all ore deposits described above are related to the Ediacaran
magmatic-hydrothermal complex emplaced from 575 to 530–520 Ma. The concept of stored hypersaline
brines is emphasised following Scott et al. [193]. Nevertheless, while a magmatic origin of such
stored brines is obvious, the origin for Ca-rich brines has yet to be defined. Though such Ca-rich
brines may derive from magmatic processes, they are also widespread in the deeper parts of many
sedimentary basins and involved in ore forming processes [194,195]. This is, pro parte, the reason why
Essarraj et al. [40,41,49] support a deep-basinal sedimentary brine model in the Anti-Atlas. Surprisingly,
they do not support an Ediacaran model for such a model but a more recent one that is Permo-Triasic
in age. Nevertheless, prior and during the early stage of development of the SLIP that characterise the
Upper Complex and the related ore deposits, periods that roughly belong to the Ediacaran Gaskiers
glaciation on the West African Craton and around [196,197], would have occurred between 595 and
565 Ma in the Anti-Atlas [198]. Such evidence may also point to a possible contribution of natural
cryogenic brines in the ore forming processes. Indeed, according to the Starinsky model of evolution
of a marine-cryogenic basin [199], these brines usually are seawater-derived and also enriched in Mg,
K, Na, Ca, Cl, SO4 and Br, even if they may have been heavily modified by fluid–rock interactions
and(or) dilution [200]. Future studies would have to address the possible role of Ediacaran glaciations
on the ore-forming processes in the Anti-Atlas.
The age of the mineralisations in the Jbel Saghro remains poorly constrained due to the lack of
absolute dating. Nevertheless, we can assume that the transtensional regime characteristic of the
Upper Complex provided extensional structures for melt and fluid circulations that are favourable for
magmatic-hydrothermal ore forming processes. This period of time (575–550 Ma and 550–520 Ma) was
suitable for ore emplacement as suggested above. We thus assume that most of the mineralised systems
may have been emplaced between ca. 575 and 520 Ma. Indeed, these ore deposits seem to have been
emplaced when tectonic regime changes at the transition between the Lower and Upper Complexes
and when the typical medium-K calc-alkaline arc magmatism became more abundant in between
580 and 570 Ma. Some porphyry Au(–Cu–Mo) deposit may have been emplaced earlier around
575 Ma. In the Sirwa mountains belonging to the Central Anti-Atlas, Cu–Mo ± Au mineralisations
associated with high-K calc-alkaline intrusions are also assumed to have been formed between
575 and 560 Ma [59,201]. Similar ages are also suggested in the vicinity of Bouskour where Re/Os
analyses on molybdenite related to a Cu-rich mineralised stage, yield a weighted average age of
574.9 ± 2.4 Ma [103]. Further, the Thaghassa deposit displays strong similarities with the earlier base
metal assemblage observed at Imiter and Tiouit [43,45,47,48,51]. Indeed, in the Tiouit gold deposit,
the ore body is closely associated with the Ikniwn granodiorite dated at 564 ± 6 [48]. At Imiter,
40 Ar/39 Ar dating on sericites related to the earlier base metal sulphide veins range from 577 ± 4 to

563 ± 5 Ma, in good agreement with the synchronous Taouzzakt granodiorite dated at 572 ± 5 Ma and
the Thaghassa model of emplacement (U-Pb radiometric ages on zircon, [48,51]). The intermediate
sulfidation epithermal Au(–Ag–Cu–Pb–Zn) deposit of the Zone des Dykes may have been emplaced
during lull periods soon after the emplacement of the second ignimbrite flare-up and related huge
dyke swarm in the western Saghro (around 560 Ma). Similarly, the huge intermediate sulfidation
epithermal Ag(–Hg–Pb–Zn) deposit at Imiter may have been emplaced following the third ignimbrite
flare-up around 550 Ma. This assumption adopts the age alreadyproposed for the Imiter mineralisation
on the basis of absolute dating of felsic volcanism at 550 Ma [45,51,101]. Lastly, we suggest that the
intermediate to low sulfidation epithermal Au–Ag–Te deposits were emplaced later when magmatism
became less abundant, more silicic and alkaline between 550 and 530–520 Ma [74,107,108]. This is
supported by the fact that some late rhyolitic dykes do not cross the Cambrian boundary while they
cut across mineralised structures, at Qal’at Mgouna for example (Figure 9a)

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5.3. Implication of the Tectonic Regime Changes for the Late Neoproterozoic—Early Cambrian Geodynamic
Evolution and Ore Deposit Emplacement
In the light of our results, a geodynamic evolution model is proposed (Figure 13), showing the
spatial and temporal distribution of metal deposits in the Eastern Anti-Atlas that may be reasonably
extended to the whole Anti-Atlas. Considering the tectonic and metallogenetic framework at the
scale of the Anti-Atlas regional scale, we suggest a first-order influence of subduction dynamics
on the shift with time of metal concentrations and ore deposit types in the Anti-Atlas. In our
scenario (Figure 13a,b) and according to Walsh et al. [29], the 615–575 Ma period is characterised
by an Andean-type subduction of a wide continuous slab along the northern Gondwana margin (i.e.,
the currently northern side of South America and Africa). This long period of subduction (ca. 40 Myr)
probably occurs because the large slab width (>2000 km) increases the viscous resistance of the mantle
on the slab [202]. In that model, oceanic lithosphere subducts beneath the continental lithosphere that
progressively becomes thicker due to the presence of the West African Craton. Suction between ocean
and continent increases, favouring slab flattening and mantle wedge closure [203].

ȱ
Figure 13. Compiled lithospheric-scale reconstructions (a–e) of the Pan-African/Cadomian belt systems
from the West African Craton foreland to the Iapetus oceanic domain showing the possible progressive
slab retreat since ca. 575 Ma to 500 Ma as suggested in text. Zones of partial melting in both the
subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) and the lower crust, as well as the zones of storage and
transfer of melts are shown in red. Kinematic vectors related to the West African Craton drifting are
from Merdith et al. [204] using the GPlates software [205]. The palaeotectonic map reconstruction of
Gondwana (f) has been realised using the GPlates software and the global plate models with kinematic
continuity of Domeier [206].

Both slab flattening and probably relatively high convergence rate control the D1 deformation in
the overriding plate. A subduction vector (Figure 13b) oblique to the continental margin may explain

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the overall transpression regime that characterises the Lower Complex. Indeed, the lack of nappes,
fold nappes, mylonitic fabrics and metamorphic gradient preclude a continental collision setting in
that period. Possibly, a volcanic arc accretion event may locally emphasize this deformation. Melt
generation remains limited given the restricted size of the mantle wedge while their ascent may occur
when regional or local extensional regime occurred (Figure 13a,b). Ore forming processes are limited in
this setting as they depend on the generation and ascent of fertile melts. However, melts produced and
stored at depth in the MASH (melting, assimilation, storage and homogenization) zone may become
more fertile in the following stages.
From 575 Ma, the ongoing evolution of the flattened subduction of oceanic beneath cratonic
lithospheres causes a dynamic push on the slab surface [203]. This occurs as the rate of wedge
closure increases, pushing the slab backward and initiating slab roll-back and high-volume magmatic
production (Figure 13c), ultimately leading to the first ignimbrite flare-up. Ongoing slab roll-back along
with tectonic regimes becoming more extensional initiate the second, and then the third ignimbrite
flare-ups (Figure 13d). Slab tearing and (or) breakoff provide important asthenospheric flow that
probably catalyse partial melting of both the asthenospheric mantle wedge and subcontinental
lithosphere mantle (SCLM). The latest alkali magmas are assumed to have been emplaced at an
extensional stage related to the Adoudounian rift in the Western Anti-Atlas [87,106] that corresponds
to a back-arc setting. Such ongoing extensional tectonics [206,207] will ultimately result in the opening
of the future Rheic Ocean (Figure 13e,f).
A collision then post-collision scenario cannot be applied to the Anti-Atlas region between 615 and
520 Ma, since subduction do not cease in our model but progressively migrate towards lower latitudes
(Figure 13). Eventually, such subduction dynamics determine the dominant stress regime in the
overriding plate, which influences the metals mobilization in the MASH zone and, their ascent through
the crust, and thus controls the distribution of resulting metal occurrences [208–212].
According to Tosdal and Richards [211], most of the mineralised structures are suggested to have
formed during the D2 -related transtensive regime caused by shortening in a WNW–ESE direction
and extension along the NNE–SSW direction (Figures 12c and 13c–e). In our interpretation, porphyry
Au(–Cu–Mo) and intrusion-related gold deposits are emplaced earlier than the first and(or) second
ignimbrite flare-ups (i.e., 575 and(or) 565 Ma). Intermediate sulfidation epithermal Au, Ag deposits
may be emplaced during lull periods after the second and (or) the third flare-ups (i.e., 560 and(or)
550 Ma). Compressive structures are indicated in the Zone des Dykes and Imiter districts, as the result
of likely a specific structures geometry with respect to the shortening direction. Intermediate to low
sulfidation epithermal Au–Ag–Te deposits are emplaced late and in relation with the felsic alkaline
magmatic stage (550–520 Ma).
We have stressed here the existence of a long period of magmatism, i.e., over a 95 Myr duration,
which is characterised by an increase in produced magmatic volumes, probably in response to
geodynamical controls, marked by a late magmatic paroxysm in the form of several ignimbrite
flare-ups over a shorter duration of ca. 25 Myr. Such long-lived magmatic activity is paralleled by a
tectonic progressive evolution from beginning within transpression conditions to transtension then
extension, allowing the mineralisations to take place.
At the regional scale, we may question a possible diachronism of the magmatic activity between
the western Bou Azzer and Siroua and the eastern Saghro inliers (Figure 2). Indeed, the main volcanic
event occurred between 580 and 560 Ma in Bou Azzer, Siroua and western Saghro inliers. In the
central and eastern Jbel Saghro area, volcanic rocks as reported are somewhat younger and mostly
dated between 570 and 550 Ma from west to east [51,74]. This suggests that the main volcanic stage
progresses toward the east along with the D2 tectonic regime. If we compare with the Sierra Madre
Occidental as a model of large silicic volcanic province [14,147,148,213], the widespread ash-flow tuff
deposits of the Anti-Atlas domain should be emplaced as ignimbrite flare-ups and are correlated with
progressive and diachronic formation toward the east of caldera collapse structures, broadly oriented
E–W to NW–SE. This volcano-structural framework developed coevally with a transtensive tectonic

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regime characterised by both NNE–SSW extension and WNW–ESE shortening. In terms of melting
processes, the main controlling factor in the generation of such a SLIP is a crustal setting located along
a long-lived active subduction zone that evolves into a post-subduction domain via slab-roll back
processes. According to Bryan and Ferrari [14] and Ernst [12], a huge thermal pulse is at the origin of a
large-scale crustal anataxis of fertile and hydrous lower-crustal materials as well as metasomatised
subcontinental lithospheric mantle. Flare-up models are in part inherited from the late evolution of arc
settings that underwent slab-roll back, slab-breakoff and slab-window [14,147,148,214], as propoded
here and correlated with the D1 and D2 tectonic model (Figure 13). Because they represent transient
events of high magmatic fluxes from the mantle [215], volcanic flare ups are considered here as highly
potential for Ag(–Au) economic deposits emplacement.

6. Conclusions
We document in this paper a long-lived tectono-magmatic event that produced two main
litho-structural units we refer to as the Lower and Uper Complexes, respectively. The Lower Complex
is coeval with the main Pan-African D1 deformation consisting of a transpressive regime responsible
for folding, faulting and pluton emplacement under the effects of a NW–SE to WNW–ESE direction
of shortening from 615 to 575 Ma. The Upper Complex is characterised by the emplacement of large
volumes of ash-flow tuffs and volcanoclastic rocks and related intrusions. These were linked with the
formation of ash-flow caldera structures which are uncommom examples of preserved Precambrian
ash-flow calderas.
Ore deposits (porphyry, intermediate and low sulfidation epithermal deposit types, and IRGD)
show strong spatial and temporal relationships with the emplacement of the widespread magmatic
units belonging to the Upper Complex. For each ore deposit, fluid circulations associated with plutonic
and/or volcanic systems can be invoked to be at the origin of the genesis of economic paragenesis.
We suggest that magmatism of the Upper Complex and ore concentrations were both coeval with a D2
deformation stage (575–540 Ma) and were controlled by the same transtensive tectonic regime under
the effect of a nearly WNW–ESE shortening direction.
Despite an incomplete record by absolute datations, we infer that the Jbel Saghro was affected
over a long period of time (i.e., 95 Myr) by successively magmatic, magmato-hydrothermal and
hydrothermal events which formed a large mineralised province with substantial economic potential.
Previous authors have already envisioned such a long period of magmatism and hydrothermalism in
the area [29,47,74]. We further defend such a view and contend the Jbel Saghro province compares
in this respect to numerous examples of large magmatic-related mineralised systems documented
elsewere during the Archaean to Caenozoic times. It may be questioned whether the particular
longevity of the magmatic activity in areas dominated by transpressive and transtensive tectonics
could be related to the specific behaviour of ancient continental domains in which tectonics are
dominated by vertical forces and are linked with especially huge magmatism [216–218]. This debate
is currently open and our results illustrate one additional example of long-lived tectono-magmatic
event that characterises the late Precambrian in this part or the African continent. Considering the
large volume of ash-flow tuffs that crop out in the Western, Central and Eastern Anti-Atlas and their
long-lived magmatic activity (575–550 Ma), we infer that the whole Anti-Atlas area (i.e., 700 km
long) belongs to a continental silicic large igneous province as defined by Bryan and Ferrari [14],
and Ernst [12], and emplaced in a subduction to post-subduction setting and that may be linked to
a wide area including the Cadomian segments [28,206,207,219]. Anyway, our results offer further
evidence that the majority of metal deposits in the Moroccan Anti-Atlas could be formed during the
Neoproterozoic times coevally with the tectonic and magmatic evolutions in this period. They also
demonstrate that structural geology can provide relevant constraints for debating the age and mode of
formation of ore deposits, specifically in the context of a large silicic magmatic provinces.

Author Contributions: J.T., A.C., L.B. (Luc Barbanson), J.-L.B., M.L., A.E., L.B. (Lakhlifi Badra), C.E.-L., M.D.
and S.S. took part in the field investigation; M.L., A.E. and L.M. supported the field investigation; J.T., A.C., L.B.

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(Luc Barbanson), J.-L.B., C.E.-L., S.S., and M.D. interpreted the data and took part in the discussion; J.T., A.C.,
J.-L.B. and M.D. wrote the original draft; J.T. and A.C. reviewed and edited the paper.
Funding: This work has been undertaken with the help of the French-Moroccan programs “Action Intégrée No
222/STU/00”.
Acknowledgments: The REMINEX exploration team and SMI mining company provided funds and logistics
for field and laboratory studies. We particularly acknowledge El Hajj Bouiroukouten and the intern geologists
of MANAGEM for their constant help and support. We are grateful to the Masters students from the BRGM
Campus, University of Orléans, University of Lille and LaSalle Beauvais who were involved in the field for
geological mapping exercises. Olivier Rouer and Gilles Drouet are warmly thanked for assistance and help
with electronic microprobe analyses. The manuscript benefitted considerably from constructive reviews by four
anonymous referees.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Article
Fault Zone Evolution and Development of
a Structural and Hydrological Barrier: The Quartz
Breccia in the Kiggavik Area (Nunavut, Canada)
and Its Control on Uranium Mineralization
Alexis Grare 1, *, Olivier Lacombe 1 , Julien Mercadier 2 , Antonio Benedicto 3 , Marie Guilcher 2 ,
Anna Trave 4 ID , Patrick Ledru 5 and John Robbins 5
1 Sorbonne Université, CNRS-INSU, Institut des Sciences de la Terre de Paris, ISTeP UMR 7193,
F-75005 Paris, France; [email protected]
2 Université de Lorraine, CNRS, CREGU, GeoRessources lab, 54506 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France;
[email protected] (J.M.); [email protected] (M.G.)
3 UMR Geops, Université Paris Sud, 91405 Orsay, France; [email protected]
4 Departament de Mineralogia, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), Petrologia i Geologia Aplicada,
Facultat de Ciències de la Terra, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; [email protected]
5 Orano Canada Inc., 817 45th Street, West Saskatoon, SK S7L 5X2, Canada; [email protected] (P.L.);
[email protected] (J.R.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 25 May 2018; Accepted: 24 July 2018; Published: 27 July 2018

Abstract: In the Kiggavik area (Nunavut, Canada), major fault zones along, or close to, where uranium
deposits are found are often associated with occurrence of thick quartz breccia (QB) bodies.
These bodies formed in an early stage (~1750 Ma) of the long-lasting tectonic history of the Archean
basement, and of the Proterozoic Thelon basin. The main characteristics of the QB are addressed
in this study; through field work, macro and microscopic observations, cathodoluminescence
microscopy, trace elements, and oxygen isotopic signatures of the quartz forming the QB. Faults
formed earlier during syn- to post-orogenic rifting (1850–1750 Ma) were subsequently reactivated,
and underwent cycles of cataclasis, pervasive silicification, hydraulic brecciation, and quartz
recrystallization. This was synchronous with the circulation of meteoric fluids mixing with
Si-rich magmatic-derived fluids at depth, and were coeval with the emplacement of the Kivalliq
igneous suite at 1750 Ma. These processes led to the emplacement of up to 30 m thick QB,
which behaved as a mechanically strong, transverse hydraulic barrier that localized later fracturing,
and compartmentalized/channelized vertical flow of uranium-bearing fluids after the deposition
of the Thelon Basin (post 1750 Ma). The development and locations of QB control the location of
uranium mineralization in the Kiggavik area.

Keywords: hydrothermal breccia; hydraulic breccia; uranium deposits; structural control;

silicification; Kiggavik

1. Introduction
Fault zones are often associated with enhanced, focused, repeated fluid circulations in the earth’s
crust [1–7]. These fluids may have different origins: Meteoric, magmatic, metamorphic or basinal,
and possibly transport metals to a favorable area of deposition [8,9]; that will ultimately allow for
the formation of potential economic ore deposits. In many conceptual models of the formation
of ore deposits, fault zones are important structural features acting as pathways [2,10] and/or
as traps for fluids, and related metals [11]. In the uppermost crust, deformation is dominantly

Minerals 2018, 8, 319; doi:10.3390/min8080319 153 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 319

brittle and breccias are commonly observed in fault zones [12–15]. Among the different families of
breccias, hydrothermal breccias are one sub-class that would develop early, in response to fracture
propagation processes [13], through interaction between brecciated rocks and hydrothermal solutions.
Hydrothermal breccias can be of various types depending on several parameters, such as pressure,
temperature, depth of emplacement, and elements in the fluids [14]. Among them, quartz-cemented
breccias can have an economic interest, being possibly associated with ore deposits such as epithermal
(Au-Ag-Cu-Pb-Zn-Sb, [16,17]), orogenic gold (Au, [18]), and porphyric (Cu-Mo-Au-Ag, [19,20]).
They display thickness from meter to several meters, thicker hydrothermal breccias being relatively
rarely described. Quartz breccias in fault zones form progressively during several cycles of fluid
pressure growth, seismogenic fault slip and quartz precipitation [21,22]. Unaltered, quartz-rich bodies
have a lowered porosity and thus have an impact on later fluid circulation within the fault zone.
Such silicification would be comparable to fluid-flow being constrained by horizontal barriers, such as
sedimentary layers indurated through diagenesis (aquitards, [23,24]), or impermeable (clay-rich) layers
in roll-front uranium deposits [25]. In addition, the likely hardening of the fault rocks in response to
multiple cycles of quartz brecciation and healing may cause a significant rheological contrast between
the “strong” fault zone and the expectedly “weaker” hosting terranes, possibly controlling localization
of subsequent deformation.
In this contribution, we focus on one structural feature encountered in many fault zones within
the Uranium (U)-rich district of the Kiggavik area (Nunavut, Canada): The so-called hydrothermal
Quartz Breccia (QB). The importance of this breccia, only briefly described by previous authors [26–30]
was recently highlighted by Grare et al. [31] who documented the control exerted by this breccia on
later fracturing events, hydrothermal alterations and uranium mineralization at the Contact uranium
prospect. However, despite observations in several locations of the Kiggavik area and its seemingly
strong control on the current distribution of the uranium mineralization, the genetic model of the QB
remains poorly characterized and explained to date. Grare et al. [31] showed that the QB emplaced
along faults of inferred Archean age, and that this emplacement was a key event within a long-lasting
(~1000 Ma) complex brittle tectonic history that led to uranium mineralization within or in the vicinity
of the quartz breccia (Figure 1C). In order to better constrain the nature, emplacement, significance
and role of the QB, we carried out a structural analysis combined with vein cement petrography using
optical and cathodoluminescence observations, trace elements, and oxygen stable isotope analysis of
quartz. Our study addresses the structural, mineralogical and geochemical characteristics of the QB.
Combined with the reconstructed geochemical signature of the fluids, a model of formation of the QB
is proposed and its role in controlling uranium mineralization in the Kiggavik area is highlighted.

2. Geological Setting

2.1. Regional Geological Setting

The Kiggavik area is located on the eastern border of the Proterozoic intracratonic Thelon Basin
(ca. 1670–1540 Ma, [32,33]) in Nunavut, Canada, within the Churchill province. The Churchill province
is known to host the Athabasca Basin (1740–1540 Ma, [34]); another Proterozoic basin, which itself
hold the world-class Cigar Lake and McArthur River uranium deposits. The Thelon Basin is one
analogue of the Athabasca Basin and the Kiggavik area displays several economically significant
uranium orebodies: Four of the deposits yield calculated resources of 48,953 t of uranium at a grade of
0.47% U [35]. Exploration began in the 1980s by Urangesellschaft, and the property is now held by
Orano Canada (formerly known as AREVA Resources Canada) in joint venture with JCU (Canada)
Exploration Company Ltd. (Vancouver, BC, Canada).

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Figure 1. (A) Outline of Canada and location of the Thelon basin in yellow; (B) geological map of
the Churchill-Wyoming craton showing the location of the Thelon basins and the Kiggavik area on
its Eastern border; (C) simplified geological map of the Kiggavik area (Orano internal document)
highlighting the occurrence of the QB (yellow) along the major faults; and (D) cross-section from the
Thelon fault to the Judge Sisson fault. Deposits and prospects are indicated with red circles.

The Churchill province (Figure 1B) is bordered to the NW by the Thelon-Taltson

(ca. 2020–1900 Ma), and to the SE by the Trans-Hudson orogenic belts (ca. 2070–1800 Ma). At the
end of the Trans-Hudsonian orogeny, the Baker Lake Basin developed as a result of (retro-arc)
extensional to transtensional rifting tectonics [36], and was filled with sedimentary and bi-modal
volcanic-sedimentary rocks (Baker Lake and Wharton Grps, ca. 1850–1750 Ma, [37,38]). It was

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followed by uplift, extensive erosional peneplanation and regolith formation, over which deposited
the eolian sandstones and conglomeratic red-beds of the Thelon formation (ca. 1670–1540 Ma [32,33]),
linked to thermal subsidence in the sag, fault-controlled intracratonic Thelon basin [36,38,39].
This volcano-sedimentary pile unconformably overlies a metamorphosed basement consisting of
Archean rocks that include Mesoarchean (ca. 2870 Ma) granitic gneisses, 2730–2680 Ma, supracrustal
rocks of the Woodburn Lake Group [40], and a distinctive package of 2620–2580 Ma felsic volcanic and
related hypabyssal rocks known as the Snow Island Suite [41–47].
Before emplacement of the Thelon formation, the Archean to Paleoproterozoic rocks of the
Churchill province where intruded by three magmatic suites: (i) The late syn-orogenic (ca. 1830 Ma)
Hudson Suite [48], (ii) the Dubawnt Minette Suite (contemporaneous of the Hudson Suite),
with ultrapotassic intrusions, minette dikes and lamprophyres, and (iii) the anorogenic (ca. 1750 Ma)
Kivalliq Igneous Suite (KIS) [46,49–51].

2.2. Local Geological Setting

A simplified geological map of the Kiggavik area is presented in Figure 1C. The local
litho-structural pile consists of Mesoarchean granitic, granodioritic, and augen gneisses
(2866 ± 6 Ma; [52]) tectonically overlain by a Neoarchean metavolcano- sedimentary package
retromorphosed to greenschist facies: The Woodburn Lake Group. This package consists of
quartzo-feldspathic wackes and minor quartzite with thin, interbedded banded iron formation layers,
rare black shales, and locally komatiite and rhyolite (2710 ± 2.1 Ma). These rocks, together with
overlying Paleoproterozoic (2300–2150 Ma) rocks of the Ketyet River Group [53], include a prominent
unit of orthoquartzite [52]. These rocks are intruded by the Schultz Lake Intrusive Complex (SLIC, [51]).
The SLIC comprises rocks from the two intrusive suites previously described [51]: (i) The “Hudson
granite” consists of non-foliated granitoid sills, syenites and lamprophyre dikes of the late syn-orogenic
Hudson Suite; and (ii) the “Nueltin granite” comprises anorogenic granite to rhyolite of the KIS [46].
The diabase dikes of the Mackenzie diabase swarm form prominent linear aeromagnetic features
trending NNW-SSE [44,45] and cut across all previous lithologies. This intrusive event is dated at
1267 ± 2 Ma [54,55], and represents the last magmatic-tectonic event in the region.
The main structural features in the Kiggavik area are the ENE-trending Thelon fault (TF) and
the Main Zone fault (MZF) in the northern part of the property, the ENE-trending Judge Sisson fault
(JSF) in the central part, and the NE-trending Andrew Lake Fault (ALF) in the southwestern part
of the study area (Figure 2). These faults date back to at least ~1920 Ma [56] and had a subsequent
complex structural and kinematic evolution with several episodes of reactivation and fluid circulation
during Proterozoic time [31,56]. These faults host several uranium orebodies; prospects and deposits,
the main uranium mineralizing events being bracketed between 1540 and 1270 Ma [28,29,31]. The MZF
hosts various deposits and prospects: 85 W, Granite Grid and Kiggavik (Main, Central and East
Zones, Figure 1C). End is hosted by the JSF, while Andrew Lake, Jane and Contact occur along the
ALF (Figure 1C).

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Figure 2. (A) Outcrop view looking east on the N80-trending steeply dipping to the north Judge
Sisson fault (JSF) underlain by at least 10 m of white quartz veins; (B) heterogeneous size, pervasively
hematized clasts cemented by a white quartz matrix; (C) right lateral relay step, N80 trending main
veins (outcrop on the JSF); (D) optical microphotograph picture (OM): Clasts bearing quartz veins in the
Thelon sandstones; (E) oriented data of thick quartz veins for deposits and prospects; and (F) histogram
of all measured quartz vein dips in the Kiggavik area.

3. Sampling and Methods

3.1. Drillhole Observations, Sampling Strategy and Collection of Oriented Data

The QB has been observed in the field but the scarcity of outcrops in the area is the reason why
most observations and oriented measurements were taken from drill holes within the deposits and
prospects in the Kiggavik area (location in Figure 1C). Porosity was measured systematically in the
field following the fluid resaturation method. A clean and dried sample is weighted, saturated with
a liquid of known density, and then reweighed. The weight change divided by the density of the fluid
results in the pore volume. Many of the observations and samples come from the recently drilled
Contact prospect (2014 and 2015 Orano exploration campaigns). More than 5000 m of drill core were
reviewed, with several hundreds of meters dedicated to the characterization and study of the QB.
Recent drilling (2014–2015) in the Kiggavik area was done with NQTM coring providing a 47.6 mm
diameter sample. Oriented data measured on drill core were restored in their original position and
plotted with Dips 6.0 software (Rocscience, Toronto, ON, Canada). Uncertainty on fault/fracture
orientation measurements is estimated to be ±10◦ .

3.2. Quartz Microscopic Characterisation by Optical and Cathodoluminescence Microscopy

Quartz Fifty-five drill core samples (10 to 20 cm in length) displaying veins or breccias linked to
the QB were collected, mainly from the Contact prospect, but also from End, Andrew Lake and Bong

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deposits. All samples were studied from the macro- to the micro-scale in order to characterize the
macroscopic texture of the quartz breccia and its relationships with predating and postdating fracturing
and faulting events. Thirty-five thin sections were prepared for petrographic and microstructural
studies. Thin sections were observed through optical microscopy (plane polarized transmitted and
reflected light microscope Motic BA310 POL Trinocular, equipped with a 5 M pixel Moticam camera)
(Motic Instruments Inc., Richmond, BC, Canada), and cathodoluminescence microscopy (CITL Cold
Cathodoluminescence device Model MK5-1, made at University of Barcelona (Barcelona, Spain),
for deciphering quartz generations.

3.3. Fluid Characterization by Trace Elements and Oxygen Isotopes Analyses

Laser ablation ICP-MS analyses of quartz were conducted at GeoRessources, Université de
Lorraine (Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France), using a 7500e quadrupole ICP-MS (Agilent, Santa Clara,
CA, USA) coupled with a nanosecond excimer laser (GEOLAS Pro; 193 nm wavelength). Zones free
of fluid inclusions (FIs) were selected for analyses. Analyses were performed using a laser beam
diameter of 60 (first session of analyses) and 90 (second session) μm, with a fluence of ~10 J/cm2 and
a repetition rate of 5 Hz. The laser beam was focused onto the sample with a Schwarztschild reflective
objective (magnification ×25; numerical aperture = 0.4). Each analysis consisted of 20 s of background
measurement during laser warm-up, 20 to 40 s of ablation (depending on the thickness of the quartz)
and 15 s of washout before repeating the process on a nearby location. The external standards were
NIST SRM610 and NIST SRM 612 [57], the external standards being analyses twice at the beginning
and at the end of each set of samples, following a bracketing standardization procedure. LA-ICP-MS
calibration was optimized for highest sensibility for the whole mass/charge range, while maintaining
Th/U ~1 and ThO/Th < 0.5% as determined on NIST SRM 610 or 612. The following isotopes were
measured: 7 Li, 11 B, 23 Na, 24 Mg, 27 Al, 28 Si, 39 K, 44 Ca, 48 Ti, 57 Fe, 74 Ge, 85 Rb, 88 Sr, 89 Y, 90 Zr, 133 Cs, 138 Ba
and 153 Eu for the first session, and 7 Li, 11 B, 23 Na, 27 Al, 29 Si, 45 Sc, 47 Ti, 51 V, 53 Cr, 55 Mn, 59 Co, 60 Ni,
63 Cu, 66 Zn, 69 Ga, 72 Ge, 75 As, 85 Rb, 88 Sr, 90 Zr, 93 Nb, 95 Mo, 115 In, 118 Sn, 121 Sb, 133 Cs, 137 Ba, 181 Ta, 182 W,
197 Au, 208 Pb, and 209 Bi for the second session. 28 Si or 29 Si were used as internal standard, using a SiO
2
concentration of 100%. Data reduction was done using Iolite software [58].
In situ oxygen isotope analysis of the main quartz generations was performed by secondary ion
mass spectrometry (SIMS, CAMECA, Gennevillier, France) using the Cameca IMS1270 at CRPG/CNRS
in Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France, following the approach of Hervig et al. [59]. The isotopes 16 O
and 18 O were measured, based on standard polished sections coated with gold. A ~4 nA defocused
primary ion beam of Cs impact energy 10 keV was used, producing sub-circular ablation craters of
~10–20 μm diameter. A mass resolution (ΔM/M) of 5000 was used, to resolve potential interference of
17 O on 16 O. Two in-house standards were used (Brésil (δ18 O = 9.6‰) and Brésil-2 (δ18 O = 19.6‰)) to

set-up the instrument and correct for drifts and fractionations using a standard bracketing approach.
The internal precision for δ18 O was between 0.06 and 0.1‰ (measurements on the standards Brésil
and Brésil-2 and on the different quartz generations of Kiggavik). δ18 O values are reported relative to
the V-SMOW standard.

4. Results

4.1. Spatial Organisation and Macroscopic Characteristics of the QB

Occurrence of QB has been recognized along various segments of the major faults within the
Kiggavik area (e.g., ALF, JSF, Figure 1C,D and Figure 2A). The QB consists of a up to 30 m thick
complex network of mosaic quartz-sealed breccia and veins (Figure 2A–C), typically displaying
angular fragments and jigsaw pattern (Figure 2B), and associated with a pervasive iron-oxidation
of the host rock (Figure 2B). This kind of observation is common in drill holes. Lithologies within
and around the QB display a pervasive red-purple hematization, as documented at the Contact
prospect [31]. Clasts bearing veins of the QB are observed in the sandstones of the Thelon formation

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(Figure 2D), indicating that QB predates formation of the Thelon Basin, as already suggested by several
authors [29,31] and crosscuts, thus postdates, Hudsonian intrusions (ca. 1.83 Ga). Fault zones outlined
by the QB are presumably better preserved in the field due to the silicification process that increases
their resistance to erosion.
The outcrop shown in Figure 2B illustrates the complexity of the identification of the main
structural trends on limited exposures. We considered that the most regionally significant structural
trend of the breccia bodies is given by the thicker (>10 cm) veins and breccias, because where they
are visible, minor quartz veins are more randomly oriented or give a mean statistical value that is
different between two (2) nearby drill holes. By plotting the orientations of thick veins we infer the
true orientation of the quartz breccia (Figure 2E), which was revealed to be consistent with the major
fault trends in map view (Figure 1D). The QB usually displays a consistent high angle dip, reflecting
the orientation of the main fault trend: N30, dip to the NW at Contact, N175, dip to the W at Bong,
N50 and N90, dip to the NW and to the S, respectively, at End (Figure 2E). Even though the majority of
minor quartz veins display throughout the Kiggavik area a steep dip (60–90◦ ), a significant amount of
veins (Figure 2F) shows relatively shallow dip angles (<30◦ ).
Figure 3 summarizes the data collected on drill holes at the Contact prospect (Figure 3A). The QB
bodies usually display two main distinct zones, an outer zone and an inner (core) zone. The outer
zone (blue in Figure 3B) is represented by a dense to scarce network of millimeter to centimeter-thick
quartz veins, while the inner (core) zone (red in Figure 3B) is represented by thick (>10 cm thick) quartz
veins and a dense quartz vein network, where angular clasts of the fragmented host rock are barely
observable. Several QB core zones were crosscut by drill holes (Cont-24, Cont-16, Cont-06). These core
zones are discontinuous from the SW to the NE. They are tapering toward their ends (Figure 3C) both
laterally (for example, between Cont-26 and Cont-25, Figure 3B), and vertically (for example, between
Cont-10 and Cont-11, Figure 3B). This supports that they have elliptical shapes, connected by quartz
vein networks. This observation explains the important changes in thickness of the QB between two
nearby drill holes (e.g., Cont-06 and Cont-13).

Figure 3. Organisation of inner (core) and outer zones of the quartz breccia (QB) crosscut in drillholes
at Contact. (A) Plan view of the drill holes; (B) lateral variation in thickness of QB inner (core) and
outer zones; and (C) simplified interpretative drawing of the QB intersected in drill holes (grey plane).

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One observation not highlighted by previous studies in the Kiggavik area is the presence of
a large (20–100 m) brittle fault zone predating emplacement of the QB but systematically spatially
associated with it. Macroscopically, the QB consists of thin to massive quartz veins as described in
Figure 2; however, our detailed observations document numerous quartz healing events crosscutting
clay-altered cataclastic to ultra-cataclastic fault rocks that are now silicified and “preserved”. Clasts
are monomictic, sub-rounded, millimetric to centimetric in size and clay altered, embeded in a light
red to brown matrix (Figure 4A,B).

Figure 4. (A) Pervasively silicified cataclastic fault rock; (B) same as (A), crosscut by a white quartz
vein of the QB; (C) pervasively silicified fault zone crosscut by late fracturing and clay alteration event
(End deposit); and (D) typical intersection of the QB displaying deep purple hematized rock, massive
and minor white quartz veins. Jigsaw textures are locally observable (e.g., at 189 m, yellow arrow;
Contact prospect).

The quartz veins of the QB were observed in several locations as cutting across the cataclasites
(Figure 4B). These early cataclastic fault rocks therefore predate the QB; they could be related to
extensional to trans-tensional faulting during formation of the Baker Lake Basin [31]. This early,

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now silicified fault zones and the QB are spatially associated, indicating that the pervasive silicification
likely occurred at the onset of emplacement of the QB. However, even though the pervasive silicification
of the fault zone is spatially and likely roughly temporally associated with the QB, we differentiate
hereafter these two features: The silicified fault zone on one hand and the QB that results from
brecciation sealed by quartz on the other hand.
Both features display different thicknesses: In Figure 4C, the pervasively silicified fault zone with
its light reddish color is observable along 40 m of drill core and is cut by numerous small quartz veins
and a 4 m thick core zone of the QB. A late faulting and white clay alteration pattern is observed at
depth 389–395 m (Figure 4C, post ore faulting f7). In Figure 4D, the silicified fault zone is observed
along 5 m of drill core and is cut by 23 m of QB.
The pre-QB silicified fault zone displays evidence of multiple events of tectonic brecciation
and comminution. In the sample observed at micro-scale under transmitted light (Figure 5A),
three generations of cataclastic fault rocks are observed, with each generation of cataclasis consuming
the previous one. They are crosscut by at least three generations of quartz veins, building a complex
pattern (Figure 5B,C). Minerals from the original host rock (psammo-pelitic gneiss with quartz, apatite,
illite, muscovite, pyrite) are preserved in the first generation of clasts (pink, Figure 5B). A closer look at
the cataclastic fault rocks reveals that the different cements are made of micro-crystalline quartz and
white micas (Figure 5D,E). The superimposition of multiple generations of cataclasites indicates that
the localized zone of deformation was repeatedly reactivated during progressive deformation.

Figure 5. (A,B) Thin section of a polyphase cataclastic fault rock crosscut by several generations of
quartz veins of the QB. White arrow indicates a late microcrystalline quartz veinlet; (C) simplified
chronology of the events; (D) zoom on the different generations of clasts; and (E) matrix of the latest
cataclastic event displaying white micas and micro-crystalline quartz.

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In order to better understand and characterize the influence of silicification on fluid circulation,
we selected porosity data measured in the field for four types of rocks: Fresh host rock (granitic
gneiss, before fracturing and alteration), silicified type 1 (pervasively silicified fault zone), silicified
type 2 (typical white QB), and clay-altered/fractured samples. Results are presented in Figure 6.
Fresh granitic gneiss yields the lowest porosity values, <2%. Fault rock and samples displaying quartz
brecciation and pervasive silicification yield values slightly higher but <5%. Fractured and clay altered
fault rock display much higher values, up to 40%. Cataclastic fault rocks formed before the QB should
have displayed a high porosity, but after pervasive silicification they have a porosity comparable to
fresh rock (Figure 6), unlike strongly clay altered and fractured samples (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Porosity measured for fresh samples (granitic gneiss from the Contact prospect), pervasively
silicified cataclastic fault rock, thick quartz veins within granitic gneiss, and clay-altered, fractured host
rock (examples for each category are displayed on the right of the chart).

4.2. Microscopic-Scale Characteristics of the QB

Microscopic observations indicate that the pervasive hematization spatially associated with
the QB is defined by disseminated micro-grains of hematite (aggregates of micrometric grains) and
specular hematite (Figure 7A; specular hematite being less common in samples compared to hematite);
possibly observed in banded veins synchronous with microcrystalline quartz (Figure 7B). Subhedral
specular hematite (~100–200 μm) is observed filling quartz vugs and disseminated in the host rock.
Where present, the specular hematite is responsible for the dark-red to purplish color of the oxidized
host rock. Anhedral magnetite (50–100 μm) was locally observed as being mixed with (likely replaced
by) hematite (Figure 7B) in banded quartz veins and likely represents changes in the oxidation state
of the fluid. These observations, along with the spatial association of iron oxidation and quartz
brecciation, support the overall synchronicity of the two phenomena. However, the precise timing of
the oxidation, within the several episodes of silicification, remains unconstrained.

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Figure 7. Optical microscope microphotograph (OM): (A) Disseminated hematite (Hem) and specular
hematite (Spec Hem). Qtz: Quartz; (B) banded microcrystalline quartz (Qtz) with synchronous anhedral
hematite and magnetite; (C) euhedral quartz crystals and arrays of dense monophase fluid inclusions
(vapor rich); (D) euhedral clear quartz cement a fracture that crosscuts previous quartz generations;
(E) trends of microcrystalline quartz (yellow); (F) comb quartz grains (example in yellow) engulfed
in a fine-grained quartz matrix; (G) moss quartz texture; and (H) bladed lattice calcite (white arrow)
replaced by quartz.

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Microscopic observations also document a variety of quartz textures (Figure 7C–F for example),
mutually crosscutting each other, and defining different conditions of quartz precipitation. The two
most common types of quartz are: Euhedral quartz (comb quartz, ~200 μm in size) and microcrystalline
quartz (~<50 μm). Two generations of euhedral white quartz can be distinguished: One (millimetric
quartz) being characterized by dense arrays of monophase fluid inclusions (vapor rich), usually at
the tip of the quartz crystal (Figure 7C); and the second, clearer, nearly fluid inclusions-free, usually
observed as a late quartz generation (~100 μm, Figure 7D). In addition to the banded microcrystalline
quartz-hematite texture, microcrystalline quartz is also observed filling vugs, and as conjugate “trends”
(Figure 7E) in subhedral quartz veins. In other samples, subhedral quartz can be found as clasts in
a microcrystalline quartz mass (Figure 7F). In term of quartz texture, comb quart, microcrystalline
quartz and “moss” textures were observed (Figure 7G). Additionally, rare recrystallized bladed calcite
were found (Figure 7H).
Quartz observed under cathodoluminescence display weak luminescence intensity, with a 20 s
exposure time required in order to get enough signal for imaging. The most recurrent color observed
under cathodoluminescence is a deep blue observed for microcrystalline quartz veins, sometimes
synchronous with hematite (Figure 8A), and quartz cementing microbreccias. The fluid inclusion
(FI)-rich euhedral quartz crystals exhibit alternating growth zones of brown and blue luminescence
(oscillatory growth-zoning, Figure 8B). Clasts of euhedral quartz crystals are found within a blue
luminescent quartz matrix (Figure 8C). The brown luminescence is also observed in breccias where
the quartz has likely completely recrystallized, leaving the breccia texture only observable under
cathodoluminescence; the “cement” of the breccia displays a brown luminescence (Figure 8D).
These colors characterize the main generations of quartz in the QB.
The luminescence of the latest generation of quartz (i.e., euhedral quartz filling vugs and open
fractures), is dark blue with rare concentric zoning. It also displays greenish luminescence associated
with primary to pseudo-secondary fluid inclusions (Figure 8E). In terms of spatial occurrence of this
quartz generation, it is more frequently observed in the vicinity of the QB than in its inner zone.
Quartz which was formerly in contact with uranium minerals displays a characteristic
luminescence: Red/pink close to uranium-bearing minerals and yellow/greenish further from the
uranium-bearing mineral (Figure 8F). This is especially well observed in quartz veins that were later
microfractured as described by Grare et al. [31] and in quartz of the host rock (when not dissolved
by circulation of the uranium-bearing fluid). This peculiar luminescence is brighter than the original
luminescence of the quartz and displays a nearly uniform circular shape of 35–45 μm width (Figure 8F).
The latest quartz generation, which fills vugs and open fractures, is characterized by dark blue
luminescence with rare concentric zoning. This generation is observed more in the vicinity of the QB.

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Figure 8. Cathodoluminescence microphotograph (CM): (A) Deep blue luminescent microcrystalline

quartz and red luminescent hematite in banded vein; (B) fracture cemented with euhedral quartz
(blue-brown luminescence in concentric zoning, yellow dotted line) and arrays of purplish FIs
(white arrow); (C) quartz breccia (green) cemented by subhedral, sub-millimetric blue-purple quartz,
crosscut by dark blue luminescent subhedral millimetric quartz vein (yellow), the white arrow
highlight brown-luminescent overgrowth; (D) OM and CM of the same zone: Subhedral and
microcrystalline quartz (blue luminescence) displaying microbrecciation/recrystallization (brown
luminescence). Yellow dashed line outlines a quartz crystal; (E) dark blue luminescent euhedral
syntaxial quartz. The boundary of the fracture on the left is lined with U-oxides (black and calcite
(orange); and (F) quartz vein orthogonally crosscut by a microfracture and cemented with pitchblende.
The boundaries of the microfractures display a “buffer area” where the luminescence of the quartz is
modified, from pink to yellow.

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4.3. Geochemical Signature of Quartz

4.3.1. Trace Element Concentrations

Concentrations of selected elements were measured with LA-ICP-MS for the three main
quartz generations (identified through microscopic texture and luminescence color): Deep blue
microcrystalline quartz, blue euhedral quartz with brown concentric zoning, late dark blue euhedral
vuggy quartz. Results are presented in Figure 9A for Li, K, and Ba; in Figure 9B for Zr, Ti, and B;
in Figure 9C for Mg, Na, Al, Fe, and Ca. Several elements we tried to measure show values below the
limit of detection and thus are not displayed here.

Figure 9. Concentration of trace elements measured in quartz through LA-ICP-MS, for main quartz
generations: (A) Li, K, and Ba; (B) Zr, Ti, and B; (C) Mg, Na, Al, Fe, and Ca; and (D) Al vs. Ti
concentrations of main quartz generation. Zones correspond to values of hydrothermal quartz from
low T ◦ C, orogenic Au, and porphyry-type deposits [60].

In some analyses, trace elements display extreme values above 10,000 ppm (e.g., Al or Mg,
Figure 9) which likely represent analysis of undetected solid inclusions, hence are not displayed in
Figure 9. The high Fe content in both the deep blue microcrystalline and brown-blue euhedral quartz
could reflect the analysis of micro-inclusions of iron oxides, related to the pervasive hematization
synchronous with the QB event. Microcrystalline quartz in banded veins associated with iron oxides
shows a small range of values for all elements except for K and Fe. Brown-blue euhedral quartz
displays bimodal concentrations for most of the elements consistent with observed concentric zoning.
For all quartz generations, Li, K, and Na are positively correlated with Al. Dark blue vuggy quartz
usually display a small range of values for most elements compared to other quartz generation, except
for Li (23–248 ppm) and Al (255–2593 ppm).
Li contents are homogeneous between the three quartz generations and are below 250 ppm.
Such values correlate positively with Al concentrations, Li balancing the replacement of Si by
Al [61]. K is enriched in deep blue microcystalline quartz with values up to 1700 ppm, compared to

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concentrations below 100 ppm in the case of the two other quartz generations. Fe yields high values
(up to 7000 ppm) in the case of the two quartz generations of the QB (deep blue microcrystalline
and brown-blue euhedral quartz). B displays concentrations below 20 ppm except for 2 analysis.
Concentrations in B are lower in the case of post-QB dark blue vuggy quartz.
Deep blue microcrystalline and dark blue vuggy quartz yield low values of Ti (<20 ppm for most
measurements). Bi-modal concentrations of Ti were measured for brown-blue euhedral quartz, with
one group of values below 20 ppm and the other above 40 ppm.

4.3.2. Oxygen Isotope Values

Oxygen isotopes were measured in the main quartz generations while paying attention to
variations in luminescence, for instance for quartz displaying concentric zoning. Results are shown
in Table 1. δ18 Oquartz values are relatively homogeneous within one quartz generation (maximum
variation of 5‰) and are independent of Cathodoluminescence (CL) color variations except for dark
blue vuggy quartz: Zones of this quartz close to fluid inclusions display a green luminescence with
higher δ18 Oquartz .
The different quartz generation display different ranges of δ18 Oquartz , with values ranging between
+12‰ and +14‰ for microcrystalline quartz with hematite, between +7.5‰ and +9.3‰ for brown
blue quartz and between +14.4‰ and +15.5‰ for druzy/vug-filling quartz. These ranges show two
exceptions: Vug-filling euhedral quartz displaying green luminescence with higher isotopic values
(from +16.2‰ to +21.9‰) in zones close to fluid inclusions (Figure 7C), and a microcrystalline quartz
vein crosscutting the one cemented with microcrystalline quartz and iron-oxides exhibiting much
higher isotopic values (from +18.8‰ to +23.9‰).
δ18 Oquartz values between the two main generations of quartz in the QB are different with
an average of +12.9‰ for banded microcrystalline quartz and +8.4‰ for zoned euhedral quartz.

Table 1. δ18 Oquartz measured in main quartz generations and calculated values of δ18 Ofluid . To calculate
δ18 Ofluid , an average temperature of 250 ◦ C was used for quartz generations of the QB (lines 1–3 of the
table), while an average temperature of 150 ◦ C was used for late druzy quartz (lines 4–5).

Quartz Type CL Luminescence Color δ18 Oquartz Avg. n δ18 Ofluid Avg.
Banded microcrystalline quartz
Deep blue 12.0–14.0 12.9 14 2.4–5.3 3.9
(alternated with iron oxides)
Alternating blue and brown
Euhedral quartz with concentric zoning 7.5–9.3 8.4 18 −1.6–0.3 −0.6
luminescence
“Late” microcrystalline quartz Deep blue 18.8–23.9 22.1 10 11.5–14.8 12.4
Vuggy quartz Dark blue 14.4–15.5 14.9 29 −5.3–2.5 −3.3
Quartz alteration associated with fluid
Green 16.2–22.0 17.8 5 −2.5–3.8 −0.3
inclusions

δ18 Oquartz and temperatures measured by fluid inclusion microthermometry in quartz veins in
the area [26,29,62] were used to calculate the δ18 Ofluid following the equation of Clayton et al. [63],
set for measuring oxygen isotope exchange between quartz and water (assuming that the fluid was
in equilibrium with the quartz at the temperature of mineralisation). We considered homogenisation
temperatures in the range of 200–300 ◦ C, avg. 250 ◦ C (i.e., the range of temperatures revealed
by low salinity fluid inclusions), to be representative for the quartz generations of the QB and of
100–200 ◦ C, avg. 150 ◦ C (i.e., the range of temperature revealed by high salinity fluid inclusions),
to be representative for late druzy quartz probably precipitating from basinal brines [29]. However,
a microthermometric study on primary fluid inclusions for each quartz generation is missing actually
and would give a more accurate calculation of fluid isotopic values. Results are displayed in
Table 1. The δ18 Ofluid value range from 2.4‰ to 5.3‰ (+3.9‰ on average) for microcrystalline
quartz associated with hematite. In contrast, late veinlets of micro-crystalline quartz display a much
higher δ18 Ofluid value: Between +11.5‰ and +14.8‰ (+12.4‰ on average). Brown-blue quartz
precipitated from a fluid with a lighter δ18 Ofluid value comprised between −1.6‰ and +0.3‰ (−0.6‰

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on average). Late vug-filling euhedral quartz yield lighter isotopic values from −5.3‰ to −3.3‰
(−3.3‰ on average).

5. Interpretation of Results and Discussion

5.1. Origin and Nature of Silicifying Fluids

Although relations between most quartz trace elements and the conditions of quartz formation
are not direct, recent studies suggest that the quartz trace element composition may be influenced by
the rate of crystallization [64], pressure, temperature [65], and fluid composition [66,67]. Nevertheless,
it has been shown that—like CL textures, colors and intensity—the concentrations of trace elements
vary systematically among ore deposit types [67], and thus can be used to fingerprint the type of ore
deposits. Combined with oxygen isotope signature, trace elements of quartz generations can be used
to constrain the origin and nature of the fluids responsible for the formation of the QB.
Quartz analyses yield low but detectable (<20 ppm) values of Ti except for quartz with concentric
zoning (>40 ppm). Additionally, all the quartz observed under cathodoluminescence display a weak
luminescence. Several authors showed that Ti content in quartz is positively correlated with the fluid
temperature and also with CL intensities [67–69], while Al is anti-correlated with CL intensity in most
of low temperature deposits (e.g., [70]). Such Ti-T ◦ C relationship can be used to directly estimate the
temperature of the fluid in some specific case (i.e., the TitaniQ thermobarometer [71]).
Ti values for the QB indicate an overall temperature of formation below 350 ◦ C [67], a value
consistent with temperatures obtained from fluid inclusion microthermometric studies at the End and
Andrew Lake deposit [26–29]. Concentric zoning with low and high Ti values (>40 ppm, characterizing
higher temperature) could reflect cyclic episodes of circulation of >350 ◦ C fluids, which would agree
with concentric zoning and with the occurrence of dense trends of monophase vapor rich FIs at
the tip of some growth zones (Figure 7B). Associated with the bi-modal concentration of Al [67],
these observations support precipitation of quartz from a low temperature (<~350 ◦ C) fluids, mixing
cyclically with high temperature (>~350 ◦ C) fluids.
The δ18 Ofluid value of +3.9‰ in average for microcrystalline quartz associated with hematite
points toward a magmatic origin (+5.5 to +10‰, although this may vary for a particular intrusion) for
the high temperature fluids [72,73]. This is consistent with the presence of the KIS at the presumable
time of emplacement of the QB (ca. 1750 Ma [46]). Moreover, oxygen isotopic values for the main
quartz generations of the QB are comparable to those obtained for quartz veins at the nearby Mallery
lake epithermal (low-sulfidation) deposit by Turner et al. [62]. The Mallery lake deposit displays
similar quartz brecciation formed at the time of emplacement of the KIS (ca. 1.75 Ga). In contrast,
brown-blue quartz precipitated from a fluid with a lighter δ18 Ofluid value of −0.62‰ in average,
which could represent mixing between the magmatic derived fluids and a meteoric fluid: The δ18 Ofluid
value of meteoric fluids at the latitude of the Kiggavik area at this time would have been ~−13‰ [74].
Such interpretation is consistent with the bi-modal distribution of Ti concentrations for this quartz
generation but also with the differences in concentrations for different trace elements between the
two quartz within the QB. This phenomenon is more easily explained by a fluid mixing rather by
changes in temperature for a same fluid (which could explained only the difference in δ18 O values).
The two quartz generations have clearly different δ18 O values as the internal precision of the SIMS
measurements is <0.1‰. The observation of hematite surrounding magnetite in some microcrystalline
banded vein further supports an input of fluids with different redox signatures in the system.
Higher values of δ18 Ofluid (~12.9‰) for microcrystalline quartz (another generation within the
same sample) could suggest a stronger input of magmatic fluids, which is however unsupported by
Ti values for this quartz generation. This apparent discrepancy could be explained by cooling of the
fluid before quartz precipitation. Contrasting δ18 Ofluid values between similar quartz generation in the
same samples (2 generations of microcrystalline quartz, deciphered on the basis of δ18 Ofluid ) could

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be explained by a local effect of rock buffering within breccia cavity. As a result, veinlets would have
formed from an isotopically isolated fluid reservoir, thus yielding higher δ18 Oquartz values.
Cathodoluminescence observations support the above interpretations, as blue-purple quartz
luminescence is commonly found in quartz precipitated in magmatic/hydrothermal environments [75]
while brown luminescence is rather observed in sedimentary-diagenetic (i.e., lower temperature)
environments [76]).
The very low B content of the post-QB dark blue vuggy quartz could be explained by
co-crystallization of other minerals enriched in B in the uranium deposits of the Kiggavik area; such as
magnesiofoitite (dravite), which is commonly observed in environments seeing brine circulations [77].
Accordingly, the isotopic values for vug-filling euhedral quartz (post-QB) are consistent with those
obtained for quartz precipitated from relatively low temperature (~150 ◦ C) brines in the Proterozoic
Athabasca [78] and Kombolgie basins [79,80] and linked to the formation of U deposits. Considering
that the QB predates the formation of the Thelon Basin, from which brines are likely derived, this
supports that brines circulated after the emplacement of the QB, in agreement with the findings of
Grare et al. [31]. In the Kiggavik area, the fluid inclusion studies by Pagel [26] on the hydrothermal
quartz, at Andrew Lake, and by Chi et al. [29] on the hydrothermal quartz, at End, are in agreement
with our observations. Indeed, these authors documented low temperature (100–200 ◦ C)-high salinity
(25–38 wt % NaCl) fluids, low temperature (150–200 ◦ C)-low salinity (<9 wt % NaCl) fluids, and high
temperature (200–300 ◦ C)-low salinity (<9 wt % NaCl) fluids within the QB. Our study indicates that
low-T ◦ C/high salinity fluids (brines) circulated after formation of the QB, while the high-T ◦ C/low
salinity fluids are more characteristic of the QB that formed earlier in the history of the Kiggavik area.
Using data from several deposits type, it has been shown that deposits linked to low (Mississippy
Valley type, Carlin, Epithermal) and high (porphyry Cu-Au) fluid temperatures can be distinguished
one from another based on Al and Ti concentrations in quartz associated with orebodies [60].
Figure 9D plots Al-Ti concentrations for the main quartz generations in our study. The epithermal
domain of Figure 9D was built after data from low temperature (~100–350 ◦ C) hydrothermal fluids.
The distribution is scattered even within one quartz generation (e.g., deep blue microcrystalline).
Primary (comb quartz) and secondary (“moss” quartz) textures [81,82] indicate primary quartz
deposition and recrystallization. Bobis [83] also attributed the rounded shapes of the moss texture
to recrystallisation of silica gel, which preserved the original structure and impurities of the silicate
phase. These quartz textures, along with recrystallized bladed calcite, also characterize phases of silica
precipitation by boiling and non-boiling hydrothermal fluids in a geothermal/epithermal system [84].
Some textures observed within the QB are typical of epithermal deposits, but they are rare. Commonly
encountered precious metals (e.g., Au, Ag) are lacking within the breccia even though they were
observed at the nearby Mallery Lake deposit [62]. However, such environment of formation is
consistent with the geochemical signature of quartz in the QB and is much more plausible for the
formation of the QB than orogenic Au and porphyric deposits.
To sum up, even though it is difficult to be truly conclusive with the measured trace elements
concentrations only, the combination of these data with oxygen isotope values and quartz textures
points toward a scenario in which high (magmatic-derived) and low (meteoric-derived) temperature
fluids interacted and mixed during silicification of the fault zone that led to the formation of the QB.
The important volumes of Si would have been provided by intrusive bodies of the KIS emplaced at
depth and related to the rift-related extensional tectonics that occurred at ca. 1750 Ma (Figure 10).

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Figure 10. Cross-section after Peterson et al. [46] and zoom in the zone of formation of the QB.

5.2. Fault Zone Processes Leading to the Formation of the QB: Cataclasis, Silicification and
Hydraulic Brecciation
Macroscopic observations of the QB and petrographic and textural observations on quartz,
although lacking a simple and clear chronology of events, provide additional constraints on
the processes behind its formation. Before emplacement of quartz cemented veins and breccias,
the superimposition of multiple generations of cataclasites indicates that a localized zone
of deformation was repeatedly reactivated during progressive deformation. The presence of
microcrystalline quartz in clasts generated before emplacement of quartz veins show that the pervasive
silicification of the fault zone was a syn-tectonic process. Regarding quartz-cemented fractures, the
common macroscopic textural observation of quartz cemented breccia with angular fragments and
jigsaw pattern indicates hydraulic brecciation [14] of the host rock. The pervasive silicification of the
fault zone was a first step (Figure 11A,B) before emplacement of the quartz veins and breccias of the
QB: It likely triggered fluid pressure build up in the fault zone leading to hydraulic brecciation of the
host rock, hence to the “building” of the so-called QB.
The complex patchwork of quartz textures observed under optical microscope shows a still
more complex pattern under cathodoluminescence, but highlights several events of quartz fracturing
(reworked quartz clasts) and recrystallization. The white quartz mass which displays fine-grained
subhedral quartz crystals also shows in some locations numerous fragments of earlier aggregates.
The conjugate trends of microcrystalline quartz likely reflect shearing in the quartz mass and
synchronous quartz recrystallization. A better evidence for such fracturing and synchronous quartz
crystallization is provided by white quartz veins in which euhedral quartz grains are surrounded
by microcrystalline quartz and other quartz of heterogeneous sizes (Figure 7F). We interpret this as
cataclasis and tectonic comminution (i.e., fracture propagation and wear abrasion) of previously formed
quartz mass and recrystallization of quartz (i.e., syn-tectonic). This process differs from the formation
of sub-horizontal quartz veins and hydraulic breccias related to transient fluid overpressurization
followed by fluid pressure drop and quartz precipitation [21].
To summarize, textures and crosscutting relationships of quartz cements reveal the following
sequence of events: (1) Episodes of brittle faulting and cataclasis, before silicification and
quartz-brecciation; (2) pervasive silicification of the fault zones (beginning of the QB event);
and (3) episodes of brittle fracturing synchronous with the circulation of silica-rich fluids (QB event).
During this last event, there were stages of hydrothermal hydraulic brecciation with slow and rapid
silica precipitation in relation to boiling of magmatic and/or meteoric fluids (trace elements and
δ18 O data inconclusive). This boiling process is supported by the monophase fluid inclusions within
the quartz generations of the QB. The presence of 100% of monophase vapor inclusions can be only
explained by a boiling process, affecting either magmatic fluids (with a spatial separation between

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vapor and brines) or meteoric fluids heated due to emplacement of a magmatic intrusion at low depth
at ca. 1750 Ma. Boiling process can be marked in other geological environments by the presence of
monophase vapor fluid inclusions spatially associated with multiphase and of relatively high-salinity
brines due to demixion of the magmatic fluids. The absence of two-phase fluid inclusion in the
observed samples of the QB could indicate that the vapor migrated farther than the magmatic brines.
The hydraulic brecciation alternated with stages of fluid-assisted cataclasis and quartz recrystallization
(Figure 11A). Arrays of monophase fluid inclusions (vapor-rich) also indicate abrupt pressure drops
following rupture of the “seal” of the system [78]. The so-called QB therefore appears to be a composite
structural feature much more complex than previously thought, which consists of a mass of quartz
emplaced by alternating quartz healed hydraulic brecciation and tectonic-induced cataclasis with
synchronous quartz recrystallization during fault zone reactivation.

Figure 11. (A) Evolution of inferred fault strength (frictional shear resistance) and fluid pressure in the
fault zone as a response of fluid pulse, fracturing and silica-precipitation. (B) Scheme depicting the
succession of events that produced the QB.

Intense multi-episodic hydraulic brecciation of the early fault zone at the time of QB formation
would have occurred during the interaction of two isotopically distinct fluids: Meteoric water,
mixed with a magmatic-derived fluid. The processes of faulting/fracturing discussed in this section,
that led to the formation of the QB, likely occurred at shallow depth (~2 km, [29]) and, looking at
relative chronology and geochemical constraints, were likely initiated by the emplacement of the
KIS (Figure 10). To a first glance, the fluid temperature of ~350 ◦ C is not easy to reconcile with this
shallow depth even if considering an abnormal thermal gradient related to the emplacement of the
Kivalliq intrusions. We infer that hydrothermal fluids originated at a greater depth (about 5 km,

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which may indicate a 70◦ /km geothermal gradient), and flowed upward sufficiently fast to prevent
any significant cooling before they mixed with downward-moving meteoric fluids and precipitated the
quartz generations of the QB in thermal disequilibrium with the hosting basement rocks. Interestingly,
such a quartz cemented breccia and its complex spatial organization are similar to the meter-thick
hydrothermal quartz breccia related to the emplacement of an igneous intrusion described by Tanner
et al. [85] in Scotland.
We therefore propose a conceptual tectono-hydrological model for the QB formation involving
mixing of deep silica-rich fluids of igneous origin with downward-moving meteoric fluids. The possible
mechanisms allowing for such meteoric fluid downward flow in fault zones are either active seismic
pumping or passive meteoric infiltration throughout a permeable fault zone. We favor a mechanism of
syn-tectonic seismic pumping because beside the formation of quartz-filled fractures, the intrinsic low
permeability of the unaltered basement rock surrounding the fault zone and the impermeabilization of
the fault zone—including its damage zone—through multiple silicification events presumably make
a simple, gravity-driven downflow of meteoric fluids difficult, hence unlikely. Fluid pressure built
up at depth through the input of meteoric fluids and magmatic-derived fluids together with likely
pore cementation of basement rocks (that decreased porosity). Fluid mixed and flowed upward to
higher crustal levels along the fault zones which served as conduits (Figures 10 and 11). This upward
flow likely occurred cyclically as the fluid pressure evolved between hydrostatic and supralithostatic
(Figure 11A), depending, among other factors, on the sealing effectivity of the reactivated fault zone
by quartz precipitation [86]. In turn, fluid pressure increased during the QB event also likely favored
multiple reactivations of the high angle fault zone under the regional stress field.

5.3. Evolution of the Fault Zone Properties though Time and Structural Control on Later
Uranium Mineralization
The QB is found along many segments of the main fault (Figure 1C) trends, and uranium orebodies
are systematically spatially associated with more or less thick bodies of QB along these fault zones.
Even though a systematical study of QB thickness could not be undertaken throughout the area, the
QB was observed as being usually thinner where it is not associated with uranium mineralization,
which implies a possible control on later uranium mineralization by the thickness of the QB in
fault zones.
Cataclastic fault rocks formed before the QB should have displayed an initial high porosity,
but after pervasive silicification they likely ended with a low porosity comparable to that of the fresh
basement rocks, unlike strongly clay altered and fractured samples (Figure 6). Since the evolution of
the porosity can be to some extent directly linked to the evolution of permeability since it is controlled
by fracturing and mineralogical destabilization/dissolution, we can safely infer that these multiple
events of pervasive silicification, faulting/fracturing and quartz cementation caused the destruction
of the porosity (hence of the permeability) and thus directly impacted the fluid circulation within
the conduit.
At all deposits and prospects in Kiggavik, three main fracturing events postdate emplacement of
the QB (two stages of faulting/fracturing and uranium mineralization and one stage of faulting
and strong clay alteration [31]). The distribution of fractures and mineralization in some drill
holes intersecting uranium orebodies in the vicinity of the QB is shown in Figure 12A for Contact,
End, Bong and Andrew Lake. Post-QB fracturing and uranium mineralization are clearly restricted
to the hanging wall of the QB in Contact, where the thickness of the breccia is far greater compared
to the earlier silicified fault zone. At End, Andrew Lake and Bong, post-QB fracturing and uranium
mineralization are observed in both the hanging wall and the footwall, but still not within the QB
(inner zone). In the case of End, the QB displays lateral variations in thickness comparable—even less
important—to what is observed at Contact. This distribution indicates that post-QB fracturing was
preferentially localized in the hanging-wall and/or in the footwall of the QB, along its contact with the
host rocks, while most of the QB (core zone) remained poorly fractured.

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Figure 12. (A) Distribution of fracture density and uranium mineralization as a function of depth, for
selected drillholes from Contact (Cont), End, Andrew Lake (And) and Bong. Fracture density as black
lines; 0: Non-fractured drill-core, 10: Intensely fractured drill-core. Uranium mineralization in red:
U in ppm measured by assays, logarithmic scale). (B) Number of quartz veins as a function of depth
for Contact and End. (C) Simplified cross sections.

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A significant amount of quartz veins (Figure 12B) were observed up to the top of drill holes,
i.e., in the transition from the outer zone of the QB to the host rock. Such quartz veins are typically
re-opened and were also used as pathways for uranium bearing fluids at the first stage of uranium
mineralization [31]. Ore minerals are observed along the vein boundaries (Figure 13A) and cementing
orthogonal microfractures (Figure 13B,C; see also Chi et al. [29]). Quartz with uranium-oxides in their
vicinity display specific luminescence which has been described in many places worldwide [87–90];
it has been explained by the destabilization of the crystal lattice by radiation damages (due to liberation
of alpha particles through U238 decay series).

Figure 13. (A) Plane polarized light picture and interpretation drawing of a quartz vein network
guiding the mineralizing fluid along its boundaries. Quartz and iron oxides display evidence for
dissolution; (B,C) macroscopic drill core sample scan and interpretation drawing: Examples of a QB
related quartz vein bearing pitchblende (Pch) along edges or in orthogonal microfractures.

This change of the luminescence, together with the fact that the micro-fractures cemented with
uranium minerals crosscut several generations of quartz, show that formation of the QB and deposition
of uranium bearing minerals are two distinctive events, supporting isotope data on dark blue vuggy
quartz. Uranium minerals and associated specific luminescence are only observed in the vicinity of the
QB. Vuggy quartz precipitated from basinal brines (potentially U-bearing; [29]) are observed mainly in
the outer zone and in the vicinity of the QB and further demonstrate the barrier role played by the QB
in fluid flow partitioning. These observations suggest that the QB behaved as a rigid and hard body
compared to the weaker host rocks, so that later deformation preferentially localized in the host rocks
along the contact with the strong QB body.
Quartz veins in the outer zone of the QB form a network that, when microfractured, helped
focusing mineralizing fluid flow—thus creating local traps for uranium deposition. Post QB fractures
located in its vicinity acted as preferential pathways parallel to the QB for later, uranium-rich brines,
leading to deposition of uranium ore bodies at ca. 1500–1300 Ma for main stages [28–30]. To conclude,

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the silicification processes ultimately led to the building of a complex quartz-cemented breccia body,
up to tens of meters thick, acting as a transverse hydraulic barrier depending on the vertical and
lateral variations in thickness and the degree of quartz cementation. As a result, the distribution of
mineralization in the Kiggavik area was heavily controlled—at different scales—by the mechanical and
hydraulic properties of the reactivated pre-existing fault zones where the QB was emplaced. The QB
behaved as a mechanically strong, transverse hydraulic barrier, that localized later fracturing and
compartmentalized/channelized vertical flow of uranium-bearing fluids, hence orebodies (Figure 12C)
in its hanging-wall and/or footwall during fault zone reactivation.
Even if the 3D architecture is not perfectly constrained, and would deserve proper 3D geometrical
and kinematic modelling, we could expect that relays within the QB, vertical and horizontal
variations in thickness, and overlap between QB bodies would likely influence fluid flow properties
(e.g., fluid velocity)—hence would impact uranium deposition rate [91]. The quartz breccia in
the Kiggavik area seems to be a good example of the “physical seal” developed by McCuaig and
Hronsky [92] in their mineral system concept, in conjunction with other factors to generate ore in
a considered area.

6. Conclusions
Based on a structural analysis combined with vein cement petrography, trace elements, and
oxygen stable isotope analysis of quartz, we constrain the nature, emplacement and significance of the
QB which strongly controlled the location of uranium deposits in the Kiggavik area (Nunavut, Canada).
The formation of the breccia bodies appears to be linked to fluctuations in pressure, temperature and
compositions of fluids during tectonic reactivation of the fault zones along which the QB was emplaced.
Faults formed during syn- to post-orogenic rifting processes and formation of the Baker Lake basin
(ca. 1850–1750 Ma) were subsequently reactivated, and cycles of underwent pervasive silicification,
hydraulic brecciation, and quartz recrystallization linked to cataclasis. This was associated with the
circulation of meteoric-derived fluids mixing with Si-rich magmatic-derived fluids at depth. This is
interpreted to be linked to the emplacement of the KIS at ca. 1750 Ma.
Post-QB fracturing at 1500–1300 Ma was constrained in the hanging wall and footwall of the
QB, with flow of basin-derived brines being channeled along the fault zones where QB emplaced.
The network of quartz veins in the vicinity of the QB was a favorable pathway for circulation of these
uranium-rich fluids and related uranium precipitation, as they were re-opened and micro-fractured.
Thus, the QB bodies likely exerted a major structural and hydrological control on the formation
of significant uranium orebodies in the Kiggavik area. Beyond regional implications, this study
demonstrates how an unconventional trap was built in impermeable Archean basement rocks. It also
emphasizes the importance of the spatial organization, and long-term evolution of fault zones in the
location of uranium orebodies of economic interest.

Author Contributions: A.G. and O.L. conceptualized both the study and the final model and wrote the original
draft. J.M., A.B., A.T., P.L., J.R. reviewed and edited the draft. A.G. performed macro to micro-scale petrographic
and microstructural characterization; A.G. and A.T. performed cathodoluminescence microscopy; A.G. and J.M.
performed trace elements and isotopes analyses and their interpretation. P.L. and J.R. gave their validation.
Funding acquisition and project administration were performed by A.B. and P.L., and geochemical analyses were
funded by O.L. and J.M.
Funding: This research was funded by Orano Canada and the laboratory ISTeP.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank ORANO and ORANO Canada for the full financial support and access
to the Kiggavik camp and exploration data. Special thanks to geologists R. Zerff, R. Hutchinson, K. Martin,
and D. Hrabok for their help and enriching discussions during field work. The authors also want to acknowledge
the first exploration geologists (Cogema and/or Orano) that worked on, and developed preliminary concepts on
the quartz breccia in the Kiggavik area: D. Baudemont, N. Flotte, J.-L. Feybesse, J.-L. Lescuyer. The authors thank
The SIMS team of the CRPG (Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France) for their assistance in measuring the O isotopic
composition of the quartz by SIMS. Special thanks to A. Pêtre for his thoughtful comments.

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Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The founding sponsors had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, and in the
decision to publish the results”.

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© 2018 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Article
Structural Control on Clay Mineral Authigenesis in
Faulted Arkosic Sandstone of the Rio do Peixe
Basin, Brazil
Ingrid B. Maciel 1 , Angela Dettori 2 , Fabrizio Balsamo 2, * , Francisco H.R. Bezerra 1,3 ,
Marcela M. Vieira 3 , Francisco C.C. Nogueira 4 , Emma Salvioli-Mariani 2 and
Jorge André B. Sousa 5
1 Post-Graduation Program on Geodynamics and Geophysics, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte,
Natal, RN 59078-970, Brazil; [email protected] (I.B.M.); [email protected] (F.H.R.B.)
2 Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma,
I-43124 Parma, Italy; [email protected] (A.D.); [email protected] (E.S.-M.)
3 Department of Geology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN 59078-970, Brazil;
[email protected]
4 Department of Petroleum Engineering, Federal University of Campina Grande,
Campina Grande, PB 58100-000, Brazil; [email protected]
5 Petrobras Research Center—CENPES, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-915, Brazil; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-0521-905365

Received: 3 July 2018; Accepted: 13 September 2018; Published: 14 September 2018

Abstract: Clay minerals in structurally complex settings influence fault zone behavior and
characteristics such as permeability and frictional properties. This work aims to understand the role
of fault zones on clay authigenesis in arkosic, high-porosity sandstones of the Cretaceous Rio do
Peixe basin, northeast Brazil. We integrated field, petrographic and scanning electron microscopy
(SEM) observations with X-ray diffraction data (bulk and clay-size fractions). Fault zones in the field
are characterized by low-porosity deformation bands, typical secondary structures developed in
high-porosity sandstones. Laboratory results indicate that in the host rock far from faults, smectite,
illite and subordinately kaolinite, are present within the pores of the Rio do Peixe sandstones.
Such clay minerals formed after sediment deposition, most likely during shallow diagenetic processes
(feldspar dissolution) associated with meteoric water circulation. Surprisingly, within fault zones
the same clay minerals are absent or are present in amounts which are significantly lower than those
in the undeformed sandstone. This occurs because fault activity obliterates porosity and reduces
permeability by cataclasis, thus: (1) destroying the space in which clay minerals can form; and (2)
providing a generally impermeable tight fabric in which external meteoric fluid flow is inhibited.
We conclude that the development of fault zones in high-porosity arkosic sandstones, contrary to
other low-porosity lithologies, inhibits clay mineral authigenesis.

Keywords: fault zones; deformation bands; clay authigenesis; shallow diagenesis

1. Introduction
Clay minerals have important economic applications in industry—e.g., [1]. Additionally, in most
geological settings clay minerals can occur in faults, thus influencing their permeability, frictional
properties [2–8] and subsurface fluid flow [4,9–14]. Therefore, the understanding of the feedback
between faulting and clay mineral authigenesis has important implications for seismicity, the migration
and accumulation of oil and gas in the subsurface, and contaminant transport in aquifers.
Faults in high-porosity sandstones are generally considered as barriers to fluid flow, due to the
combined effect of grain size and porosity reduction within fault cores and associated deformation

Minerals 2018, 8, 408; doi:10.3390/min8090408 181 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 408

bands in damage zones [15–22]. In this context, clay minerals are commonly described as mechanically
weak minerals, and because of this weakness their presence in faults commonly contributes to stable
sliding failures [23,24]. Furthermore, the origin and distribution of clays in sandstone are also important
in oil industry, because these minerals contribute to increases in the sealing potential of faults and can
determine reservoir compartmentalization [3,6,8].
Several studies have described the clay mineralogy of fault zones [24–26], however little attention
has been paid to the role of faults in determining the type and amount of clay mineral transformation in
faulted, arkosic sandstones. The goal of this study is to investigate how fault zones in arkosic sandstones
(composed of a fault core surrounded by deformation bands) modify grain-scale fabric and control
clay mineral authigenesis at shallow burial depths. We selected the Cretaceous Rio do Peixe basin in
northeast Brazil (Figure 1) as a case study, due to its excellent exposures of undeformed sandstones
and well-preserved fault zones. By integrating field analysis with laboratory data, we conclude that
deformation-band faulting in arkosic, high-porosity sandstones inhibits clay mineral authigenesis,
rather than promoting alteration and clay mineral formation.

2. Geological Background of the Rio do Peixe Basin

The Rio do Peixe basin (RPB) is a pull-apart Early Cretaceous basin situated in northeastern
Brazil. The basin was generated during the reactivation of Precambrian basement shear zones during
the opening of the South Atlantic Ocean [27–30]. The basin’s deeper depocenters were established
based on gravity data, and reach depths of ~2420 m [30]. These depocenters are filled by continental
siliciclastic sedimentary units which were deposited in fluvial and lacustrine depositional systems.
These deposits are divided into three main stratigraphic units, namely, from the base to the top: (1) the
Antenor Navarro Formation, represented by conglomerates and mudstones; (2) the Sousa Formation,
composed of mudstones; and (3) the Rio Piranhas Formation, composed of conglomerates and coarse
sandstones [31–33].
The Antenor Navarro Formation is the basal unit. It represents the main fill of the basin and
contains typical syn-rift deposits. The formation consists of siliciclastic fluvial deposits that are
exposed in large and continuous outcrops in different sectors of the basin (Figure 1). The sandstones
and conglomerates are composed of quartz, feldspars, rock fragments and biotite. Their matrix consists
of silt and dark brown clay (approximately 1–1.5%) [34]. The Souza Formation is the intermediate unit
and consists mostly of mudstones and a few occurrences of sandstones and marls. These units were
deposited in floodplains or shallow lakes on meandering rivers. The Rio Piranhas Formation is the top
unit and consists of conglomerates and coarse sandstones interfingered with sandy mudstones [32].

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Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Rio do Peixe Basin, showing major faults and the
lithostratigraphics units. The location of the four selected outcrops is indicated. Modified from [27,29,35].

The sedimentary rocks of the Rio do Peixe basin were affected by two main tectonic phases:
an Early to Late Cretaceous NW–SE oriented extension [29] followed by a basin inversion in a strike–slip
regime from the Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic [35]. The extensional faults that developed during the
first phase are dominated by deformation bands, often associated with slickensided surfaces [34].
The deformation bands occur as cm-thick tabular structures developed in the fault damage zone,
and are arranged as single elements or in clusters. Within deformation bands, a cataclastic foliation
was formed by preferential grain alignment and the selective fragmentation of feldspar grains [34].

3. Methods and Materials

This study focused on the western side of the Rio do Peixe basin, both in its central part far
from major faults and in the proximity of the basin-boundary faults (Figure 1). Field analysis and
sampling were performed at four main outcrops: one represents undeformed host rocks (Site 1)
and the other three are deformed sites near major faults (Sites 2, 3 and 4). Site 1 is located in the
undeformed part of the basin, where the basal Antenor Navarro sandstones are not affected by faults
and fractures. In this site, we constructed a vertical sedimentary log to characterize the undeformed
rocks. Sites 2 and 3 are located along the major intra-basinal fault zones in the Rio Piranhas sandstones
and conglomerates, and are characterized by abundant fault zones with meter-scale offsets. Site 4 is
located in the hanging wall block of the major basin-boundary fault in the Antenor Navarro sandstones,
and has a displacement of ~170 m [36].
In the studied field sites, we collected a total of 95 samples of undeformed and faulted rocks,
from which we made 34 thin sections. In the lab, we examined the following materials: (1) undeformed
sandstones and conglomerates (i.e., host rocks); (2) deformed rocks collected within the fault zones,
consisting of both deformation bands (single or clustered) and foliated cataclasites (see Section 4.1 for a
description of fault zone structure). Thin section analysis was performed using an optical microscope,
and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS).
The thin sections were impregnated with stained blue epoxy to highlight porosity. For observations

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using the light petrographic microscope, we focused on grain size and roundness, sorting, packing,
porosity, mineral composition and amount of clay. We also described depositional and diagenetic
features in undeformed and faulted samples. Small representative samples were analyzed using
a scanning electron microscope (SUPERSCAN SSX-550, Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan) to
improve clay mineral identification and textural analysis. EDS was used to identify the main chemical
elements and mineral composition of the samples. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses were performed
using a Bruker (Billerica, MA, USA) D2 Phaser powder diffractometer (CuKα radiation, voltage of
30 kV, current of 10 mA, step size of 0.018, interval of 1 s per step) on powdered bulk samples (n = 10)
and fraction samples <2 μm in size (n = 6) for clay mineral identification in undeformed and faulted
rocks. The oriented samples of the clay fractions were analyzed under three different conditions: air
dried; ethylene glycol saturated; and heated to a temperature of 550 ◦ C. The powdered bulk samples
were measured in the range 2–80◦ 2θ, and the clay fraction samples were measured in the range
2–20◦ 2θ. Mineral phase identification and semi-quantitative estimations were performed using the
DIFFRAC.EVA suite software provided by Bruker Corporation (Billerica, MA, USA). The results of the
XRD analyses, together with sample description and location, are listed in Table 1.

4. Results

4.1. Fault Zone Structure

The studied fault zones exhibit three major structural domains (Figure 2): (1) the host rock,
i.e., the undeformed sandstone and conglomerates without any significant deformational features;
(2) the fault core, where most of the fault slip is accommodated; and (3) the surrounding footwall
and hanging wall damage zones, interposed between the host rock and fault core, and composed of
deformation bands.

Figure 2. Conceptual sketch showing the typical architecture of fault zones in the Rio do Peixe basin.
The host rock represents the sandstones and conglomerates with pristine textures and sedimentary
structures not affected by faults. The fault core is the most deformed part of the fault zone, where
slip surfaces were frequently developed and where several movements (different slicken lines) are
observed. The damage zone is the deformed rock volume next to the fault core that has single or
clusters of deformation bands (Sites 2, 3 and 4 in this study). Colors are indicative of the amount of
weathering observed in the field.

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Concerning the host rock, the original undeformed fluvial facies of the Rio do Peixe basin exhibit
a massive laminated structure with trough–festoon crossbedding stratification (Figure 3). These units
vary from silty sandstones to fine conglomerates. In a few cases, thin silt lenses are also observed
(Figure 3). The sandstones are generally clast-supported with a granular texture, and grains are locally
fractured. The grain sizes vary between silt and gravel.

Figure 3. Schematic profile and compositional classification of the host rock (Antenor Navarro
Formation) in the Rio do Peixe basin, Site 1. (A) Outcrop photograph showing fluvial sedimentary
structures with tabular and lenticular shapes of fine sandstones and trough–festoon conglomerates.
Note the intense red-orange coloration of undeformed rocks. (B) Vertical sedimentary log showing
sampling position (Samples 1 to 9) in the fluvial succession. (C) Compositional classification of analyzed
Samples 1 to 9, based on [37]. Key: c—clay; s—sand; fs—fine sand; ms—medium sand; cs—coarse
sand; g—gravel; Qz—quartz; Fd—feldspar; Rf—rock fragments.

The fault cores range from 0.1 m to 0.3 m in thickness, whereas the width of the damage zones
broadly range from ~5 m to 10 m (in small faults of Sites 2 and 3) up to ~200 m (in the hanging wall
damage zone of Site 4). The fault cores and the inner damage zone generally form topographic relief
up to 1 m in height with respect to the surrounding undeformed rock (Figure 4A). The sandstones in
the fault core show a strong decrease in grain size and a preferential grain alignment, which forms a
tectonic foliation visible at the hand scale (Figure 4B). Most offsets are extensional or slightly oblique.
The footwall and hanging wall damage zones consist of clusters of anastomosing deformation bands
(Figure 4C) and isolated single deformation bands (Figure 4D). Deformation bands also form a small
positive relief. The fault cores and deformation bands exhibit lighter colors than surrounding host
rocks (Figure 4B–D) and in some cases an orange to red coloration is also observed.

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Figure 4. Field photographs showing the main structural features of studied fault zones in the Rio
do Peixe basin. (A) Example of an extensional fault zone with m-scale offset showing positive relief
with respect to the host sandstone, Site 2. The dotted line indicates the approximate position of the
fault core. (B) Foliated fault core rock (sample UT13 in Table 1) showing light grey to red colors, Site 2.
The diameter of the coin is ~2.5 cm. (C) Example of a 12.0 cm-thick cluster of deformation bands,
in positive relief, developed in the fault damage zone, Site 4. The length of the white scale is ~8.0 cm.
(D) Whitish single deformation band in positive relief developed in the damage zone, Site 2. The length
of the pen is ~14.0 cm. Key: FWDZ—footwall damage zone; HWDZ—hanging wall damage zone;
FC—fault core; DB—deformation band; CDB—cluster of deformation bands.

4.2. Petrography

4.2.1. Host Rock

The host rock comprises: (1) fine-grained sandstones with moderate sorting and angular grains
(Figure 5A); and (2) coarse-grained, generally poorly sorted sandstones with sub-rounded grains
(Figure 5B,C). Point, line and concave–convex grain contacts predominate, while floating and sutured
grains are rare. These grain contacts indicate that the sandstones have moderate packing and shallow
burial conditions. The sandstones are composed of feldspar, quartz, chert, metamorphic lithoclasts
and opaque minerals, although the percentage of these minerals varies in each sample. In thin sections,
feldspar is usually the most abundant constituent (~60%), followed by quartz (~40%), lithoclasts (up to
10%) and opaque minerals (~1%). Feldspar grains generally show microfractures and are often partially
to completely dissolved, while quartz grains are generally intact. The sandstones vary from arkose to
lithic arkose according to the Folk (1968) classification (Figure 3C). All analyzed samples commonly

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exhibit primary intergranular porosity and, subordinately, secondary moldic porosity associated with
the selective dissolution of feldspar grains (Figure 5E,F). Fracture porosity is also observed (Figure 5C),
although fractures are mostly filled by clay minerals. In thin sections, visual porosity was observed
to be 17% and 28% in fine and coarse sandstones, respectively. Generally, grains are coated by thin
layers of clay minerals; these are even more abundant within intergranular pores and microfractures.
In some samples, pores show shrinkage (Figure 5B,C). In rare cases, the porosity is almost entirely
filled by clay minerals (Figure 5A).

Figure 5. Optical microscopic images of the undeformed Rio do Peixe basin sandstones at Site 1.
(A) Host rock, with very fine grains and abundant small pores which are frequently filled by clay
minerals (pore filling, PF). The porosity is mainly secondary porosity (SP). (B) Coarse-grained sandstone
showing sub-rounded grains and primary porosity, partially filled by smectite and illite. (C) Example of
a feldspar clast dissolved and replaced by abundant clays. (D–F) show intergranular primary porosity
(PP) between quartz grains (Qtz) and SP resulting from the dissolution of feldspar grains (Fsp).

4.2.2. Fault Rocks

The deformed sandstones show different degrees of deformation, most likely due to the amount
of offset accommodated within the fault zones (Figure 6). The samples from single deformation bands
exhibit a tight fabric and limited intergranular and secondary moldic (feldspar dissolution) porosity
compared to the host rock (Figure 6A,B). The visual porosity inside the deformation bands is around
11%, i.e., lower than host rock samples. Intragranular fractures are common in quartz and feldspar

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grains within the deformation bands (Figure 6C). In places, fractures are open and filled by fine-grained
angular cataclastic material (Figure 6D).
Samples from fault cores exhibit a strong reduction in grain size with abundant fractions ranging
from fine sand to silt (Figure 6E,F). In strong contrast to the undeformed host rock, fault core samples
are clearly matrix-supported and very poorly sorted (Figure 6E,F). The brown colored, fine-grained
matrix consists of crushed feldspar grains, in agreement with recent observations [34]. In the fault cores,
the visual porosity determined using the optical microscope is practically zero due to the presence of
the cataclastic matrix (Figure 6F).

Figure 6. Fault rocks viewed under optical microscope. (A) Example of tight fabric in a deformation
band within the damage zone, Site 2. (B) Detail of primary porosity filled by small angular clasts
generated by the cataclasis process in a deformation band, Site 2. Note that feldspar grain dissolution
is limited. (C) Secondary porosity (SP) developed by intragranular microfractures in a deformation
band. (D) Detail of intragranular fractures filled by fine-grained angular cataclastic material in a small
fault core. (E) Fine-grained matrix in the fault core resulting from high grain comminution, in which
the pore space was completely destroyed, Site 3. (F) A high degree of cataclasis within the fault core,
showing a dramatic reduction in grain size and porosity, Site 4. The brown crushed material in (E) and
(F) mostly consist of very small feldspar grains developed during a cataclastic process cf. [34].

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4.3. Clay Minerals

The clay minerals observed in the undeformed host hock are smectite, illite and subordinately
kaolinite (Figure 7). These generally form a coating around clasts. The feldspars have a pore lining
with an arrangement similar to the surrounding clay minerals, indicating growth into an open void
(Figure 7A). The smectite and kaolinite exhibit a pore-filling texture (Figure 7B), while the illite shows
a pore-lining geometry on quartz (Figure 7C). The smectite is marked by contraction fractures, likely
due to sample drying (Figure 7D).

Figure 7. SEM images of clay minerals in undeformed sandstones. (A) Feldspar grain surrounded by
fractured smectite. (B) Well developed smectite flakes inside a pore. (C) Pore-line illite coatings capping
quartz grains. (D) Mixed layers of smectite and illite. Key: Sme—smectite; Fsp—feldspar; Ill—illite.

4.4. XRD Data

XRD bulk analysis was carried out on 10 samples as listed in Table 1. The results show that
the main mineral phases identified in both undeformed and faulted sandstones are very similar
(Figure 8A–C). Undeformed and faulted sandstones contain mostly quartz and feldspar (orthoclase,
microcline and albite) and subordinately micas (Table 1). Hematite was only detected in three out of
five undeformed sandstones, and was not detected in faulted samples. At low 2θ values, when clay
minerals can be identified, undeformed sandstones show small spectral peaks (see enlargement in
Figure 8A) which have a very low intensity (or are absent) in faulted sandstones (see enlargements
in Figure 8B,C). Overall, semi-quantitative estimates based on XRD peak intensity, combined with
thin section observations, indicate that the amount of clay minerals is systematically <1–2%. In three
faulted samples (one of fault core rock and two of deformation bands), either no clay minerals were
detected or insufficient material was available for clay fraction analysis (Table 1).

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Table 1. Results of XRD analyses (bulk and clay fractions) performed in undeformed and faulted
rocks from Sites 1, 2 and 4. (I-S: illite-smectite; DB: deformation bands). Sample labels are the same as
Figures 8 and 9.

Sample # Site Formation Structural Domain Bulk Mineralogy Clay Mineralogy

Antenor Host rock Quartz, feldspars,
SCP01 Site 1 Illite, smectite
Navarro (fine conglomerate) muscovite, hematite
Antenor Host rock Quartz, feldspars,
SCP05 Site 1 Illite, smectite
Navarro (fine sandstone) muscovite, hematite
Host rock Quartz, feldspars, Illite, smectite, I-S
UT01 Site 2 Rio Piranhas
(fine sand) muscovite mixed layers
Host rock Quartz, feldspars, Illite, smectite, I-S
UT11 Site 2 Rio Piranhas
(Fine sand) muscovite mixed layers
Fault core Quartz, feldspars, Not analyzed
UT13 Site 2 Rio Piranhas
(foliated cataclasite) muscovite (no enough clay)
Fault core
UT14 Site 2 Rio Piranhas Quartz, feldspars Illite, chlorite
(foliated cataclasite)
Antenor Host rock Quartz, feldspars, Illite, smectite, I-S
SVEM1 Site 4
Navarro (fine sandstone) muscovite, hematite mixed layers
Antenor Damage zone Quartz, feldspars,
SVEF3 Site 4 No clay phase
Navarro (deformation band) muscovite
Antenor Damage zone
SVEA1 Site 4 Quartz, feldspars Illite, smectite
Navarro (cluster of DB)
Antenor Damage zone
SVEB2 Site 4 Quartz, feldspars No clay phase
Navarro (cluster of DB)

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Figure 8. Examples of XRD analyses on bulk samples representative of undeformed sandstone (A),
foliated cataclasite in fault core rock (B) and deformation band (C).

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XRD analyses of clay fractions, performed on the six samples which had sufficient clay minerals in
bulk analyses, indicate that the main types of clay minerals in both undeformed and faulted sandstones
are smectite and subordinately illite (Figure 9), as indicated by the comparison between the XRD
spectra of air-dried, glycolated and heated samples. Based on spectral peak intensities, in all the
spectra the amount of illite was found to be less than that of smectite. Both illite and smectite occur as
both distinct phases and mixed layers (Figure 9). In undeformed samples (Figure 9A–D) the spectral
peaks of illite and smectite have greater intensities than in faulted samples (Figure 9E,F). Smectite
is absent in the foliated fault-core rock (Figure 9E), which also shows the lowest amount of illite of
all the analyzed samples; this is consistent with the non-weathered, whitish foliated cataclasites that
are often observed in the field (e.g., Figure 4B) and the observed lack of clay minerals in thin sections
(Figure 7E,F). A very small amount of chlorite is also observed in the fault core rock sample (Figure 9E).

Figure 9. XRD diffractograms of aggregates of clay-size fractions of undeformed (A–D) and fault core
(E) rocks, and a deformation band in a fault damage zone (F). Air-dried (in grey), heated at 550 ◦ C
(in red), and treated with ethylene glycol (in blue) conditions are shown.

5. Discussion
It is well known that the development of fault zones in sandstones can significantly modify fluid
circulation pathways e.g., [12], thus influencing a variety of shallow diagenetic processes [21,24,38].
In this study, fault zones that developed in high-porosity arkosic sandstones are found to have
the typical architecture described in other settings [9,24,38], being organized in a foliated fault-core
surrounded by a damage zone hosting cataclastic deformation bands [34].

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5.1. Origin of Clay Minerals

In the analyzed samples, illite and smectite were found to be the most abundant clay minerals
(Figures 9 and 10) that typically occupy the spaces of the intergranular porosity of undeformed
sandstones (Figures 5 and 7B). These phases are not easily distinguishable from one another under
optical and electronic microscopy, however the results of XRD analysis on clay fractions indicate that
illite and smectite occur both in mixed layers and as independent phases (Figure 9). Illite and smectite
are among the most common clay minerals in sedimentary rocks. These minerals may form under
diagenetic conditions at low pressure and temperature at near-surface conditions [5,8,24], typical
of the shallow crust of the studied Rio do Peixe basin. The shallow burial depth during faulting
(<1–2 km) is attested by the following conditions: (1) the syn-rift nature of extensional faults; (2) poorly
lithified lithology; (3) the high-porosity framework in thin sections of undeformed sandstones; (4) the
absence of high temperature mineral phases; and (5) the absence of quartz overgrowth in thin sections.
Therefore, we interpret the occurrence of illite and smectite as the result of the partial weathering of
K-feldspar and plagioclase grains during shallow early diagenesis under meteoric conditions [14].
This interpretation is strongly supported by the intense and selective dissolution of feldspar grains
observed in thin sections (Figure 5). A detrital origin of the clay minerals in the studied samples is
excluded since such clays are much more abundant in undeformed (porous) sandstones than in their
faulted (non-porous) counterparts (Figure 10A–C), as discussed below.

5.2. Timing Between Clay Authigenesis and Faulting

The greater presence of clay minerals in the host rocks, and their scarcity or absence in the fault
zone domains (both in thin sections and in X-ray diffractograms) indicates that, in the Rio do Peixe
basin, clay authigenesis mostly occurred after the formation of faults. This interpretation implies that
the studied fault zones acted as barriers to weathering meteoric fluids rather than preferential conduits,
which is consistent with previously published data in similar lithologies. This hydraulic behavior
is in agreement with pervasive grain fragmentation and cataclasis, as documented in thin sections
(Figure 6), which provides a more compact, tight and impermeable fabric within the fault zones cf. [34].
Accordingly, when the studied extensional faults and deformation bands were formed at shallow
burial depth, the rock volume incorporated into the fault zones could not provide an effective pathway
for meteoric influx, thus compromising the process of clay authigenesis and limiting the development
of clay phases. This is also consistent with: (1) the presence of Fe-oxides in the host rocks, and not in
their faulted counterparts (Table 1); and (2) the intense reddish coloration of host rocks and the orange
to whitish coloration of faulted rocks observed in the field (as shown schematically in Figure 3).
Therefore, we believe that no significant amount of detrital clays was present in the sandstone
before deformation, due to their absence in faulted samples. If clay minerals were present in the
host sandstones at the time of faulting, they would have certainly been incorporated into the fault
zones, probably reducing the friction between grains and preventing (or at least hindering) both
cataclasis [23,24] and the development of deformation bands. In summary, we suggest that when
the diagenetic process of clay authigenesis occurred in the high-porosity undeformed sandstones,
there was no significant porosity and sufficient permeability within the fault zones for meteoric fluid
circulation and intense alteration of feldspars.

5.3. Evolutionary Model

Based on field observations and laboratory results, we propose the following evolutionary model
for the generation of clay minerals after sediment deposition in the following sequence: (1) the syn- to
post-sedimentary formation of extensional faults and deformation bands in poorly lithified sandstones,
inducing localized grain compaction and early comminution within the fault zones; (2) the further
evolution of failure and the generation of low-permeability cataclastic fault zones; (3) the beginning
of the weathering process during shallow diagenesis and meteoric fluid circulation; (4) the selective

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weathering and dissolution of feldspar grains in a semi-arid environment (as shown by moldic
porosity in thin sections) and clay mineral authigenesis in the high-porosity undeformed sandstones
and conglomerates; (5) the exhumation of faults during regional basin inversion and the formation of
positive reliefs of fault zones (due to differential surface erosion) caused by a tight cataclastic fabric.

Figure 10. Summary diagrams showing a comparison between diffractograms of undeformed host
rocks (green lines) and faulted rocks (red lines). (A) Bulk XRD analysis indicating that that the amount
of clay minerals in the undeformed samples is higher than that in faulted samples. (B) The relative
abundance of smectite in undeformed and faulted samples. (C) The relative abundance of illite in
undeformed and faulted samples.

6. Conclusions
We studied clay mineral assemblages in faulted, high-porosity arkosic sandstone of the Rio do
Peixe basin (northeast Brazil) to understand the role of faults in clay mineral authigenesis. We integrated
field observations with analysis of microstructures, optical and scanning electron microscopy and XRD
(bulk and clay-fraction) mineralogy. The results obtained in this study indicate the following conclusions:

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(1) The bulk mineralogy of the Rio do Peixe sandstone does not change significantly between the
undeformed and faulted domains, consisting of lithic arkose with feldspar grains generally
comprising >50%.
(2) In both undeformed and faulted domains, clay minerals are <1–2% and consist of smectite and
illite, and subordinately illite–smectite mixed layers. Despite the similar mineralogy, the amount
of clay is systematically less in the faulted domain than in pristine rocks and in some cases is not
observed at all.
(3) Clay minerals in the studied arkosic sandstones most likely developed during feldspar weathering
processes in a shallow meteoric environment. A detrital origin of clay is excluded in the analyzed
sandstones and conglomerates.
(4) Contrary to the results of other fault rock studies in similar lithologies, clay is found to be less
abundant in the faulted domains (fault core and damage zone) than in the host rocks. We conclude
that this is due to the tight fabric that developed in the faulted porous sandstone, which inhibited
meteoric fluid circulation and clay mineral authigenesis.

We conclude that, contrary to several other faulted settings which have a high abundance of
authigenic clays, the development of fault zones in high-porosity arkosic sandstone in semi-arid
regions prevents the authigenesis of clay minerals. Consequently, clay authigenesis is more efficient in
undeformed sandstones than faulted domains, which has important implications for oil and water
reservoir quality in siliciclastic rocks and fault behavior in structurally complex settings.

Author Contributions: I.B.M. participated to the fieldwork and sampling, performed petrographic and SEM
analysis, contributed to manuscript writing. A.D. participated to the fieldwork, performed XRD analyses and
thin section observations. F.B. conceived the research, participated to the fieldwork and sampling, contributed to
manuscript writing; F.H.R.B. participated to fieldwork, contributed to manuscript writing; M.M.V. supervised
SEM and petrographic analyses; F.C.C.N. organized the overall fieldwork and participated to sampling; E.S.-M.
supervised and interpreted the XRD analysis; J.A.B.S. participated to the fieldwork and supported the project.
Funding: This research was funded by Petrobras/Federal University of Campina Grande project
(TC 0050.0096065.15.9 grant to Francisco C. C. Nogueira); Fieldwork of Angela Dettori and Fabrizio Balsamo was
funded by University of Parma, Italy (Overworld progam 2016–2017 grant to Fabrizio Balsamo); Ingrid Maciel
was supported by a Brazilian CAPES grant.
Acknowledgments: We kindly thank two anonymous reviewers which significantly improve the original early
version of this manuscript. We thank Luca Aldega and Luciana Mantovani for helful discussion on XRD data.
We also thank the Brazilian Agency of Oil, Gas, and Biofuels (Agência Nacional do Petróleo, ANP) for sharing data
on the Rio do Peixe basin. Fabrizio Balsamo wishes to dedicate this work in faulted sandstones to his mother
Isabella Bellina, died in Albano Laziale (Rome, Italy) the 14 June 2018.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Article
Structural Controls on Copper Mineralization in the
Tongling Ore District, Eastern China: Evidence from
Spatial Analysis
Tao Sun 1,2, * ID
, Ying Xu 3 , Xuhui Yu 4 , Weiming Liu 1 , Ruixue Li 1 , Zijuan Hu 1 and Yun Wang 5
1 School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology,
Ganzhou 341000, China; [email protected] (W.L.); [email protected] (R.L.);
[email protected] (Z.H.)
2 Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Mining Engineering, Jiangxi University of Science and Technology,
Ganzhou 341000, China
3 Institute of Multipurpose Utilization of Mineral Resources, CAGS, Chengdu 610041, China;
[email protected]
4 College of Earth Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 61005, China; [email protected]
5 School of Water Resource and Environment, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 341515, China;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-0797-831-2751

Received: 4 May 2018; Accepted: 14 June 2018; Published: 15 June 2018

Abstract: Structures exert significant controls on hydrothermal mineralization, although such controls
commonly have cryptic expression in geological datasets dominated by 2D maps. Analysis of spatial
patterns of mineral deposits and quantification of their correlation with detailed structural features
are beneficial to understand the plausible structural controls on mineralization. In this paper, a series
of GIS-based spatial methods, including fractal, Fry, distance distribution and weights-of-evidence
analyses, were employed to reveal structural controls on copper mineralization in the Tongling ore
district, eastern China. The results indicate that Yanshanian intrusions exert the most significant
control on copper mineralization, followed by EW-trending faults, intersections of basement faults
and folds. The scale-variable distribution patterns of copper occurrences are attributed to the
different structural controls operating in the basement and sedimentary cover. In the basement,
EW-trending faults serve as pathways for channeling Yanshanian magma from a deep magma
chamber to structurally controlled trap zones in the caprocks, imposing an important regional
control on the spatial distribution of Cretaceous magmatic-hydrothermal system genetically related
to copper mineralization. In the sedimentary cover, bedding-parallel shear zones, formed during
the progressive folding and shearing in Indosinian and overprinted by tensional deformation in
Yanshanian, act as favorable sites for hosting, focusing and depositing the ore-bearing fluids, playing
a vital role in the localization of stratabound deposits at fine scale.

Keywords: structural control; spatial analysis; fractal; buffer-based analysis; data-driven

model; Tongling

1. Introduction
Structural controls on hydrothermal mineralization at various scales have been widely
recognized [1–5]. At a global scale, hydrothermal systems usually form in specific tectonic settings,
e.g., porphyry systems mostly occur in magmatic arc settings [1–3]. At a regional scale, hydrothermal
deposits show close proximity to regional faults system or shear zones, which sever as pathways
for transporting ore-forming fluids from deep-seated sources to shallow depositing spots [6,7]. At a
deposit scale, hydrothermal replacement disseminations, breccias and veins, which are related to

Minerals 2018, 8, 254; doi:10.3390/min8060254 198 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 254

subsidiary fracture zones of regional structures, serve as favorable sites for focusing and depositing
the ore-bearing fluids and are interpreted to be responsible for localization of orebodies [7]. However,
such controls may usually have cryptic expression in various sources of geological records, because
(i) structures, especially large-scale structures, may have variable expressions from depth to surface
(e.g., mylonite zone at depth and fault zone near the surface) [7]; (ii) spatial associations between
map-generalized structures and surface-projected deposits in 2D maps may lead to an inaccurate
view or even misunderstanding with respect to controls of mineralization; and (iii) structural features
together with structurally controlled mineralization may be formed through successive deformation
and polyphase tectonics [8]. Thus, it is a challenge to identify ore-related structural features and
elucidate structural controls, as well as measure their contributions to the formation of mineral deposits.
GIS-based spatial analysis has been well-established and developed in the last three decades,
assisting in identification of inherent patterns of ore-related geological features and delineation of
interplay of the processes that constrain the formation of mineral deposits [9–12]. More specifically,
with the help of quantitative methods and easy-to-use GIS software, delineating the spatial patterns
of known occurrences of mineral deposits and their associations with geological features (e.g.,
structural, lithological and geochemical features) can, in addition to field observations, geochemical
and mineralogical laboratory methods, provide insights into the controlling mechanisms operating at
different scales [10,13–15], especially in the brownfield areas where a relatively large number of mineral
deposits have been well-explored [15]. Furthermore, recognition of geological features controlling the
mineralization is critical for defining exploration criteria in future prospecting [16].
Since mineral occurrences are simplified to be represented as points on large-scale maps in
various applications of spatial analyses, methods of spatial analysis for point patterns have been
increasingly employed in studying spatial distribution and geological controls of mineral deposits,
mostly involving fractal geometry [17,18] and Fry analysis [19,20]. Through statistical calculation,
fractal and Fry analyses are able to highlight the distribution pattern of mineral deposits that may
be difficult to be recognized by exclusively relying on visual interpretation [5]. Moreover, distance
distribution [14,21] and weights-of-evidence (WofE) analyses [22,23] can further quantify the strength
of the spatial association between mineral deposits and geological features believed to be favorable
in predicting the location of the mineralization. A joint application of these methods is necessary
as individual methods only characterizes a particular aspect, such as non-random clustering of
deposits or preferential direction of deposits distribution, of complex spatial features of mineralization
systems [10,24].
The Tongling ore district (TOD) is one of the most important Cu producers in China, with totally
estimated reserves of over 5 Mt copper [25]. Large stratabound copper deposits constitute the
majority of the copper reserves in this area, e.g., the Donggushan deposit with 1 Mt Cu @ 1.01% [26]
and the Xinqiao deposit with 0.5 Mt Cu @ 0.71% [27], which have attracted many studies
focusing on their genesis [28–36]. These stratabound deposits were firstly considered to be of
SEDEX origin by many researchers because of their stratiform orebodies and massive sulfide
ores, and the major orebodies occurring in the Carboniferous strata were thought to be products
of Late Paleozoic (Hercynian) sedimentary exhalative system [28–30]. Some researchers further
proposed an exhalative origin overprinted by Yanshanian magmatic-hydrothermal processes, based on
the restricted occurrences of the stratabound orebodies in areas where Yanshanian intrusions are
particularly extensive [31–33]. In contrast, some authors advocated that the stratabound mineralization
is of epigenetic origin and genetically associated with the Jurassic-Cretaceous tectono-thermal
events [34–36]. The precise geochronological data derived from recent studies confirmed that the
massive sulfide and skarn orebodies were coeval with the Yanshanian intrusions [25,27,37], supporting
the magmatic-hydrothermal origin of these stratabound deposits.
Although the genesis of stratabound deposits is still disputable, most of the researchers
tend to agree with the epigenetic origin or at least the dominant contribution of Yanshanian
magmatic-hydrothermal activities in the superimposed ore-forming processes [38,39]. In the

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magmatic-related genetic model, the stratiform orebodies were formed as a result of progressive
fluid-rock interaction along the bedding-parallel structurally controlled conduits and were integral but
distal parts of a large hydrothermal system that produced the proximal skarn orebodies at the contact
zones and porphyry orebodies in the Yanshanian intrusions [35]. Such hydrothermal system and
stratabound deposits are similar to their counterparts elsewhere [35], among which the porphyry-skarn
polymetallic deposits in the Ertsberg district of Indonesia and manto-type copper deposits in Chile are
two representative examples. In the Ertsberg district, the Ertsberg East skarn orebody, one of the largest
orebodies, is hosted by a bedding-parallel fault-bounded zone between the limestone of the Faumai
Formation and dolomitic carbonate of the Waripi Formation [40]. In the Punta del Cobre district in
Chile, the stratabound tabular orebodies occur in the andesite breccia horizons between underlying
massive andesite and overlying shale, while the sites of economic copper concentration appear to be
controlled by faults [41]. Since structure is an important controlling factor of these stratabound deposits,
some relevant studies have been conducted in the TOD, including the spatial patterns [34], deformation
model [42] and formative process [43] of ore-controlling structures. However, these studies mostly
focus on theoretical deduction and qualitative analysis, and lack quantitative analysis concerning
detailed structural features. Hence, this paper attempts to delineate the structural controls by both
qualitative and quantitative analytical methods, focusing on the structural controlling mechanisms
operating at different scales, which can facilitate the understanding of the formation of copper deposits
and provide criteria for future exploration in the TOD.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The TOD is situated in the central part of the Middle-Lower Yangtze Cu-Au-Fe metallogenic
belt (MLYMB) along the Northern margin of the Yangtze craton, bordered by the Qingling-Dabieshan
orogenic belt and the North China craton to the North (Figure 1a).
The Northern Yangtze craton is underlain by tonalitic-trondjhemitic-granitic (TTG) gneisses aged
from 3.45 to 2.87 Ga [44]. The TTG gneisses and unconformably overlying Archean to Paleoproterozoic
metamorphic rocks constituted the basement of the TOD [44]. From Cambrian to Middle Triassic,
the TOD represented a stable trough filled with carbonate and clastic rocks of shallow marine facies [36].
Two sedimentary sequences developed in this period, including the Lower Silurian to Upper Devonian
regressive bathyal to littoral clastic rocks and overlying Upper Carboniferous to Middle Triassic littoral
to neritic carbonates interbedded with bathyal and alternative marine-continental clastic rocks [45].
The sedimentary strata were folded during the Indosinian movement which is initiated at the end
of Middle Triassic due to the collision between the Yangtze craton and North China craton [35].
From Jurassic to Cretaceous, this region experienced an event that has long been interpreted as
an intracontinental deformation stage with abundant magmatism [35,38,45], and developed thick
terrestrial sedimentary and volcanic sequences which unconformably overlie the Silurian to Triassic
strata. The detailed lithological description and contact relationship of sedimentary strata in the TOD
are listed in Table 1.
The regional structures in the TOD are dominated by several folds with NE-striking axial surfaces
and sigmoidal-shaped axes (Figure 1b). Secondary structures include NE-trending thrust faults,
NW- and NNW-trending strike-slip faults [46]. The regional gravity anomalies [47] and deep seismic
reflection profiles [48] indicate the presence of EW- and NS-trending basement faults. The Yanshanian
magmatism resulted in more than 70 intrusions that are mainly composed of granodiorite, quartz
monzonite, gabbro monzonite and their hypabyssal equivalents [26,49]. High-precision zircon U-Pb
dating results have shown that the intrusions of this region were formed in the Early Cretaceous
(mainly 145–129 Ma) [50,51]. The copper-polymetallic deposits discovered in the TOD are dominated
by skarn-type, with minor porphyry-type copper deposits occurring in the deeper parts of some
skarn deposits [45,50,51]. More than 60 copper-polymetallic skarn deposits and prospects have been

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discovered in the TOD, mainly clustering in four ore fields designated as Tongguanshan, Shizishan,
Fenghuangshan and Shatanjiao ore field from west to east (Figure 1b).

Table 1. Stratigraphy and tectonic events in the Tongling ore district

Epoch Lithostratigraphic Unit Code Lithological Description Tectonic Activity

Upper Cretaceous Xuannan Formation K2 x Conglomerate and sandstone Yanshanian
movement
Middle Jurassic Luoling Formation J2 l Feldspar sandstone, siltstone and shale (ca. 135 Ma)
Feldspar sandstone with interlays of silty Indosinian
Lower Jurassic Moshan Formation J1 m
shale and coal, conglomerate at bottom movement
Tongtoujian Formation T2 t Siltstone with interlays of sandy shale (ca. 195 Ma)
Middle Triassic
Limestone, dolomite in upper and siltstone
Yueshan Formation T2 y
in lower
Nanlinghu Formation T1 n Limestone
Lower Triassic Helongshan Formation T1 h Limestone
Yingkeng Formation T1 y Limestone with interlays of silt shale
Dalong Formation P2 d Siliceous shale with interlays of limestone
Upper Permian
Fine sandstone and silt shale with interlays
Longtan Formation P2 l
of coal
Gufeng Formation P1 g Siliceous slate and siliceous shale
Lower Permian
Bioclastic limestone in upper and
Qixia Formation P1 q
carbonaceous shale in lower
Chuanshan Formation C2 c Orbicular limestone and bioclastic limestone
Upper Carboniferous
Huanglong Formation C2 h Bioclastic limestone and dolomite
Upper Devonian Wutong Formation D3 w Quartz sandstone and silty shale
Middle Silurian Fentou Formation S2 f Sandstone, siltstone and sandy shale
Lower Silurian Gaojiabian Formation S1 g Black shale
Wufeng Formation O3 w Black siliceous shale
Upper Ordovician
Calcareous shale with interlayers of
Tangtou Formation O3 t
limestone
Middle Ordovician Tangshan Formation O2 t Limestone with interlayers of thin slate
Lower Ordovician Lunshan Formation O1 l Limestone in upper and dolomite in lower
Cambrian Huangjiabang Formation є Limestone
Jinning
Precambrian Dongling Group Pt3 d Biotite quartz schist and gneiss movement
(ca. 850–800 Ma)
Modified from [26]; dashed line represents disconformity; and double line represents angular unconformity.

The copper occurrences (including known deposits and prospects) and structural features
employed in this study were derived from Geological Database of Bureau of Geological and Mineral
Resources of Anhui Province based on 1:50,000 geological survey and complemented by the literature
available for the study area concerning regional geological settings [26,42,45,49,51]. The raw data were
examined before being inputted into a spatial database. Only those copper and copper-dominated
polymetallic deposits were included in the analysis, since the other types of copper-related polymetallic
deposits may be products of different structurally controlled processes when compared with copper
mineralization. The structural features were reclassified into three categories including the basement
faults, cover faults and folds. All the examined data were compiled to vector formats and imported
into the ArcGIS 10 platform (Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands, CA, USA) for the
subsequent spatial analyses.

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Figure 1. Geological map of the study area: (a) simplified tectonic map showing the location of the
TOD; and (b) geological map of the TOD showing the locations of copper occurrences, modified from a
1:50,000 scale geological map [52] and [37,42,43,53].

2.2. Fractal Analysis

Fractals are entities that have similar geometrical patterns when observed in ranges of scales [17].
This scale-invariance can be depicted by a power-law proportional relationship between a measurement
of the target pattern and its scale [17]. Various methods have been proposed for estimating the fractal
dimension of a given pattern, each of which reveals an aspect of geometrical complexity of the
target pattern [10,54]. The box-counting and radial-density methods, which are the most commonly
used methods in analyzing geological point patterns, were employed to estimate corresponding
fractal dimensions in this study. The fractal analysis can reveal the statistical scale-related laws of the
distribution of copper occurrences, which may be products of structurally controlled processes.
In the box-counting method, the study area involving geological features of interest (e.g., mineral
deposits) is overlain by a grid that comprises square cells or boxes with side length δ, and then the
number N(δ) of those boxes containing parts of target features is counted (Figure 2a). The above
process is repeated using different box size δ to obtain corresponding box number N(δ) (Figure 2b,c).
If the pattern under analysis pertains to fractal pattern, the relationship between N(δ) and δ should
follow a power-law function as below [17]:

N (δ) ∝ Aδ− DB (1)

where DB is the box-counting fractal dimension, and A is a constant. Practically, a graph of log(N(δ))
versus log(δ) is plotted and then a best-fit regression line is drawn by the least square method, while
the slope of the regression line represents the box-counting fractal dimension (Figure 2d).

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Figure 2. Schematic diagram of box-counting analysis: (a) 7 boxes containing target points with box size
δ = 8; (b) 9 boxes counted with box size δ = 6; (c) 14 boxes counted with box size δ = 3; and (d) log-log
plot revealing the power-law relationship of counted box number N(δ) and box size δ, obtaining
box-counting fractal dimension DB = 0.7071.

In the radial-density method, fractal points, also called fractal dusts, have been demonstrated to
satisfy a radial-density relationship, which can be described as [55]:

d ∝ Br DR −2 (2)

where, d is the average point density of the circles with a radius r that center in every point, and B
is a constant, while DR is the radial-density fractal dimension. Likewise, DR is usually obtained by
calculating the slope of a regression line that presents the linear relationship of d and r in a log-log plot.

2.3. Fry Analysis

Fry analysis is a geometrical method of spatial autocorrelation for analyzing point patterns [22],
which is implemented by the construction of an autocorrelation diagram called Fry plot. Figure 3
shows a basic procedure for creating Fry plot [10,24]: (i) two analogue sheets including an original
sheet recording raw points (Figure 3a) and a blank tracing sheet are prepared; (ii) the origin of the
original sheet O is placed on one of the raw points, thus preserving the orientations and distances of all
the other points (Figure 3b); (iii) the points in the original sheet are then translated to the tracing sheet
with O coinciding with the origin of the tracing sheet O’ (Figure 3c); (iv) the origin O moves to another
raw point (Figure 3d), and the new distribution pattern of raw points is copied to the tracing sheet
following step (iii) (Figure 3f). This procedure is repeated until every point in the original sheet is used
as the origin O (Figure 3e,f), resulting in (n2 -n) points in the tracing sheet for n raw points (Figure 3g).
The final tracing sheet is termed as Fry plot, and the points in this sheet are called Fry points.
Fry plot records the distances and orientations of each raw point relative to every other point,
thus enhancing subtle patterns of target point features [24], based on which rose diagrams are usually
constructed to analyze preferential orientations of point pairs within specific distances that reveal the
directional controls on mineralization at different map scales.

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Figure 3. Schematic diagram for constructing a Fry plot: (a) the original sheet records raw points;
(b) the origin O is placed on one of the raw points; (c) distribution pattern of raw points according to
the origin O is transferred to the tracing sheet; (d,e) the origin O is re-placed on every raw point; (f) the
tracing sheet records all distribution patterns of raw points with respect to different origins; and (g) Fry
plot is constructed.

2.4. Distance Distribution Analysis

Distance distribution analysis is a spatially buffer-based method for quantifying spatial association
between a set of points (i.e., mineral occurrences) and another set of spatial features [24,56].
This analysis involves calculating and comparing the cumulative relative frequency according to
given distances from a certain set of geological features to (i) mineral occurrence locations (denoted as
DM ) and (ii) non-occurrence locations (denoted as DN ). DN indicates naturally random probability
density distribution of regular patterns within a given buffer distance, while DM presents a non-random
probability density distribution of mineralized patterns that is characterized by unevenly clustering
of mineral occurrences within the corresponding buffer. The difference D, which is calculated by
(DM − DN ), represents how much the cumulative frequency of mineral occurrences (i.e., DM ) is higher
or lower than that expected due to chance (i.e., DN ), measuring the intensity of spatial association
between the analyzed geological feature and mineralization.
In order to manifest statistically if DM is significantly greater than DN , an upper confidence band
for the curve of DN (denoted as uc) can be given by [57]:

uc = D N + 9.21( M + N )/4MN (3)

where M is the number of mineral occurrences that used to estimate DM , while N is the number
of non-occurrence locations using for calculating DN , and 9.21 is a constant for significance level
α = 0.01 [24].

2.5. Weights of Evidence (WofE) Analysis

The WofE analysis is a data-driven Bayesian statistical method that offers a quantitative
measurement of spatial association between a set of given geological features and the target occurrences
(e.g., mineral deposits, prospects or geological anomalies) [58,59].
A detailed mathematical explanation of the WofE method is available in Bonham-Carter (1994) [9].
In the GIS-based application of a mineral occurrence-related analysis, the WofE analysis is implemented
on the basis of several binary predictor maps of geological features [9]. Firstly, the study area is
subdivided into T square cells with an equal size, among which D cells are occupied by mineral
occurrences. The prior probability can be defined as:

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D
Pprior = P( D ) = (4)
T
and the relative importance of spatial association between the geological feature Bi and mineralization
is estimated by a pair of weights, namely positive weight W + and negative weight W − , which can be
given by:    

+ P( B| D ) − P( B D )
W = ln  , W = ln  (5)
P( B D ) P( B D )

where P denotes the corresponding probability; B and B are the presence and absence of geological
features; D and D are the presence and absence of mineral occurrences. P(B|D), for example, represents
the probability of B occurring given the presence of D. The contrast C is defined as an overall
measurement of spatial correlation, which is given by:
C = W+ − W− (6)

In order to evaluate the significance of the contrast C, the confidence of the contrast (denoted
as CS ), obtained from a Student t-test, is employed here and defined as:
C C
CS = =  (7)
S(C ) S 2 (W + ) + S 2 (W − )

where S denotes the standard deviation of the corresponding parameter.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Spatial Patterns of Copper Occurrences

The box-counting log-log graph shows that the distribution of copper occurrences in the study
area exhibits a bifractal pattern, i.e., the log-log plot of box number N(δ) versus box size δ can be fitted
with two regression lines (Figure 4a), resulting in two fractal dimensions of 0.2468 (δ ≤ 1.6 km) and
0.75 (δ > 1.6 km). In contrast, the radial-density analysis yields a trifractal pattern, as indicated by three
regression lines that represent three fractal dimensions varying from 0.796 (r ≤ 1.4 km), 1.1722 (between
1.5 and 4.5 km) to 0.8092 (r > 4.5 km) (Figure 4b). A single regression line represents a power-law
(fractal) relationship between the measurements and their scales, implying a scale-invariance pattern
resulted from a nonlinear process. In this study, the different fractal patterns of copper occurrences
indicated by the multi-line fractal model could be ascribed to the different ore-controlling processes
operating at different scales. It is noteworthy that the log-log graph, especially for radial-density
analysis, seems to be alternatively fitted with one single regression line. However, the two-lines
and three-lines fractal models shown in Figure 4 are assumed to be optimum because they reach the
maximum regression coefficients (R2 ) of the fitted lines, meaning that the reduction of any regression
line would lower the regression coefficients.
Although apparent differences in the fractal dimensions are noted in the above analyses, there is
a general agreement between the result of box-counting method and that of radial-density analysis,
such that variations in fractal dimensions, indicated by intersection of the neighbor regressing lines,
both occur at around 1.5 km, suggesting that the different fractal structures exist within identical
ranges (within 1.5 km and beyond 1.5 km) in both box-counting and radial-density fractal relationship.
It is also noted that there is an intersection at 4.5 km in the radial-density fractal plot; however,
it is not clear whether there also exists another fractal dimension in the box-counting analysis when
taking box size greater than 4.5 km, since box number under such situation is not large enough to be
statistically counted.

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(a) (b)

Figure 4. Log-log plot defining the fractal dimensions of spatial pattern of copper occurrences in the
TOD: (a) box-counting linear relationship; and (b) radial-density linear relationship.

The results of fractal analyses in this study, including the multi-fractal dimension model and
fractal structures occurring within identical ranges, are consistent with those of some previous
studies [10,15,16,24]. It is considered that discrepancies in fractal dimensions are plausibly linked to
different geological controls operating at diverse scales, e.g., regional-, local- and prospect-scale [10].
Nevertheless, such scale-variable geological controls are still cryptic and need to be delineated by
further analysis.
Fry analysis has been performed to investigate the orientations of plausible controls on copper
mineralization. 3906 Fry points were delivered from 63 copper occurrences in the TOD (Figure 5a),
based on which rose diagrams were constructed. The rose diagram for all Fry points illustrates a
simply dominant EW trend (Figure 5b), suggesting a fundamental EW-trending control on copper
mineralization at regional scale. Since fractal analyses indicate variations in fractal dimensions around
1.5 and 4.5 km, we also analyzed the characteristics of Fry points within these ranges. The rose diagram
for Fry points within 4.5 km of each other indicates a preferential NNE trend, with subordinate NE
and EW trends (Figure 5c). The rose diagram for Fry points within 1.5 km of each other exhibits a main
NE-NEE trend, with subsidiary trends in EW and NS directions (Figure 5d).
The results of Fry analysis infer different directional controls at regional- (>4.5 km) and fine-
(<4.5 km) scales, which could be correlated to detailed structural features in the TOD. However, such
correlation is not specific. For example, the NE-trending control at fine scale may be related to the
NE-trending faults or be linked to the folds with NE-striking axes. Further analysis is necessary
so as to delineate the one-to-one correspondence between the scale-variable controls and detailed
structural features.

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Figure 5. (a) Fry plot showing spatial distribution of Fry points derived from 63 copper occurrences;
and rose diagram for (b) all Fry points; (c) Fry points within 4.5 km; (d) Fry points within 1.5 km.

3.2. Spatial Correlation of Structural Features with Copper Mineralization

Structural features are the outcomes of diverse geological processes, only a few of which are
associated with ore-forming processes and sever as structural controls on mineralization [10,24].
In order to reveal the subtle structural controls in the TOD, the structural features were grouped in
terms of their orientations, and the spatial associations of these features with copper mineralization
were quantitatively assessed by distance distribution analysis. The study area was subdivided into
20,250 square cells with side length of 200 m, among which 63 cells containing copper occurrences
represent occurrence samples and the other cells are taken as non-occurrence samples.
The EW-trending basement faults exhibit a positive correlation with copper occurrences according
to the curve of D (Figure 6). Within an optimal buffer distance of 1.5 km, there is at most 21% higher
frequency of copper occurrences than what would be expected due to chance. Such correlation is
verified to be statistically significant (at α = 0.01) since the curve of DM is plotted above the upper
confidence band of DN within a 1.5 km buffer (Figure 6b).
The NS-trending basement faults have a positive but weak association with copper occurrences
beyond the buffer distance of 1 km, reaching only 2% higher frequency than what would be expected
(Figure 7). However, the curve of DM is plotted below the upper confidence band of DN in the whole
range of buffer analysis (Figure 7b), indicating that the weak association between NS-trending faults
and copper mineralization is not of statistical significance.
The intersections of the basements faults have a statistically significantly positive correlation
with copper occurrences between the buffer distances of 2 and 3 km (Figure 8). At an optimal buffer
distance of 2.5 km, there is 23% higher frequency of copper occurrences than what would be expected
(Figure 8b).

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Figure 6. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to
EW-trending faults.

Figure 7. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to
NS-trending faults.

The folds exhibit a statistically significantly positive correlation with copper occurrences in the
buffers ranging from 1.5 to 3 km (Figure 9). There is 22% higher frequency of copper occurrences than
what would be expected at a 2.5 km buffer (Figure 9b).

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Figure 8. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to
intersections of basement faults.

Figure 9. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance
to folds.

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The cover faults consisting of NE- and NW-trending faults as well as the intersections of these
faults show positive spatial association with copper occurrences. There are at most 11%, 10% and 9%
higher frequencies of occurrences than what would be expected within the optimal buffers of NE-,
NW-trending faults and their intersections, respectively (Figures 10–12). Nevertheless, none of these
structural features have a statistically significantly associated with copper occurrence at any buffer
distance (Figures 10b, 11b and 12b).
WofE analysis was also implemented to investigate the association of structural features with
copper occurrences. At corresponding optimal buffer distances, the contrast values and confidences of
contrast were calculated. As depicted in Figure 13 and Table 2, the EW-trending faults, intersections of
basement faults and folds have top three highest values of both contrast and confidence of contrast,
which are remarkably greater than those of the other structural features. The contrasts and confidences
of contrast, which can assist in evaluating the intensity of spatial association, show exactly the same
variations as the results derived from distance distribution analysis, implying that the EW-trending
faults, intersections of basement faults and folds are plausibly major structural controls on copper
mineralization in the TOD.

Figure 10. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to
NE-trending faults.

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Figure 11. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to
NW-trending faults.

Figure 12. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to
intersections of cover faults.

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Figure 13. Graph showing variations of higher frequencies than expected, contrasts and confidences of
contrast of detailed structural features in the TOD.

Table 2. Results of distance distribution and WofE analyses.

Optimal Buffer Distance Distribution Analysis WofE Analysis

Structural Features
Distance (m) DM DN D uc C Cs
EW-trending faults 1500 76% 55% 21% 75% 1.36 4.6
NS-trending faults 1000 55% 53% 2% 72% 0.2 0.8
intersections of basement faults 2500 83% 60% 23% 79% 1.54 4.64
folds 2500 89% 67% 22% 86% 1.59 3.95
NE-trending faults 1500 68% 57% 11% 76% 0.63 2.33
NW-trending faults 1500 59% 49% 10% 68% 0.44 1.74
intersections of cover faults 2500 74% 65% 9% 84% 0.71 2.46
contact of Yanshanian intrusion 350 87% 21% 55% 52% 3.04 8.03
DM : cumulative relative frequency of copper occurrence; DN : cumulative relative frequency of non-occurrence;
D: DN − DN ; uc: upper confidence band for the curve DN ; C: contrast value; and Cs : confidence of contrast.

3.3. Spatial Correlation of Faults with Intrusions

Considering that copper deposits in the TOD are dominated by skarn-type, Yanshanian intrusion
is a key ore-controlling factor and its contact with wall rock can be considered as a special structure.
The result of distance distribution analysis shows the strongest association of the contact with copper
occurrences. Within a 1.7 km buffer of the contact, there is at most 55% higher frequency of copper
occurrences than what would be expected, and such strong association is manifested to be statistically
significant (Figure 14). The WofE analysis yields a contrast value of 3.04 and a confidence value of
8.03 which are markedly higher than the corresponding values of the other structural features (Table 2),
supporting the most significant association of the contact with copper mineralization.
Since regional faults are considered to control the emplacement of intrusions according to
many previous studies [45,48,50], we also performed distance distribution analysis to investigate
the correlation of intrusion with the faults of various orientations. The results show that the EW-,
NS-trending faults and their intersections have statistically significantly positive correlations with
intrusion regions at most of the buffer distances (Figure 15a–c). There are 26% and 17% higher
frequencies of intrusion regions than what would be expected at the optimal buffers of the intersections

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of basement faults and EW-trending faults, respectively (Figure 15a,c), suggesting strong associations of
these structural features with intrusions. The NS-trending basement faults have a moderate correlation
with intrusion, delineated by 11% higher frequency of intrusion regions than what would be expected
(Figure 15b). In contrast, cover faults and their intersections show negative correlations with intrusion
regions within a 1.5 km buffer (Figure 15d–f). Beyond the buffer distance of 1.5 km, they show positive
but weak associations with intrusions. There are 6%, 9% and 5% higher frequencies of intrusion regions
than what would be expected at the optimal buffers of NE-, NW-trending faults and their intersections,
respectively (Figure 15d–f).
It is noteworthy that the EW-trending faults and intersections of basement faults, which show the
strongest correlations with intrusions, also exhibit significant associations with copper occurrences
in the previous distance distribution analysis. It is necessary to evaluate what extent of these
structural controls on intrusion determine their strong correlations with copper mineralization.
The EW-trending faults and Yanshanian intrusions were buffered with their optimal distances, and the
copper occurrences located within the corresponding buffered zones were counted. It appears that
98% (47 out of 48) of the copper occurrences distributed within the buffers of EW-trending faults are
located in the overlapping zones of the buffered EW-trending faults and intrusions which account for
33.58% of total area. Only one occurrence is included in the buffered zones where intrusions are absent
(occupying 66.42% of total area) (Figure 16). Likewise, 96% (49 out of 51) of copper occurrences located
within the buffers of intersections of basement faults are included in the overlapping zones of buffered
intersections of faults and intrusions that occupy 37.11% of total area (Figure 17). It is inferred that
the significantly strong associations of EW-trending faults and intersections of basement faults with
copper mineralization are attributed to the controls of these structural features on intrusions.

Figure 14. (a) Buffer analysis and (b) graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to
boundaries of intrusions.

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Figure 15. Graph of cumulative relative frequency concerning distance to (a) EW-trending faults;
(b) NS-trending faults; (c) intersections of basement faults; (d) NE-trending faults; (e) NW-trending
faults and (f) intersections of cover faults.

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Figure 16. Buffer analysis showing the distribution of copper occurrences in buffered EW-trending
faults and intrusions.

Figure 17. Buffer analysis showing the distribution of copper occurrences in buffered intersections of
basement faults and intrusions.

3.4. Interpretation of Structural Controls on Copper Mineralization

The tectonic evolution of the TOD can be divided into four stages. The first stage is the formation
and development of the basement of the Lower Yangtze Terrain (LYT) before Jinning movement
(ca. 850–800 Ma) when the TOD was still an integral part of the LYT [38]. Secondly, after Jinning
movement and before Indosinian movement (ca. 195 Ma), the LYT gradually developed into an
archipelagic ocean stage, and the major sedimentary cover in this region formed. Contemporarily,
the Cathaysian block and LYT drifted gradually to the North China Craton, leading to several soft
collisions [60]. The vertical movement induced by the opening-closing effect related to soft collision
was dominated in this stage, resulting in some disconformities (Table 1). Thirdly, the convergence of
the Yangtze craton and North China craton (referred to as the Indosinian orogeny) commenced at the
end of Triassic, which induced the formation of a series of significant structural features including
angular unconformity between the Triassic and Jurassic strata (Table 1), folds and faults [35,60].
It is considered that the Indosinian movement has produced the present structural framework
in the TOD, and even in the South China [39]. Eventually, the TOD experienced Yanshanian

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movement (ca. 135 Ma) characterized by transformation from contraction to extension since early
Cretaceous [35], which induced the formation of widespread intermediate-felsic intrusions and
associated mineralization. The multi-stage tectonic evolution is responsible for the structural features
in both basement and sedimentary cover that are related to epigenetic copper mineralization.
The basement structures are dominated by EW- and NS-trending faults. These faults, totally
overlain by Mesozoic strata, are considered to be formed before Indosinian period and reactivated in
the Mesozoic [45], although the detailed geometrical and kinematical characteristics of these faults are
still not clear. In previous studies, faults have been proven to act as favorable pathways for transporting
ore-related magma and ore-forming fluids from deep sources to shallow trap zones, resulting in a
strong association of these faults with hydrothermal mineral deposits [10,16,19]. In the study area,
the petrological data and geophysical profiles evidence that a magma chamber was developed in the
Mesozoic at about −10 km from the surface [42]. The EW-trending basement faults are interpreted to
play a vital role of channeling the magma from the magma chamber to the shallow trap zones during
the Yanshanian period. This significant control of the EW-trending faults on Yanshanian intrusions
is supported by distance distribution and WofE analyses, which is fully responsible for the strong
correlation between the EW-trending faults and copper mineralization. This interpretation can explain
the result of Fry analysis that exhibits a predominant EW trend at regional scale.
The known copper deposits are situated in the sedimentary cover where the folds with
sigmoidal-shaped axes are the dominant structures, thus delineating the formative process of the
folds is crucial for understanding the structural framework and copper mineralization in the cover
level. Since the youngest stratum involved in the folds is Middle Triassic, it is deduced that the folds
were formed during the Indosinian movement which resulted in the angular unconformity between
Middle Triassic and Lower Jurassic (Table 1). A classic model of dextral simple-shear deformation
in a strike-slip fault zone is introduced to illustrate the formation of folds and faults under the
deformation regime of Indosinian movement dominated by NW-SE compression and dextral shear
(Figures 18 and 19). As the fault zone initiates, a structural system forms consisting of (i) conjugate
strike-slip faults, (ii) folds, (iii) reverse faults, and (iv) normal faults (Figure 19a) [61,62]. The initially
formed folds and reverse faults trend perpendicular to the direction of the greatest shortening,
while the normal faults trend parallel to the direction of the greatest shortening. Subsequently,
the continued strike-slip shearing can lead to a rotation of the elements in this system [62]. The axes
of previously formed folds turn to sigmoidal shape. The earlier formed normal faults accommodate
sinistral strike-slip motion, and the reverse faults accommodate dextral strike-slip motion (Figure 19b).
The NE-trending thrust faults observed in the field [63] and sinistral strike-slip motion of NW-trending
faults identified in the geological map (Figure 1) support the rationality of this model.
In the Mesozoic strata, there existed several interfaces between two adjacent strata which have
distinct mechanical properties, some of which also represented the interfaces of disconformity, e.g.,
the interface between the quartz sandstone of Upper Devonian and limestone of Upper Carboniferous.
During the formative process of the folds in Indosinian period, the abovementioned interfaces were
subjected to the progressive deformation of folding and shearing, leading to extensive bedding-parallel
shear zones [43] (Figures 20 and 21). In particular, the bedding detachments occur in the cores of
the folds due to the layer-parallel slippage in the formative process of folds. These shear zones
were overprinted by tensional deformation in the Cretaceous when the tectonic regime in this
region changed from compression to extension, thus being favorable for trapping and localizing
mineralized fluids. This inference is supported by (i) the clearly discordant boundaries between
stratiform orebodies and wall rocks which suggest that the ores were deposited in mechanical dilation
spaces (Figure 22) [27,35,64], and (ii) the result of a numerical modeling on the Dongguashan deposit
which demonstrates that the stratiform high dilation zones induced by extensional stress are favorable
for fluids focusing and consistent with those positions where orebodies actually occur [64]. In addition,
the bedding-parallel trap zones are located near the contacts of intrusions where sufficient sources of
heat and fluid are available, and hosted in a set of carbonate strata suitable for forming skarn (Figure 20).

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Minerals 2018, 8, 254

Therefore, the bedding-parallel structures in the folded strata are favorable for hosting, focusing and
depositing ore-bearing fluids, assisting in the formation of the stratabound orebodies in this area.
The thickening of orebodies in the cores of folds is attributed to the detachments occurring there (e.g.,
major orebody within C2 in Figure 20). This interpretation is supported by distance distribution and
WofE analyses, which both exhibit strong spatial association of the folds with copper mineralization.
It is also inferred that the dominance of NE, NNE and NEE trends in the rose diagrams of Fry points at
fine scales (<4.5 km) is attributed to the control of the folds with NE-striking axes, rather than those
of the NE-trending faults which show poor correlation with copper mineralization through spatial
analyses. Moreover, neither cover faults of various orientations nor the intersections of these faults
show statistically significant correlation with copper mineralization, suggesting that they may only
play a role in migrating the ore-bearing fluids towards the favorable host structures (i.e., multi-layered
bedding-parallel shear zones) where fluid concentration and mineral deposition actually occurred,
therefore leading to a lesser significant association of these cover faults with copper occurrences.

Figure 18. Stress regime during the formative process of the folds with sigmoidal axes, modified from [42].

Figure 19. Deformation model of dextral shearing in a strike-slip fault zone, modified from [61].
(a) a structural system formed in initial stage of deformation; and (b) a rotation of structural elements
during continued strike-slip shearing.

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Minerals 2018, 8, 254

Figure 20. Typical cross-section of Shizishan ore field showing the characteristic stratabound skarn
orebodies hosted in the folds, modified from [43].

Figure 21. Field photograph of outcropped bedding-parallel shear zone between limestone of Upper
Carboniferous and quartz sandstone of Upper Devonian in the Xinqiao deposit.

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Minerals 2018, 8, 254

Figure 22. Photographs showing the discordant boundaries between stratiform orebodies and wall
rocks in the Xinqiao deposit. (a) the boundary between orebody and underlying Upper Devonian quartz
sandstone; and (b) the boundary between orebody and overlying Upper Carboniferous limestone.

4. Conclusions
(i) Fractal dimensions obtained from box-counting and radial-density analyses suggest that different
structural controls operate at diverse scales of <1.5 km, 1.5–4.5 km and >4.5 km. This scale-variable
controlling behavior is supported and explored by the results of Fry analysis, which illustrates
a dominant EW trend at regional scale (>4.5 km) and preferential NE-NNE-NEE trends at fine
scale (<4.5 km).
(ii) The spatial associations of detailed structural features with copper mineralization are
further investigated by quantitative spatial analyses. The Yanshanian intrusions, EW-trending
faults, intersections of basement faults, and folds have significant associations with copper
mineralization, indicated by their high values of quantitative parameters in both distance
distribution and WofE analyses.
(iii) The interpretation of structural controls on copper mineralization is made in combination of
foregoing analytical results. The scale-variable patterns of mineral occurrences are attributed
to the different structural controls operating in the basement and sedimentary cover. In the
basement, the EW-trending faults serve as pathways for channeling magma from a magma
chamber into trap zones in the caprocks during Yanshanian period. The significant control of the
EW-trending faults on Yanshanian intrusion is fully responsible for the strong correlation between
the EW-trending faults and copper mineralization. This inference is supported by the result of Fry
analysis which shows a dominant EW trend at regional scale (>4.5 km). In the sedimentary cover,
the bedding-parallel shear zones formed during Indosinian folding and shearing and overprinted
by tensional deformation in Yanshanian period act as favorable sites for hosting, focusing and
depositing the ore-bearing fluids, which is responsible for the dominance of NE-NNE-NEE trends
at fine scale (<4.5 m) in the results of Fry analysis. Such bedding-parallel structures, together
with the contact zones of intrusion, exert an important control on the formation of characteristic
stratabound skarn deposits in the TOD.

Author Contributions: T.S. conducted the GIS-based computational experiments, analyzed the results and wrote
the draft paper; Y.X. and X.Y. participated in the analysis of experimental results; W.L. and R.L. revised the
calculation scheme; Z.H. and Y.W. collected the original data.
Acknowledgments: The research leading to this paper was jointly supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No. 41602335), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangxi Province (Grant
No. 20161BAB213084), Science and Technology Project of Jiangxi Provincial Department of Education (Grants
No. GJJ150625 and No. GJJ170537), Program of Qingjiang Excellent Young Talents (Grant No. JXUSTQJYX2017001)
and Doctoral Scientific Research Foundation of Jiangxi University of Science and Technology (Grant No. jxxjbs15002).

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Minerals 2018, 8, 254

We would like to express our gratitude to two anonymous Minerals reviewers for their constructive comments
and suggestions that greatly improved the manuscript. Thanks are also given to Zhongfa Liu from Central South
University for assistance with field evidences.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Article
The Hajjar Regional Transpressive Shear Zone
(Guemassa Massif, Morocco): Consequences on the
Deformation of the Base-Metal Massive Sulfide Ore
Safouane Admou 1,2, *, Yannick Branquet 2,3 , Lakhlifi Badra 1 , Luc Barbanson 2 ,
Mohamed Outhounjite 4 , Abdelali Khalifa 4 , Mohamed Zouhair 4 and Lhou Maacha 4
1 Département des Sciences de la Terre, Faculté des Sciences, Université Moulay Ismaïl de Meknès,
B.P. 11201 Zitoune Meknès, Morocco; badra_lakhlifi@yahoo.fr (L.B.)
2 Institut des Sciences de la Terre d’Orléans (ISTO), Université Orléans, CNRS BRGM UMR7327,
Campus Géosciences 1A, rue de la Férollerie, 45071 Orléans, CEDEX 2, France;
[email protected] (Y.B.); [email protected] (L.B.)
3 Géosciences Rennes (GR), Université de Rennes 1, CNRS UMR6118, Campus de Beaulieu, CS 74205,
35042 Rennes CEDEX, France
4 Groupe MANAGEM, Twin center, Tour A, BP 5199, Casablanca, Morocco;
[email protected] (M.O.); [email protected] (A.K.);
[email protected] (M.Z.); [email protected] (L.M.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 30 June 2018; Accepted: 2 October 2018; Published: 7 October 2018

Abstract: The genesis of the base-metal massive sulfide deposits hosted within the Moroccan
Hercynian Jebilet and Guemassa Massifs is still under debate. No consensus currently exists
between the two models that have been proposed to explain the deposits, i.e., (1) syngenetic
volcanogenic massive sulfide mineralization, and (2) synmetamorphic tectonic fluid-assisted
epigenetic mineralization. Conversely, researchers agree that all Hercynian massive sulfide deposits
in Morocco are deformed, even though 3D structural mapping at the deposit scale is still lacking.
Therefore, while avoiding the use of a model-driven approach, the main aim of this contribution
is to establish a first-order structural pattern and the controls of the Hajjar base metal deposit. We
used a classical structural geology toolbox in surface and subsurface mining work to image finite
strain at different levels. Our data demonstrate that: i) the Hajjar area is affected by a single foliation
plane (not two) which developed during a single tectonic event encompassing a HT metamorphism.
This syn-metamorphic deformation is not restricted to the Hajjar area, as it is widespread at the
western Meseta scale, and it occurred during Late Carboniferous times; ii) the Hajjar ore deposit
is hosted within a regional transpressive right-lateral NE-trending shear zone in which syn- to
post-metamorphic ductile to brittle shear planes are responsible for significant inflexion (or virgation)
of the foliation yielding an anastomosing pattern within the Hajjar shear zone. Again, this feature
is not an exception, as various Late Carboniferous-Permian regional scale wrenching shear zones
are recognized throughout the Hercynian Meseta orogenic segment. Finally, we present several
lines of evidence emphasizing the role of deformation in terms of mechanical and fluid-assisted
ore concentrations.

Keywords: Hajjar; shear zone; base metal massive sulfide deposits; structural control; remobilization

1. Introduction
Most Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits (VMSDs) are assumed to form within extensional
and subsiding basins during both divergent and convergent plate tectonic settings (e.g., [1]). As a result,
in convergent settings leading to continental collision for instance, many VMSDs underwent

Minerals 2018, 8, 435; doi:10.3390/min8100435 224 www.mdpi.com/journal/minerals

Minerals 2018, 8, 435

deformation, burial, and metamorphism. During these transformations, syngenetic massive sulfide
bodies (e.g., stratoid lenses, chimneys and stockwerks) were reworked, and primary metallic bearing
mineral assemblages may have been remobilized (e.g., either depleted or enriched). For this reason,
the deformation and (re)mobilization of the primary sulfide concentration is a fundamental and
economic matter which has been recognized and studied for a long time (e.g., [2–6]).
However, in spite of recent advances in modern textural (e.g., electron backscatter diffraction
coupled to chemistry) and opaque mineral strain characterization (e.g., [7–10]), it still remains difficult
for economic geologists dealing with deformed VMSD to decipher the respective parts of primary
syngenetic vs. epigenetic mineralizing processes. As a result, metallogenic models of very large base
metal concentrations all over the world are still ambiguous and under debate.
Currently, the genesis of polymetallic base-metal massive sulfide deposits (MSD) from the western
Meseta domain in Morocco are currently under debate. This debate is particularly relevant for MSD
from the Central Jebilet unit (Figure 1), e.g., the Kettara, Draa Sfar, Koudiat Aïcha, and Lachach
deposits. Many authors consider these MSD as metamorphosed and deformed primary VMS and/or
sedimentary exhalative (SEDEX) deposits [11–17]; however, other authors argue for a fluid-assisted
syn-metamorphic origin during the major Hercynian deformation event [18–22]. In contrast, the Hajjar
MSD located in the Hercynian Guemassa Massif (Figure 1) is considered as a metamorphosed and
deformed syngenetic VMS/SEDEX deposit [12,23–25]. Although Hajjar shares many similar geological
and mineralogical features (e.g., predominance of pyrrhotite) with the Central Jebilet MSD to the north,
the hypothesis of either an epigenetic or a syn-metamorphic origin has not yet been put forward.
Since the pioneering works of Hibti (1993) [23] on the Hajjar MSD, very few studies dealing with
the structural controls of this ore deposit have been carried out and published in the international
literature. However, on a larger scale, much thermal and geochronological data dealing with
the tectono-magmatic evolution of the western segment of the Hercynian Meseta have been
published [26–28]. Therefore, using data collected from new outcrops, the aim of this work is to
complete the Hajjar MSD structural dataset and to re-evaluate the structural context and controls; this
is a prerequisite to being able to have a potential syngenetic vs. syn-metamorphic debate, if required.
Our approach is to perform structural mapping at each subsurface exploitation level, yielding a 3D
view of the deformation pattern. This pattern is then compared to the structural map of the surface
outcrops in the Guemassa Massif.

2. The Hajjar Geological and Ore Deposit Framework

The Hajjar MSD is located in the southern part of the Hercynian Occidental Meseta in Morocco,
within the Guemassa Massif south of Marrakech (Figure 1). The Guemassa Massif is composed of
metasediments, metavolcanites, and intrusions, all of which are Carboniferous in age (see [29–31])
for a detailed description of the volcano-sedimentary series). Massive sulfide lenses (and scarce
magnetite bodies) are found and exploited within this volcano-sedimentary sequence [12,23] and
references therein). The Hajjar mineralization corresponds to sub-lenticular bodies of various sizes
containing 50–75% vol. pyrrhotite, with sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite, and arsenopyrite
as the related major ore minerals. The tonnage is about 20 MT of ore with grades of 8% Zn, 2.3%
Pb and 04–0.6% Cu [32]. The Hajjar MSD have been classified as an intermediate type between
SEDEX and VMS deposits such as the Iberian Pyrite Belt giant deposits, within the “Guemassa-Jebilet”
sub-type owing to its high content in pyrrhotite [25]. In the Hajjar MSD, the primary economic massive
mineralization is assumed to form in a Visean basin in which an intense syn-sedimentary volcanism
occurred [12,23,25]. Like the other MSD of the Occidental Meseta, the Hajjar MSD is strongly folded,
faulted, and metamorphosed, which makes it difficult to recognize syngenetic/diagenetic structures
and textures.
Based on the literature, the Guemassa rocks were deformed and metamorphosed during several
tectonic/thermal events which affected the Guemassa Massif area [23]: i) a D0 syn-sedimentary event at
the Visean-Namurian with slumps, intraformational breccias attesting to slope instabilities in the basin.

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These syn-sedimentary structures are encountered both within host rocks and sulfide mineralized
bodies; ii) a D1 event corresponding to the incipient Hercynian deformation and responsible for a steep
NW-SE foliation (S1) in the Oriental Guemassa associated with folding under regional greenschist facies
metamorphic conditions. It should be noted that S1 cannot be observed clearly within the Hajjar MSD;
iii) a D2 Hercynian tectono-thermal event with P2 folds and associated S2 planar cleavage oriented
NE-SW under low-grade metamorphism with sericite. S2 is the predominant foliation observable in
the Hajjar mine; and iv) finally, a post-kinematic thermal event, likely related to “hidden plutons”,
responsible for the crystallization of static biotite porphyroblasts with cordierite and andalousite
locally described at Hajjar. In this ore deposit, this thermal event has been dated using “hydrothermal”
biotite at ca. 301 Ma [33]. Moreover, for Carboniferous times, the Guemassa Massif is affected by
intense multiscale ductile to brittle faulting [34,35], with probable components of Atlasic reactivation
during the Tertiary High Atlas orogen (the Guemassa Massif is 15 km to the north of the Atlasic
thrusting front, Figure 1B). On a structural map (Figure 1B), these faults and shear zones cross-cut
and delineated several blocks within the Guemassa Massif. In the Oriental Guemassa, in which the
Hajjar mine is located, the N’Fis block appears to present a peculiar “anarchic” foliation orientation
with respect to the bulk NNE-trend of the main Hercynian foliation in the western Meseta domain.
These “anarchic” foliation orientations have been explained by deflection or virgations (here defined
as a bulk inflexion of foliation plane trajectories) induced by conjugate shear zones during or shortly
after a broad E-W-oriented D1 shortening [34,35]: the dominant and earlier shear zones are dextral
and trend ENE–WSW (e.g., the Imi-In-Tanout Fault, the eastern branch of the Amizmiz Fault, and the
Guemassa Fault, Figure 1B), whereas WNW-ESE-trending shear zones are sinistral, such as the Lalla
Takerkoust Fault (Figure 1B). This “virgation model” is compatible with a W–E horizontal shortening,
in contrast to Hibti’s hypothesis (1993) [23], which argued for a NE–SW horizontal shortening during
the D1 event (cf. supra).

Figure 1. (A) Structural map of Morocco showing the major bounding-fault domains. The arrows
indicate the sense of shear for the late Variscan structures (modified from Hoepffner et al., 2005 [36]);
(B) Geological and structural map of the central domain of the Hercynian belt (from [35,37]. The main
foliation trajectories in the Jebilet are reported from Essaifi, 1995 [18]). Within the Guemassa Massif,
the Hajjar base metal deposit is located in the N’Fis block which presents an “anarchic” foliation
orientation with respect to the bulk N to NNE trend reported in the Jebilet, Occidental Guemassa and
western High Atlas Variscan Massifs.

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The geology of the Guemassa Massif is similar to the Central Jebilet domain (Figure 1B).
Both Massifs host the major MSD of the Occidental Meseta. Thus, recent advances in the
tectono-metamorphic and magmatic history of the Jebilet [26,28] may help better constrain the
Guemassa Massif evolution. Based on petro-structural data, new absolute dating and thermal
investigations, these authors improve the time constraints and the succession of the deformational
events as follows: i) from 370 to 325 Ma (D0 of Delchini, 2018 [26]), the Jebilet area was a basin
filled with syn- to post-rift sediments (the Sarhlef and Teksmin formations, respectively) intruded by
shallow sills and dykes and deeper plutonic laccoliths originating from a tholeitic bimodal magmatism
(e.g., the mafic/ultramafic Kettara and Sarhlef intrusions) and from a calc-alkaline magmatic suite
(e.g., the Oulad-Ouaslam granodiorite) respectively; ii) from 325 to around 310 Ma, a first Hercynian
event (D1) is marked by the emplacement of shallow thin skinned nappes with syn-sedimentary
breccias. The internal strain is very low and no regional foliation/cleavage (S1) is reported; iii) from
ca. 310 Ma to 280 Ma, the main Hercynian deformation (D2), which is polyphased and characterized
by a first regional metamorphism (M2a), locally reaches the amphibolite facies (Grt-St) and a second
HT/BP “contact” metamorphism in the syn-to post tectonic hornfels facies (M2b, biot + Crd + And)
is associated with the leucogranite emplacement around 295 Ma. The successive foliations (S2a and
S2b), sub-vertical and oriented N0/30, marked a homoaxial progressive and continual strain regime
from a coaxial to a non-coaxial transpression with a broad horizontal NW-SE-trending shortening axis.
Last, the D2 increments correspond to a right-lateral transpression accommodated and located along
the vertical and conjugate ductile shear zones as the sinistral MSZ (Figure 1B). Therefore, the tectonic
scenario proposed by Hibti (1993) [23] for the Guemassa which implies strain axis rotation between
D1 and D2 and post-tectonic HT/LP metamorphism diverges from the one proposed by Delchini
(2018) [26] for the Jebilet domain.

3. Surface Structural Data

The surface outcrops of the N’Fis block and Souktana Massif have been mapped and studied in
terms of the strain analysis and micro-tectonics (Figures 2 and 3). The lithologies encountered are
pelites alternating with sandy- to pure limestones intruded by felsic and basic sills and dykes (Figure 2).
Major volcanic rock bodies correspond to rhyolitic domes and plugs.
Many outcrops of the Imarine Massif present soft-sediment deformation as slumps and convolutes
(Figure 3A,B), suggesting slope instabilities within syn-rift sediments. These soft sediment structures
are cross-cut by a sub-vertical foliation (S1) which is often oblique with respect to the axial plane
of isoclinal folds (Figure 3B). This suggests that most isoclinal and disharmonic folds are slumps,
and therefore, that they pre-date the development of the planar axial foliation. This S1 foliation is
well-developed though the N’Fis block, with a sub-vertical dip and a NW-SE orientation (Figure 2).
This widespread S1 planar fabric corresponds to a P1 axial planar cleavage (Figure 3C), and locally
transposes the bedding planes (S0//S1, e.g., Figure 3D).

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Figure 2. Geological map and surface structural data of the N’Fis block and the Souktana Massif. All
of the sedimentary formations are Carboniferous in age and are affected by both metamorphism and
deformation. IF: Imarine Fault; TF: Lala Takerkoust Fault; AKF: Ait Khaled Fault. The interpolation of
the foliation/shear planes is also supported by sub-surface structural data from underground mine
works (cf. infra). Note that the S1 trajectories depict a dextral drag fold against the ENE-trending
Tiferouine mineralized body.

Locally, the NW-trending S1 is marked by elongated and aligned biotite porphyroblasts, parallel
to the stretching of pyrrhotite grains (Figure 3D), suggesting a syn-tectonic growth of biotite.
No stretching lineation has been observed in the N’Fis block. Decimeter-scale sinistral WNW to
NW-trending vertical ductile shear planes, occurring sparsely and slightly oblique to S1, are responsible
for the local deflection of the S1 planes in the Imarine outcrops (six observations plotted on the
stereogram, Figure 2). Brittle faults and joints show a predominant NE-trending orientation with
a sub-vertical dip (Figure 2). Due to unfavorable rock materials, the precise kinematics of brittle faults
are difficult to establish, which enable the reconstruction of the paleo-stress using the right dihedral
method, for instance. However, when it can be observed, the apparent map offsets of the NE-trending
decimeter-scale faults indicate a dominant dextral sense of shear.

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Finally, the Tiferouine outcrop (Figures 2 and 3E) shows a N70-trending gossan which corresponds
to the weathered part of a magnetite-bearing body recognized at depth [12]. The supergene alteration
appears to overprint an early cataclasite. Along and within the cataclased mineralized body, the S1
foliation orientation is strongly disturbed (Figure 3E), suggesting drag folding along a right-lateral
N70-trending wrench fault (also, see Figure 2 for a map view of the drag folding in the Tiferouine area).

Figure 3. Structures observed in the outcrops. (A) syn-sedimentary and soft sediment deformation
occurring as slumps and convolutes are widespread in the sandy limestones of the N’Fis block;
(B) obliquity between the S1 foliation plane and recumbent fold axial plane suggests that some isoclinal
folds are former slumps rather than P1 folds; (C) NW-trending S1 foliation plane developed within the
P1 hinge zone; (D) thin sections (cross polars normal to foliation) of metapelite with sulfide ribbons (Po:
pyrrhotite) from the N’Fis block. The bedding plane is transposed by the S1 foliation plane, the sulfide
ribbon and patches disseminated in the matrix are flattened. Biotite porphyroblasts are elongated
broadly parallel to the foliation plane; (E) mineralized Tiferouine body (see location in Figure 2) with
an associated gossan inside an ENE-trending dextral shear zone evidenced by cataclasites and the
re-orientation of S1.

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4. Sub-Surface Structural Data from the Hajjar Deposit

Five mine levels have been mapped in the Hajjar deposit (Figure 4). Moreover, we selected
two peculiar cross-sections along the galleries to present the meso-scale structures (Figures 5 and 6).
The micro scale structure and texture data are summarized in Figures 7 and 8.

4.1. Strain Pattern and Meso-Scale Structures

Bedding, foliation, and shear planes have been reported at each exploitation level within either
host rocks or mineralized bodies (Figure 5). Due to the exploitation, the mineralized bodies are not
all accessible yet, and foliation data from Hibti (1993) [23] were used to interpolate the S1 trajectories.
The micro petro-structural description of the foliation and shear planes are presented below in the
following sections within both host rocks and ore.
The resulting maps show that in the Hajjar MSD, the S1 foliation is near vertical and trends from
N0 to N45. With respect to the surface data from the N’Fis block (Figures 2 and 3), NW-oriented
foliation has not been measured. The interpolation of the bedding trace emphasizes large-scale tight
folding which affects both ore bodies and host rocks. The mineralized bodies have been mapped
considering historical grade cut-offs for the exploitation. Geologically, the margins of the ore bodies
are much less sharp than those shown on the maps provided in Figure 4. Despite this, the ore body
morphologies are distributed among various shapes from a group of lensoid decametric bodies to
multi-lobate and “dendritic” shapes (e.g., CP in Figure 4C). It is noteworthy that most of the lensoid
decametric bodies, often distributed in clusters, are elongated parallel to the local foliation (e.g., CEWD,
CWD, CP in Figure 4D,E).
The brittle deformation marked by fault offsets and joints makes it difficult to locally follow the
ductile foliation and shear planes. This brittle deformation is marked by large cataclasite zones (thick
lines in Figure 4) with different apparent kinematics that indicate complex and likely diachronous
activities. Even though these polyphased cataclasite zones are very important for the continuation,
exploration, and production of ore bodies, they require a specific structural study which is outside the
scope of this paper which focuses on Variscan ductile strain.
Ductile strain is marked by foliated zones that are heterogeneously distributed, suggesting strain
localization in corridors between less deformed areas (Figures 4, 5A and 6A). The strain pattern
presents two types of high strain corridors (indicated in Figure 4B): N to NNE-trending and NE to
ENE-trending strain corridors.

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Figure 4. Structural maps of the five main exploitation levels (decreasing altitude from A to E) in the
Hajjar mine. High strain corridors are marked by the development of dense foliation and shear planes.
The light blue traces are galleries. The coordinates are taken from the mine’s own system. Note that the
scale is slightly different for each level. The following acronyms are used for the ore bodies (translated
from French): CP = main body; CNE = north-eastern body; CWD = western body; CEWD = extreme
western body. The CP ore body has been intensively exploited and some zones are no longer accessible,
structural data from Hibti (1993) [23] were then added and carefully projected in these areas (see text
for explanation).

4.2. The N to NNE-Trending High Strain Corridors

These corridors have been almost fully mapped at all exploitation levels (Figure 4). Two types
of strain corridors can be distinguished: the first is characterized by dominant reverse shear planes
and folds with an axial planar cleavage S1 (called a “reverse corridor” below, Figure 5A–E), whereas
the second corresponds to the development of a strong and penetrative S1 foliation with horizontal

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stretching lineation without the occurrence of reverse shear planes (called a “flattening corridor” below,
Figure 6).
Within reverse corridors, shear planes present dominant reverse rather than strike-slip kinematics.
In the map view (Figure 4), the obliquity between S1 and the shear planes, which seems to indicate
a sinistral sense of shear, is an artifact as the strike-slip component which is low and dextral when it
is observed. The noticeable meso-scale structures are: i) eastward verging thrusts and decollements,
most of time using a weak pyrrhotite-rich layer/body as the sole, which is near-parallel to the bedding
in the foot-wall (Figure 5A–C). The associated folds in the hanging-walls developed an axial-planar
cleavage S1. Typical meter-scale detachment folds, with thickening of the sulfide-rich decollement
level, are frequent (Figure 5C), which might explain the “corrugation” observed along the decollement
plane (Figure 5B); ii) the high strain corridors are characterized by the development of an intense
foliation associated with similar upright NS-oriented folds (Figure 5A and D) which are frequently
in association with reverse shear bands responsible for “pop ups” (Figure 5E). Local evidence of the
oblique-slip component is provided by oblique stria, the “pop ups” then corresponding to dextral
positive flower structures (Figure 5E).
Within the flattening corridors where thrusting is not observed, bedding marked by sulfide-rich
ribbons is fully overprinted by the S1 foliation which bears a horizontal NS stretching lineation
(Figure 6A). With increasing strain, the rock color changes to a very dark and black tint. To the west,
a massive sulfide body is exploited (CEWD). This body is not continuous as it is instead composed
of several distinct massive sulfide lenses aligned parallel to S1. The termination of the sulfide lenses
is wavy due to the occurrence of small-scale folds of sulfide ribbons or host rocks. This sulfide lens
morphology is frequently observed throughout the mine (e.g., Figure 8D). Near the termination, these
lenses integrate clasts of host rocks (Figure 6). Cm- to dm-thick veins are abundant along the high
strain corridor (Figure 6A). Locally, tips of massive sulfide lenses present triangular veins (or “saddle
reef”) at a “triple junction” position with respect to the foliation (Figure 6).

4.3. The NE to ENE-Trending High Strain Corridors

They are typical dextral shear zones, as indicated by drag folds in map view and obliquity between
the near vertical S1 and the ductile shear planes (Figures 4 and 5F). The lineation is horizontal along
the shear planes which often presents a graphitic/silvery mirror surface. The angle between S1 and
the shear planes may be very low to null thus defining a mylonitic foliation locally (e.g., Figure 4C).
These dextral shear planes, steeply dipping and trending NE to ENE (Figure 4), may present brittle
characteristics as a gouge zone at the outcrop scale (Figure 5G). In the gallery, this type of high strain
corridor is generally responsible for slope/wall instabilities, which makes access, oriented sampling,
and structural data collection difficult, particularly where the strain corridors intersect large ore bodies
(e.g., northern border of the CNE mineralized body, Figure 4C).

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Figure 5. Structures and deformation of the Hajjar ore deposit. A to E are from the N to NNE-trending
high strain “reverse”corridors; F and G are from the NE to ENE-trending high strain corridors.
(A) Cross-section along the gallery from level 600-580 (see location in Figure 4A). S0 is shown in
green, S1 is in black, the brittle to ductile shear planes are given in blue, the main massive sulfide bodies
are shown in orange. The section is located within the footwall of the CP and is mainly composed of
stratified greso-pelites and tuffs with mm- to cm-thick sulfide ribbons (containing mostly pyrrhotite
and pyrite with a small amount of chalcopyrite) with no economic interest. The intensity/spacing of
the foliation and high frequency of the shear planes can be used to depict the high strain corridors.
Most of the brittle to ductile shear planes have an apparent reverse component: (B) an east-verging
thrust developed within a pyrrhotite-rich massive sulfide deposit acting as a decollement layer. In the
hanging-wall, the bedding is not observed whereas the S1 cleavage is curved by top-to-the-east drag
folding. Both massive sulfide wallrocks are corrugated (c. sp: corrugated shear plane); (C) Detachment
fold above a pyrrhotite-rich sulfide layer thickened within the core of a disharmonic fold hinge The S1
axial planar foliation is well-developed in the hanging-wall; (D) Upright similar fold with associated
axial planar S1 cleavage. The pyrrhotite-rich red ribbons are extremely thinned in the limbs and
thickened within the hinge zone; (E) Positive flower structure associated with similar drag folds and S1
cleavage (line drawing from level 600-580, Figure 4A). Along the N15E-trending faults, high dipping
stria show that the reverse component is dominant relatively to the dextral strike-slip one; (F) Ductile
dextral NE-trending near the vertical shear planes (C) and associated S1 foliation within a NE-trending
right-lateral high strain corridor in meta-siltstones (location CNE area, Figure 4D); (G) ENE-trending
steep dextral shear zones marked by foliated gouges and various branches (sense of shear is determined
in the gallery roof, location in Figure 4D).

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Figure 6. Outcrops of the extreme western body (CEWD) gallery, a typical N-trending “flattening”
corridor. (A) 3D man-made sketch of the CEWD cross-section located in Figure 6A. The exploited
massive ore bodies correspond to meter-scale lenses aligned within a high strain zone marked by
an intense foliation in dark host rocks with high biotite and sulfide content. X and Z are the long
and short axis of the strain ellipsoid respectively; (B,C) Thin-section photographs of the triangular
veins developed at the massive ore lenses termination (RL). The vein is mainly filled with quartz
associated with a polymetallic assemblage. Pyrrhotite is replaced by pyrite along cracks (B,C) and
sphalerite/galena (± chalcopyrite) veinlets crosscut the former pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite grains
(not shown).

4.4. Microstructures and Textures in the Host Rocks

Oriented thin sections were taken from the Hajjar MSD, especially from the N to NNE-trending
high strain corridors described above.
The primary lithologies and associated syn- or diagenetic hydrothermal halos have been
metamorphosed and/or altered. This metamorphism appears to be better expressed in high strain
corridors, i.e., when the S1 foliation planes are densely represented (e.g., Figure 6A). Two metamorphic
assemblages can be distinguished in the metapelites. The first one is comprised of quartz + biotite
+ andalousite (± calcite). (Figure 7A,C,D). Cordierite has not been observed, but the shape of some

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porphyroblasts replaced by white mica aggregates indicate the presence of this mineral (e.g., Figure 8E).
The second assemblage is made of quartz + chlorite + muscovite (± carbonate). This last assemblage
can also be observed in sandy-pelites with sulfide-rich ribbons, where it post-dates and locally replaces
the biotites (Figure 7B). Foliation-parallel veinlets are filled with quartz and large biotite crystals
associated with calcite in the geodic cavities (Figure 7A).

Figure 7. Thin section microphotographs of the S1 foliation and associated porphyroblasts within the
Hajjar host rocks. A, C, D, E and F are from the flattening corridors; B is from the reverse corridors.
(A) Quartz (qz), calcite (cal) and biotite (biot) vein parallel to the incipient S1 foliation, vertical section,
see location in Figure 6, NAPL. The host rock presents a fine-grained granoblastic texture composed
of biotite and andalousite grains with a local preferred orientation defining an incipient foliation
plane; (B) Footwall of the thrust (see location in Figure 5) with the So plane marked by sulfide-rich
ribbons (in blue) and discrete S1 planes (in red) characterized by muscovite (white laths) crystallization
(NAPL). Please note that the non-oriented biotite (i.e., “static”) porphyroblasts are replaced by chlorite
(pale green); (C–F) Horizontal thin sections parallel to the stretching lineation showing the main
foliation plane S1 marked by elongated sulfides (sulf) and particularly pyrrhotite (po) and sphalerite
(sph); see location in Figure 6. Like the fine-grained foliation, the pressure shadows and caps around
the andalousite (and) and biotite (biot) grains are composed of quartz, white micas, chlorite and
local carbonates. In the high strain area, asymmetric pressure shadows around the biotite indicate
a non-coaxial regime with a dextral sense of shear (E,F).

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In areas where the foliation is weakly developed, biotite and andalousite porphyroblasts show
a granoblastic “static” texture with a very subtle preferred orientation locally (Figure 7A). With
increasing strain, biotite porphyroblasts are generally coarser and present a preferred orientation
parallel to the fine-grained S1 foliation, a planar axial surface with micro-folds (Figure 8C). In high
strain zones, pressure shadows and strain caps are found around some biotite and andalousite
crystals (Figure 7C to F), whereas other biotite crystals remain nearly free of foliation deflection
(e.g., a biotite crystal growing around a sphalerite core in Figure 7C). The pressure shadows are
generally composed of quartz, muscovite, and chlorite, i.e., the same assemblage constituting the
fined-grained foliation (Figure 7D,E). Asymmetric pressure shadows around biotite are common
in flattening corridors attesting to a non-coaxial regime, at least locally (e.g., dextral in the CEWD
outcrop, Figure 6, Figure 7E,F). Therefore, in high strain and non-coaxial zones, biotite crystals appear
as pre-tectonic prophyroblasts, suggesting severe non-coaxial strain increments after the HT/LP
metamorphism peak.

4.5. Microstructures and Textures in Sulfides

The internal ductile/plastic strain of the sulfide ribbons and bodies is widespread and high in the
Hajjar MSD. This is particularly due to the high content of pyrrhotite within the ore.
Associated with folding, the S1 axial planar cleavage is marked by flattened sulfide ribbons within
the XY plane with refractions and hinge thickening (Figure 8A,B). The preferred interpretation is that
a refraction mechanism is responsible for this rather than a “bed to bed” flexural slip, because no
shear planes have been observed in quartz (Figure 8B). Normal thin sections with XY planes cannot
be used to characterize a preferred stretching X direction with respect to the 3D sulfide micro-lens
dimensions. Therefore, the strain ellipsoid is mainly oblate and the strain regime is close to pure
flattening. In greater detail, different rheological behaviors of the sulfides are expressed along S1,
with pyrrhotite behaving much more plastically than chalcopyrite and sphalerite (Figure 8B), which
present both a “ductile” and brittle response to the stress. Frequently, the sulfide micro-lenses present
an “X-shape” or “chromosome-like” morphology (Figure 8A,C). The elongated sphalerite grains
surrounded by pyrrhotite within a foliated silicate matrix (Figure 8C) suggest that the conjugate effects
of folding, recrystallization, and rheological contrasts explain this “X” morphology. As mentioned
above, this peculiar “X-shape” morphology is also encountered at a larger scale in the edge and tip
areas of massive ore bodies (Figures 6 and 8D).
In many places at the Hajjar MSD massive sulfide bodies present an internal planar fabric.
Three types of fabrics can be distinguished: i) a planar fabric parallel to the S1 foliation within
the host rocks (Figure 8D). In this case, the fabric corresponds to flattened pyrrhotite grains (with
various chalcopyrite, sphalerite and galena contents), separated by elongated metamorphic silicate
slices/lenses (Figure 8E). The metamorphic assemblage is represented by chlorite and white micas
replacing former biotite/andalousite (/cordierite?) blasts (Figure 8E). These silicate slices can be very
thin or even absent in the most enriched ore. It is noteworthy that the mechanical twinning of pyrrhotite
is regularly distributed in a direction normal to the planar fabric, providing evidence for the tectonic
origin of this foliation; ii) mylonitic zones affecting weakly deformed massive sulfides (Figure 8G).
These mylonites can be observed where high strain corridors intersect or encompass mineralized
bodies. C/S-type structures are common within the sulfide mylonites (Figure 8G). Flattened pyrrhotite
grains define the S planes, whereas C planes present finely cataclased sphalerite and chalcopyrite in
a foliated silicate gouge; iii) the third planar fabric corresponds to a mineralogical and textural banding
marked by alternations of sphalerite-rich and sphalerite-poor ribbons (Figure 8F). For instance, this
banding is either parallel to the S1 foliation in the wall rocks or parallel to the bedding planes in the
footwall of decollement layers (Figures 5 and 8F). Pyrrhotite grains are elongated with no systematic
mechanical twinning. Sphalerite does not show systematic elongation, and the quartz grains are
elongated with undulose extinction (Figure 8F). Therefore, the respective part of the syngenetic and
diagenetic vs. tectonic processes are still unclear, and cannot be used to explain this banding.

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Figure 8. Deformation and textures of the sulfides in the Hajjar deposit. (A) The folding and associated
S1 foliation of fine-grained sediments containing early sulfide-rich ribbons parallel to the bedding
(S0). Note the cleavage refraction and thickening of the hinge zone due to the plastic behavior of
pyrrhotite; (B) Details of A with pyrrhotite flowing along the stretching direction whereas the behavior
of chalcopyrite and sphalerite is less plastic. A metamorphic assemblage mainly composed of muscovite
and chlorite (± biotite) grows parallel to S1; (C) Micro-fold affecting a sphalerite and pyrrhotite-rich
thin ribbon (CEWD, location in Figure 6A). The axial planar cleavage S1 is marked by the stretching of
sulfides and elongated biotite blasts; (D) Massive sulfide lenses separated by strongly foliated host rock
slices (south of CP, altitude 500 m). The ore bodies are internally banded parallel to the S1 foliation;
(E) Texture of deformed pyrrhotite-rich massive sulfide (RL) parallel to the S1 foliation. The dark
grey areas correspond to a muscovite/chlorite (replacing biotite locally) assemblage. Andalousite or
cordierite porphyroblast ghosts are replaced by white micas (arrow); (F) textural and mineralogical
banding within a massive sulfide body in the sole thrust (see location Figure 5A,B). Note the elongation
of the quartz grains; (G) Massive sulfide sample affected by ductile shearing and mylonitization (SE
part of the CP, level 400, the local name is “la bande Sud-Est”); (H) Details of G, thin section, RL.
The sulfide mylonites present typical C/S structures. It should be noted that sphalerite appears to be
“localized” in the C planes. The sample view from the bottom shows a dextral sense of shear.

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5. Interpretation

5.1. Hajjar Mine and N’Fis Block: One Single Foliation (Not Two)
The rocks of the Hajjar mine are affected by one single flattening XY plane which is near vertical
and trends from N0 to N45. The maps of the S1 trajectories (Figure 4) show that the deformation
is not homogenous at the mine scale. In the high strain corridors, this XY plane corresponds to
a S1 penetrative foliation overprinting the entire rock, whereas in less deformed areas, S1 is a slaty
cleavage that is axial planar in similar folds. Host rocks and sulfide bodies present the same silicate
metamorphic assemblages (Figures 7 and 8). With respect to this foliation, the qtz + biot and assemblage
presents either a “static” granoblastic texture when the strain is low (i.e., weakly developed foliation,
Figure 7A) or pre- to syn-tectonic features when the foliation is strongly expressed (Figures 7C to E, 8C).
The texture, shapes, and aggregates of the biotite and andalousite (± suspected cordierite) are typical
of HT/LP “contact” metamorphism in the hornfels facies. The syn-tectonic assemblage is composed of
quartz + chlorite + white micas (± calcite) and partially replaced the former biotite and andalousite
blasts (Figures 7B and 8E).
Similarly, surface data from the N’Fis block (Figures 2 and 3) show the occurrence of a single
sub-vertical XY plane oriented N130. This flattening plane is a penetrative foliation secant to slumps
(Figure 3B) and axial-planar to P1 folds (Figure 3C). Contact metamorphic biotite blasts are elongated
parallel to the foliation and appear as flattened sulfide grains (Figure 3D).
Therefore, these data imply that the Hajjar MSD and the N’Fis block are affected by a single
foliation which encompasses a HT/LP contact metamorphism. Although a single Variscan foliation
was similarly recognized by Dias et al. (2011) [35] at the regional scale, our results disagree with the
previously published works on the Hajjar mine/N’Fis area: i) first, two foliations were identified and
consequently two successive tectonic events with sub-normal horizontal shortening directions were
invoked [12,23]. In particular, the N20-30 dry joints affecting the N’Fis block at the surface (Figure 2)
cannot be related to the N0-30 penetrative and ductile foliation observed in the Hajjar mine. Moreover,
there has been no direct observation of an early foliation/cleavage in the Hajjar galleries during our
study; ii) second, the biotite blasts were interpreted as post-tectonic with respect to the last deformation
event [25].

5.2. The Hajjar Mine is Located within a Regional-Scale Shear Zone

The direct consequence of the previous result is the occurrence of a large foliation virgation from
the Imarine outcrops to the Hajjar MSD (Figure 2). This virgation in the orogeny is typically caused by
wrenching along regional shear zones. Our structural data from the surface (e.g., Tiferouine outcrops,
Figures 2 and 3E) and from sub-surface structural maps (Figures 4 and 5) in the Hajjar underground
mine fully support the occurrence of a major right-lateral ENE-trending transpressive shear zone
at Hajjar.
The strain pattern on the maps show that shear planes are heterogeneously distributed as
they are clustered within the shear corridors. Along a broad ENE direction, we identified various
types of high strain corridors (see the 2D pattern in Figure 9): i) the N to NNE-trending corridors
correspond to either reverse corridors characterized by thrusting and associated folding with a low
amount of dextral oblique-slip (Figures 4 and 5A–E) or to flattening corridors characterized by
a tight and penetrative foliation with horizontal stretching lineation and a local dextral sense of
shear (Figures 6 and 7); ii) The NE to ENE-trending corridors correspond to unequivocal vertical
dextral shear zones. The orientation of both strain corridors are connected and form an asymmetric 3D
anastomosed pattern that is compatible with a bulk dextral sense of shear along a N60-70 direction
(Figure 9). Reverse corridors with vertical thickening indicate that the Hajjar shear zone is transpressive.
This result is fully in coherence with previous works dealing with the Western Meseta, in which
dominant dextral strike-slip tectonics were clearly identified during the Variscan orogen [35]. However,

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in the location near the Hajjar mine, a regional scale shear zone of this type has not been previously
recognized and constitutes a key structural feature of the Guemassa Hercynian orogenic segment.

Figure 9.
Simplified and conceptual map view model of the internal strain pattern within the Hajjar
transpressive right-lateral shear zone (see text for explanation).

The shear planes of the Hajjar MSD present both ductile and brittle features (Figures 5 and 8G, H).
The last brittle increments cross-cut and offset the former S1 foliation along the gouge zones (Figure 5G).
Asymmetric biotite blasts with pressure shadows filled with the chlorite and white mica assemblage
(Figure 7E,F) argue for simple shearing after the thermal peak of the HT/LP contact metamorphism.
Lower or retrograde metamorphic conditions during simple shearing are also indicated via the
cataclasis of sphalerite and chalcopyrite along the shear planes within mylonitic zones affecting
massive sulfides (Figure 8H). Therefore, the Hajjar shear zone records simple shearing increments
during and after the development of the widespread S1 foliation.
Last, the Atlasic brittle reactivation of this Hercynian shear zone cannot be ruled out, however it
is still difficult to precisely depict this.

5.3. Ore Deformation and Remobilization

As recognized in previous studies [25], our data indicate that the Hajjar mineralization is
strongly deformed and metamorphosed. It is affected by folding, foliation and mylonitic bands
within a regional scale shear zone. Structures such as pyrrhotite-rich ribbons clearly pre-date the
deformation and the HT/LP contact metamorphism (e.g., Figures 6 and 8A). The primary syn- or
digenetic mineralization is then strongly reworked by deformation. In particular, at the meter scale,

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we present clear evidence of tectonic thickening within the fold hinge zone. The wavy termination of
the metric-scale massive sulfide lenses parallel to S1 suggests that these lenses were likely thickened
by folding before they were flattened within the XY plane of S1 (Figures 6 and 8D). This mechanism
is enhanced by the high “plasticity” of pyrrhotite, which is by far the dominant sulfide at Hajjar.
The pre-to syntectonic HT/LP metamorphism greatly favor the ductile behavior and recrystallization
of sulfides including chalcopyrite and sphalerite. This is observable at the thin section scale, where the
tectonic thickening induced the stress-oriented recrystallization of sphalerite, leading to an incipient
“banding” of sphalerite-rich/sphalerite-poor slices parallel to S1 (Figure 8C). We suggest that, in Hajjar
MSD, this solid-state thickening and remobilization are effective at a larger scale, but further modern
textural and mineralogical studies are required in order to be able to investigate this point.
Remobilization of the primary metal stock by fluids (e.g., the fluid state processes and chemical
remobilization described by Gilligan and Marshal (1987) [3] is also expressed in the Hajjar MSD. Even
though the metal mass balance quantification is outside the scope of this study, the polymetallic veins
argue for hydrothermal fluid-assisted remobilization during deformation. In particular, the polymetallic
triangular veins at the tips of the massive sulfide lenses indicate such remobilization. This type of vein
with a polymetallic assemblage associated with quartz, newly formed sphalerite and galena veinlets,
and pyrrhotite replacement by vermicular pyrite (Figure 6B,C), is similar to the so-called “piercement
veins” described by authors working on deformed MSD (e.g., [3,38–40]). It has been hypothesized
that the metamorphic fluids liberated during the prograde HT/LP contact metamorphism (e.g., quartz
veins with biotite in Figure 7A), combined with potential advective hot magmatic fluids exsolved from
deeper granitic bodies, are able to chemically rework the primary sulfides and concentrate metals into
dilatant sites as triple junction veins during the last increments of deformation [3]. Due to high reactive
chemistry, the fluid-assisted chemical reworking of primary VMSD is common in many metamorphic
contexts other than HT/LP metamorphic conditions (e.g., [41] and references therein).

6. Discussion: Toward an Integrated Tectono-Metamorphic Model for the MSD-Bearing Jebilet

and Guemassa Massifs
These interpretations must be discussed in terms of the ages and tectono-metamorphic evolutions
established for the Guemassa and Jebilet Massifs; both of these Massifs bear the major MSD in Morocco.
First, syn-sedimentary structures and soft sediment deformation have been identified in the N’Fis
block (Figure 3A,B) and in the Hajjar mineralization [23]. These structures are well known within the
Visean Sarhlef syn-rift formation in the Jebilet Massif, and correspond to slope instabilities during
the opening of the Jebilet basin from 370 to 325 Ma (the D0 transtensive event described by Delchini
(2018) [26]). Coeval with this sedimentation, the basin underwent significant bimodal and calc-alkaline
magmatism, leading to many intrusions within the sediments and the basement. Consequently,
the thermal gradient is very high [26], and primary syn- to diagenetic massive sulfide mineralization
occurred within the volcano-sedimentary sequences (Figure 10A). The initial morphology (e.g., normal
fault locations and trends, depocenters, etc.) of these basins and sub-basins is not constrained in the
Guemassa Massif contrary to the Jebilet Massif where the basins are interpreted as pull-apart systems
with NNE-trending normal faults and associated N70E-trending left-lateral strike-slip faults [42].
Therefore, it is likely that the Guemassa Massif and the Hajjar shear zones acted as sinistral strike-slip
faults during this Early Carboniferous period (Figure 10A), lateral N to NNE trending normal faults
accommodating the formation of local subsiding basins such as the Hajjar one (Figure 10A). However,
because it may control the initial MSD distribution, further detailed work is required to specify the
Early Carboniferous basin geometries in the Guemassa Massif.
Second, absolute dating of the Hajjar biotites related to thermal aureole metamorphism has been
performed by Watanabe (2002) [33] using 40 Ar/39 Ar dating and yields an approximate age of ca.
301 Ma. This age and the associated HT/LP metamorphic assemblage are compatible with the M2b
metamorphism reported in the Jebilet Massif [26,28]. In other words, the S1 foliation and HT/LP
metamorphism that we document in the Hajjar MSD and in the N’Fis block within the Guemassa

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Massif are structurally and temporally similar to the D2b tectono-metamorphic event described in the
Jebilet Massif to the north (see the section on geological settings above and [26]). It is noteworthy that
this thermal event is not restricted to the Hajjar mine, as it has been traced by Raman Spectroscopy
of Carbonaceous Materials geothermometry method (RSCM) throughout the whole N’Fis block [27].
In the Jebilet as in the Guemassa Massifs, it has been reported that this thermal event is the consequence
of hidden plutonic intrusions. Our data suggests the presence of fluid-assisted HT/LP “contact”
metamorphism (Figure 7A). Therefore, the vigorous advection of hot fluids exsolved from melts
and/or which come from metamorphic devolatilization may also partly explain the large extent of this
HP/LP metamorphism observed in the Guemassa and Jebilet Massifs close to 300 Ma. This regional
thermal anomaly is represented in Figure 10B. No former foliation/cleavage has been observed in
either the N’Fis block or in the Hajjar mine, suggesting that the D2a/M2a event identified by Delchini
(2018) [26] in the Jebilet Massif is not expressed in the Guemassa Massif. This is in agreement with
the fact that the D2a/M2a event, which reaches the garnet-staurolite amphibolite facies, is poorly
represented in the Jebilet Massif, and better expressed northward in the Rehamna Massif. Thus,
the S1 foliation/cleavage characterized in this study matches the S2b foliation identified in the Jebilet
Massif to the north by Delchini et al. (2016) [28]. Biotites related to the HT/LP metamorphism are not
post-kinematic, as proposed by Hibti (1993) [23]. They are pre- to syn-kinematic, which implies that
deformation occurred during the peak of the HT/LP “contact” metamorphism (Figure 9B). Based on
the biotite blasts vs. strain relationship, we suggest that during the HT peak, the deformation was
predominantly coaxial before shifting to a bulk non-coaxial regime.

Figure 10. Tectono-metamorphic model of the Hajjar shear zone and associated MSD. The name of the
tectonic events (D0, D2) corresponds to the tectonic events that have recently been established for the
Jebilet Massif by Delchini (2018) [26]. D1 has not been identified in this study. See text for explanations.

Third, during the Early Permian, the D2 event identified in the Jebilet Massif ended with
transpressive conjugate regional shear zones, oriented NE/ENE and SE/SSE with a dextral and
sinistral (e.g., the MSZ, Figure 1) sense of shear respectively (i.e., the D2c event described by Delchini,

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2018) [26]. This led to the development of a regional scale “flower structuration” of the Jebilet Massif.
This strain localization along the shear zones appears to post-date the HT/LP contact metamorphism.
Our data from the Guemassa Massif are fully compatible with this scenario (Figure 10C): the Hajjar
regional shear zone we recognized in this study appears to be one of the dextral shear zones responsible
for the large virgation of the main foliation planes. As observed in the Jebilet Massif, this shear zone
corresponds to a progressive strain localization during the retrograde metamorphism when the D2
event ended. Last, as proposed by Dias et al. (2011) [35], conjugate WNW-ESE trending sinistral shear
zones activated as the Lalla Takerkoust fault (Figure 10 C). This sinistral wrench zone accentuated and
is responsible for the virgation of the S1 foliation, resulting in the “anarchic” WNW-orientation of the
foliation observed through the N’Fis block.

7. Conclusion
The Guemassa Massif and the Hajjar base-metal massive sulfide deposit have been affected
by a single foliation during a major Late Carboniferous-Early Permian Hercynian tectonic event.
This foliation is strongly affected and deflected by regional scale shear zones such as the Hajjar
N70-trending and right-lateral shear zone. Structural mapping in the Hajjar mine demonstrates that
the Hajjar shear zone is complex with anastomosing shear plane patterns combined with thrusting
and folding. This deformation is partially coeval, with a large thermal anomaly responsible for the
HT/LP metamorphism. The tectono-metamorphic evolution of the Oriental Guemassa Hercynian
segment is highly compatible with the evolution depicted for the Jebilet Massif. Strain under a high
heat flux favored the deformation of the massive sulfides bodies which partly underwent fluid-assisted
remobilization in the Hajjar mine. The tectonic thickening of the mineralization is observed at the
meter scale, and must be re-examined at a larger scale.

Author Contributions: S.A. and Y.B. conceptualized both the study and the final model and wrote the original
draft. L.B (Lakhlifi Badra) and L.B. (Luc Barbanson) reviewed and edited the draft. M.O., A.K., M.Z., L.M. gave
their validation, Funding acquisition and project administration.
Funding: The PhD thesis of S. Admou has been partly funded by the “Office Mediterannéen de la Jeunesse”
through a partnership between Orleans University (France) and Moulay Ismael University (Meknès, Morocco).
Acknowledgments: We are grateful to S. Janiec from ISTO and X. Le Coz from Geosciences Rennes who performed
high quality thin sections. Our discussion with S. Delchini was greatly appreciated. We thank the reviewers
and specially R. Dias for very fruitful and constructive review. The Guest Editor A. Chauvet is also thanked for
inviting us to submit our work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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