The ultimate Sports Health and exercise Science guide

Topic 1 – Anatomy

1.1 – The skeletal system

These are the bones that you need to

know, make sure you can locate them.
This skeleton is representing the
anatomical position; this is when you are
stood with your palms facing outwards.

REMEMBER – in this anatomical position,

your radius will be on the outside (lateral)
and ulna on the inside (medial). This is
often used as an MCQ question. The
scapulae (plural) and clavicles together are
known as the pectoral girdle.

This diagram shows the breakdown of the pelvic girdle

(pelvis). It is important to learn the location of the ilium,
It’s important that you know the order of the bones in
ischium and pubis.
the vertebral column. This is a lateral view, you can see
between each of the 33 bones there is a slight gap, this is You can also see here how the pelvic girdle attached to
filled with cartilage and gives the vertebrae its slightly the vertebral column at the coccyx and sacrum
moveable characteristic. You need a small amount of
flexibility in the vertebrae in order to walk and bend
forward etc. however, it also needs to support and give
structure to your body The bones are
irregularly shaped

1.1.2 – Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton in terms of function
Application of functions
Exam Tip
Protection – Cranium protects the brain – important skills such as heading in
football. It is really important for
answering exams questions
Mineral reservoir – Long bones in particular can store minerals such as calcium and that you do not just state the
phosphorus. functions but be able to explain
Blood cell formation – Bone marrow found in the spine and hip has the richest each one.
source of bone marrow cells. Bone marrow is contained within bones. All blood
cells are produced in the bone marrow.

Attachment – Bones provide attachment points (origin and insertion) for muscles
via tendons. Also cartilage and ligaments attach to bones.

Support – The skeleton provides a framework for the body and each part bears the
weight of all structures of the body above it. Helps to maintain posture.

Movement – The place here 2 or more bones meet is known as a joint, this is where
movements occurs (flexion, extension etc).

1.1.3 – State the 4 types of bones

 REMEMBER: Phalanges, although small in size, are still considered log bones due to their shape (longer than
they are wide.

Long bones – The diaphysis located in the middle of a long bone is much harder and rigid whereas the 2 ends
(Epiphysis) contain spongey (slightly softer bone). This because of the pressure from the knee and ankle joints, the
spongey bone provides a bit of give. White and red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow and the main
function of long bones is to provide movement. The periosteum is like a thin layer of plastic surrounding the bone, it
provides protection and if small cracks appear this is called a fracture which is not great but certainly not as serious as
a break.
 1.1.5 – Apply anatomical terminology to the location of bones

KEY POINTS

Anatomical terminology is used to describe where

certain bones or muscles are in the body in relation
to another.

An example of this is saying that the cranium is

superior to the ribcage because quite simply the
cranium is closer to the top of the head or ‘higher
up’ than the rib cage.

Anatomical terms can also be applied to 1 individual

bone or muscle. For example, the ‘distal end of the
femur’ would be where the femur attaches to the
knee joint as that is the furthers point away from
where the femur attaches to the body (hip joint)

You may have heard of an athlete rupturing their

‘ACL – Anterior cruciate ligament’. You can apply
your knowledge of anatomical terms to recognize
that the ACL will be on the front (anterior) of the
knee joint.

This diagram gives a visual

representation of the
anatomical terms. Don’t
worry about the terms
‘ventral, dorsal, cephalic and
caudal’
1.1.6 – Outline the functions of connective tissue

Connective tissue is essential to allow movement

within the body. Athletes tend to put more strain
on these connective tissues through rigorous
activity and therefore can suffer from strains and
tears that take time to heal. Impact sports such as
Football and tennis can see damage to cartilage,
especially in the knees. If this cartilage wears
away then basically you have bone rubbing
1.1.7 – Define the term ‘joint’ against bone which is incredibly painful.

1.1.8 – Distinguish between the different types of joint in relation to movement

permitted.
1.1.9 – Outline the features of a synovial joint Synovial Joints

The majority of joints in the body are synovial.

The example here is the knee (patella). The
composition of the joint would be the same at
the shoulder and ankle etc.

1.1.10 – List the different types of synovial joint.

The Muscular system
1.2.1 - Outline the general characteristics common to muscle tissue.
 1.2.2 –

Distinguish between the different types of muscle.

EXAM TIP – The skill here is to distinguish (compare) between 2 or all

of the types of muscle. If it’s a 3 mark question you have to make 3
direct comparisons. For example, if you are distinguishing between
smooth and cardiac, you could say that cardiac muscle is striated
whereas smooth is not. This would be one mark; you need to make 2
more comparisons for maximum marks.
1.2.3 – Annotate the structure of skeletal muscle.
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=SCznFaTwTPE

The link is to an excellent video that

gives a visual representation of the
structure of a skeletal muscle.

Exam tip – don’t worry about memorizing the

1.2.4 – Define the terms origin and insertion of muscles. origin and insertion for every muscle in the
Origin: the attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone. body. My advice is to choose 3 or 4 main
Insertion: the attachment of a muscle tendon to a moveable bone. muscles only (bicep, triceps etc.)

1.2.5 - Identify the location of skeletal muscles in various regions of the body.
 TOP TIP

These are the muscles of body that you need

to know and memorise. It is important to
note that the quadriceps and hamstrings are
divided into smaller muscle groups.

You can apply your knowledge of anatomical

terminology to help remember the location of
these muscles. For example, vastus lateralis is
going to be on the lateral (outside) of the
quadriceps.

Topic – Exercise Physiology

2.1 – Ventilatory system

It is important to memorise
these structures. You can also
apply knowledge of types of
muscle as the trachea is made
up of smooth muscle tissue.

2.1.2 - Outline the functions of the conducting airways.

There are 3 main functions of the conducting airways;

• low resistance pathway for airflow

• defence against chemicals and other harmful

substances that are inhaled

• warming and moistening the air.

2.1.3 - Define the terms pulmonary ventilation, total lung capacity (TLC), vital capacity (VC), tidal volume (TV),
expiratory reserve volume (ERV), inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) and residual volume (RV).
2.1.4 - Explain the mechanics of ventilation in the human lungs.

Boyles law

Boyle's law is an experimental gas law that describes how

the pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the
container decreases. 

Apply this to your lungs when ventilating, when you inspire your
lungs expand and therefore the pressure of air inside decreases.
This allows air to rush in. When you exhale your lungs decrease in
volume and this increases the pressure of air and forces air out the
lungs (breathing out).

Ventilation during exercise

2.1.5 – explain the chemical and nervous control of ventilation

 EXAM TIP:

Often exam questions based on this topic will

ask specifically about the nervous control or the
chemical control. If the question asks about
both and is a 4/5-mark question, then you will
need to write about at least 2 aspects of both
chemical and nervous.

2.1.6 - Outline the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transportation.

Hemoglobin, or haemoglobin is the iron-

containing oxygen-transport protein in the red
blood cells of almost all vertebrates as well as
the tissues of some invertebrates. Hemoglobin
in blood carries oxygen from the lungs or gills to
the rest of the body.

2.1.7 - Explain the process of gaseous exchange at the alveoli.

Gas exchanges between the air in the alveoli and the blood
capillaries occur across the respiratory membrane in a
process known as pulmonary diffusion. The most critical
factor for gas exchange between alveoli and the blood is
the pressure gradient between the gases in the two areas.

Exam style question - Discuss the process of gaseous exchange at the alveoli during exercise. [4]

Diffusion - is the net movement of

anything from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower
concentration.

Here is an example of the mark

scheme for a question about the
process of gas exchange. The
key is to mention the terms
diffusion and partial pressure.

2.2 - Structure and function of

the cardiovascular system
2.2.1 – State the composition of blood
 Blood is composed of 4 key elements;

- Plasma (95%)
- Red blood cells (erythrocytes 45%)
- White blood cells (leucocytes >1%
- Platelets (>1%)

The blood volume of people of

average body size and normal
physical activity generally ranges
from 5-6 L in men and 4-5 L in
women.

2.2.2 - Distinguish between the functions of erythrocytes, leucocytes and platelets.

Exam tip – The key to this learning objective is to learn facts about the 3 components and then distinguish which means state
what is different about them. An example question might be ‘Distinguish between Erythrocytes and leucocytes’ (2). This
question is asking you to demonstrate knowledge of 2 clear differences. 1 difference could be in terms of function. ‘The
primary role of erythrocytes is to transport blood whereas leucocytes protect the body from infection’ This would get a mark,
possibly 2. To make sure you could also talk about the contribution to blood. ‘Erythrocytes compose approximately 45% of
blood whereas
2.2.3leucocytes
- Describe compose lessof
the anatomy than
the1%’.
heart with reference to the heart chambers, valves and major blood
vessels.
 EXAM TIP – A common question will be
in multiple choice format with a
diagram of the heart pointing to one
specific component.

A good tip is to memorize all the

components and ask someone to test
you by pointing to the different
sections.

2.2.4 - Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and the sequence of excitation of the heart muscle.

Cardiac muscle has the unique ability to generate its

own electrical signal, called spontaneous
rhythmicity, which allows it to contract without any
external stimulation.

Below is a very specific process for contraction of the heart.

Step 1 – The SA node fires an electrical impulse across both atria

and the AV node causing them to contract and release blood into
the ventricles.

Step 2 – The electrical impulse travels from the AV node to the AV

bundle.

Step 3 – The impulse travels through the septum which branches

into 2 leading to the purkinjee fibers which are on the walls of the
ventricles
EXAM TIP – If Step
you are
4 –asked specifically
The impulse aboutthrough
is spread the the ventricles causing a
‘intrinsic’ regulation of theand
contraction heart thentotalk
blood about out of the heart
be pumped
this 4 step process.
 Extrinsic

The parasympathetic system, a branch of the autonomic nervous

system, originates centrally in a region of the brain stem called the
medulla oblongata and reaches the heart through the vagus nerve. The
vagus nerve carries impulses to the SA and AV nodes, and when
stimulated releases acetylcholine, which causes hyperpolarization of the
conduction cells. The result is a decrease in heart rate.

The sympathetic nervous system, the other branch of the autonomic

system, has opposite effects. Sympathetic stimulation increases the rate
of impulse generation and conduction speed, and thus heart rate.
Maximal sympathetic stimulation allows the heart rate to increase up to
250 beats/min. Sympathetic input also increases the contraction force of
the ventricles.

The sympathetic system predominates during times of physical or

emotional stress, when the heart rate is greater than 100 beats/min.
The third extrinsic influence, the endocrine system, exerts its
effects through two hormones released by the adrenal
medulla: norepinephrine and adrenaline (epinephine).

Norepinephrine and adrenaline are catecholamines which

prepare the body for a fight-or-flight response.

Think about how a 100m sprinter feels on the start line of a 100m
2.2.5 - Outline the relationship between the pulmonary and systemic circulation.
Olympic gold final. Their heart is likely to be pounding even
though they haven’t started physically moving. This is due to the
adrenaline running through their body.
NOTE: The diagram shows the
bloods journey around the body,
this is known as circulation. You
can apply all the key terminology
from the anatomy of the heart to
this circulatory process.

Key terms:

Oxygenated – enriched with oxygen

Deoxygenated – Low levels of oxygen

 The circulation round the body can be
split into 2 clear sections as seen in the
diagram. Pulmonary relates to the lungs
so you can remember this is the section
that flows from the heart to the lungs
and back.

Systemic meaning system and the heart

delivering blood to the rest of your body
(body systems).

2.2.6 - Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output and stroke volume at rest and during
exercise.

Key definitions;

Heart rate – The amount of times your heart beats over the period of 1 minute

Cardiac output – The amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle of the heart per minute.

Stroke volume – The amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle in one beat

Therefore: Cardiac output (Q) = Stroke volume (SV) x Heart rate (HR)

Relationship

Cardiac output must be maintained in order to supply

the working muscles with the oxygen required. If your
heart grows in size it means your stroke volume will
increase and will be able to pump more blood out per
beat, this means that your HR can decrease as it doesn’t
need to pump as often. Athletes with high levels of
cardiovascular fitness can reduce their resting HR to as
low as 30 bpm!

2.2.7 - Analyse cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for different populations at rest and
during exercise.
 Exam tip: If you are asked to analyse Q,
SV & HR amongst different groups then
for 1 mark you can make one of the
point in figure 1. You should also try to
back one these points up by explaining
why. For example, trained athletes
have a lower RHR because of a bigger
left ventricle through training and
therefore hypertrophy.

Figure 1

2.2.8 – Explain cardiovascular drift.

With prolonged aerobic exercise or aerobic exercise in a hot environment, at a constant exercise intensity, SV
gradually decreases and HR increases. Cardiac output is well maintained, but arterial blood pressure also declines.
These alterations, have been referred to collectively as cardiovascular drift, and they are generally associated with
increasing body temperature.

Cardiovascular drift is associated with a progressive increase in the fraction of cardiac output directed to the
vasodilated skin to facilitate heat loss and attenuate the increase in body core temperature. With more blood in the
skin for the purpose of cooling the body, less blood is available to return to the heart, thus decreasing preload.
There is also a small decrease in blood volume resulting from sweating and from a generalized shift of plasma
across the capillary membrane into the surrounding tissues.

These factors combine to decrease ventricular filling pressure, which decreases venous return to the heart and
reduces the end-diastolic volume. With the reduction in end-diastolic volume (SV – EDV – ESV), SV is reduced. In
order to maintain cardiac output (Q = HR X SV), HR increases to compensate for the decrease in SV.

Exam tip; this topic is really well applied to a

marathon runner in hot conditions as they
tend to run at a constant speed. The
question may be worded in a subtle way for
2.2.9 – Define systolic and diastolic blood pressure

Systolic: the force exerted by blood on arterial walls during ventricular contraction.

Diastolic: the force exerted by blood on arterial walls during ventricular relaxation.

2.2.10 - Analyse systolic and diastolic blood pressure data at rest and during exercise.

The table above presents data for a healthy trained 80 kg male at

rest and performing two different actions (running fast, a
dynamic activity; trying to lift a very heavy object, static but very
high forces), as well as resting data for another untrained and
unhealthy individual.

As you can see exercise, regardless of its type, will increase blood
pressure. Interestingly from the table, ‘lifting’ causes a noticeably
higher increase in blood pressure compared to ‘running’.

2.2.11 – Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure respond to dynamic and static exercise.

As you can see below, blood pressure responds differently to dynamic (aerobic, continuous movement exercises) when
compared to static or resistance exercise (weightlifting/plank position etc.)
 The graph shows that during dynamic
exercise such as jogging the systolic BP will
increase in line with the exercise intensity
but the diastolic will more or less stay the
same. However, during static exercise such
as heavy weightlifting the systolic will rise
but the diastolic blood pressure will also
rise. The page below will explain the
reasons why.

2.2.12 – Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the redistribution of blood during exercise.
 As you can see from the diagram the
blood is distributed to different parts of
the body at rest compared to exercise.

At rest the secondary organs such as

liver, intestines and stomach get a large
proportion of the blood. This is because
in a resting state your body is carrying
out activities such as digestion. However,
during exercise the working muscles get
a vast majority of the blood (up to 85%
depending on the intensity) This is
because your muscles need a much
greater oxygen supply for energy.

You can see that the skin also receives a

higher proportion of blood during
exercise. The range is 5-20% this is
because in hotter conditions much more
blood will be distributed to the surface
for heat to escape.

2.2.13 – Describe the cardiovascular adaptations resulting from endurance exercise training.

Remember
Adaption cardiovascular is anything relating to the heart or blood vessels. Adaptions mean what changes would
Explanation
• Increased
an athlete experience
left and
ventricular
endurance
volume
exercise
Thistraining
meansisthe
activities
size of such
the left
as long
ventricle
distance
is larger
running,
and can
cycling,
contain
swimming,
more
rowing or team games which require lots of blood. This has
continuous happened
movement. In due
ordertoto
hypertrophy in the
see noticeable heart (the
adaptions, heart has
the
literally grown
athlete would need to train over a prolonged period of time. in size!). The heart is a muscles and just like all muscles if
it is worked regularly it will grow.
• Increased stroke volume Because the heart has grown in size and is able to store more blood
before each beat, it can also pump out more blood with each beat
(stroke volume). A stronger heart will mean more powerful contractions.
• Lower resting & exercise HR An endurance training programme will make a heart more efficient. At
rest your cardiac output will remain the same, this means that if your
heart can pump more blood with eat beat it therefore doesn’t need to
beat as many times across 1 minute. Elite endurance athletes can have
resting heart rates as low as 30bpm
• Increased capillarization Endurance training can induce growth of new blood vessels. This means
more oxygen can be delivered to the working muscles and carbon
dioxide removed, this means you can exercise for longer periods of time
without feeling fatigued.
• Increased arterio-venous oxygen The arteriovenous oxygen difference is the difference between the
 difference oxygen content in the arterial blood and venous blood. After an
endurance training programme more oxygen is absorbed from the blood
into the muscles during exercise (i.e. your body becomes better at
extracting the oxygen from the blood)

2.2.14 – Explain maximal oxygen consumption.

VO2 Max is the measurement of the maximum volume of oxygen uptake during intense exercise per
minute. The equation to measure this is Vo2 Max = SV x HR x a-v o2 difference. It is how much oxygen
your body utilizes (uses) rather than the amount of oxygen that you inspire. I.E. an athlete might be able
to consume a large amount of oxygen but their body may not be very efficient at using this oxygen and
therefore their vo2 max would not be that high a reading.

We can split vo2 max into 2 main categories;

• Absolute – Only looks at the litres of oxygen utilized per minute (L.min-1)

• Relative – Factors in body mass and measured in millilitres per kilogramme of body weight per
minute (ml/kg/min).

Why do we have both?

 Both athletes have extremely high
levels of fitness.

Steve Redgrave has a significantly

larger absolute vo2 max however Mo
Farah has a slightly higher relative vo2
max.

This is because he has a much smaller

body mass. You could argue that
Farah has a slightly better overall vo2
max as he is able to utilize more
oxygen for every kg of his mass.

2.2.15 - Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen consumption in selected groups.

2.2.16 - Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen consumption with different modes of exercise.
EXAM TIP: If you asked to compare which modes of exercise produce the highest results you can discuss
how treadmill will provide the highest amount as it activates the largest muscle groups (whole body).
Cycling second (lower body and some upper body muscle activation) and then the arm ergometer (upper
body). There may however be reasons why athletes will conduct a vo2 max test away from the treadmill
for example an injury or disability. Furthermore, athletes may wish to obtain their VO2 max in conditions
specific to their sport. Examples of this would be a cyclist using an exercise bike or a swimmer using the
arm-crank ergometer.