WHO defines research as the development of knowledge with the

aim of understanding health challenges and mounting an

improved response to them. This definition covers the full
spectrum of research, which spans five generic areas of activity:
• measuring the problem;
• understanding its cause(s);
• elaborating solutions;
• translating the solutions or evidence into policy, practice
and products;
• and evaluating the effectiveness of proposed health
solutions.
Roles and Functions of the Nurse
1.Caregiver
2.Agent of change
3.Leader
4.Manager
5.Communicator
6.Advocate of client
7.Research user or consumer
8. Researcher
9.Teacher
10. Case Manager
11.Counselor
Roles of nurses in research
1.Advocate of client or respondents during study
2.Major/ principal Investigator
3.Evaluator of a research findings
4.R esearch problem identifier
5.Informants/respondents/subjects/ participants
or sample population
6.Consumer of research findings
7.Associate or member of research team
Sources of nursing knowledge
1. Customs and tradition- “we’ve always done it that way”. Social and
cultural practices have been the bases for nursing care in the country.
2.Assembled information (e.g., quality improvement data)
3.Scientific research – the most objective and the source of nursing
knowledge
4.Trial and error – “if it works, we’ll use it”. If one approach did not work
one will be use until one process is effective that until then the process
will be stop.
5.Experts or authorities- experts and authorities in the given field often
provide knowledge for other people.
6.Logical reasoning (inductive & deductive)
All men are mortal, Gary is a man, therefore, Gary is mortal
IF IT RAINS, THE GROUND IS WET
THE GROUND IS WET,
THEREFORE, IT RAINED.
INDUCTIVE – DEVELOPING GEN. FROM SPECIFIC OBSERVATION
EX: NURSE OBSERVES ANXIOUS BEHAVIOR OF HOSPITALIZED CHILDREN &
CONCLUDES THAT CHILDREN’S SEPARATION FROM PARENTS IS
STRESSFUL.
Deductive- developing specific observation from general observation
Separation anxiety occurs in hospitalized children, then children in
hospital x whose parents are absent will manifest symptoms of stress.
7. COMMON SENSE/ intuition– it is not a systematic way of gaining
knowledge.
Nursing research-
Systematic inquiry to develop knowledge about issues of importance to
the nursing profession
Purposes of nursing research:
1. identification – study of little is known, to name the phenomena,
to observe , define and document nursing situations (what is this
phenomenon? name)
ex: study on basic social problems – adherence to health care
directives. (warnings of vulnerability)
2. description – researchers' observe and record
events, describe,count, delineate and classify. It
answers “what” questions.
ex: patients’ stress and coping, pain management,
health beliefs, adaptation patterns
“what do insulin-dependent patients want to know
about their condition?
EXAMPLE:
CHANGES IN PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING & RESOURCES 6
MONTHS AFTER HEART TRANSPLANTATION.
Experience of Waiting in a critical unit room.
3. EXPLORATION – investigates the full nature of the phenomenon,
the manner in which it is manifested and the other factors to which
it is related.
EX: PATIENTS STRESS - DEGREE OF STRESS BEFORE SURGERY & HOW
MANY PATIENTS WHO ACTUALLY EXPERIENCE IT.
INCIDENCE & SEVERITY OF NAUSEA & VOMITING
ACCOMPANYING COMBINATIVE ANTIRETROVIRAL THERAPIES
AMONG HIV-AIDS PATIENTS, & EXPLORED PATTERNS OF N/V IN
RELATION TO PATIENTS CHARACTERISTICS.
4. EXPLANATION – to explain systematic relationships among phenomena. It
attempts to offer understanding of the underlying causes or full nature of
phenomena. It seeks clarification of prevailing situations to answer questions
that ask “why’ a phenomenon occurred.
Ex: A study explaining the psychosocial needs of patients in the Intensive Care
unit ( Feeling safe)
“Why do older patients need more time than younger patients to recover?
“ Why do younger children need more parenting than older children?
5. PREDICTION & CONTROL – future occurrence and institute control
measures based on the study.
Prediction – projects a situation or events that could arise from
research investigation
Control – puts up barrier to hinder or minimize the effects of
anticipated outcomes or reactions.
Example : Woman 40 years & above is at higher risk of bearing a
child with Down Syndrome.
Control : Educate women on the risk & through amniocentesis.
“Smoking can cause Lung cancer”
Multiple sexual partners can lead to cervical cancer
Homosexual activities predisposes the person to HIV- AIDS
GOALS OF NURSING RESEARCH
1. Evidence- based nursing practice – best clinical practices as
proven by nursing research, principles on which the tasks &
functions of a nurse, SOP’s can be formulated through research.
2. Credibility in the nursing profession – a profession is defined by
the body of knowledge it utilizes, which is distinct from other
disciplines. Produce new procedures, programs and practices.
3. Accountability in nursing profession – every action by a nurse
must have rationale. There are principles that justify the reason.
- nurse must be carried out with care and awareness that
everything to be done efficiently.

4. Promote cost-effectiveness trough documentation of nursing

care- save expenses , by recording findings no need to conduct
research again
Ex> Critically ill patients in ICU vs in special care unit
loner admission vs early discharge of pre-term babies
The RESEARCH PROCESS
1 IDEA- GENERATING PHASE – BEGINS WITH AN IDEA WHICH THE

RESEARCHER HAS INTEREST. IDENTIFY TOPICS & JUSTIFY WHY A STUDY ON

PARTICULAR TOPIC IS NEEDED.

- START TO READ ARTICLES, BOOKS AND CONVERSE WITH PEOPLE

WHO ARE KNOWLEDGEABLE IN THE AREA.

2. PROBLEM DEFINITION PHASE – IDENTIFICATION AND DEFINITION OF

VARIABLES, THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK, FORMULATION
OF THE MAJOR AND MINOR PROBLEMS TO BE INVESTIGATED AND
HYPOTHESIS.
3. PROCEDURES- DESIGN PHASE – decide on the methods
and procedures for the collection & analysis of data.
- decision on what methodology, selection of
participants, development and validation of tools,
specification of the procedures to be observed in
the actual collection of data andplanning the
analysis.
4. DATA- COLLECTION PHASE – gathering of data, procedures are
implemented rigorously.
5. DATA – ANALYSIS PHASE – ANALYSES THE COLLECTED DATA BASED ON THE PLAN.
TECHNIQUES AND PROCEDURES ARE APPLIED FOR THE DATA THAT HAVE BEEN
RECORDED, CODED AND TABULATED.
6. INTERPRETATION PHASE – GENERATE ANSWERS TO THE PROBLEM, THE RESEARCHER
HAS TO COMPARE THE RESULTS PREDICTED BASED ON THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY.
7. COMMUNICATION PHASE – PREPARE A WRITTEN OR ORAL REPORT OF THE STUDY,
EITHER IN PRESENTATION OR PUBLICATION TO COLLEAGUES OR PANEL OF EXPERTS.
THIS REPORT HAS TO INCLUDE A DESCRIPTION OF ALL OF THE ABOVE STEPS IN THE
RESEARCH PROCESS.
.
CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
1. INTELLECTUAL HONESTY – MODEL OF MORAL VALUES, FROM THE START TO
END TO ARRIVE AN HONEST RESULTS.
2.INTELLECTUAL CREATIVITY – CONSIDERS RESEARCH AS A HOBBY, CREATES
NEW RESEARCHES.
3.PRUDENCE – CAREFUL TO CONDUCT HER STUDY AT THE RIGHT TIME, RIGHT
PLACE WISELY, EFFICIENTLY AND ECONOMICALLY.
4.INTELLECTUAL CURIOSITY – THE RESEARCHER UNDERTAKES DEEP THINKING
AND INQUIRY OF THINGS, PROBLEMS, SITUATIONS AROUND HIM
- OBSERVANT TO WHAT IS HAPPENING AND EAGER TO GET
INFORMATION.
5. ACCURATE IN HIS/HER DATA- precise in all recorded data, avoid
skipping or ignoring differences.
6. ORGANIZED & SYSTEMATIC – ANY DATA MUST BE NOTED DOWN,
COMPARED, VERIFIED, GROUPED, SEQUENCED.
7. SELF-AWARENESS – UNDERSTANDS CAPABILITIES . LIMITATIONS,
PERSONAL JUDGEMENT MUST BE AVOIDED.
8. PERSISTENT WITH BARRIERS – READY TO FACE CHALLENGES, COPE
QUICKLY WITH STRESSES, MAINTAINING CONFIDENCE &
OPTIMISM.
9. GOOD RELATIONSHIP W/ HIS.HER RESPONDENTS & OTHER RESEARCHERS –
GENUINE INTEREST WITH PEOPLE, GIVE NEEDED ASSISTANCE TO
OTHER RESEARCHERS.
 VALUES OF RESEARCH TO MAN
1. IMPROVES THE QUALITY & WAY OF LIFE – PERSON WILL FOCUS ON IMPROVING
PROCESSES AND MEANS.

2. IMPROVES TEACHING – LEARNING PROCESS – RESEARCHERS CONTINUE TO CONDUCT

RESEARCH ON DIFFERENT METHODS, STRATEGIES OR APPROACH IS BEST AND MOST
EFFECTIVE IN TEACHING.

3. PROMOTES STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT – STUDENTS ACHIEVEMENT COULD BE

IMPROVED IF THE TEACHER KEEPS HIMSELF UPDATED ON THE MODERN METHODS
AND STRATEGIES IN TEACHING BY ADOPTING RESEARCH RESULTS OR CONDUCT HER
OWN STUDY.
5. SATISFIES MAN’S VARIOUS NEEDS – FROM TRADITIONAL TO
MODERN WAYS.
6. REDUCES BURDEN OF WORK – GADGETS, COMPUTERS ETC ARE
PRODUCTS OF RESEARCH THAT REDUCES BURDEN OF
WORK.
7. RESEARCH HAS DEEP-SEATED PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS – IT
STIMULATES AND ELEVATE THE HUMAN SPIRIT, PREVENTS
STAGNATION WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO SATISFACTION &
SELF-FULFILMENT.
8. RESEARCH PROVIDES WIDER & BETTER UNDERSTANDING
ABOUT ONE’S EXISTENCE AND THE UNIVERSE.
The four competencies in research
core Competency 1. Gather data using different methodologies
indicators:
1. identify researchable problems regarding patient care and
community health
2. Identify appropriate methods of research for particular patient or
community care
3. analyse data gathered.
Core competency 2: recommend action for implementation
1. recommend practical solutions appropriate to the problem.
Core competency 3. disseminate results of research findings
1. communicate results of findings to colleagues, patients, family & others.
2. endeavour to publish research.
3. submit research findings
core competency 4. apply research findings in nursing practice
1. utilize findings in research in the provision of nsg care to I,f,cy.
2. make use of evidenced- based nursing to ameliorate nursing practice
General Classification of research according to purpose:
1. Basic Research/ pure/fundamental
-pure research-conducted to develop, test and refine theories and generate new knowledge-“seek
knowledge for knowledge’s seek”-is concerned with generating new knowledge
Ex. Isaac Newton Law of Gravity and Inertia/ Bouyancy law
2. Applied Research
-is concerned with using knowledge to solve immediate problems-Directed toward generating
new knowledge that can be used in the near future. It is often conducted to seek solutions to
existing problem-received funding than basic research
Ex. study the various methods of cleft lip and palate surgery and the effectiveness of this
methods
Action research- to solve ongoing problems by introducing change and observing in the process
the result of change.
- local applicability not universal applicability
3. Developmental Research. This is a decision-oriented research involving the application of the
steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate need to improve existing practices.
Classification of research according to design:
1. Quantitative research-
is concerned with objectivity, tight controls over the research
situation, and the ability to generalize findings.
-scientific research-hard science ,
- studies well-known phenomena
Qualitative research
-Is concerned with the subjective meaning of an experience to the
individual.
- soft science.
- Studies little is known or unknown phenomena
Classification of Research According to Duration/ Time Element of the study

1.Longitudinal study
- follows subject over a period of time in the future.
Cohort study
- a special type of longitudinal study wherein a person or persons who have been born under
a particular period of time are being studied.
2.Cross-sectional study
– examines subject at one point in time.
Classification of research according to number of variables used in the study:
1.one variable study/ univariate study
2.two variable studies/ bivariate studies
3.multiple variables study/ multivariate study

Triangulation
- is a technique simultaneously using the two methods in research
ACCORDING TO VENUE/SETTING:
1. LIBRARY – done in the library where answers to specific
questions or problems of the study are available.
2. FIELD – research is conducted in a natural setting.
- doing their normal roles, practices.
3. LABORATORY – conducted in artificial or controlled
conditions by isolating the study in a specified and
equipped area.
ACCORDING TO WHO UNDERTAKES THE RESEARCH
1.ACADEMIC RESEARCH – conducted in fulfilling the
requirements for the conferment of an academic title or
degree.

2. RESEARCH PROJECTS – undertaken by individuals or

group of individuals as part of their professional work or
assignment.
According to Research Design
1. Descriptive
2. Experimental
3. Historical
4. Phenomenological
5. Correlational
6. Ex Post Facto
5. Others
2004 The first issue of Worldviews on
Evidenced-Based Nursing was published
IDENTIFYING RESEARCH PROBLEM
PROBLEM – WHAT WILL BE EXAMINED OR THE CONTENT OF THE STUDY.
- A PERCEIVED DIFFICULTY, A GAP BETWEEN WHAT IS & WHAT SHOULD BE.
SOURCES:
1. PERSONAL INTEREST – BASED ON EXPERIENCES, OBSERVATIONS, CURIOUS
ABOUT SOMETHING TO SUSTAIN THE MOMENTUM.
2. PRESSING PROBLEM NEEDING A SOLUTION- PROBLEM REQUIRING
IMMEDIATE SOLUTION OR ATTENTION OR TO BE ADDRESSED IMMEDIATELY.
EXAMPLES: ( SCHOOL, WORKPLACE, COMMUNITY)
2.1. TRAFFIC CONGESTION 2.4. CRIMINALITY
2.2. DRUG ADDICTION 2.5. DROP-OUT
2.3 ABSENTEEISM 2.6. FACULTY TURN-OVER/ EXODUS
3. THEORIES & PREVIOUS RESEARCHES – to validate, to refute
existing theories, findings
4. LITERATURE – BOOKS, JOURNALS
5. SUGGESTIONS FROM COLLEAGUES & PROFESSORS
6. PRIORITIES OF FUNDING AGENCIES
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM
1. INTERESTING – ATTRACTS ATTENTION OF RESEARCHER/ READERS/
OTHER PEOPLE EVEN WITHOUT INCENTIVE.
2. INNOVATIVE – NOVELTY, ORIGINAL & UNIQUE
3. COST-EFFECTIVE – ECONOMICAL, COST IS COMMENSURATE TO THE
RESULT. BENEFITS OUTWEIGH THE COST.
4. RELEVANT TO THE NEEDS – BASED ON THE NEEDS OF THE SOCIETY
5. TIME-BOUND – CAN BE COMPLETED WITHIN A TIME FRAME,
SHORTER THE BETTER.
4.RESEARCHERS’ QUALIFICATIONS – research skills needed.
- beginners – collaborate with experts, specialist
- MANAGEABLE,LEVEL OF EXPERTISE
- AVOID COMPLEX PROBLEMS.
5. PROBLEM RESEARCHABILITY – OBSERVABLE, QUANTIFIABLE AND
MEASURABLE.
- THERE ARE PROBLEMS THAT CAN BE SOLVED ON THE
BASIS OF OPINION AND APPLICATION OF RATIONALITY OR
PERSONAL VALUES.
EXAMPLE : SHOULD TEACHERS JOIN UNION?
IS ABORTION ACCEPTABLE TO FILIPINOS?
IS FAMILY PLANNING MORAL?
6. FEASIBILITY OF THE STUDY – possibility that the research study
can be completed.
6.1. TIME – SOLVED WITHIN THE GIVEN TIME FRAME, SHOULD NOT TAKE A
LIFETIME,UNEXPECTED DELAYS.
EX: EARLY INTRODUCTION OF MATH TO PRESCHOOL & THEIR
ABILITY IN SOLVING PROBLEMS IN GRADE V.
6.2. AVAILABILITY OF RESPONDENTS/ SUBJECTS – ADEQUATE POPULATION
SIZE.
- NOT MEETING THE CRITERIA, UNWILLING TO PARTICIPATE OR
ALREADY
PARTICIPATING IN OTHER STUDIES.
6.3. ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL & GROUP SUPPORT – ENDORSED BY THE
APPROVAL BOARD CONCERNED.
6.4.RESEARCH RESOURCES – available space, computers,
transportation, communication
6.5. FISCAL RESOURCES – SUFFICIENT AVAILABLE FUNDS TO COMPLETE,

PROJECT NEEDED EXPENSES BEFORE FINALIZING THE

SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM.

6.6 EQUIPMENT & SUPPLIES – EQUIPMENT, AVAILABILITY,

FUNCTIONALITY, OPERATORS.

6.7. PEER SUPPORT

Criteria in PROBLEM STATEMENT:
1. WRITTEN IN INTERROGATIVE/ declarative SENTENCE –question format in
minor problems or subproblems

DECLARATIVE – FOR MAJOR PROBLEM

- GRAMMATICALLY CORRECT, UNDERSTANDABLE.
2. INCLUDES THE POPULATION – INCLUDES THE MAIN GROUP
OR NARROWED DOWN.
EX: TEACHERS – PUBLIC/ PRIV.
STUDENTS – HIGH SCHOOL, COLLEGE
EMPLOYEES – REGULAR/ PROBATIONARY
3. INCLUDES THE VARIABLES – properties to be studied
TYPES:
3.1 ONE- VARIABLE OR UNIVARIATE – WITH ONE VARIABLE
ONLY.
EX: WHAT SOURCES OF WORK STRESS ARE IDENTIFIED BY ICU
NURSES?
3.2 TWO- VARIABLE OR BIVARIATE – ONE INDEPENDENT
VARIABLE & ONE DEPENDENT VARIABLE
EX :IS THERE A CORRELATION BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF
SOURCES OF STRESS OF ICU NURSES AND THEIR DESIRE TO LEAVE
EMPLOYMENT?
3.3 MULTI-VARIABLE OR MULTIVARIATE – more that variables are
examined.
- TWO OR MORE INDEPENDENT V. & ONE DEPENDENT
VARIABLE
- ONE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE & TWO OR MORE
DEPENDENT VARIABLES.
- TWO OR MORE INDEPENDENT V & TWO OR MORE
DEPENDENT V.
EXAMPLE :
IS THERE A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF REVIEW HOURS AND
LEVEL OF ANXIETY AND SCORE IN THE PRE-MIDTERM EXAM OF LEVEL IV BSN
STUDENTS?
 TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. FACTOR-ISOLATING QUESTIONS – “ WHAT IS THIS”
- OR FACTOR- NAMING QUESTIONS. THEY ISOLATE, CATEGORIZE,
DESCRIBE OR NAME FACTORS OR SITUATIONS. EXAMPLE:
1. 1. WHAT IS THE DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF PRINCIPALS IN PRIVATE
SCHOOLS IN TERMS OF:
1. 1.1 Age
2. 1.2 Gender
3. 1.3. Educational qualifications
4. 1.4. Length of experience
2. How will the teachers describe the managerial skills of principals in the
following dimensions?
2.1. CONCEPTUAL
2.2 HUMAN
2.3. TECHNICAL
3. WHAT ARE THE COMMON CAUSES OF ABSEENTISM OF GRADE 11 SHS
STUDENTS IN MAASIN CITY DISTRICT 1?
4. HOW COMPETENT ARE THE CLINICAL INSTRUCTORS IN CURRICULUM
DELIVERY AS ASSESSED BY:
4.1. THIRD YEAR STUDENTS
4.2 FOURTH YEAR STUDENTS
4.3 CO- TEACHERS
2. FACTOR- RELATING QUESTIONS –” What is”
- to determine the relationship among factors that have been
identified.
EXAMPLES:

2.1. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE WORK PERFORMANCE OF

CLINICAL INSTRUCTORS TO THE NLE PERFORMANCE OF THEIR
GRADUATES??

2.2 HOW DOES THE NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF GRADE I PUPILS

AFFECTS THEIR ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE?
3. SITUATION-RELATING QUESTIONS – “What will happen if”
-yield hypothesis-testing or experimental study design in
THE RESEARCHER MANIPULATES THE VARIABLES TO SEE WHAT
WILL HAPPEN.

EXAMPLE:

3.1. WHAT ARE THE EFFECTS OF TRADITIONAL METHODS OF

TEACHING TO THE ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF BSN II STUDENTS?
4. SITUATION-PRODUCING QUESTIONS – “How can I make it happen?”
-ESTABLISH EXPLICIT GOALS FOR ACTION, DEVELOP PLANS

OR PRESCRIPTIONS TO ACHIEVE GOALS AND SPECIFY CONDITIONS

UNDER WHICH THESE WILL BE ACCOMPLISHED.

EXAMPLES:

4.1. HOW CAN THE EDUCATIONAL SERVICES BE ORGANIZED TO

PROMOTE JOB SATISFACTION?

4.2. What program can be proposed to improve the academic performance of

the students?

4.3 What measures must be implemented to raise the passing rate of

NURSING graduates of CM in the NLE?

4.4 What part of the present curriculum should be enhanced or improved?

4.2. What program can be proposed to improve the academic performance of

the students?

4.3 What measures must be implemented to raise the passing rate of

NURSING graduates of CM in the NLE?

4.4 What part of the present curriculum should be enhanced or improved?

Example of ethical
1. Those that deal with Non-researchable
or moral questions. Questions
Example : Is there a relationship between premarital sex and performance in the class?

2. Questions that do not require mental struggle

Example : How many BSN students are enrolled in the First Semester SY 2020-2021?

3. When the machine can take over the place of the researcher to provide answers to the
questions

4. Questions whose answers are already known or available

Example : Are you offering medical related programs
5. Metaphysical questions where it is impossible to collect
publicly verifiable data or information in order to answer the
question


 Example:
Who created the world?
Is there God?
Are souls real?
26. Shallow and unimportant inquiries
Example:
Is love important?
VARIABLES:
- PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISTICS OR ATTRIBUTE OF A PERSONS,
OBJECTS, INSTITUTIONS, ORGANIZATIONS THAT SHALL BE THE FOCUS OF
THE STUDY.

= ANY FACTOR OR PROPERTY THAT THE RESEARCHER MEASURES,

CONTROLS AND/OR MANIPULATES.

- ELEMENT OR CHARACTERISTIC BEING STUDIED

 TYPES OF VARIABLES:
1. INDEPENDENT VARIABLES –”EXPERIMENTAL” CAUSAL THE STIMULUS VARIABLES.
- “THE CAUSE”, SUPPOSED TO BE RESPONSIBLE FOR BRINGING ABOUT CHANGE IN A
PHENOMENA OR SITUATION.

2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES – “CRITERION/OUTCOME. THE PRESUMED EFFECT.

- THE OUTCOME OR RESULT BROUGHT ABOUT BY CHANGES IN THE

INDEPENDENT VARIABLE/S.

- VARIABLE THAT IS AFFECTED OR INFLUENCED BY THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.

3. Intervening Variables – “ Correlated or Mediator” a
variable whose existence is inferred but cannot be manipulated or controlled.
- variables that exist between the IV & DV.
OTHERS:
1.CONTINUOUS – OR ABSTRACT – VARIABLES WITH A WIDE RANGE OF VALUES,
NOT RESTRICTED TO A WHOLE NUMBER.
EXAMPLE : WEIGHT – 20 KGS, 20.2, 20.2,20.3………..
2. DISCRETE – VARIABLE WITH FINITE VALUES
EXAMPLE : NUMBER OF CHILDREN, NUMBER OF PARTNERS.
3. DICHOTOMOUS – FACTORS WITH ONLY TWO VALUES, USED IN COMPARATIVE
STUDY
EXAMPLE : SMOKER – NON-SMOKER
PREGNANT – NOT PREGNANT
MALE - FEMALE
 EXAMPLES:
1. RELIGIOUS BACKGROUND OF NURSES AFFECT THEIR
ATTITUDE TOWARDS TEEN-AGE PREGNANCY.

2. NURSES’ ATTITUDE TOWARDS TEEN-AGE PREGNANCY

AFFECT THEIR JOB PERFORMANCE.

3. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CONTRACEPTIVE COUNSELLING

AND UNWANTED PREGNANCY.

4. EFFECTS OF UNWANTED PREGNANCIES ON THE INCIDENCE

OF DRUG ABUSE.
FUNCTIONS OF TITLE:
1. IT SHOWS WHAT THE STUDY IS ALL ABOUT
2. IT SERVES AS A FRAME OF REFERENCE FOR THE ENTIRE STUDY
3. IT ENABLES THE RESEARCHER CLAIM OWNERSHIP OF THE ENTIRE STUDY
4. IT CAN HELP OTHER RESEARCHERS REFER TO THE WORK FOR POSSIBLE THEORIES
RELATED TO THEIR PROPOSED STUDY.
GUIDELINES
1. CLEAR & SPECIFIC
2. SHOWS RELATIONSHIP AMONG FACTORS BEING STUDIED – DIFFERENCE, EFFECTS
3. BRIEF BUT CONCISE – NOT MORE THAN 15 SUBSTANTIVE WORDS.
4. ALL WORDS ARE IN CAPITAL LETTERS
5. INVERTED PYRAMID
6. VARIABLES, LOCALE, POPULATION
Research ethics
- provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of
research. In addition, it educates and monitors
scientists/researchers conducting research to ensure a
high ethical standard.
 CODE OF ETHICS
1. Nuremberg Code
a.developed after the Nazi atrocities were made public in the
Nuremberg trials.
b.One of the first internationally recognized efforts to establish
ethical standards

The Nuremberg Code's Ethical Guidelines For Research

1.Voluntary consent is essential
2.The results of any experiment must be for the greater good of
society
3.Human experiments should be based on previous animal
experimentation
1.Experiments should be conducted by avoiding physical/mental
suffering and injury
2.No experiments should be conducted if it is believed to cause
death/disability
3.The risks should never exceed the benefits.
4.Adequate facilities should be used to protect subjects
5.Experiments should be conducted only by qualified scientists
6.Subjects should be able to end their participation at any time
7. The scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the
experiment when injury, disability, or death is likely to occur
2. Declaration of Helsinki
a. Adopted in 1964 by the World Medical Association
b.Revised in 2000
3. American Nurse Association
a.Ethical Guidelines in the Conduct, Dissemination, and
Implementation of Nursing Research (Silva, 1995)
 4. American Sociological Association
a.Published a revised Code of Ethics (1997)
5. American Psychological Association
a.Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (1992)
6. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects
of Biomedical and Behavioral Research (1978)
a.Belmont Report
–served as the basis for regulations affecting research
sponsored by the federal government
i. Articulated three primary ethical principles on which
standards of ethical conduct in research are based: beneficence,
respect for human dignity, and justice.
 THE PRINCIPLE OF BENEFICENCE
Beneficence means “to do good” and positively help a person, and
non-maleficence means “Above all, do no harm”.
1. Freedom from harm
a. Physical
b. Psychological
c. Social
d. Economic
e. Minimize all types of harm and discomfort
f. Achieve balance between potential benefits and risks
of being a participant
g. Qualified people only to conduct potentially dangerous technical
equipment or specialized procedures
h. Termination of research: injury, death, disability, undue distress
i. Experiment with animals or tissue cultures prior human testing
2. Freedom from Exploitation
a. Research study should not place participants at a
disadvantage or expose them to situations for which they have not
been prepared.
b. Participants need to be assured that their participation
or information they might provide, will not be used against them in
any way.
c. Study participants enter into a special relationship with
researchers, and it is crucial that this relationship not be exploited
i. Exploitation may be overt and malicious, but it might also
be more subtle
d. Nurse researchers may have a nurse-patient (in addition to a
researcher-participant) relationship.
 3. Benefits from Research
a. Participants may perceive direct personal benefits
b. Any benefits from the research accrue to society in general or
to other individuals
c. Researchers should strive insofar as possible to maximize benefits
and to communicate potential benefits to participants’
4. The Risk/Benefit Ratio
a. The degree of risk to be taken by those participating in the research
should never exceed the potential humanitarian benefits
of the knowledge to be gained
b. The selection of a significant topic that has the potential to improve
patient-care is the first step in ensuring that research is ethical
c. Minimal Risk
–risks anticipated to be no greater than those ordinarily
encountered in daily life or during routine physical or
psychological tests or procedure

THE PRINCIPLE OF RESPECT FOR HUMAN DIGNITY

1. Right to Self-Determination
a. Prospective participants have the right to decide voluntarily
whether to participate inthe study, without risking any penalty or
prejudicial treatment
People have the right to ask questions, to refuse to give information,
to ask for clarification, or to determine their participation
c. Freedom from coercion of any type- explicit or implicit threats of
penalty from failing to participate in a study or excessive rewards from
agreeing to participate- position of authority- generous monetary
incentive (or stipend)
2. Right to Full Disclosure
a. The researcher has fully described the nature of the study, the
person’s right to refuse participation, the researcher’s
responsibilities, and likely risks and benefits.
b. There is often a need for further disclosure at a later point of the
study, either in debriefing sessions or in written communication
 3. Issues Relating to the Principle of Respect
a. Inability of some individuals to make well-informed judgments
about the risks and benefits of study participation
b. Full disclosure can sometimes create two types of bias:
i. subjects provide inaccurate information
ii. representative sample is not recruited
c. Techniques that researchers sometimes use in conflicting
situations
i.Covert data collection or concealment
ii.Deception
 ANA Guidelines offer advice about deception and concealment:
The investigator understands that concealment or deception in research
is controversial, depending on the type of research. Some investigators
believe that concealment or deception in research can never be morally
justified. The investigator further understands that before concealment or
deception is used, certain criteria must be met:
(1) The study must be of such small risk to the research participant and of
such great significance to the advancement of the public good that
concealment can be morally justified.
(2) The acceptability of concealment or deception is related to the degree
of risks to research participant
3) Concealment or deception are used only as last resorts,
when no other approach can ensure the validity of the
study’s findings
(4) The investigator has a moral responsibility to inform
research participants of any concealment or deception as
soon as possible and to explain the rationale for its use (Silva,
1995)
THE PRINCIPLE OF JUSTICE
“Participants’ right to fair treatment and their right to privacy”

1. The Right to Fair Treatment

–Participants have the right to fair and equitable treatment before,

during and after their participation in the study (Polit and Beck,
2004). Fair treatment includes the following features:
• The fair and non-discriminatory selection of
participants- participants should be selected based
on research requirements and not on the
vulnerability or compromised position of certain
people.
• Respect for cultural and other forms of human diversity
• The non prejudicial treatment of those who decline to participate
or who withdraw from the study after agreeing to participate
• The honoring of all agreements between researchers and
participants, including adherence to the procedures described to
them and payment of any promised stipends.
• Participants’ access to research personnel at any point in the
study to clarify information
• Participants’ access to appropriate professional assistance if there is
any physical or psychological damage
• Debriefing, if necessary, to divulge information withheld before the
study or to clarify issues that arose during the study
• Courteous and tactful treatment at all times
2. The Right to Privacy
- participants have the right to expect that any data they provide will
be kept in strictest confidence:
a. Anonymity
–occurs when even the researcher cannot link participants to their
data
b. Confidentiality Procedures
–implemented when anonymity is impossible.- A promise of confidentiality is
a pledge that any information participants provide will not be publicly
reported in a manner that identifies them and will not be made accessible to
others- Research information should not be shared with strangers nor with
people known to the participants (e.g. family members, physician, other
nurses) unless the researcher has been given explicit permission to share it
INFORMED CONSENT
- participants have adequate information regarding the
research, are capable of comprehending the information, and
have the power of free choice, enabling them to consent to or
decline participation voluntarily.
Process Consent:
researcher continually renegotiates the consent, allowing
participants to play a collaborative role in the decision-making
process regarding in going participation.
Elements Of Informed Consent:
• Title of study
• Researcher(s) and credentials identified
• Study population identified
• Purpose of study
• Study procedures and steps for data collection described
• Potential risks described
• Potential benefits described
• Anonymity or confidentiality assured
• Assurance given that participation is voluntary
• Right to refuse to participate or withdraw at any time assured
• Offer made to answer all questions
• Means of obtaining study results provided
• If signed consent, consent form should have dated signatures of
participant and researcher (Meehan, 2004)
Comprehension of Informed Consent
- normally presented to prospective participants while they are being
recruited, either orally or in writing
- a written notice should not, however, take the place of spoken
explanations- researchers must assume the role of teacher in
communicating consent information
-written statement should be consistent with the participants’ reading
levels and educational attainment (For participants from a general
population (e.g., patients in a hospital), the statement should be written at
about seventh or eighth grade reading level.
 Documentation of Informed Consent
- signing a consent form- document should be signed by the researcher,
and a copy should be retained by both parties
Guidelines in developing a consent form:
1. Organize the form coherently so that prospective participants can
follow the logic of what is being communicated.
2. Use a large enough font so that the form can be easily read, and use
spacing that avoids making the document appear too dense.
3. In general, simplify. Use clear and consistent terminology, and avoid
technical terms if possible
4. If possible, use a readability formula to estimate the form’s reading
level, and make revisions to ensure an appropriate reading level for the
group under study.
5. Test the form with people similar to those who will be recruited,
and ask for feedback.

VULNERABLE SUBJECTS
- may be incapable of giving fully informed consent or may be at
high risk of unintended side effects because of their
circumstances
1. Children-informed consent of children’s parents or legal or legal
guardians should be obtained
-it is appropriate, however to obtain the child’s (at 7 years old)
approval as well
Assent: child’s affirmative agreement to participate.
2. Mentally or emotionally disabled people- Researchers should obtain
the written consent of a legal guardian (may not necessarily have the
person’s best interest in mind)
3. Severely ill or physically disabled people- assess their ability to
make reasoned decisions about study participation
EXAMPLE: Assessment of decisional capacity of mechanically
ventilated patients(Higgins and Daly, 1999)
- special procedures for obtaining consent from participants with
certain disabilities
- EXAMPLE: Deaf participants, People with physical impairment,
Participants who cannot read and write
4.The terminally ill- careful assessment of risk/benefit ratio- health
care and comfort of participants are not compromised- special
procedures in obtaining consent if mentally/physically incapacitated
5. Institutionalized people- researchers need to emphasize the
voluntary nature of participation.
6. Pregnant women- requirements reflect to safeguard both the
pregnant women and the fetuses.
- a pregnant woman cannot be involved in a study unless the
purpose of the research is to meet the health needs of the pregnant
woman and risks to her and the fetus are minimized or there is only a
minimal risk to the fetus.
EXAMPLE: Anderson, Nyamathi, McAvoy, Conde, and Casey (2001)
conducted a study to explore perceptions of risk for human
immunodeficiency syndrome among adolescents in juvenile
detention.
 CLINICAL TRIALS
Much advancement in health science and therefore the improvement
of patient/client care is due to the use of clinical trials.
The role of the nurse in clinical trials :
1. the recruitment of participants,
2. implementation of protocols,
3. recording of data,
4. and monitoring and evaluation of the results of the clinical trial.
5. Nurses should ensure that participants are protected at all times.
- aware of the potential risks and benefits if patients .
- voluntary informed consent has been obtained and documented
before any trial.
What are research misconducts?
a) Fabrication - making up data or results and recording
or reporting them.
(b) Falsification - manipulating research materials, or
changing or omitting data or results such that the
research is not accurately represented in the research
record.
(c) Plagiarism - the appropriation of another person's
ideas, processes, results, or words without giving
appropriate credit.
Note: Research misconduct does not include honest error
or differences of opinion.
Plagiarism

- is the appropriation of another person’s ideas, processes, results,

or words without giving appropriate credit.
Plagiarism is the theft of intellectual property and is not unlike
stealing from a commercial business. A special case of plagiarism
is the unacceptable practice of "self-plagiarism" in which an author
will use segments of his/her own published material (e.g., the
methods section of a scientific paper) in a new publication without
reference.
Scope & Delimitations
SCOPE – WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, HOW AND WHY OF THE STUDY
DELIMITATIONS – STATING WHAT SHOULD BE INCLUDED AND REJECTING WHAT
SHOULD BE EXCLUDED.
DELIMITATIONS-CHOICES THE EXPERIMENTER MAKES TO AFFECT A
WORKABLE RESEARCH PROBLEM
EX: TO DELIMIT THE NUMBER OF SUBJECTS OR THE TIME FRAME
LIMITATIONS – ANTICIPATED SHORTFALLS AND SPECIFIC CONSTRAINTS SUCH
AS FORESEEN WEAKNESS.
-THE CONDITIONS OR INFLUENCES THAT EITHER CANNOT BE CONTROLLED
LIMITATIONS ARE BEYOND THE CONTROL OF THE RESEARCHER AND MAY PLACE
RESTRICTIONS ON THE STUDY
 Includes:
Brief statement of the general purpose of
1. the study
The subject matter and topic should be
2. discussed

3. The locale where the data will be

gathered.
4. The population or universe from which the respondents are
taken.
5. The period of the study,months or year/s.
Significance of the study
- IMPORTANCE, RESPONSIVENESS AND RELEVANCE OF EXPECTED OUTCOMES
OF THE INVESTIGATION AND ITS PROBABLE EFFECTS ON THE PROFESSION.

- SIGNIFICANT CONTRIBUTION

- WHO WILL BENEFIT WITH STUDY.

Definition of terms
REASONS:
1. TO GUIDE & DIRECT THE RESEARCHER IN QUANTIFYING AND QUALIFYING
VARIABLES.
2. TO ENSURE CLARITY OF THE MEANING OF THE VARIABLE AND MINIMIZE THE
READERS’ MISCONCEPTIONS.
TYPES:
1. CONCEPTUAL/ THEORETICAL/ TEXTUAL
- UNIVERSAL DEFINITION OF THE TERM UNDERSTOOD BY PEOPLE.
- GENERAL STATEMENT
SOURCES: DICTIONARY, ENCYCLOPAEDIAS,
Ex: Motivation – something that causes a person to act
( Webster, 2001)
PAIN – SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE PERCEIVED TO BE UNPLEASANT,
INITIATED BY POTENTIALLY DAMAGING STIMULI.

2. OPERATIONAL – OR OBJECTIVE/ PRACTICAL/ FUNCTIONAL

- RESEARCHER’S OWN DEFINITION OF TERMS AS USED IN THE STUDY.

- CONCRETE AND MEASURABLE.

MOTIVATION – THE ABILITY OF THE NURSE TO ACCOMPLISH HER TASKS

ON TIME.
 Types of Operational
1.DENOTATIVE – WORDS ARE DEFINED IN TERMS OF WHAT IT REPRESENTS.
EXAMPLE:
FATHER – A MALE PARENT
TEACHER – ONE WHO TEACHES STUDENTS

2. CONNOTATIVE – DEFINED ACCDG. TO ASSOCIATION ONE MIGHT MAKE WITH THE

WORD.
- ONE MIGHT THINK WHEN CONSIDERING THE WORD.
EXAMPLE :
FATHER – STRONG, PROVIDER, DISCIPLINARIAN
TEACHER – KIND, MOTHER IN THE SCHOOL.
NURSE – WARM, GENTLE,
3. Lexical – from authoritative sources
Example :

Morale – according to Keith( 2008), is a state of well-being

that elevates the spirit, generates self- confidence and
arouses pride in being part of group endeavour.
- A negative statement which indicates that there is no
association between variables
Alternative / Research Hypothesis
- A positive “ research hypothesis” that proposes that
there is association or significant relationship between
variables
-States whether the relationship bet the variables is positive or
negative- direct or inverse
 Criteria for stating hypothesis
1. Written in declarative sentence
◦Is there a change in the anxiety levels of preoperative patients after listening to
classical music?
◦There is a change in the anxiety levels of preoperative patients after listening to
classical music.
2. Written in present tense
3. Contains the population
4. Contains the variables
5. Reflects the problem statement
6. A sound hypothesis is consistent with an existing body of knowledge, theory or
research findings.
7. Worde in clear, simple and concise termsused in scientific & research language.
8. A good hypothesis should provide tentative answer to the proposed problem.
Research Questions:
“ Is there a relationship between the presence of an airbed and the
incidence of skin breakdown ?
Null:
There is no difference in incidence of skin breakdown between patients
who are and who are not placed on air bed.

Alternative
There is difference in incidence of skin breakdown between patients
who are and who are not placed on air bed.
Directional
“ Comatose patients placed on an air bed will have a lower incidence
skin breakdown than those who are not placed on air bed.
THEORY
- IS A SET OF INTERRELATED CONSTRUCTS, DEFINITIONS AND PROPOSITIONS THAT
PRESENT A SYSTEMATIC VIEW OF PHENOMENA BY SPECIFYING RELATIONS AMONG
VARIABLES TO EXPLAIN AND PREDICT THE PHENOMENON (KERLINGER, 1973).

- REFERS TO ANY STATEMENT THAT ATTEMPTS TO DESCRIBE, EXPLAIN, PREDICT OR SHED

LIGHT ON SOME PROBLEM OR PHENOMENON OF INTEREST (HENKEL).

- TYPES:

- 1. GRAND THEORIES – OR MACROTHEORIES IS TO DESCRIBE AND EXPLAIN LARGE

SEGMENTS OF THE HUMAN EXPERIENCE
2. Middle –range theories – are less abstract more specific and are more focused on explanation. It has
more narrow focus or concerned only a small area of human experience.
JOB SATISFACTION – HERZBERG
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT- JEAN PIAGET
PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY – ERIK ERICKSON
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS AS MOTIVATION – ABRAHAM MASLOW
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. CONCEPTS – THE BUILDING BLOCKS OF THEORY, ABSTRACTIONS THAT CATEGORIZE
OBSERVATIONS BASED ON COMMONALITIES & DIFFERENCES.
- AN ABSTRACT DESCRIPTION OF A PHENOMENON THAT SYMBOLIZES A REALITY.
HIGHLY ABSTRACT – STRESS, PAIN, GRIEF, WELLNESS
LESS ABSTRACT – BLOOD, TEMPERATURE, GRADES.
Types of concepts:
1.1. Enumerative – characteristics of phenomena that are always present and universal to
all.
EX: AGE, HEIGHT, WEIGHT

1.2. ASSOCIATIVE – CONCEPTS THAT EXIST ONLY IN SOME INSTANCES WHICH ARE NOT COMMON
TO ALL CONDITIONS

EX.: INCOME, DISEASE, ANXIETY

1.3. RELATIONAL – CHARACTERISTICS OF PHENOMENA THAT CAN BE UNDERSTOOD ONLY WHEN

THEY ARE COMBINED WITH 2 OR MORE ENUMERATIVE CONCEPTS

EX.: CHILD – AGE, DEVELOPMENTAL TASK,

RICH – INCOME, SOCIAL STATUS ,STANDARD OF LIVING

1.4. Statistical – quantitative property of a thing represented in terms of its distribution to
the to the population.
EX: INCIDENCE OF BIRD FLU, INCIDENCE OF SARS

2. CONSTRUCT – IS A GROUP OF CONCEPTS THAT ARE DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY

OBSERVABLE.
3. PROPOSITIONS – ARE STATEMENTS THAT DESCRIBE THE RELATIONSHIP OF TWO OR
MORE CONCEPTS.

NOTE :
THEORY DEVELOPMENT BEGINS WITH THE IDENTIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF
CONCEPTS AND CONSTRUCTS AND PROCEEDS TO FORMULATE RELATIONSHIPS
BETWEEN THE TWO CONCEPTS.
 STANDARD STYLES IN RELATED LITERATURE CITATIONS AND
REFERENCES
CARDINAL RULE : TO ACKNOWLEDGE OR RECOGNIZE THE OWNERS OF ANY
FORM OF KNOWLEDGE YOU INTEND TO INCLUDE
- honesty and courtesy to learned people whose ideas lend information to your paper.
Indicates appreciation for their contribution to the field.
Ways:
1. Acknowledgement – the beginning portion of the work that identifies individuals who
have contributed something for the production of the paper.
2. References or bibliography – a complete list of all reading materials ( books,
journals, periodicals) where the borrowed ideas came from.
3. Citation or in-text citation – references within the main body of the text, specifically
in the review of related literature.
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE – discussion of facts, information and
principles to which the present study is related.
- systematic, comprehensive, in-depth examination of
scholarly published or unpublished materials
Purposes:
1. Help or guide the researcher in searching for or selecting a better research problem.
2. Help the researcher understand his topic for research better.
3. Ensure that there will be no duplication if an investigation already made is
conducted again in the same respondents.
4. Help & guide researcher in locating more sources of related information.
5. Guide in making the research methodology.
6. Examine difficulties reported by others.
7. Guide in writing research report.
8. Know the ethical implications of similar studies.
Types of Literature
1. Conceptual – non-research materials written by authorities on a subject
which embody experiences, viewpoints and interpretations of the subject.
2. Research Literature – studies & researches which have bearing on the present
study.
TYPES OF SOURCES:
1. Primary – is a description of the subject/research that was written by original
investigator/author.
2. Secondary – is a summary, description that is written by someone other than
the original author.
1.Must be recent as possible.
2. Should not be a mere collection of quotations.
3. Must be objective & unbiased.
4. Must be relevant to the study.
5. The setting must be either local. National or international.
6. Materials must be based upon original and true facts or data.
7. Materials must not be too few or too many.
8. Chronology is observed as the organizing principle.
9. Should not merely a series of summaries or abstract.
10. Endnotes all entries.
 PURPOSES OF CITATION
1. To give importance and respect to other people for what they know about the
field.
2. To give authority, validity and credibility to other people’s claims, conclusions and
arguments.
3. To prove your broad and extensive reading of authentic and relevant materials
about your topic.
4. To help readers find or contact the sources of ideas easily.
5. To permit the readers to check the accuracy of your work.
6. To save yourself from plagiarism.
 STYLES IN CITATION
1.INTEGRAL CITATION – Citing the author whose ideas appear in your work.
1. - use active verbs to express authors mental position, attitude stand in
relation to the information referred to.

Examples

APA MLA

One study by Manalo (2015) reveals One study by (Manalo 70)

The latest work by (Lee, 2015) asserts The latest work by (Lee 123)

According to Abad et al. (2016) context is.. According to (Abad et al.:54)

 piece of information rather than the owner of
ideas.
Examples:
1.The Code of ethics for Intercultural Competence give four ways by which people
from different cultural background can harmoniously relate themselves with one
another. (De la Cruz,2015)
2.Knowledge is one component of not only Systemic Functional Grammar but
Intercultural Competence as well. It is the driving force beyond any successful
collaborative activities to develop interpersonal relationships and communicative
competence.(Smith 2015)
3.The other components of intercultural Competence which is also present in SFG are:
context (Harold,2015), appropriateness (Villar,Marcos, Atienz, 2016; Santos and
Daes, 2016) and emotions (Flores, 2016).
 PATTERNS OF CITATIONS
1. Summary – shortened version of the original text, pick out only the most important
ideas or aspects of the text.
2. Paraphrase – the antithesis of summary because instead of shortening the form of
the text, you explain what the text means to you using your own words. Explanations
may increase / exceed or decrease the number of words of the original text.
3. Short direct quotation – only a part of the authors sentence, the whole sentence or
several sentences not exceeding 40 words. It is necessary to put the page number
where the readers can find the copied words.
Example:
◦Context is influenced by these four factors: “Language , culture, intitutions , and
ideologies.” (Aranda,015,p.8)
4. Long direct Quotation or Block quotations or
Extract
- copy the author’s exact words from 40 to 100 words. Under APA , the limit is eight lines.
Placed the quoted words at the center of the page with no indentation, the copied lines look
like they compose a stanza of a poem
Example:
The latest study by (Hizon, 2015) reveals the social nature of language. Stressing this
nature of language,he says: Language features results from the way people use language
to meet their social needs. In their interactions, they use language to describe, compose,
agree, explain, disagree and so on. Each language function requires a certain set of
language features like nouns……..(p.38)
Reminder:
Use quoting judiciously because:
1. Signals lack of understanding of the text.
2. Indicates lack of originality in conducting your research study.
 JUSTIFICATION FOR QUOTING
THE idea is essential
The idea is arguable.
The sentence is ambiguous or has multiple meanings.
There is a strong possibility that questions may be raised about the citation.
It is an excellent idea that to make it a part of your paper will bring prestige and
credibility to your work.

Two methods of referencing or identifying:

1. APA – American Psychological Association
2. MLA – Modern language Association
(5. Tense of verbs for reporting – use active verbs in reporting author’s
ideas. Present their ideas in present, simple past or present perfect tense.
APA system prefers the use of present perfect tense.
Examples:
Present tense – Marcos explains………
Past tense – Marcos explained……..
Present perfect tense – Marcos has explained……..
GREY LITERATURE – unpublished reading materials or of non-peer reviewed online
publications, many reading materials as sources of information for research studies
appear questionable as to how credible, authoritative they are. ( identify the owner of
any idea, word, symbol that you copied verbatim, quoted, summarized or paraphrased.
 STANDARD STYLES IN RELATED
LITERATURE CITATIONS AND
REFERENCES
Cardinal Rule : To acknowledge or recognize the owners of any form of knowledge you
intend to include
◦ - honesty and courtesy to learned people whose ideas lend information to your paper.
◦ Indicates appreciation for their contribution to the field.
◦ Ways:
1. Acknowledgement – the beginning portion of the work that identifies individuals
who have contributed something for the production of the paper.
2. References or bibliography – a complete list of all reading materials ( books,
journals, periodicals) where the borrowed ideas came from.
3. Citation or in-text citation – references within the main body of the text, specifically
in the review of related literature.
Population sampling - is the process of taking a subset of
subjects that is representative of the entire population.
The sample must have sufficient size to warrant statistical
analysis.

Accessible population It is from the accessible population that

researchers draw their samples.

Generalizability refers to the extent to which we can apply the findings

of our research to the target population
 Populations
Definition - a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that
possess some common characteristic defined by the sampling
criteria established by the researcher
Target population (universe)
The entire group of people or objects to which the
researcher wishes to generalize the study findings
Meet set of criteria of interest to researcher
Examples
All institutionalized elderly with Alzheimer's
All people with AIDS
All low birth weight infants
All school-age children with asthma
All pregnant teens
Accessible population
The portion of the population to which the
researcher has reasonable access; may be a subset of
the target population
May be limited to region, state, city, county, or
institution
Examples
All institutionalized elderly with Alzheimer's in Las Pinas
nursing homes
All people with AIDS in the metropolitan area
All low birth weight infants admitted to the neonatal ICUs in
Region 8
All school-age children with asthma treated in pediatric
asthma clinics in university-affiliated medical centers in the
Mindanao
All pregnant teens in the state of Michigan
 Samples
Terminology used to describe samples and sampling methods
Sample = the selected elements (people or objects) chosen for
participation in a study; people are referred to as subjects or
participants

Sampling = the process of selecting a group of people, events,

behaviors, or other elements with which to conduct a study

Sampling frame = a list of all the elements in the population from

which the sample is drawn
Sampling Frame:
Could be extremely large if population is national or
international in nature
Frame is needed so that everyone in the population is
identified so they will have an equal opportunity for selection as a
subject (element)

Examples
A list of all institutionalized elderly with Alzheimer's in Las Pinas
nursing homes affiliated with PGH
Randomization = each individual in the population has an equal
opportunity to be selected for the sample
Representativeness = sample must be as much like the population in
as many ways as possible
Sample reflects the characteristics of the population, so those
sample findings can be generalized to the population

Most effective way to achieve representativeness is through

randomization; random selection or random assignment
 Probability
Types of Sampling Sampling
Methods Methods& non-probability
- probability
Also called random sampling
∙ Every element (member) of the population has a probability greater
than) of being selected for the sample
• Everyone in the population has equal opportunity for
selection as a subject
• Increases sample's representativeness of the population
• Decreases sampling error and sampling bias
Simple random
∙ Elements selected at random
∙ Assign each element a number
∙ Select elements for study by:
1. Using a table of random numbers
A table displaying hundreds of digits from 0 to 9 set up in such a way that
each number is equally likely to follow any other

· Computer generated random numbers table

· Draw numbers for box (hat)
· Bingo #=s
Stratified random

Population is divided into subgroups, called strata, according to some variable or

variables in importance to the study

Variables often used include: age, gender, ethnic origin, SES, diagnosis,
geographic region, institution, or type of care
Two approaches to stratification - proportional & disproportional
Proportional
Subgroup sample sizes equal the proportions of the subgroup in the population
Example: A high school population has
15% seniors
25% juniors
25% sophomores
35% freshmen
With proportional sample the sample has the same proportions as the population
Disproportional
Subgroup sample sizes are not equal to the proportion of the subgroup in the
population
Example
Class Population Sample
Seniors 15% 25%
Juniors 25% 25%
Sophomores 25% 25%
Freshmen 35% 25%
With disproportional sample the sample does not have the same proportions as the
population
Cluster random sampling
A random sampling process that involves stages of sampling
The population is first listed by clusters or categories
Procedure
Randomly select 1 or more clusters and take all of their elements (single stage
cluster sampling); e.g. Luzon

Or, in a second stage randomly select clusters from the first stage of clusters; eg Four
regions in Luzon

In a third stage, randomly select elements from the second stage of clusters; e.g. Ten
Hospital Administrators from each region
Systematic
A random sampling process in which every kth (e.g. every 5th element) or member
of the population is selected for the sample after a random start is determined
Example
Population (N) = 2000, sample size (n) = 50, k=N/n, so k = 2000 ) 50 = 40
Use a table of random numbers to determine the starting point for selecting
every 40th subject
With list of the 2000 subjects in the sampling frame, go to the starting point,
and select every 40th name on the list until the sample size is reached. Probably
will have to return to the beginning of the list to complete the selection of the
sample.
 Non-probability sampling methods
Characteristics
Not every element of the population has the opportunity for selection in the sample

No sampling frame
Population parameters may be unknown
Non-random selection
More likely to produce a biased sample
Restricts generalization
Types of non-probability sampling methods
Convenience - aka chunk, accidental & incidental sampling
Selection of the most readily available people or objects for a study

No way to determine representativeness

Saves time and money

Quota
Selection of sample to reflect certain characteristics of the population

Similar to stratified but does not involve random selection

Quotas for subgroups (proportions) are established

E.g. 50 males & 50 females; recruit the first 50 men and first 50 women that meet
inclusion criteria
Purposive - aka judgmental or expert's choice sampling
Researcher uses personal judgment to select subjects that are considered to be
representative of the population

Handpicked subjects
Typical subjects experiencing problem being studied
Snowball
Also known as network sampling
Subjects refer the researcher to others who might be recruited
as subjects
 Sample Size
General rule - as large as possible to increase the representativeness of
the sample
Increased size decreases sampling error
Relatively small samples in qualitative, exploratory, case studies,
experimental and quasi-experimental studies
Descriptive studies need large samples; e.g. 10 subjects for each item on
the questionnaire or interview guide
As the number of variables studied increases, the sample size also needs
to increase in order to detect significant relationships or differences
A minimum of 30 subjects is needed for use of the central limit theorem (statistics
based on the mean)
Large samples are needed if:
There are many uncontrolled variables
Small differences are expected in the sample/population on variables of interest

The sample is divided into subgroups

Dropout rate (mortality) is expected to be high
 Sample Size
General rule - as large as possible to increase the representativeness of
the sample
Increased size decreases sampling error
Relatively small samples in qualitative, exploratory, case studies,
experimental and quasi-experimental studies
Descriptive studies need large samples; e.g. 10 subjects for each item on
the questionnaire or interview guide
As the number of variables studied increases, the sample size also needs
to increase in order to detect significant relationships or differences
A minimum of 30 subjects is needed for use of the central limit theorem (statistics
based on the mean)
Large samples are needed if:
There are many uncontrolled variables
Small differences are expected in the sample/population on variables of interest

The sample is divided into subgroups

Dropout rate (mortality) is expected to be high