191

Unit
Fluid Dynamics
6
L After studying this unit the students will be able to
E ¥ define the terms: steady (streamline or laminar) flow, incompressible flow and

A non viscous flow as applied to the motion of an ideal fluid.

R ¥ explain that at a sufficiently high velocity, the flow of viscous fluid undergoes a
transition from laminar to turbulence conditions.
N
¥ describe that the majority of practical examples of fluid flow and resistance to
I
motion in fluids involve turbulent rather than laminar conditions.
N
¥ describe equation of continuity Aν = Constant, for the flow of an ideal and
G incompressible fluid and solve problems using it.
¥ identify that the equation of continuity is a form of the principle of conservation
O of mass.
U ¥ describe that the pressure difference can arise from different rates of flow of a
T fluid (Bernoulli effect).
C 2
¥ derive Bernoulli equation in the form P + ½ ρv + ρgh = constant for the case of
O horizontal tube of flow.
M ¥ interpret and apply Bernoulli Effect in the: filter pump, Venturi meter, in

E atomizers, flow of air over an aerofoil and in blood physics.

S ¥ describe that real fluids are viscous fluids.

¥ describe that viscous forces in a fluid cause a retarding force on an object
moving through it.
¥ explain how the magnitude of the viscous force in fluid flow depends on the
shape and velocity of the object.
¥ apply dimensional analysis to confirm the form of the equation F = Aηrv where
‘A’ is a dimension-less constant (Stokes’ Law) for the drag force under laminar
conditions in a viscous fluid.
¥ apply Stokes’ law to derive an expression for terminal velocity of spherical body
falling through a viscous fluid.
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 192
A fluid is a collection of molecules that are randomly arranged and held together
by weak cohesive forces and by forces exerted by the walls of a container. Both
liquids and gases are fluids as they can flow and exert pressure on the walls of its
container. Fluids are a subset of the phases of matter and include liquids, gases,
plasmas and to some extent plastic solids.

6.1 VISCOUS FLUIDS

Viscosity is the resistance to flow of a fluid. Honey has a high viscosity at room
temperature, and freely flowing gasoline has a low viscosity. For a fluid to flow, the
molecules must be able to slide past one another. In general, the stronger the
intermolecular forces of attraction, the more viscous is the liquid. This internal
friction, or viscous force, is associated with the resistance that two adjacent
layers of fluid must have in order to move relative to each other. Viscosity causes
part of the kinetic energy of a fluid to be converted to internal energy. This
mechanism is similar to the one by which an object sliding on a rough horizontal
surface loses kinetic energy.
The numeric value of resistance to flow of fluid (viscosity) is called coefficient of
viscosity ‘η’. The SI unit of viscosity is the pascal second (Pa s), The most common
2
unit of viscosity is the dyne second per square centimeter (dyne second/cm ),
which is given the name poise (P) after the French physiologist Jean Louis
Poiseuille (1799-1869).
1 pascal second = 10 poise
1 centipoise = 1 millipascal second

Table 6.1 COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

Material Viscosity (Pa s) Material Viscosity (Pa s)

Air 1.8 × 10-5 Ethanol 1.00 ×10-3

Acetone 2.9 × 10
-4 Blood 1.6 ×10-3

Methanol 5.1 × 10
-4 Honey 1.42
-3
Benzene 1.00 × 10 Blood (at body
4.0 ×10-3
temperature)
Water 8.91 × 10-4

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 193
As the temperature of the liquid rises the atoms become more free to move and
the coefficient of viscosity ‘η’ decreases. However in a gas the temperature rise
increases the random motion of atoms and coefficient of viscosity ‘η’ increases.

6.2 FLUID FRICTION AND STOKES LAW

Fluid friction occurs when adjacent layers in a fluid (liquid or gas ) are moving at
different velocities. Fluid friction depends on the viscosity of the fluid, and
relative speeds between layers of the fluid.

When an object moves through a fluid, the fluid exerts a retarding force that tends
to reduce the speed of the object. This retarding force experienced by an object
moving through a fluid is called the drag force. The moving body exerts a force on
the fluid to push it out of the way. By Newton's third law, the fluid pushes back on
the body with an equal and opposite force.
Putting our hand out the window of a fast-moving car show us the existence of
fluid friction and the drag force that a fluid exerts on our hands moving through it.
The drag force depends upon the
£ Size, shape and orientation of the object
£ Properties of the fluid (viscosity and density)
£ Speed of the object relative to the fluid

POINT TO PONDER

Skydivers and swimmers change their effective size and orientation by bending, twisting
and starching their body parts. This allow them to manipulate drag and thereby allowing
them to control speed and direction of motion.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 194
The viscous drag force on a spherical object is FIGURE 6.1
expressed mathematically by a formula, which is
termed as stokes law. Consider the Figure 6.1,
Radius
according to stokes law the drag force FD depends upon ‘r’
the radius ‘r’ and velocity ‘v’ of the spherical object
and coefficient of viscosity ‘h’ of medium though which
spherical object is falling

FD Ö h r v
Speed
‘v’
or FD = A h r v

where A is the constant of proportionality and its Coefficient of

experimentally determined value is 6 p viscosity ‘η’
of medium
A = 6p

therefore FD = 6 p h r v 6.1

This equation first set forth by the British scientist Sir George G. Stokes in 1851 is
termed as stokes law. Stokes’s law finds application in several areas, particularly
with regard to the settling of sediment in fresh water and in measurements of the
viscosity of fluids.

6.3 TERMINAL VELOCITY

The constant maximum velocity that is attained and maintained by an object
while falling through a resistive medium is called terminal velocity ‘vT’.
When the net force on the object is zero then acceleration terminates. When
acceleration terminates, we say that the object has reached its terminal speed. If
we are concerned with direction (down for falling objects) we say the object has
reached its terminal velocity ‘vT’.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 195

We will be concerned the terminal FIGURE 6.2

velocity for the simplest case, that is the
uniform density spherical object falling v=0 a=g
though a consistent medium as shown in
Figure 6.2.
Newton's laws apply for all objects,
v a
whether freely falling or falling in the
presence of resistive forces. The
accelerations, however, are quite
v a
different, due to difference in net force.
In a vacuum the net force is the weight
because it is the only force. However, in
v a
the presence of air resistance, the net
force is less than the weight, it is the
weight minus drag force. vT
Terminal Acceleration
Fnet = FG - FD has reduced
velocity vT
Here Fnet = ma, FD = 6πηrv ‘vT’ to zero
reached ‘a = 0’
and FG = W = mg
vT

FIGURE 6.3

FD = 6πηrv FD = 6πηrv

v a vT a=0

FG = W = mg FG = W = mg

m a = m g - 6p h r v

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 196
When FG and FD are equal, the net force is zero. then the acceleration a = 0, and
v = vT, the equation is

m (0) = m g - 6 p h r v T or 0 = m g - 6 p h r vT

therefore 6 p h r vT = m g

mg
or vT = 6.2
6p h r

FIGURE 6.4
velocity ‘v’
(m/s)

Terminal
velocity ‘vT’

time ‘t’ (s)

Graphical Representation of Terminal velocity

Equation 6.2 represents terminal velocity of a spherical object of mass ‘m’ and
radius ‘r’, falling with acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ in a medium of co-officient
of viscosity ‘h’.

For sphere of uniform density m=rV 1

4
As the volume of Sphere is V = p r3 2
3
Putting value of V from equation 2 in equation 1, we get

4 3
or m= p r3r
3

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 197

2
4 32
pr r g
Putting value of m from equation 3 in equation 6.2 vT = 3
6p h r
3
2
2r gr
By rearranging we get vT = 6.3
9h

Equation 6.3 presents the terminal velocity of a spherical object of density ‘r’ and
radius ‘r’, falling with acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ in a medium of co-officient
of viscosity ‘h’.
As terminal velocity depends on size, shape and orientation of the object. It also
depends upon the coefficient of viscosity of the medium and speed, therefore
there is no single speed for terminal velocity. In general, a person falling through
the air on Earth reaches terminal velocity after about 12 seconds, covering a
distance of about 450 meters. Table 6.2 shows the terminal velocities of various
objects falling through air.

Table 6.2: TERMINAL SPEEDS FOR VARIOUS OBJECT FALLING THROUGH AIR

Cross-sectional Terminal Speed

Object mass (kg) Area (m2) (m/s)

Sky Diver 70 0.70 54

-3
Base Ball (radius 3.7 cm) 0.145 4.2 × 10 43
-3
Golf Ball (radius 2.1 cm) 0.046 1.4 × 10 44
-5
Hail stone (radius 0.5 cm) 4.8 × 10
-4 7.9 × 10 14
-5
Rain Drop (radius 0.2 cm 3.4 × 10 1.3 × 10-5 09

DO YOU KNOW
The largest ever hailstone weighed over 1kg and fell in Bangladesh in 1986.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 198

DO YOU KNOW

In free fall the paratrooper attains his terminal velocity twice, once before opening his
chute and the other after opening the chute. Without opening the chute paratrooper
offers lower radius to air and therefor has a high terminal speed. Whereas after opening
the chute he has large radius thereby having sufficiently low terminal speed to allow
him to fall safely on the ground. For example, consider the graph below which explain
the motion of paratrooper.
velocity Parachute opens at Velocity-time graph
‘v’ (m/s) t = 54 s for Paratrooper
70 Steady
Speed Terminal
60
velocity 1
50 VT = 54 m/s

40 decelerates

30
Steady
20 Terminal
Speed
velocity 2
10 VT = 11 m/s
Jumps time ‘t’ (s)
at t =0s 0 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

£ Stage 1 at t = 0 s – after just jumping from the plane the

skydiver is not moving very fast – weight is a bigger force
than air resistance, so he accelerate downwards
£ Stage 2 at t = 19 s – eventually the force of the air
resistance has increased so much that it is the same size as
the skydiver’s weight – the forces are balanced and the
speed remains constant (this is terminal velocity 1)
£ Stage 3 at t = 54 s – when the chute opens air resistance
increases dramatically: the air resistance force is much
greater than the weight force, so the skydiver slows down
£ Stage 4 at t = 48s – as the skydiver slows, the air resistance
force from the chute is reduced, until it is the same size as
the weight force – the forces are balanced and the speed
remains constant (this is terminal velocity 2)

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 199

Example 6.1 FOG DROPLET

-6
The radius of small fog droplet in air is found to be 5.1 × 10 m. the coefficient of
viscosity of air is 1.9 × 10-5 kgm-1s-1. Find out the settling speed of the droplet in
air.
GIVEN
-6
Radius ‘r’ = 5.1 × 10 m
REQUIRED
Coefficient of viscosity ‘η’ = 1.9 × 10-5 kgm-1s-1
Terminal velocity ‘vt’ = ?
Density ‘ρ’ = 1000 kgm-3
Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ = 9.8 ms-2

SOLUTION
2 r r2g
The terminal velocity is vT = ´
9 h
2 (1000 kgm-3 )×(5.1×10-6m)2 ×(9.8ms-2 )
Putting values vT = ´
9 1.9×10-5kgm-1 s-1

hence v T = 2.98×10-3 ms-1 Answer

The Fog droplet will settle with a speed of 0.00298 m/s in air.

Assignment 6.1 GLOBULAR PROTEIN PARTICLE

-3
A certain globular protein particle has a density of 1246 kg m . It falls through
water (having coefficient of viscosity 8.91 × 10-4 Pa s) with a terminal speed of
-6
8.33 × 10-6 m s-1. Find the radius of the particle. (1.6 × 10 m)

6.3 FLUID FLOW

When fluid is in motion, its flow can be characterized as streamline or turbulent.
The flow is said to be streamline, steady, or laminar, if every particle of a fluid that
passes through a particular point, moves along exactly the same path, as followed
by particles that have passed that point earlier.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 200
In streamline flow every particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, such that the
paths of different particles never cross each other, as shown in Figure 6.5.

FIGURE 6.5
v
Stream lines
tangent

v
tangent
Stream-tube

A streamline is a line everywhere A stream-tube consists of a

tangent to the velocity vector bundle of streamlines

Above a certain critical speed, fluid flow becomes FIGURE 6.6

turbulent; turbulent flow is irregular flow
characterized by small whirlpool-like regions. For
example consider the figure 6.6, close to the incense,
the smoke's flow is very smooth, or laminar. As the
smoke rises higher and higher, it speeds up due to the
lower density of warm air compared to the
surrounding air (natural convection). Since it is Smoke rising from incense
shows laminar flow near
speeding up as it rises, it will eventually reach a speed
the bottom and turbulent
at which its flow becomes chaotic, or turbulent.
flow farther up.

POINT TO PONDER
Extreme turbulent flow, can be seen
in the form of a tornado. Tornadoes
are violently rotating columns of air
that extend from a thunderstorm to
the ground. Tornadoes can destroy
buildings, flip cars, and create
deadly flying debris.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 201
In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is continuously undergoing
changes in both magnitude and direction. Turbulent flow tends to occur at higher
velocities and low viscosity, therefore most kinds of fluid flow are turbulent. The
examples of turbulent flow include blood flow in arteries, oil transport in
pipelines, lava flow, atmosphere and ocean currents, the flow through pumps and
turbines, and the flow in boat wakes and around aircraft-wing tips.

POINT TO PONDER
Animals living under water, like fishes,
dolphins, and even massive whales are
streamlined in shape to reduce drag
forces. Birds are streamlined to reduce
air drag and migratory species that fly
large distances often have particular
features such as long necks.

The discussion of fluid flow can be simplified by considering the fluid flow as ideal
flow. In our model of an ideal flow, we make the following assumptions:
1. The fluid is non-viscous: In a non-viscous fluid, internal friction is neglected. An
object moving through the fluid experiences no viscous force.
2. The flow is steady: In steady (laminar) flow, the velocity of the fluid at each
point remains constant.
3. The fluid is incompressible: The density of an incompressible fluid is constant.
4. The flow is irrotational: In irrotational flow, the fluid has no angular momentum
about any point. If a small paddle wheel placed anywhere in the fluid does not
rotate about the wheel's center of mass, then the flow is irrotational.
5. The temperature does not vary: Phenomena such as the convection of fluids in
which a liquid in the bottom of a vessel is heated, rises, cools, and falls in a
circulating pattern will not be considered.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 202

6.4 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

The mass of ideal fluid doesn't change as it flows. This leads to an important
quantitative relationship called the continuity equation. The product of
crossectional area and the speed of the fluid at any point along the pipe is
constant.
A1v 1 = A 2 v 2
FIGURE 6.7
v2
A v = constant
(here v is the velocity and A is A2
the area of cross-section)
Consider an ideal fluid flowing Δx2
v1
through a pipe of nonuniform size,
as illustrated in Figure 6.7. The A1
particles in the fluid move along Δx1
streamlines in steady flow. As A fluid moving with steady flow through a
there is no source or sink in the pipe of varying cross-sectional area. The
pipe so equal mass will flow volume of fluid flowing through area A1 in a
through each end of the pipe. time interval t must equal the volume flowing
through area A2 in the same time interval.
D m1 = D m 2 = D m 1

Dm
By definition of density r = or Dm = r DV 2
DV

By definition of volume DV = A Dx 3

By definition of average velocity Dx = v Dt 4

Putting value of ∆x from equation 4 in equation 3, we get DV = Av Dt 5

The fluid that moves through the lower end of the pipe in the time Δt has a
mass given by equation 5 as

Dm1 = r A1 v1 Dt 6

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 203
The fluid that moves through the upper end of the pipe in the time Δt has a
mass given by equation 5 as

Dm2 = r A2 v 2 Dt 7

Putting values from equation 6 and equation 7 in equation 1, we get

r A1 v1 Dt = r A2 v 2 Dt
or A1 v1 = A2 v 2

Therefore Av = Constant 6.4

The Equation 6.4 gives equation of continuity, which can be interpreted as the
speed of the fluid is inversely proportional to cross-sectional area. Thus increasing
the speed decreases cross-sectional area and vice versa.

DO YOU KNOW

When water falls from a tap its speed

increases under the action of gravity as it
comes down, when the speed increases the
cross-sectional area decrease to keep the
equation of continuity valid.

DV
Equation 5 can also be written as = Av since Av = Constant
Dt

DV
Therefore = Constant 6.5
Dt

Equation 6.5 shows that the ‘volume flow rate’ (or time rate of flow of volume) is
constant. The volume of an incompressible fluid passing through any point in unit
time through a pipe of non-uniform cross-section is constant in the steady flow.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 204

Example 6.2 GARDEN HOSE

A garden hose of inner radius 1.25 cm carries water at 2.60 m/s. The nozzle at
the end has radius 0.30 cm. How fast does the water emerge out through the
nozzle?

GIVEN
Radius of garden hose ‘r1’ = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m REQUIRED
Radius of the nozzle ‘r2’ = 0.30 cm = 0.0030 m Speed out of nozzle ‘v2’ = ?
Speed though garden hose ‘v1’ = 2.60 m/s

SOLUTION
r1 = 0.0125 m Nozzle
The Equation of continuity is A1 v 1 = A 2 v 2
v2 = ?
v1 = 2.60 m/s
The area of circle is A=pr 2 r2 = 0.0030 m

therefore Equation of continuity can also be written as p r12 v1 = p r22 v 2

r12 v 1
or r12 v 1 = r22 v 2 and v2 =
r22

(0.0125 m)2 ´ 2.60 ms -1

putting values v2 =
(0.0030 m)2

hence v 2 = 45.14 ms -1 Answer

The speed of the water from the nozzle is 45.14 m/s .

Assignment 6.2 HEART BLOOD PUMPING

The heart pumps blood into the aorta, which has an inner radius of 1.0 cm. The
aorta feeds 32 major arteries (each have an inner radius of 0.21 cm). If blood in
the aorta travels at a speed of 25 cm/s, at approximately what average speed
does it travel in the arteries? Assume that blood can be treated as an ideal fluid.
(0.18 m/s)

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 205

6.5 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION

Bernoulli's equation that relates the pressure, flow speed, and height for flow
of an ideal fluid. Such that mathematically

1 1
P1 + r v12 + r g h1 = P2 + r v 22 + r g h2
2 2
1
P + r v 2 + r g h = constant
2
Bernoulli’s equation is simply law of conservation of energy applied to fluids in
motion. Consider an ideal flow through a pipe of nonuniform size, as illustrated in
Figure 6.8. The work ‘W’ is due to forces other than the conservative force of
gravity, so it equals the change in the total mechanical energy (kinetic energy plus
gravitational potential energy) associated with the fluid element.

W = DE FIGURE 6.8
Δx2 End 2
or
W = DK + DU 1 A2 P2

The total work done will v2

be sum of all the
individual work done. End 1 Δx
1

W = W1 + W2 2 P1 A1 h2

For end 1 v1
h1
By definition of work
r
W1 = F1 · Dx1 A fluid in laminar flow through a constricted pipe. The
W1 = F1 Dx1 cos q volume of the shaded section on the left is equal to the
volume of the shaded section on the right.

here θ = 0o and cos 0o = 1 Therefore W1 = F1 Dx1 3

For end 2 By definition of work

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 206
r
W2 = F2 · Dx 2 DO YOU KNOW
W2 = F2 Dx 2 cos q
o o
here θ = 180 and cos 180 = -1

Therefore W2 = -F2 Dx 2 4

By definition of pressure
F
P=
A
or F =PA 5
From equation 5 and equation 3 and Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) Daniel
equation 4 can be written as Bernoulli, a Swiss physicist and
mathematician, made important
For end 1 W1 = P1 A1 Dx1 6 discoveries in fluid dynamics. Born into
a family of mathematicians, he was the
For end 2 W2 = - P2 A2 Dx 2 7 only member of the family to make a
mark in physics. Bernoulli’s most
Since DV = A Dx 8 famous work, Hydrodynamica, was
published in 1738; it is both a
Δm
By definition of density ρ= theoretical and a practical study of
ΔV
equilibrium, pressure, and speed in
Δm fluids. He showed that as the speed of a
or ΔV = 9
ρ fluid increases, its pressure decreases.
comparing equation 8 and equation 9 In Hydrodynamica Bernoulli also
attempted the first explanation of the
Δm behavior of gases with changing
= A Dx 10
ρ pressure and temperature; this was the
Therefore, from equation 10, equation 6 beginning of the kinetic theory of

and equation 7 can be written as gases.

Dm1
For end 1 W1 = P1 11
r
Dm2
For end 2 W2 = - P2 12
r

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 207
putting values from equation 11 and equation 12 in equation 2

Dm1 Dm2
W = P1 - P2 13
r r
1 1
The net change in kinetic energy ΔK is Dk = Dm2 v 22 - Dm1 v12 14
2 2
The net change in potential energy ΔU is DU = Dm2 g h2 - Dm1 g h1 15

Putting values from equation 13, equation 14 and equation 15 in equation 1

Dm1 Dm2 1 1
P1 - P2 = Dm2 v 22 - Dm1 v12 + Dm2 g h2 - Dm1 g h1 16
r r 2 2
Since for ideal fluid equal mass should flow across both ends, therefore
Dm1 = Dm2 = Dm 17

From equation 17, equation 16 can be written as

Dm Dm 1 1
P1 - P2 = Dm v 22 - Dm v12 + Dm g h2 - Dm g h1
r r 2 2

Dm æ1 1 ö
Taking ∆m as common (P1 - P2 )= Dm ç v 22 - v12 + g h2 - g h1 ÷
r è2 2 ø

1 1
Multiplying both sides by r, we get P1 - P2 = r v 22 - r v12 + r g h2 - r g h1
2 2

1 1
therefore P1 + r v12 + r g h1 = P2 + r v 22 + r g h2 6.6
2 2

1
or P+ r v 2 + r g h = constant 6.7
2

Equations 6.6 and 6.7 are termed as Bernoulli’s equations. Bernoulli’s equations is
based on conservation of energy such that for an incompressible and non-viscous
fluid, the total mechanical energy of the fluid is constant

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 208

Example 6.3 WATER SPEED THROUGH PIPE

Water is flowing smoothly through a pipe. At one point the pressure is 33.2 kPa
and the speed of water is 2 m/s. While at another point 2.3 m higher the
pressure is 3.7 kPa, at what speed is the water flowing through this point?

GIVEN
3 -2
Pressure ‘P1’ = 33.2 kPa = 33.2 ´ 10 Nm
Pressure ‘P2’ = 3.7 kPa = 3.7 ´ 103 Nm-2 REQUIRED
-1
Speed of water ‘v1’ = 2 ms
Speed of water ‘v2’ = ?
Height ‘h1’ = 0 m , Height ‘h2’ = 2.3 m
-3
Density of water ‘r’= 1000 kg m

SOLUTION
1 1
The Bernoulli’s equation is r v12 + r g h1 = P2 + r v 22 + r g h2
P1 +
2 2
1 1
or r v 22 = P1 - P2 + r v12 + r g h1 - r g h2
2 2
2 2 2
multiplying both sides by 2/r we get v 2 = (P1 - P2 ) + v 1 + 2( g h1 - r g h2 )
r

2
taking square root on both sides v2 = (P1 - P2 ) + v12 + 2 g ( h1 - h2 )
r
or 2
-3
(33,200 kgm-1s-2 -3700 kgm-1s-2 )+(2ms-1)2
v2 = 1000 kgm
+2×9.8ms-2 ( 0 m-2.3m)

hence v 2 = 4 ms -1 Answer

The water will flow at 4 m/s in the upper part of the pipe.

Assignment 6.3 PRESSURE IN WATER PIPE

Water is flowing smoothly through a closed pipe system. At one point the speed
-1 -1
of water is 3 ms , while at another point 3 m higher, the speed is 4 ms . At lower
point the pressure is 80 kPa. Find the pressure at the upper point. (47.1 kPa)

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 209

6.7 APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

A number of devices operate by means of the pressure difference that result from
changes in a fluid’s speed.
A. Filter Pumps
Pumps are used to transfer liquids from low-pressure zones to high pressure zones.
‘A filter pump is a device used to produce partial vacuum in vessel attached to it’.
A filter pump consists of a tube with jet FIGURE 6.9
attached to it, in which water flows from the Tube
tube toward the jet as shown in Figure 6.9.
Nozzle
When water reaches from the jet section its
speed increases, as a result the pressure Vessel
Water
drops near it. This drop in pressure allows air jet
air
to flow in from the side tube to which the Partial
vacuum
vessel is connected, thus air and water are
forced together at the bottom of the filter
pump. In this way a partial vacuum is created
in the vessel attached to it.
B. Atomizers FIGURE 6.10
A device for emitting water, perfume, or other
bulb
liquids as a fine spray. Jet Nozzle
For example, a stream of air passing over one
end of an open tube, the other end of which is
Tube
immersed in a liquid, reduces the pressure
above the tube, as illustrated in Figure 6.10.
This reduction in pressure causes the liquid to
Storage
rise into the air stream. The liquid is then
tank
dispersed into a fine spray of droplets.
Such atomizers can be seen in perfume bottles,
engine carburetor, water filter pumps and
A stream of air passing over a
paint sprayers. tube dipped into a liquid causes
the liquid to rise in the tube.

PHYSICS-XI
Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 210

DO YOU KNOW

Air &
Air fuel
Mixture

Fuel

Engine Carburetor

C. Torricelli’s theorem (Speed of efflux)

Torricelli’s theorem states that ‘the speed of efflux is equal to the speed gained
by fluid while falling through
FIGURE 6.11
height h under the action of
gravity’.

Consider a large storage tank, which

P1= P
develop a leak at the bottom as v1 = 0
shown in the Figure 6.11. The
pressure at both ends is same
(P1 = P2 = P). The height h is the
Storage h = h1 - h 2
difference between the height of h1
tank
the fluid level h1 and the height v2 = v
of the hole from the ground
h2 P2= P
h2 (h = h1-h2). Velocity at the top is
considered as zero (v1=0), while the
bottom velocity is to be determined A leak at the bottom of a large
(v2=v). storage tank

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By Bernoulli’s equation 1 1
P1 + r v12 + r g h1 = P2 + r v 22 + r g h2
2 2
Substituting appropriate values and rearranging.

1 1
P+ r (0)2 + r g h1 = P + r v 2 + r g h2
2 2
1
or P - P + r g h1 - r g h2 = r v 2
2
1
hence r g (h1 - h2 ) = r v 2 as h1 - h2 = h
2
1
therefore r g (h) = r v2 or 2gh = v2
2

taking square root on both sides v2 = 2gh

therefore v = 2gh 6.7

The speed is the same as the vertical velocity which a body gain after falling freely
through a height ‘h’. The equation 6.7 is termed as Torricelli’s equation for the
speed of fluid emerging from water storage.

Example 6.4 WATER TANK

A cylindrical water storage tank has a horizontal spigot near the bottom, at a
depth of 1.2 m beneath the water surface. (a) When the spigot opened, how fast
-3
does the water come out? (b) If the radius of spigot is 6.0 ´ 10 m, what will be
the volume flow rate?
GIVEN
REQUIRED
Height of water in tank ‘h’ = 1.2 m
-3 Speed of water ‘v’ = ?
radius of spigot ‘A’ = 6.0 ´ 10 m
-2 Volume flow rate ‘∆V/∆t’ = ?
acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ = 9.8 m s

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SOLUTION
(a) By Torricelli’s theorem v = 2gh

putting values v = 2 ´ 9.8 ms -2 ´ 1.2 m

hence v = 4.85 m s -1 Answer

DV
(b) From equation of continuity the volume flow rate is = Av
Dt
A = pr2 DV
since therefore = p r2 ´v
Dt
putting values DV
= 3.14 ´ (6.0 ´ 10 -3 m)2 ´ 4.85 m s -1
Dt
EXTENSION EXERCISE
DV
hence = 5.48 ´ 10 -4 m3 s -1 Answer If the opening from spigot
Dt
points upward, how high
3
The water of volume 0.000548 m will emerge out does the resulting
of spigot each second. ‘fountain’ go?

Assignment 6.4 SPEED OF WATER FROM TANK

A tank full of water has a (small) hole near its bottom at a depth of 2.0 m from
the top surface, which is open to air. What is the speed of the stream of water
emerging from the hole? (6.3 m/s)

D. Venturi Meter (Flow meter): Venturi meter is a device used to measure the
flow speed or flow rate through a piping system. It works on the principle of
pressure difference between restricted and unrestricted flow regions.

We consider the flow to be steady, and we assume the fluid is incompressible and
has negligible internal friction. Hence we can use Bernoulli’s equation. Consider
the Figure 6.12, let P1 and P2 be the pressure and v1 and v2 be the velocities of wide
(end1) and narrow (end 2) sections of the tube respectively.

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 213

FIGURE 6.12
Venturi tube
P1

P2
A2

v2
A1 v1

The Bernoulli’s equation can be written as

1 1
P1 + r v12 + r g h = P2 + r v 22 + r g h
2 2
1 1
or P1 - P2 = r v 22 - r v12 1
2 2
A1 v1
Now by equation of continuity A1 v1 = A2 v 2 or v 2 = 2
A2
2
1 ¯A v ù 1
Putting equation 2 in equation 1 P1 - P2 = r ê 1 1 ú - r v12
2 ë A2 û 2

1 ¯æ A ö2 ù 2(P1 - P2 )
or P1 - P2 = r êç 1 ÷ - 1ú v12 rearranging v12 =
2 êëè A2 ø úû éæ A ö 2 ù
r êç 1 ÷ - 1ú
êëè A2 ø úû
2(P1 - P2 )
v12 =
é A2 ù
r ê 1 2 - 1ú
ë A2 û
2(P1 - P2 ) 2(P1 - P2 )
v1 = v1 = A22 ´
é A2 - A2 ù r ( A12 - A22 )
r ê 1 2 2ú
ë A2 û

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 214

2 (P1 - P2 )
Therefore v1 = A2 6.8
r ( A12 - A22 )

This is the solution of for speed in a pipe by Venturi’s meter when any barometer
(device used to measure pressure) is used. However, when no barometer is used
and height of the fluid in smaller equal diameter pipes attached to both the pipe
and the neck for the reference as shown in the Figure 6.13. By first Condition of
equilibrium.

FIGURE 6.13

P1 h1

h2 P2
A2

v2
A1 v1

Putting (P1 - P2 ) = r g h in equation 6.8 we get

2 ( r g h)
v1 = A2
r ( A12 - A22 )

2 ( g h)
Therefore v1 = A2 6.9
( A12 - A22 )

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 215

Assignment 6.5 VENTURI METER

A venturi meter is measuring the flow of water in a pipe having cross-sectional

area of 0.0038 m , a throat with cross-sectional area of 0.00031 m is connected
to it. If the pressure difference is measured to be 2.4 kPa, what is the speed of
the water in the pipe? (2.2 m/s)
D. Aerofoil FIGURE 6.14
The devices which are shaped so that the relative
F
motion between it and the fluid produces a force
perpendicular to the flow are called aerofoils.
The shape of aerofoil is made such that the fluid
speed at the top surface is greater than the bottom
(closer stream lines). as shown in figure 6.14. An
airfoil-shaped body moved through a fluid produces
an aerodynamic force. The component of this force Stream lines are crowded
perpendicular to the direction of motion is called together above the aero-
foil, so flow speed is
lift. The component parallel to the direction of
higher and pressure is
motion is called drag. Aerofoils are found in low. Because of this
aeroplane wings, helicopters, sailboats, propellers, decreased pressure a lift is
fans, compressors and turbines. exerted

TID BITS
Aerodynamic
Lift on an Airplane Wing Lift

One of the most spectacular examples of how

fluid flow affects pressure is the dynamic lift on
airplane wings. Figure shows an airplane with
its wing moving to the left, relative to it the air
flow to the right. Due to the wing’s shape, the
flow lines crowd together above the wing, it Aerodynamic Fast air reduces
Lift pressure more
causes the air to travel faster over the curved
top surface and more slowly over the flatter
bottom. Thus, the pressure above the wing is
reduced relative to the pressure under the wing
Slow air reduces
as a result the wing is lifted upward.
pressure less

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 216

Example 6.5 AIRCRAFT WING

What is the aerofoils lift (in newtons) on a wing of area 88 m2 if the air passes at
speed over its top surface at 280 m/s and bottom surface at 150 m/s ?

GIVEN
Surface area ‘A’ = 88 m2
REQUIRED
Speed at top of wing ‘v2’ = 280 m/s
Force ‘F’ = ?
Speed at bottom of wing ‘v1’ = 150 m/s
density of the air ‘r’ = 1.28 kg/m3

SOLUTION

Flift
Pressure is defined as (P1 - P2 ) = or Flift = (P1 - P2 ) ´ A
A

1
By Bernoulli’s equation P1 - P2 = r (v 22 - v12 ) + r g h2 - r g h1
2

1
Since h1 » h2 therefore P1 - P2 = r (v 22 - v12 )
2

1
Putting equation 2 in equation 1, we get Flift = r (v 22 - v12 ) ´ A
2

1
putting values Flift = ´ 1.28kgm-3 {(280 ms-1)2 -(150 ms-1)2 }×88m2
2

hence Flift = 3.2 ´ 106 N Answer

6
There will be an upward force of 3.2 ´ 10 N on air craft wing.

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 217

CLASSROOM DEMONSTRATION

Cut a long piece of paper, blowing over top of

paper, make the paper rise.
As we blow the speed of the air at the top is
greater than the speed at the bottom. In the
high speed region (that is at top) the pressure is
reduced to fill that reduced pressure region the
air from the bottom rushes to maintain the
constant atmospheric pressure thus lifting
paper with itself.

DO YOU KNOW

Spoilers: All cars are designed to

avoid lift and stick to the ground at
all times. Because when cars
suddenly rise up due to high velocity,
the driver loses its control. So
scientists designed cars completely
opposite to that of an airplane.

A race car employs Bernoulli's principle to keep its wheels on the ground while traveling
at high speeds. A race car's spoiler—shaped like an upside-down wing, with the curved
surface at the bottom—produces negative lift (or downforce) to push them down against
the track surface so they can take turns quickly without sliding out into the track wall.

E. Blood Flow
Bernoulli’s equation ignores viscosity (fluid friction). If a fluid had no viscosity, it
could flow through a level tube or pipe without a force being applied. Viscosity
acts like a sort of friction (between fluid layers moving at slightly different
speeds). The volume flow rate ΔV/Δt for laminar flow of a viscous fluid through a
horizontal, cylindrical pipe depends on its radius. Similar is the case of human
arteries. The ‘blood flow in the human body’ depends upon the radius of its
arteries as shown in Figure 6.14.

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 218

FIGURE 6.14

blood
blood flow Plague
flow

Normal Artery Artery narrowed by

atherosclerosis

The heart must work much harder under these conditions, but usually cannot
maintain the original flow rate. The pressure is lower where the fluid (blood) is
flowing faster. The pressure difference can dislodge the plaque. The plaque can
then lodge in and block a smaller artery which can cause heart attack.

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 219

K Fluid Flow: The basic property of a fluid is that it can flow. The fluid does not
E have any resistance to change of its shape. Thus, the shape of a fluid is
Y governed by the shape of its container.

P Viscosity: the resistance to flow of a fluid

O
Drag force: retarding force experienced by an object moving through a fluid
I
N
Terminal velocity: the maximum velocity attained and maintained by an
T
object while falling through a fluid
S
Streamline, steady, or laminar flow: every particle of a fluid moving along
exactly the same path, as followed by particles that have passed that point
earlier

Turbulent flow: irregular flow characterized by small whirlpool-like regions

Equation of Continuity: The volume of an incompressible fluid passing any

point in a pipe of non uniform cross-section is the same in the steady flow.
v A = constant (v is the velocity and A is the area of cross-section)
The equation is due to mass conservation for ideal flow.

Bernoulli’s Equation: Bernoulli’s principle states that as we move along a

streamline, the sum of the pressure (P), the kinetic energy per unit volume
2
(ρv /2) and the potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) remains a constant.
2
P + ρv /2 + ρgh = constant (ρ is the density and g is acceleration due to
garvity)
The equation is due to energy conservation for ideal flow.

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 220

EXERCISE
M
Choose the best possible answer
U
L 1 For substances that do not flow easily (like honey) have the ______
T value for the coefficient of viscosity
I A. low B. high C. zero D. negative
P
2 A unit for viscosity, the centipoise, is equal to which of the following?
L
E -3
A. 10 N s/m
2 -2
B. 10 N s/m
2 2
C. 10 N s/m
2 3
D. 10 N s/m
2

3 Stokes law is applicable only if a body is moving through a liquid with

C
slow speed and has __________ shape.
H
O A. a cubical B. a spherical C. a rough D. any
I 4 The net force that acts on a 10-N falling object, when it encounters 4 N of
C
air resistance is
E
A. 0 N B. 4 N C. 6 N D. 10 N
Q 5 A skydiver jumps from a high-flying helicopter. Before reaching terminal
U velocity, her acceleration
E
S A. increase B. decrease C. remain the same D. is zero
T 6 At terminal velocity the acceleration of a falling object is
I -2 -2 -2 -2
A. 0 m s B. 1 m s C. - 9.8 m s D. + 9.8 m s
O
N 7 According to equation of continuity Av = constant. This constant is equal
S to
A. volume of fluid B. mass of fluid
C. density of fluid D. volume flow rate
8 At the constriction in the cross-section for ideal flow, from equation of
continuity it follows that, the speed of fluid is
A. greater B.less C. same D. zero
9 As water in a level pipe passes from a narrow cross section of pipe to a
wider cross section, the pressure against the wall
A. increases B. decreases C. remains the same D. is zero

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 221

10 A 4 m high tank filled with water is drilled with four identical small
holes at 1 m, 1.5 m, 2 m and 2.5 m from the bottom of tank, the
speed of efflux will be greatest from the hole at
A. 1 m B. 1.5 m C. 2 m D. 2.5 m
11 Venturi meter is a device used to measure the
A. mass of fluid B. viscosity of fluid
C. speed of fluid D. density of fluid
2
12 A certain pipe has a cross-sectional area of 0.0001 m in which water
is flowing at 10 m/s. The volume flow rate is
A. 0.00001 m3/s B. 0.001 m3/s C. 1 m3/s D. 10.0001 m3/s
13 At sufficiently high speeds the flow of viscous fluid becomes
A. unexpected B. stream line C. non-viscous D. turbulent
14 The water in the tank is 10 m above the leak point. The speed with
which the water emerge from the leak is
A. 10 m/s B. 14 m/s C. 194 m/s D. 0.1 m/s
15 When the radius of the artery is reduced, the blood pressure
A. increased B. decreased C. remains the same D. is zero

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
Give a short response to the following questions
1 From the top of a tall building, you drop two table-tennis balls, one filled
with air and the other with water. Which ball reaches terminal velocity
first and why?
2 Why can a squirrel jump from a tree branch to the ground and run away
undamaged, while a human could break a bone in such a fall?
3 How does the terminal speed of a parachutist before opening a parachute
compare to the terminal speed afterward? Why is there a difference?
4 You can squirt water over a greater distance by placing your thumb over
the end of a garden hose, than by leaving it completely uncovered. Explain
how this works.

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 222

5 Why does smoke rise faster in a chimney on a windy day?

6 Two boats moving in parallel paths close to one another risk colliding. Why?

7 A cricket ball moves past an observer from left to right, spinning counter
clockwise. In which direction will the ball tend to deflect?
8 If aero-foil lift the aero-plane in upright position, how do the pilots make

the aero-planes fly upside down?

9 Why do the golf balls have dimples?

10 How by using wind deflectors on the top truck cabs reduce fuel

consumption?

COMPREHENSIVE QUESTIONS
Give extended response to the following questions
1 What is viscous drag? State and explain Stokes Law.
2 What is terminal velocity? Derive mathematical relation for terminal
velocity by using Stokes law.
3 Derive mathematically the equation of continuity, and relate it to the
time rate of volume flow. How equation of continuity is based on
conservation of mass?
4 Derive mathematical expression for the Bernoulli’s equation. How
Bernoulli’s equation is based on conservation of energy?
5 Using Bernoulli’s equation, what is the speed of efflux from a leak at the
bottom of large storage tank?
6 By Bernoulli’s equation, how we can determine the speed of the fluid in a
pipe?
7 What is aero-foil? Explain aero-foil lift on the wing of an aero-plane.
8 Use Bernoulli’s equation to explain the working of engine carburetor and
perfume bottle spray.

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Unit 6 FLUID DYNAMICS 223

NUMERICAL QUESTIONS

1 Eight equal drops of oil are falling through air with steady velocity of
0.1ms-1. the drops recombine to form a single drop, what should be the new
terminal velocity? (0.4 m/s)
2 Water travels through a 9.6 cm diameter fire hose with a speed of 1.3 m/s.
At the end of the hose, the water flows out through a nozzle whose
diameter is 2.5 cm. (a) What is the speed of the water coming out of the
nozzle? (b) What diameter nozzle is required to give water speed of
21 m/s? ((a)19 m/s, (b) 2.4 cm)
3 A fish tank has dimensions 0.30 m wide by 1.0 m long by 0.60 m high. If the
filter should process all the water in the tank once every 3.0 h, what should
the flow speed be in the 3.0 cm diameter input tube for the filter?
4 (2.8 cm/s)
A venturi meter is measuring the flow of water; it has a main diameter of
3.5 cm tapering down to a throat diameter of 1.0 cm. If the pressure
difference is measured to be 18 mm-Hg, what is the speed of the water
5
entering the venturi throat? (0.18 m/s)
A small circular hole 6.00 mm in diameter is cut in the side of a large water
tank, 14.0 m below the water level in the tank. The top of the tank is open
to the air. Find (a) the speed of efflux of the water and (b) the volume
6
discharged per second. ((a)16.6 m/s, (b) 0.0469 cm)
What is the Aerofoil lift (in newtons) due to Bernoulli's principle on a paper
plane of wing area 0.01 m2 if the air passes over the top and bottom
surfaces at speeds of 9 m/s and 7 m/s respectively? (Take the density of air
7
as 1.28 kg/m3.) (0.2 N)
During a windstorm, a 25 m/s wind blows across the flat roof of a small
home. Find the difference in pressure between the air inside the home and
the air just above the roof, assuming the doors and windows of the house
3
are closed. (The density of air is 1.28 kg/m ). (391 Pa)

PHYSICS-XI