DTEL (Department for Technology Enhanced Learning)

The Centre for Technology enabled Teaching & Learning , N Y S S, India

Teaching Innovation - Entrepreneurial - Global

YCCE EL_RSK
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
VII-SEMESTER
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
Prof R S Khonde
Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur.

YCCE EL_RSK
COURSE CONTENT
 General Philosophy of Protective Relaying (Basic Terms)
 Overcurrent Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Directional Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Distance Relaying (Transmission Line Protection)
 Static Relays & Circuit Breakers
 Differential Protection (Protection of Transformer, Bus bar,
Generator & Motor)
 Protection against abnormal conditions for above power
system equipment's

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 3

 UNIT I:- SYLLABUS

1 General Philosophy
.

2 Protective Zones

3 Types of Protection

4 Essential Features

5 Fuses

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 4

 UNIT - I SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

1 Understand the basics of Protection.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 5

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Faults in power system

 Reasons of fault

 Types of fault

 Issues with fault

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 6

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

 Representation of Power System Network:

R e p r e s e n ta tio n o f P o w e r S y s te m in S L D

 Normal operating condition, where current flows to the load

from source

 Balanced condition
7

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 7

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Faults

 Overhead line faults

 Cable faults

 Transformer faults

 Generator/source faults
8

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 8

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Reasons of fault

 Weather conditions: lighting strikes, heavy rains/ wind/snow

 Interference of living beings: tree falling, animal intervention

 Equipment failures: short circuit faults due to malfunctioning,

ageing, insulation failure in generators, motors, transformers,
cables

 Human errors: forgetting removal of metallic parts after

maintenance and switching the circuit, selecting improper
rating of equipment or devices
9

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 9

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System
• Fault types

 Shunt fault (short circuit)-high current

 Series fault (open conductor)-voltage issue

 Shunt faults-line-to-ground, line-to-line, double-line-to-ground,

Three phase fault
 Permanent faults- Remain for a longer duration and damage the
equipment.
 Transient Faults-It occurs due to
a. power arc between two phases
b. flashover across line insulator due to overvoltage.
c. momentary tree contact, bird or animal contact, lightning
strike, conductor clashing
 Automatically die out after few cycles. 10

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 10

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• High Current issue during fault

 Why so high current?

Reason of damage-

, where R=resistance of the element, t=duration of fault,

H  I 2f IRf=fault
t current , H=associated heat in that element 11

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 11

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Fault types

 In a power system network, faults are categorized as

1. Symmetrical Faults: Involve all phases (e.g. LLL/LLLG)

2. Asymmetrical Faults: Involve one or two phases with or

without ground (e.g. LG/LL/LLG)

 Hence, there are 10 types of faults that can occur in a power

system network.

12

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 12

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Causes of Faults
1. Symmetrical Fault:

 It occurs when line is energized and earthing switch is by

mistake kept ON.

2. Asymmetrical Fault:

 LG Fault: It occurs mainly due to flashover/failure of insulator.

 LL and LLG Fault: It occurs due to swinging of two conductors/

shorting of wires due to birds/kite strings/tree limb.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 13

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Consequences of Faults

 Faults cause two types of damage.

1. Thermal damage: It occurs slowly as it is related to

temperature. (depends on thermal withstand capability of
insulation which in turn depends on insulation)

2. Electrodynamic damage: The repelling forces generated

due to this large current would de-shape and destruct the whole
equipment structurally. (Instantaneous tripping is required)

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 14

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Probability of occurrence of faults on different elements:-

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 15

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Probability of occurrence of faults on overhead lines:-

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 16

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Occurrence of a Fault can cause related issues as follows:

 Interruption in the power supply to the consumers

 Substantial loss of revenue due to interruption of service

 Loss of synchronism: wide spread blackout due to tripping of

multiple of lines/generators.

 Extensive damage to equipment

 Fire, Serious hazard to Personnel

17

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 17

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Requirement of the power system

 Faults are inevitable in a power system-may be risk to life and/

or property, disruption in power supply

 Provision of adequate protection to detect and disconnect

elements of the power system in the event of fault -an integral
part of power system design

 Power system faults must be cleared as fast as possible

18

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 18

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Changes observed in system during fault

 Faults may lead to significant changes in the system quantities-

overcurrent, over-or undervoltage, phase angle, direction of
current flow, impedance of the current path, system frequency,
temperature.

 Fault leads to voltage and current signals modulation.

19

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 19

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 01 : Faults in Power System

• Usage of fault Analysis

 Circuit breaker rating

 Relay settings

20

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 20

 UNIT : I Introduction

THANK YOU

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 21

 Text Books:
1 Protection and Switchgear Bhalja, Maheshwari, Chothani Oxford

2 Switchgear and Protection Bhide and Paithankar PHI

3 Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram TMH.

4 Switchgear and Protection S. S. Rao Khanna

Reference Books:

1 The Art and science of protective relaying Russel, Mason Wiley Eastern

Arun G. Phadke and

2 Computer relaying for power system John Wiley
James S. Thorpe

References Web: www.nptel.ac.in

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 22
DTEL (Department for Technology Enhanced Learning)
The Centre for Technology enabled Teaching & Learning , N Y S S, India

Teaching Innovation - Entrepreneurial - Global

YCCE EL_RSK
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL
ENGINEERING
VIII-SEMESTER
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
Prof R S Khonde
Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur.

YCCE EL_RSK
COURSE CONTENT
 General Philosophy of Protective Relaying (Basic Terms)
 Overcurrent Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Directional Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Distance Relaying (Transmission Line Protection)
 Static Relays & Circuit Breakers
 Differential Protection (Protection of Transformer, Bus bar,
Generator & Motor)
 Protection against abnormal conditions for above power
system equipments

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 3

 UNIT I:- SYLLABUS

1 General Philosophy
.

2 Protective Zones

3 Types of Protection

4 Essential Features

5 Fuses

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 4

 UNIT - I SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

1 Understand the basics of Protection.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 5

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying

• Protective Devices: Fuse/MCB/Relay: To sense the fault

• Switchgear: Circuit Breaker (CB): Function is to isolate the faulty section

 Suitable for low voltage systems: Fuse

 High voltage systems: Protective Relay + Circuit Breaker

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 6

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying

How Protective Relay & Circuit Breaker works together to protect

power system:

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 7

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 8

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying
Elements of protection scheme Protective Relay Functionalities
• Protective relays • Detect
• Circuit breakers • Trigger
• CTs and VTs (instrument • Report
transformers)
• Monitoring
• Communications channels
• DC supply system
• Control cables

Circuit Breaker Functionalities

• Instrument Transformers
• Interrupt
• CTs -Current scaling
• Isolate the faulted section
-Isolation
• Reconnect
• VTs -Voltage scaling
-Isolation 9

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 9

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying

• Zones of Protection:-
 A power system is normally segmented into a number of
protective zones.
 A zone is protected by a system of relays, circuit breakers, and
associated equipment.
 The circuit breakers are arranged in a manner that makes it
possible to isolate the protected zone while the remaining
system continues to supply energy to the customers.
 Each zone covers one or more components of the system.
10

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 10

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying

• Zones of Protection:-

 To provide complete protection for the entire system, that is, to

avoid having an unprotected region, neighbouring zones are
arranged to overlap each other.
 When a system is experiencing an abnormal condition, the
relays first identify this condition and then send trip signals to
appropriate circuit breakers that open to isolate the affected
zone.
11

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 11

 UNIT : I Introduction
Zones of Protection:-

12

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 12

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying
• Unit Protection

 Unit protection scheme is a scheme that operates for a fault

within its zone.

 Here, zone of protection is decided on the basis of current

transformers (CTs), and it includes each and every fault point
inside the CTs where measurement of currents is carried out.

 This type of protection scheme is widely used in generators,

transformers, and large induction motors. Differential
protection scheme is the best example of this type of
protection scheme.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 13

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying
• Non‐unit Protection

 A scheme that achieves protection using grading of successive

relays is known as non‐unit protection scheme.

 Overcurrent and distance relays are the best examples of

non‐unit protection schemes.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 14

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying
• Types of Protection :- Two sets of relays, primary and back-up,
are usually provided for each zone of protection.

1. Primary Protection:- It is the 1st line of protection provided

for the equipment and it operates without any intentional
time delay.

2. Back-up Protection:- It is the 2nd line of protection and

operates when primary protection fails to operate for the
fault or when primary protection is taken out for
maintenance purpose.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 15

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying
• In order to give ample time to the primary relays to make a
decision, backup relays are time delayed.

• Normally, primary relays have a small operation zone but

operate instantaneously, whereas backup relays have a large
operation zone, namely, overreached area, and operate with a
particular time delay.

• Types of Back-up Protection :- There are three kinds of back‐up

protection, local backup, breaker backup, and remote backup.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 16

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying
1. Local back-up:- It is the back-up protection which is
provided at the same location. It is operating without any
time delay.

2. Remote back-up:- It is the back-up protection located in the

next line section. This remote relay will trip in a delayed
time if the breaker in the faulty section has not tripped
because of some reason. This is the most widely used
form of backup protection.

3. Breaker back-up:- It is employed to handle the situation

when feeder breaker fails to operate for a fault condition.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 17

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 02 : General Philosophy of Protective Relaying
• Desirable properties of the relay:

 Selectivity

 Discrimination

 Speed

 Stability

 Sensitivity

 Reliability

 Economics

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 18

 UNIT : I Introduction

THANK YOU

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 19

 Text Books:
1 Protection and Switchgear Bhalja, Maheshwari, Chothani Oxford

2 Switchgear and Protection Bhide and Paithankar PHI

3 Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram TMH.

4 Switchgear and Protection S. S. Rao Khanna

Reference Books:

1 The Art and science of protective relaying Russel, Mason Wiley Eastern

Arun G. Phadke and

2 Computer relaying for power system John Wiley
James S. Thorpe

References Web: www.nptel.ac.in

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 20
DTEL (Department for Technology Enhanced Learning)
The Centre for Technology enabled Teaching & Learning , N Y S S, India

Teaching Innovation
YCCE -EL_RSK
Entrepreneurial - Global
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VIII-SEMESTER
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
Prof R S Khonde
Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur.

YCCE EL_RSK
COURSE CONTENT
 General Philosophy of Protective Relaying (Basic Terms)
 Overcurrent Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Directional Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Distance Relaying (Transmission Line Protection)
 Static Relays & Circuit Breakers
 Differential Protection (Protection of Transformer, Bus bar,
Generator & Motor)
 Protection against abnormal conditions for above power
system equipments

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 3

 UNIT I:- SYLLABUS

1 General Philosophy
.

2 Protective Zones

3 Types of Protection

4 Essential Features

5 Fuses

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 4

 UNIT - I SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

1 Understand the basics of Protection.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 5

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

 Selectivity

 Discrimination

 Speed

 Stability

 Sensitivity

 Reliability

 Economics 6

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 6

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

• Selectivity

 This is the ability of protection devices to isolate only the faulty

network of the power system from the healthy part to minimize
the outage area and also to maintain normal power supply for
the rest of the power system.

 The possibility of failure to operate and failure of protective

relays and circuit breakers should be considered in determining
the selectivity of protective relays.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 7

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

• Discrimination

 A protection system should be able to discriminate between

fault and loading conditions even when the minimum fault
current is less than the maximum full load current.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 8

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

• Speed

 It is obvious that quick disconnection of the faulted area or the

elements can significantly improve the stability of the power
system, reduce outage duration, and minimize the damage of
faulted elements.
 Therefore, when a fault occurs, the protective relays should
identify the fault and operate as fast as possible.

 The total time to remove the fault is determined as the sum of

operation time of relays and circuit breakers.

 Typically, a high‐speed relay can operate in the range of 10 to

30 milliseconds
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 9
 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

• Stability

 It is the quality of unit protection system by virtue of which it is

required to remain inoperative under specified conditions
associated with high value of fault currents or for all other
conditions associated with faults occurring outside of their zone.

10

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 10

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

• Sensitivity

 It is the ability of the protective device to operate correctly to the

faults or abnormal conditions inside the zone of protection.

 It refers to the minimum level of fault current at which the

protective device operates.

 Protective devices with good sensitivity can sense any faults

within the zone of protection.

11

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 11

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

• Reliability

 Reliability is the ability of protection devices to operate properly

during the period they are in service. It is also defined as the
ability of protective devices to operate properly during their
operational life. It can be categorized as follows:

 Dependability: It is the certainty of correct operation in response

to system trouble.

 Security/Stability: It is the ability of the protection schemes to

avoid mal‐operation between faults.
12

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 12

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

• Economics

 Besides the six factors mentioned above, economics of

protective relays is another important factor which should be
considered.

 A good protective relay system should combine both features of

maximum protection and minimum cost.

 Moreover, some of these properties are contradictory to one

another, and it is the duty of the protection engineer to maintain
a balance amongst them, when choosing a protection scheme
for a particular application. 13

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 13

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 03 : Desirable properties of the relay

 Economics: Consider total cost of the system = 100%

14

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 14

 UNIT : I Introduction

THANK YOU

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 15

 Text Books:
1 Protection and Switchgear Bhalja, Maheshwari, Chothani Oxford

2 Switchgear and Protection Bhide and Paithankar PHI

3 Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram TMH.

4 Switchgear and Protection S. S. Rao Khanna

Reference Books:

1 The Art and science of protective relaying Russel, Mason Wiley Eastern

Arun G. Phadke and

2 Computer relaying for power system John Wiley
James S. Thorpe

References Web: www.nptel.ac.in

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 16
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VII-SEMESTER
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
Prof R S Khonde
Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur.

YCCE EL_RSK
COURSE CONTENT
 General Philosophy of Protective Relaying (Basic Terms)
 Overcurrent Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Directional Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Distance Relaying (Transmission Line Protection)
 Static Relays & Circuit Breakers
 Differential Protection (Protection of Transformer, Bus bar,
Generator & Motor)
 Protection against abnormal conditions for above power
system equipment's

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 2

 UNIT - I SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

Understand the basics of Static Comparator as Relay.
1

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 3

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Introduction

 An over-current relay compares the magnitude of the current in its

current coil with a set value and operates if the current is more than
the set value.

 A directional relay compares phase angle of the measured quantity

(i.e. current) with a reference phasor (i.e. voltage) and operates if this
phase angle exceeds a predetermined threshold.

 A simple impedance relay compares the torque generated by the

current (operating torque) with the torque generated by the voltage
(restraining torque) at the relay location and operates if the operating
torque is greater than the restraining torque.

 All the relays performs some or the other kind of comparison.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 4
 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Introduction

 Therefore, at the heart of any relay, is always a comparator.

 The relays based on comparators were found to be quite simple and

robust.

 The comparator-based relays are very attractive because of their

inherent simplicity and low cost.

 Though, they suffer from the drawback that the fault cannot be
precisely located.

 The comparators can be classified into two types; those based on

comparison of amplitude and those based on comparison of phase
angle.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 5
 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Amplitude Comparator

 The amplitude comparator has two inputs, So & S r and a trip

output. Both the inputs are phasors.

 The input phasor So is called the operating quantity and the input
phasor Sr is called the restraining quantity.

 The amplitude comparator follows the simple law

If So  S r then trip; else restrain

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 6

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Amplitude Comparator

 If So  Sr thentrip; else restrain

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 7

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Amplitude Comparator ( So  Sr  trip)

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 8

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Amplitude Comparator ( So  S r  Restrain )

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 9

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Amplitude Comparator ( So  Sr Threshold )

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 10

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Phase Comparator

 Phase comparators are of two types: the cosine and the sine type.

• The Cosine-type Phase Comparator

 The cosine-type phase comparator has two phasors Sp and Sm, at its
input and has a trip output.

 The input-phasor, designated as Sp, is the reference input. The input-

phasor, designated as Sm, is called the measured input.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 11

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• The Cosine-type Phase Comparator

 The cosine-type phase comparator follows the trip law:

If  90  Arg  S m S p    90 then trip; else restrain

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 12

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• The Cosine-type Phase Comparator (Trips)

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 13

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• The Cosine-type Phase Comparator (Restrain)

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 14

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• The Cosine-type Phase Comparator (Threshold)

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 15

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• The Sine-type Phase Comparator

 The sine-type phase comparator has two phasors Sp and Sm, at its
input and has a trip output.

 The input-phasor, designated as Sp, is the reference input. The input-

phasor, designated as Sm, is called the measured input.

 The sine-type phase comparator follows the trip law:

If 0  Arg  S m S p   180 then trip; else restrain

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 16

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• The Sine-type Phase Comparator

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 17

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Duality Between Amplitude and Phase Comparators

 There is a relationship of duality between the amplitude and phase

comparators.

 If the inputs of an amplitude comparator are modified according to the

theorem of duality then they become suitable as inputs for a phase
comparator and vice versa.

Duality theorem as follows:

 The two signal, obtained by adding and subtracting the inputs to

a comparator, are the inputs suitable for its dual. If such signals
are fed to the dual, the output would remain unchanged.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 18

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Duality Between Amplitude and Phase Comparators

 Let So and Sr be the original inputs to an amplitude comparator. If we

derive Sm and Sp from So and Sr such that
Sm   So  S r  & S p   So  S r 
 And feed these to a phase comparator, then the output of the phase
comparator would be exactly the same as that of the original
amplitude comparator.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 19

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Duality Between Amplitude and Phase Comparators

 Let Sm and Sp be the original inputs to a phase comparator, then if

we derive So and Sr from Sm and Sp such that
So   S p  S m  & S r   S p  S m 
 And feed these to a amplitude comparator, then the output of the
amplitude comparator would be exactly the same as that of the
original phase comparator.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 20

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Duality between phase and amplitude comparator for ( So  S r )

 It can be easily seen that since Arg  So  S r   So  S r    90, the dual-
phase comparator would operate (trip) if fed with such signals.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 21

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Duality Between Amplitude and Phase Comparators for ( So  S r )

 It can be easily seen that since Arg  So  S r   So  S r    90, the dual-
phase comparator would operate (trip) if fed with such signals.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 22

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Duality between phase and amplitude comparator for ( Arg  Sm S p   90 )

 
 If Arg Sm S p  90 , therefore a phase-type comparator (cosine type)
would restrain.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 23

 UNIT : I

Lecture 4 : Static Comparator as Relay

• Duality between phase and amplitude comparator for ( Arg  Sm S p   90 )

 
 If Arg S m S p  90 , therefore a phase-type comparator (cosine type)
would operate (trip).

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 24

 UNIT : I

THANK YOU

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 25

 Text Books:
1 Protection and Switchgear Bhalja, Maheshwari, Chothani Oxford

2 Fundamental of Power System Protection Bhide and Paithankar PHI

3 Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram TMH.

4 Switchgear and Protection S. S. Rao Khanna

Reference Books:

1 The Art and science of protective relaying Russel, Mason Wiley Eastern

Arun G. Phadke and

2 Computer relaying for power system John Wiley
James S. Thorpe

References Web: www.nptel.ac.in

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 26
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VII-SEMESTER
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
Prof R S Khonde
Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur.

YCCE EL_RSK
COURSE CONTENT
 General Philosophy of Protective Relaying (Basic Terms)
 Overcurrent Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Directional Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Distance Relaying (Transmission Line Protection)
 Static Relays & Circuit Breakers
 Differential Protection (Protection of Transformer, Bus bar,
Generator & Motor)
 Protection against abnormal conditions for above power
system equipment's

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 2

 UNIT I:- SYLLABUS

1 General Philosophy
.

2 Protective Zones

3 Types of Protection

4 Essential Features

5 Fuses

6 Current Transformers (C.T.) & Voltage Transformers (V.T.)

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 3

 UNIT - I SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

1 Understand the basics of CT & VT/PT.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 4

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer
• Introduction:

 The current and voltage magnitudes in a primary circuit are

required to be step down a level that they can be e easily
utilized by the metering circuit and protective relay coil.

 Current transformers (CT’s) and potential transformers (PT’s)

are required to insulate the secondary circuits used for metering
and protective purposes.

 These instrument Transformers news produce secondary

quantity is that are proportional to the primary quantities.

 The secondary quantities are of standard value, i.e. 1 A or 5 A

CT secondary.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 5
 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer

 Voltage transformer (VT) secondary windings are rated at 110

or 120 V for phase-to-phase voltage connections, or,
equivalently, at 63.5 or 69.3 V for phase-to-neutral connection

 Therefore, the relay and meter designers can design standard

relays and meters to match the secondaries of CT’s and PT’s,
irrespective of the actual primary current and voltage.

 Ideal CT’s and PT’s transform the primary quantities without any
errors.

 However, in practice, there are always some errors, known as

ratio errors and phase angle errors.
6

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 6

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer

 A metering CT may be of low class, i.e. it will saturate in the

case of fault, whereas protective CT must be of a higher class,
i.e. it transforms proportional primary current at the time of a
fault.

 Current transformers are designed to withstand fault currents

(which may be as high as 50 times the load current) for a few
seconds, while VTs are required to withstand over voltages of
the order of 20% above the normal value for long duration.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 7

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer
• Current transformer

 Current transformers are magnetically

coupled, multi-winding transformers.

 A high-voltage current transformer may contain several cores,

each with a secondary winding, for different purposes (such as
metering circuits, control, or protection)
 Application- In one substation in Indian Grid

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 8

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer

• Current transformer ratio

 CT ratios are selected to meet maximum load current

requirements-primary of CT should meet the maximum load
current.

 Different standard CT ratio as per IEEE C57.13-2016,

For CT’s secondary 5 A.

50:5, 100:5, 150:5, 200:5, 250:5, 300:5, 400:5, 450:5, 500:5 etc.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 9

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer

• Types Current transformer

 Wound CT

 Bar CT

 Bushing CT

10

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 10

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer

• Voltage Transformer : Voltage transformer (VT), a two-winding

electromagnetic transformer-

 Is much like a conventional power transformer –only with a

small constant load

 The error of transformation of VT is negligible for all practical

purposes in its entire operating range –from zero to about 110%
of its normal rating.

 while voltage transformers are required to withstand power

system dynamic over voltages(of the order of 20 % above the
normal value). 11

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 11

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer

• Voltage Transformer

 Such transformers can be considered to be error-free for

relaying

 VTs are expensive, especially at extra high voltages: they are

usually found on low, medium, and high-voltage systems

12

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 12

 UNIT : I Introduction
Lecture 05 : Basics of Instrument Transformer

• Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT)

 Coupling Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CCVT)

 Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT)

 Capacitive Voltage Transformer (CVT)

 Of course it is not a transformer rather a capacitive voltage

divider

13

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 13

 UNIT : I Introduction

THANK YOU

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 14

 Text Books:
1 Protection and Switchgear Bhalja, Maheshwari, Chothani Oxford

2 Switchgear and Protection Bhide and Paithankar PHI

3 Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram TMH.

4 Switchgear and Protection S. S. Rao Khanna

Reference Books:

1 The Art and science of protective relaying Russel, Mason Wiley Eastern

Arun G. Phadke and

2 Computer relaying for power system John Wiley
James S. Thorpe

References Web: www.nptel.ac.in

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 15
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VII-SEMESTER
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
Prof R S Khonde
Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur.

YCCE EL_RSK
COURSE CONTENT
 General Philosophy of Protective Relaying (Basic Terms)
 Overcurrent Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Directional Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Distance Relaying (Transmission Line Protection)
 Static Relays & Circuit Breakers
 Differential Protection (Protection of Transformer, Bus bar,
Generator & Motor)
 Protection against abnormal conditions for above power
system equipment's

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 2

 UNIT - I SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

1 Understand the different types of relays.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 3

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Introduction:

 We have seen that effect of shunt fault is a sudden build up of

current.

 Therefore, magnitude of current can be utilized as a positive

indication of existence of fault.

 So that the over-current protection is the most widely used

form of protection.

 This type of protection which depends on only the magnitude of

the current, without taking any cognizance of its phase angle, is
known as the non-directional over-current protection.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 4

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Introduction:

 But many a times it is required to discriminate between faults in

front of the breaker and faults behind the breaker.

 This is possible if we take into account, both i.e. magnitude of

current as well as its phase angle w. r. t. the voltage at the relay
location.

 For such a condition, the protection available is known as the

directional over-current protection.

 Directional over-current protection affords greater selectivity

than non-directional over-current protection.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 5

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Over-current relays as per direction:

 Non-directional over-current protection

 Directional over-current protection

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 6

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Types of relay

 The types of relays can be broadly classified as:

 Electromechanical relays

 Static relays (analog and digital).

 The electromechanical relays had been dominating the

electrical protection field until the use of silicon semiconductor
devices, becoming more common.

 The use of static relays in the early stages were more due to
the advantages like lower weight, non-moving mechanical
parts, reduced wear and tear, etc.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 7
 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

 The initial static relays had not been overwhelmingly accepted in
the electrical field.
 Further, the reliability of electronic components in the initial stages
had been unsatisfactory due to the quality issues and their ability (or
inability) to withstand source fluctuations and ambient temperature
conditions.
 However, the reliability of electronic components improved
subsequently, and the arrival of digital electronics technology and
microprocessor developments gave a completely different picture to
the use of static relays.
 The earlier analog relays have been slowly replaced with digital
relays, and today’s protection technology is more inclined towards
use of digital relays.
 The electromechanical relays are still preferred in certain
applications.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 8
 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

Electromechanical IDMTL relay

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 9
 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Relay Setting

 Current or pick up setting: This setting determines the level of

current at which the relays will pick-up or its disk will start to
rotate.

 Time multiplier setting (TMS): This dial rotates the disk and its
accompanying moving contact closer to the fixed contact,
thereby reducing the amount of distance to be traveled by the
moving contact, hence speeding up the tripping time of the
relay.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 10

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Current or pick up setting:

 Usually the following ranges of nominal current are used,

available in seven steps:
 Percentage plug settings:

 For example, Current plug settings – for 5 A relay

• Overcurrent (A): 2.5 3.75 5.0 6.25 7.5 8.75 10.0
• Earth fault (A): 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
• Or (A): 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0
 Normally, the highest current tap is automatically selected when the plug is removed.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 11

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Time multiplier setting:

• Time/current characteristic
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 12
 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

Characteristic curve of relay

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 13
 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Burden
 Burden is the normal continuous load imposed on the current
transformers by the relay, normally expressed in VA or some times in
ohms.

 For electromechanical relays, this is normally stated as 3 VA nominal.

The modern electronic relays offer a much lower figure, which is one
of their virtues.

 For the electromechanical type, the selection of the plug setting does
have an effect on the burden.

 As there is a required minimum amp-turns of magnetic flux to get the

relay to pick-up, the lower the current the more turns are necessary.
The lower the setting therefore results in higher the burden on the
CTs.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 14
 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Burden
 Example:

 For 5 A relay on 200% tap,

 On 10% tap,

 The lower tap therefore, places a higher burden on the CTs.

 A mistaken impression is created that the relay is at its most

sensitive setting when it is set on its lowest tap.

 The CTs may saturate under these conditions due to the higher
burden, causing the electromechanical relay to respond more
slowly, if at all it picks up.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 15
 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• Burden

 The modern digital relays do not exhibit such behavior and

have constant burden through out its operating range.

 Table given below shows burden for different relays

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 16

 UNIT : I

THANK YOU

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 17

 Text Books:
1 Protection and Switchgear Bhalja, Maheshwari, Chothani Oxford

2 Switchgear and Protection Bhide and Paithankar PHI

3 Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram TMH.

4 Switchgear and Protection S. S. Rao Khanna

Reference Books:

1 The Art and science of protective relaying Russel, Mason Wiley Eastern

Arun G. Phadke and

2 Computer relaying for power system John Wiley
James S. Thorpe

References Web: www.nptel.ac.in

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 18
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
VII-SEMESTER
SWITCHGEAR AND PROTECTION
Prof R S Khonde
Department of Electrical Engineering
Yeshwantrao Chavan College of Engineering, Nagpur.

YCCE EL_RSK
COURSE CONTENT
 General Philosophy of Protective Relaying (Basic Terms)
 Overcurrent Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Directional Relaying (Distribution Protection)
 Distance Relaying (Transmission Line Protection)
 Static Relays & Circuit Breakers
 Differential Protection (Protection of Transformer, Bus bar,
Generator & Motor)
 Protection against abnormal conditions for above power
system equipment's

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 2

 UNIT - I SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE / COURSE OUTCOME

The student will be able to:

1 Understand the different types of protection.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 3

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• What is a static protection relay?

 Static relays are those in which the designed response is

developed by electronic or magnetic means without mechanical
motion.

 ‘Static relay’ covers the electronic relays of both the analog and
digital designs.

 The analog relays refer to electronic circuits with discrete

devices like transistors, diodes, etc., which were adopted in the
initial stages. the digital designs incorporate integrated chips,
microprocessors, etc.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 4

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

 The main objective of using static relays is to improve the sensitivity,

speed and reliability of a protection system by removing the delicate
mechanical parts that can be subject to wear due to vibration, dust
and corrosion.

 The general developments in the field of electronics and the

introduction of digital circuits have overcome many of the above
problems.

 Using modern microprocessor relays, almost any characteristic is

possible and economical.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 5

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

Static Relay

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 6

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

• What is a microprocessor relay?

 A microprocessor relay is a digital electronic relay, which derives

its characteristics by means of a pre-programed series of
instructions and calculations (algorithms), based on the selected
settings and the measured current and/or voltage signals.

 A description of a typical microprocessor (or numerical) relay

follows – which includes:
 The simplified block diagram
 The microprocessor circuits
 Handling of the energizing signal
 The output stages

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 7

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 8

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

 Isolation transformer provides electric isolation to the relay system.

 Surge protection gives protection to the digital component against

transients and spikes.

 Anti-aliasing filter (AAF) is a low pass filter that blocks the unwanted

frequency component in relay system.

 Sample & Hold Circuit is used to sample the given input digital signal and
to hold the sampled value of that signal which gives to the CPU through
multiplexer.
 CPU executes the relay programme with a different characteristics,
maintains different timing function and communicates with external devices.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 9

 UNIT : I

Lecture 05 : Types of relay

 RAM stores the input sample data temporarily and buffer data permanently.
Further, the stored data in RAM is processed during the execution of relay
algorithm.
 ROM is used to store the relay algorithm permanently.
 EPROM is used to store certain parameters such as relay setting. These
parameters may change in case of change in external system conditions.
 Event storage is used for storing historical data, transient data and event
time data.
 Digital Inputs allow a microcontroller to detect logic states of relay.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 10

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

• Thermal Relay

 Thermal relays are required to protect the equipment against

the overload condition.

 Overload situation occurs many times during the operation of

electrical equipment.

 Any electrical equipment has the ability to withstand the

overload condition for a definite period of time depending on the
severity of overload.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 11

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

• Thermal Relay

Percentage of overload Time to withstand

with respect to full load overload
120% Continuously
140% an hour
150% Half an hour
160% Several minutes
170% Few seconds

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 12

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

• Working of Thermal Relay

 Thermal relay consists of bimetallic strips made up of nickel

alloyed steel.

 These are heated by a heater element that absorbs the output

of a current transformer in a power circuit.

 At one end of a bimetal strip, an insulated arm with trip contacts

is provided. The arm is connected to a spring, which provides a
tension against the closing of trip contacts.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 13

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

• Thermal Relay

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 14

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

• Operation

 Under normal operating condition, the bimetal strips remain in

straight position against the action of spring tension.

 When the overload condition is detected (120% to 140% of the

rated current), the bimetal strips bend and allow the trip contact
to energize the trip circuit.

• Applications

 Thermal relay is normally used for low‐voltage and low‐power‐rating

induction motor and DC motor where Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD) is not generally built‐in in the protected motor.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 15
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

• Attracted Armature Relay

 It consists of an electromagnet and a hinged armature or

plunger/solenoid.

 It can be energized either by AC or DC supply.

 The attracted armature relay operates on the principle of

electromagnetic force produced, which attracts the plunger or
hinged armature.

 A restraining force is provided by means of a spring so that the

armature returns to its original position when the electromagnet
is de-energized.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 16
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

• Attracted Armature Relay

 It consists of an electromagnet and a hinged armature or

plunger/solenoid.

 It can be energized either by AC or DC supply.

 The attracted armature relay operates on the principle of

electromagnetic force produced, which attracts the plunger or
hinged armature.

 A restraining force is provided by means of a spring so that the

armature returns to its original position when the electromagnet
is de-energized.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 17
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

 Whenever the force developed by the electromagnet exceeds

the restraining force, the moving contact closes due to
movement of the armature.

• Applications:

 These relays are used for the protection of AC and DC

equipment as an instantaneous relay that has no intentional time
delay.

• Types:

1. Hinged Type Attracted Armature Relay

2. Plunger Type Attracted Armature Relay
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 18
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
1. Hinged Type Attracted Armature Relay
 Can be energized either by
AC or DC supply.

 It operates on the principle of

electromagnetic force
produced, which attracts the
hinged armature.

 A restraining force is
provided by means of a
spring so that the armature
returns to its original position
when the electromagnet is
de‐energized.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 19
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
2. Plunger Type Attracted Armature Relay

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 20

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
• Induction Relay
 The induction relay operates on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.

 Hence, it is a split‐phase induction motor with contacts.

 They are the most widely used relays for protection of lines or
apparatus. Operating force is developed due to the interaction
of two AC flux displaced in time and space in a movable
element (rotor). Depending on the type of rotor, whether a disc
or a cup, the relay is known as

1. Induction disc relay

or
2. Induction cup relay
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 21
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
• Induction Disc Relay
 This relay is generally
activated by current flowing
in a single coil placed on a
magnetic core having an air
gap.

 The main air‐gap flux caused

because of the flow of
current is split into two
out‐of‐phase components by
a shading ring, which is
made up of copper that
encircles the portion of the
pole face in each pole.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 22
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
• Induction Disc Relay

 The air‐gap flux of shaded pole lags behind the flux of

non‐shaded pole.

 The rotor (made up of copper or aluminium disc) is pivoted in

such a way that it rotates in the air gap between the poles.

 The inertia of the aluminum disc is very less. Hence they need
less deflecting torque for its movement.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 23

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
• Induction Cup Relay
 In this relay, the rotating magnetic
field is produced by the pair of
relay coils.

 A rotor is a hollow metallic

cylindrical cup that is arranged
between two/four/eight
electromagnets and a stationary
iron core.

 The cup (looks like an induction

rotor) is free to move in the gap
between the electromagnet and
the stationary iron core.
DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 24
 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
• Induction Cup Relay

 The rotating field induces current into the cup, which then
causes the cup to rotate in the same direction. The rotation
depends on the magnitude of the applied AC quantities and
phase displacement between them.

• Advantages:
I. Induction cup relay is more efficient than the induction disc
relay as far as torque is concerned.
II. Moreover, induction cup relay is faster than induction disc
relay.
III. Further, it also used in the system where directional control
is required.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 25

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay
• Balanced Beam Relay
 It is one type of attracted
armature device. The relay
with two coils surrounding
the iron core is used to
compare two quantities, P
and Q.
 Operating coil produces
operating torque, whereas
the restraining coil produces
restraining torque.
 These two coils are
connected in such a way
that their electromagnetic
forces are in opposition.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 26

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

 The electromagnetic force produced is proportional to the

square of the supplied quantity (Ampere‐turns).

 Under normal operating conditions, the two torques are equal

and beam remains horizontal.

 When there is a fault, the operating torque exceeds the

restraining torque, the movement of armature starts.

 Due to this, armature fitted at end of the beam gets pulled and
makes contact with the contacts of trip circuit. Thus the trip
circuit operates

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 27

 UNIT : II Over-current relays
Lecture 07 : Types of over-current relay

 It is robust and fast in operation. But due to the DC transients, it

is not accurate.

 Balance beam relay is widely used as a differential relay to

compare two AC quantities.

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 28

 UNIT : II Over-current relays

THANK YOU

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 29

 Text Books:
1 Protection and Switchgear Bhalja, Maheshwari, Chothani Oxford

2 Switchgear and Protection Bhide and Paithankar PHI

3 Power System Protection and Switchgear Badri Ram TMH.

4 Switchgear and Protection S. S. Rao Khanna

Reference Books:

1 The Art and science of protective relaying Russel, Mason Wiley Eastern

Arun G. Phadke and

2 Computer relaying for power system John Wiley
James S. Thorpe

References Web: www.nptel.ac.in

DTEL YCCE EL_RSK 30