MODULE 1

ELECTRIC CHARGE

Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed in an
electromagnetic field. There are two types of electric charges; positive and negative (commonly carried
by protons and electrons respectively).

Attraction and repulsion of two different charges

Discoveries

You have probably experienced the phenomenon of static electricity: When you first take clothes out of
a dryer, many (not all) of them tend to stick together; for some fabrics, they can be very difficult to
separate. Another example occurs if you take a woolen sweater off quickly—you can feel (and hear) the
static electricity pulling on your clothes, and perhaps even your hair. If you comb your hair on a dry day
and then put the comb close to a thin stream of water coming out of a faucet, you will find that the
water stream bends toward (is attracted to) the comb.

Many of these phenomena have been known for centuries. The ancient Greek philosopher Thales of
Miletus (624–546 BCE) recorded that when amber (a hard, translucent, fossilized resin from extinct
trees) was vigorously rubbed with a piece of fur, a force was created that caused the fur and the amber
to be attracted to each other. Additionally, he found that the rubbed amber would not only attract the
fur, and the fur attract the amber, but they both could affect other (nonmetallic) objects, even if not in
contact with those objects.
This suggested there were two types of an electric property; this property eventually came to be called
electric charge. The difference between the two types of electric charge is in the directions of the
electric forces that each type of charge causes: These forces are repulsive when the same type of charge
exists on two interacting objects and attractive when the charges are of opposite types. The SI unit of
electric charge is the coulomb (C), after the French physicist Charles Augustine de Coulomb (1736–
1806).

The Electron Theory

Atoms make up all substances. They contain both positive and negative charges. The positive charges
are called protons and they can be found in the central core or the nucleus of the atom. On the other
hand, the negative charges are called electrons found in orbits around the nucleus. Electricity is the
movement of electrons through a conductor. Electrons are attracted to protons. Since we have excess
electrons on the other end of the conductor, we have many electrons being attracted to the protons.
This attraction sort of pushes the electrons toward the protons. This push is normally called electrical
pressure. The amount of electrical pressure is determined by the number of electrons that are attracted
to protons.

Methods of Charging

Charging means gaining or losing electron. Matters can be charged with three ways, charging by friction,
charging by conduction and charging by induction.

1. Charging by Friction

When you rub one material to another, they are charged by friction. Material losing electron is positively
charged and material gaining electron is negatively charged. Amount of gained and lost electron is equal
to each other. In other words, we can say that charges of the system are conserved. When you rub glass
rod to a silk, glass lose electron and positively charged and silk gain electron and negatively charged.
2. Charging by Conduction

Conduction on the other hand is used to charge things that are good conductors, such a metal. A
charged object is touched to the conductive material and some of the charge, whether it is positive or
negative, will be transferred.

3. Charging by Induction

We can also charge conductors without contact. Examine the given picture, it shows this type of
charging.
A and B conductors are neutral at the beginning. When we put a positively charged plate near them, it
attracts the electrons in the conductors. Electrons move to the left part and protons stays. Thus, when
we separate plates A and B they are charged by induction, A is negatively charged and B is negatively
charged. Be careful, there is no contact, they are charged only by induction.

Detecting the Presence of Electric Charges

The presence of electric charge in a substance can be detected in two ways. One is by using an
electroscope and the other is by using a tiny lamp called Ne-2 lamp.

1. Using Electroscope

The first electroscope was invented by Abraham Bennet in 1780. An electroscope is a simple device that
can detect the presence of electric charges. It consist of a light strip aluminum foil or paper hinged to a
metal rod or stem. The metal rod is connected to a metal cap or disk.

When a charge is put on the disk at the top it spreads down to the plate and leaf. This means that both
the leaf and plate will have the same charge. Similar charges repel each other and so the leaf rises away
from the plate - the bigger the charge the more the leaf rises.

2. Using Ne-2 lamp

The Ne-2 lamp is a tiny lamp with capsule filled with neon gas and two electrodes. In testing for the
presence of electric charge, one electrode is held by one hand, while the other electrode touches the
charged conductor or the metal cap of the electroscope whose charge is to be tested. One of the two
electrodes will glow for a moment. The electron that glows is the one connected to the negatively
charged body.

Conductors vs. Insulators

The behavior of an object that has been charged is dependent upon whether the object is made of a
conductive or a nonconductive material.
Conductors are materials that permit electrons to flow freely from particle to particle. An object made of
a conducting material will permit charge to be transferred across the entire surface of the object. If
charge is transferred to the object at a given location, that charge is quickly distributed across the entire
surface of the object. The distribution of charge is the result of electron movement. Since conductors
allow for electrons to be transported from particle to particle, a charged object will always distribute its
charge until the overall repulsive forces between excess electrons is minimized. If a charged conductor is
touched to another object, the conductor can even transfer its charge to that object. The transfer of
charge between objects occurs more readily if the second object is made of a conducting material.
Conductors allow for charge transfer through the free movement of electrons.

In contrast to conductors, insulators are materials that impede the free flow of electrons from atom to
atom and molecule to molecule. If charge is transferred to an insulator at a given location, the excess
charge will remain at the initial location of charging. The particles of the insulator do not permit the free
flow of electrons; subsequently charge is seldom distributed evenly across the surface of an insulator.

While insulators are not useful for transferring charge, they do serve a critical role in electrostatic
experiments and demonstrations. Conductive objects are often mounted upon insulating objects. This
arrangement of a conductor on top of an insulator prevents charge from being transferred from the
conductive object to its surroundings. This arrangement also allows for a student (or teacher) to
manipulate a conducting object without touching it. The insulator serves as a handle for moving the
conductor around on top of a lab table.

MODULE 2
ELECTRIC FORCE

We have observed that charges either attract or repel one another. This shows that they are governed
by a certain law like the universal law of gravitation by Newton.

During the 18th century, a French physicist named Charles Coulomb performed the maiden quantitative
investigation of electric forces with the use of a torsion balance which he invented. In his experiment he
demonstrated that the electric force varies inversely with the square of the distance between charges.
This is found to be true for both attractive and repulsive forces.
Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, (born June 14, 1736, Angoulême, France—died August 23, 1806, Paris),
French physicist best known for the formulation of Coulomb’s law, which states that the force between
two electrical charges is proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

Coulomb’s Law gives an idea about the force between two point charges. By the word point charge, we
mean that in physics, the size of linear charged bodies is very small as against the distance between
them. Therefore, we consider them as point charges as it becomes easy for us to calculate the force of
attraction/ repulsion between them.

The electric force acting on a point charge q1 as a result of the presence of a second point charge q2 is
given by Coulomb's Law:
Where k is the proportionality constant which is equivalent to:

Here, ε0 is the epsilon naught and it signifies permittivity of a vacuum. The value of k comes 9 × 109
Nm2/ C2 when we take the S.I unit of value of ε0 is 8.854 × 10-12 C 2 /Nm2.

Example:

1. The charge between two identical charges separated by 0.01 m is equal to 90 C. What is the
magnitude of the force between the two charges?

Given:
q1 = 90 C
q2 = 90 C
r = 0.01 m

FE=kq1q2r2{"version":"1.1","math":"<math style="font-family:Arial"
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><mrow><msub><mi>F</mi><mi>E</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mfrac><msub><mi>k
</mi><mrow><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>1</mn></msub><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mr
ow></msub><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac></mrow></mstyle></math>"}

FE=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(90 C)(90 C)(0.01 m)2FE=7.29 x 1017 N{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><msub><mi>F</mi><mi>E</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><
mn>9</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><
msup><mi>m</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><msup><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)
</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>90</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>90</
mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</m
o><mn>01</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>m</mi><msup><mo>)</mo><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow><
/mfrac><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><msub><mi>F</mi><mi>E</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>7</mn><m
o>.</mo><mn>29</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mn>10</mn><mro
w><mn>17</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo></mrow></msup><mi>N</mi></mstyle></math>"}

2. Two balloons with charges of +3.37 µC and -8.21 µC attract each other with a force of 0.0626 Newton.
Determine the separation distance between the two balloons.

Given:

Q1 = +3.37 µC = +3.37 x 10-6 C

F = - 0.0626 N (use a - force value since it is attractive)

Find:
r = ???

FE=kq1q2r2{"version":"1.1","math":"<math style="font-family:Arial"
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><mrow><msub><mi>F</mi><mi>E</mi></msub><mo>=</mo><mfrac><msub><mi>k
</mi><mrow><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>1</mn></msub><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mr
ow></msub><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac></mrow></mstyle></math>"}

r=kq1q2F√{"version":"1.1","math":"<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><msqrt><mfrac><mrow><mi>k</mi><msub><mi>q<
/mi><mn>1</mn></msub><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow><mi>F</mi></mfrac></m
sqrt></mrow></mstyle></math>"}

r=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(3.37 x 10−6 C)(−8.21 x 10−6C)0.0626 N√r= 1.99 m{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><msqrt><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn>
<mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><msup><mi>m
</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><msup><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)</mo><mo>(
</mo><mn>3</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>37</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><ms
up><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo><mo>(</mo><mo>-
</mo><mn>8</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>21</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><ms
up><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><mrow><mn>0</mn><mo>.</
mo><mn>0626</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi></mrow></mfrac></msqrt><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mn>1</mn><mo>.</mo>
<mn>99</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></mstyle></math>"}

Forces Acting on a System of Charges

Electric forces are very large, far greater than the force of gravity. Unlike gravity, there are two types of
electric charge, (whereas there is only one type of gravity; gravity only attracts).

If we have a system of charges, each charge exerts a force on the other charges.

Example :

Given the illustration above, what will be the net force acting on q1?

Step 1:
Consider the charge of q1:

q1 is positive.

Step 2:
Identify the forces among the three charges
Q1 is positive so it will be repelled to q2 since q2 is positive and will be attracted to q3 since it is
negative.

Step 3: Find the forces involved

F1,2 is negative since it is going to the left while F1,3 is positive since it is going to the right.

Step 4: Find the force 1,2 using Coulomb’s Law

F1,2=kq1q2r2{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><mrow><msub><mi>F</mi><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>,</mo><mn>2</mn></mrow>
</msub><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mi>k</mi><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>1</mn></msub><msub><
mi>q</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac></mrow>
</mstyle></math>"}

F1,2=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(200 x 10−6 C)(100 x 10−6 C)(4 m)2F1,2=−11.25 N{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><msub><mi>F</mi><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>,</mo><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub
><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</m
n></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><msup><mi>m</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><ms
up><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>200</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi
>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>1
00</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><msup><mf
enced><mrow><mn>4</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></mfenced><mn>2</mn></msup
></mfrac><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><msub><mi>F</mi><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>,</mo><mn>2</mn></
mrow></msub><mo>=</mo><mo>-
</mo><mn>11</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>25</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi></mstyle></math>"}

Step 5: Find the force 1,3 using Coulomb’s law

F1,2=kq1q2r2{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><mrow><msub><mi>F</mi><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>,</mo><mn>2</mn></mrow>
</msub><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mi>k</mi><msub><mi>q</mi><mn>1</mn></msub><msub><
mi>q</mi><mn>2</mn></msub></mrow><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac></mrow>
</mstyle></math>"}

F1,3=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(200 x 10−6 C)(50 x 10−6 C)(6 m)2F1,3=2.5 N{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><msub><mi>F</mi><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>,</mo><mn>3</mn></mrow></msub
><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</m
n></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><msup><mi>m</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><ms
up><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>200</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi
>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>5
0</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><msup><mf
enced><mrow><mn>6</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>m</mi></mrow></mfenced><mn>2</mn></msup
></mfrac><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><msub><mi>F</mi><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>,</mo><mn>3</mn></
mrow></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>2</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>5</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi></
mstyle></math>"}

Step 6: Find the net force acting on q1:

Fnet = F1,2 + F1,3

Fnet = -11.25 N + 2.5 N

Fnet = -8.75 N

Example 2:

Find the net force acting on Q1.

Solution:

Step 1:
Consider the charge of q1:

Q1 is positive so it will be attracted to q1 and repel to q3.

Q1 directs downward since it is attracted to q2 and moving away or going to the left since q1 and q3
repel each other.
MODULE 3
ELECTRIC FIELD

In our study about gravitational field. We learned that this field is a region in space where an object
experiences a gravitational force. A body by virtue of its mass is surrounded by gravitational field.

When an electric charge is placed in a region and it experiences a force which is electric in nature, the
region is an electric field. This is similar to Earth’s surface as a region, where objects experience a
downward force due to the gravitational attraction of Earth. In like manner, if a small charge is placed in
an electric field, it will be acted upon by an electric force.

Electric field - An electric field (sometimes abbreviated as E-field) is a vector field surrounding an electric
charge that exerts force on other charges, attracting or repelling them.

• The electric force that the test charge is experiencing divided by the test charge.
• Electric field configuration for different point and system charges:
Attractive Force

Repulsive Force

Electric field is defined as the electric force per unit charge. The direction of the field is taken to be the
direction of the force it would exert on a positive test charge. The electric field is radially outward from a
positive charge and radially in toward a negative point charge.

The electric field is related to the electric force that acts on an arbitrary charge q by,

E=Fq{"version":"1.1","math":"<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="24px"><mrow><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mi>F</mi><mi>q</mi></mfrac></mrow><
/mstyle></math>"}
or 

The dimensions of electric field are newtons/coulomb, N/C.

We can express the electric force in terms of electric field,

F=qE

Examples:

1. What is the electric field strength at a distance of 0.01 m from a charge of 2 μC?

E=kqr2E=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(2x10−6 C)(0.01 m)2E=1.80x105 N/C{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mi>k</mi
><mi>q</mi></mrow><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn><
mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><msup><mi>m<
/mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><msup><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)</mo><mo>(<
/mo><mn>2</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><mrow><m
o>(</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>01</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>m</mi><msup><mo>)</mo
><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow></mfrac><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mn>1</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>80</mn><mi
>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>5</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>
C</mi></math>"}

2. How much is the electric field intensity at a point 1 m away from a charge of 10 x 10-10 C?

E=kQr2E=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(10x10−10 C)(1m)2E=9 N/C{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mi>k</mi
><mi>Q</mi></mrow><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn><
mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><msup><mi>m<
/mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><msup><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)</mo><mo>(<
/mo><mn>10</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>10</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><mrow><
mo>(</mo><mn>1</mn><mi>m</mi><msup><mo>)</mo><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow></mfrac><ms
pace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mn>9</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi>
<mo>/</mo><mi>C</mi></math>"}

3. Two charges qA = 1 μC and qB = 4 μC are separated by a distance of 0.04 m. What is the magnitude of
the electric field at the center between qA and qB?

Given:
qA = 1 μC
qB = 4 μC

r = 0.02 m

Electric field for qA:

E=kQr2E=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(1x10−6 C)(0.02 m)2E=2.25 x 107 N/C{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mi>k</mi
><mi>Q</mi></mrow><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn><
mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><msup><mi>m<
/mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><msup><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)</mo><mo>(<
/mo><mn>1</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><mrow><m
o>(</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>02</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>m</mi><msup><mo>)</mo
><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow></mfrac><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mn>2</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>25</mn><mo
>&#xA0;</mo><mi>x</mi><mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>7</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0
;</mo><mi>N</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>C</mi></math>"}

Electric Field for qB:

E=kQr2E=(9x109 Nm2/C2)(4x10−6 C)(0.01 m)2E=9 x 107 N/C{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mi>k</mi
><mi>Q</mi></mrow><msup><mi>r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mfrac><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mrow><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn><
mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>9</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><msup><mi>m<
/mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>/</mo><msup><mi>C</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><mo>)</mo><mo>(<
/mo><mn>4</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mrow><mo>-
</mo><mn>6</mn></mrow></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo></mrow><mrow><m
o>(</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>01</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>m</mi><msup><mo>)</mo
><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow></mfrac><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mn>9</mn><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>x</mi>
<mo>&#xA0;</mo><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>7</mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><mo>/
</mo><mi>C</mi></math>"}

The resultant of the electric field at the center point :

EA and EB have the opposite direction.

So,

Enet=EB−EAEnet=(9x107 N/C)−(2.25X107 N/C)Enet=6.75x107N/C{"version":"1.1","math":"<math
xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><msub><mi>E</mi><mrow><mi>n</mi><mi>e</mi>
<mi>t</mi></mrow></msub><mo>=</mo><msub><mi>E</mi><mi>B</mi></msub><mo>-
</mo><msub><mi>E</mi><mi>A</mi></msub><mspace linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><msub><mi>E</mi><mrow><mi>n</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>t</mi></mro
w></msub><mo>=</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>9</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>7</mn></
msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo><mo>-
</mo><mo>(</mo><mn>2</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>25</mn><mi>X</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><mn>7<
/mn></msup><mo>&#xA0;</mo><mi>N</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>C</mi><mo>)</mo><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><mspace
linebreak="newline"></mspace><msub><mi>E</mi><mrow><mi>n</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>t</mi></mro
w></msub><mo>=</mo><mn>6</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>75</mn><mi>x</mi><msup><mn>10</mn><
mn>7</mn></msup><mi>N</mi><mo>/</mo><mi>C</mi></math>"}

ELECTRIC FLUX

Electric flux is the rate of flow of the electric field through a given area. Electric flux is proportional to
the number of electric field lines going through a virtual surface.

Flux - The action or process of flowing or flowing out. For electric field, it is represented by the symbol Φ
(phi) is illustrated below.
Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law, also known as Gauss’s flux theorem, is a law relating the distribution of electric charge to
the resulting electric field.
The law was formulated by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1835, but was not published until 1867. It is one of
the four Maxwell’s equations which form the basis of classical electrodynamics, the other three being
Gauss’s law for magnetism, Faraday’s law of induction, and Ampère’s law with Maxwell’s correction.

In words, Gauss’s law states that: The net outward normal electric flux through any closed surface is
proportional to the total electric charge enclosed within that closed surface.

If the area is uniform, the magnitude of electric field is the same at any point since the distance from the
charge is the same, so we can pull out the integral.

EA=Qε0{"version":"1.1","math":"<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="20px"><mrow><mi>E</mi><mi>A</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mi>Q</mi><msub><mi>&#x3
B5;</mi><mn>0</mn></msub></mfrac></mrow></mstyle></math>"}

Basically, there are only three types of symmetry that allow Gauss’s law to be used to deduce the
electric field. They are
• A charge distribution with spherical symmetry
• A charge distribution with cylindrical symmetry
• A charge distribution with planar symmetry
Charge Distribution with Spherical Symmetry

A charge distribution has spherical symmetry if the density of charge depends only on the distance from
a point in space and not on the direction. In other words, if you rotate the system, it doesn’t look
different. For instance, if a sphere of radius R is uniformly charged with charge density ρ0 then the
distribution has spherical symmetry. On the other hand, if a sphere of radius R is charged so that the top
half of the sphere has uniform charge density ρ1 and the bottom half has a uniform charge density
ρ2≠ρ1
then the sphere does not have spherical symmetry because the charge density depends on the
direction. Thus, it is not the shape of the object but rather the shape of the charge distribution that
determines whether or not a system has spherical symmetry.

E=q4πr2ε0{"version":"1.1","math":"<math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"><mstyle
mathsize="24px"><mrow><mi>E</mi><mo>=</mo><mfrac><mi>q</mi><mrow><mn>4</mn><msup><
mi>&#x3C0;r</mi><mn>2</mn></msup><msub><mi
mathvariant="normal">&#x3B5;</mi><mn>0</mn></msub></mrow></mfrac></mrow></mstyle></ma
th>"}

Charge Distribution with Cylindrical Symmetry

A charge distribution has cylindrical symmetry if the charge density depends only upon the distance r
from the axis of a cylinder and must not vary along the axis or with direction about the axis. In other
words, if your system varies if you rotate it around the axis, or shift it along the axis, you do not have
cylindrical symmetry.
Charge Distribution with Planar Symmetry

A planar symmetry of charge density is obtained when charges are uniformly spread over a large flat
surface. In planar symmetry, all points in a plane parallel to the plane of charge are identical with
respect to the charges.