Copper mining and processing

Copper processing is a complicated process that begins with mining of the ore (less than 1%
copper) and ends with sheets of 99.99% pure copper called cathodes, which will ultimately be
made into products for everyday use. The most common types of ore, copper oxide and copper
sulfide, undergo two different processes, hydrometallurgy and pyrometallurgy, respectively, due
to the different chemistries of the ore. Copper oxides are more abundant near the surface, but are
considered low-grade ore, with a lower concentration of copper. Although this requires more ore
to be extracted and processed, this process is less expensive, so oxides can still be mined at a
profit. On the other hand, while copper sulfide ores are less abundant, they contain higher
amounts of copper. Although the processing costs are higher, ultimately more copper can be
extracted. Since each mine site is unique in its mineral composition, concentration, and
quantities, the most economical and profitable processing of ore must be determined by the mine
planners. When it is economically feasible, a mine may extract both types of copper minerals;
when it is not possible, mines will only process either the copper oxides or the copper sulfides.

The first steps of copper processing are the same for both ores: mining and transporting. Copper
mining is usually performed using open-pit mining, in which a series of stepped benches are dug
deeper and deeper into the earth over time. To remove the ore, boring machinery is used to drill
holes into the hard rock, and explosives are inserted into the drill holes to blast and break the
rock. The resulting boulders are then ready for hauling; specialized haul trucks, conveyors,
trains, and shuttle cars can all be used to haul the ore from the blasting site to the processing site.
The size of the equipment needed to haul the tons and tons of ore is gigantic. Most ores are then
sent through a primary crusher, which is typically located very close to or sometimes in the pit.
This primary crusher reduces the size of the ore from boulder to golf ball-sized rocks.

Processing of Oxide Ore

Copper from the oxide ore is removed by heap leaching and solvent extraction.

Heap Leaching is the process of using percolating chemical solutions to leach out metals. Heap
leaching is very commonly used for low-grade ore, which would otherwise not be economical to
send through a milling process. Following mining, transporting, and crushing to a consistent
gravel or golf ball-size, the crushed ore is piled into a heap on top of an impenetrable layer, on a
slight slope. The leaching reagent (dilute sulfuric acid) is sprayed through sprinklers on top of
the heap pile and allowed to trickle down through the heap, where it dissolves the copper from
the ore. The resulting “pregnant” leach solution of sulfuric acid and copper sulfate is collected in
a small pool. The copper compound can now be seen at concentrations of between 60-70%.

The second step is solvent extraction, in which two immiscible (un-mixing) liquids are stirred
and allowed to separate, causing the copper to move from one liquid to the other. The pregnant
leach solution is mixed vigorously with a solvent. The copper migrates from the leach solution
into the solvent. The two liquids are then allowed to separate based on solubility, with copper
remaining in solution in the solvent, and impurities remaining in the leach solution. The leftover
leach solution is then recycled, by adding additional acid and sending it back to the sprinklers in
the heap leaching process.
Electrowinning

Electrowinning is the final step in processing oxide ore into copper cathodes. Electrowinning is a
type of electrolysis whereby the extrated solvent is the electrolyte.

An electrical current passes through an inert anode (positive electrode) and through the copper
solution from the previous step, which acts as an electrolyte. Positively charged copper ions
(cations) come out of solution and are plated onto a cathode (negative electrode) as 99.99% pure
copper.
Processing of Sulfide Ore

Sulfide ores are generally processed using pyrometallurgy, the extraction and purification of
metals by processes involving the application of heat. This process uses a series of physical steps
and high temperatures to extract and purify copper from copper sulfide ores, in four basic steps:
1) froth flotation, 2) thickening, 3) smelting, and 4) electrolysis.

Following mining, transporting, and crushing to a consistent gravel or golf ball-size, the crushed
ore is further processed at a mill using secondary crushers, and reduced to pebbles, and finally to
fine sand. After the copper ore is crushed, liquid is added to make it a slurry. The slurry is a mix
of valuable copper ore minerals and gangue. The slurry is placed in a tank and a process
called froth floatation is used to separate the copper minerals from the gangue. Chemical
reagents called collectors are added to the slurry and bind to the copper particles, making them
hydrophobic, or waterproof. Pipes are used to blow air into the bottom of the tank to create
bubbles, which rise to the surface, taking the waterproof copper sulfide particles along. The froth
of copper-rich bubbles at the top of the tank is then skimmed off for further processing. The
gangue sinks to the bottom of the tank to be removed or disposed of as mine tailings.

The next stage after froth flotation is the thickening stage. The froth is poured into large tanks
called thickeners. The bubbles break and solids from the froth solution settle at the bottom of the
tank. The solids are then filtered to remove excess water, which can be reused in processing
additional batches of sulfide ore. The final product of the thickening stage is a combination of
30% copper and other metals; this copper concentrate is then sent to the smelter.
At the smelter, high temperatures are used to further purify the ore in a series of smelting steps.
The copper concentrate is first sent through the smelting furnace to be heated up to 2,300 °F and
converted into molten liquid. The heated liquid is poured into a slag-settling furnace. This step
produces a combination of matte, a mixture of copper, sulfur and iron, and slag, a dense, glassy
material made of iron, silica, and other impurities. The copper matte created by the smelting
furnace contains 58-60% copper. The molten matte is then taken to another furnace called a
converter to have the remaining iron and sulfur burned off; the product is referred to as blister
copper, which contains 98% copper, and taken to the anode smelter. The blister copper is yellow;
when the oxygen in the copper is burned off in the anode smelter, it turns a blue-green color. The
resulting product, molten anode copper, is poured into molds called anode-casting wheels. The
cooled anode slabs are 99% pure copper, are now copper-colored, have two handles molded on
top, and are two inches thick, three feet wide, three-and-a-half feet high, and weigh 750 pounds.

Copper electrolysis

The copper anode slabs are then refined in a final step called electrolysis. The anode slabs are
hung in a large tank full of an electrolyte solution made of copper sulfate and sulfuric acid. Thin
sheets of pure copper, which are called cathodes and weigh about 15 pounds each, are hung in
between the anodes. An electric current is applied, and positively-charged copper ions (called
cations) leave the anode (positive electrode) and move in solution through the electrolyte
solution to be plated on the cathode (negative electrode). Other metals and impurities also leave
the anode to drop to the bottom of the tank or stay in the electrolytic solution. These impurities
are collected and may be refined to recover other metals such as silver and gold. After 14 days of
electrolysis, the anodes have gradually disappeared, and the copper cathodes now weigh 375
pounds each and contain 99.99% pure copper. The cathodes are taken out of the tank and rinsed
with water to prevent further reaction. The finished copper cathodes can then be made into wires,
plates, tubes, and other copper products.