Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

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Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

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Prospects and restraints in biogas fed SOFC for rural energization: A critical
review in indian perspective
N. Kamalimeera a, V. Kirubakaran b, *
a
Renewable Energy PG Scholar, Centre for Rural Energy, The Gandhigram Rural Institute - Deemed to be University, Gandhigram, Tamilnadu, India
b
Assistant Professor, Centre for Rural Energy, The Gandhigram Rural Institute - Deemed to be University, Gandhigram, Tamilnadu, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In India, electricity use in rural areas accounts only 23% of national total usage. It is necessary to expand the
Biogas access to electricity in Rural India for sustainable development. Biomass, a viable resource is the most direct and
SOFC simple way at households and rural areas. Organic waste can be converted into an alternative source for cooking,
Anaerobic digestion
heating and electricity. Biogas, a biofuel produced from organic waste (food scraps and animal waste) through
Rural electrification
Renewable energy
Anaerobic Digestion. It is mainly composed of methane and carbon dioxide produced through Anaerobic
Digestion in either large scale or small scale digesters. Traditionally, biogas has been used for cooking. Based on
village level survey, electrical energy is the only commercial form of energy that has been used in villages. Biogas
production paves the way to produce electricity at villages through high temperature fuel cell unit like Solid
Oxide Fuel Cell; thus it is the best possible way to generate and utilize power close to where people live. The
present paper discusses about the rural energy requirement, overview of biogas production and fuel cells, po­
tential and operational challenges for biogas fed Solid oxide fuel cell, technical barriers with Solid oxide fuel cell
and issues related to rural electrification using renewable energy. Also, a comparative analysis of SOFC with bio
and thermo chemical conversion of biomass has been analyzed with a case study and reported.

1. Introduction systems; it requires shorter span of time to set in rural areas [1]. Owing
to high cost, low load factor, scattered nature of the area and distribu­
Energy Access, as per the definition of International Energy Agency tion and electricity losses, the extension of grid in rural areas is difficult.
(IEA 2011), is “a household having reliable and affordable access to Electricity generation from renewable energy sources at remote places is
clean cooking facilities, a first connection to electricity and then an not only environmental friendly but also improves the standard of living
increasing level of electricity consumption over time to reach the of the people. An economic growth that benefits both the electricity
regional average”. According to IEA, across the world about 1.3 billion provider and the rural community is the achievement of rural electrifi­
people do not have access to electricity and 85% of that population is cation [2]. Globally, Decentralized renewable energy systems have
from rural areas. In order to meet the rural and small scale energy needs, provided electricity access to 1.6–2 billion people at remote areas and
adopting decentralized renewable energy systems paves the way for villages that are not connected to the central grid. Although connected
reliable, affordable and environmental sustainability. Nearly 85% of to central grid, they get low quality electricity supply and are mainly
rural areas of India use firewood, crop residue and cow dung as fuel for subjected to blackouts [3]. It is believed that renewable energy re­
cooking. At remote areas, it is appropriate to set renewable energy sources would contribute 50% of world energy share after 2050.

Abbreviations: AD, Anaerobic Digestion; HRT, Hydraulic Retention Time; SRT, Solid Retention Time; OLR, Organic Loading Rate; C/N ratio, Carbon/ Nitrogen
ratio; Spp, species (plural); VFA, Volatile Fatty Acids; IEA, International Energy Agency; REN21, Renewable Energy Policy Network for 21st Century; CERC, Central
Electricity Regulatory Commission; SERC, State Electricity Regulatory Commission; IREP, Integrated Rural Energy Planning; LCOE, Levelized Cost Of Electricity;
CHP, Combined Heat and Power; PEMFC, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell; DMFC, Direct Methanol Fuel Cell; AFC, Alkaline Fuel Cell; PAFC, Phosphoric Acid
Fuel Cell; MCFC, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell; SOFC, Solid Oxide Fuel Cell; PTEE, Poly tetra flouro ethylene; ORR, Oxidation Reduction Reaction; CSL, Catalyst
Support Layer; GDL, Gas Diffusion Layer; YSZ, Yttria Stabilized Zirconia; BSZ, Barium Zirconate; BCY, Areyttria doped barium cerate; POX, Partial Oxidation; WWTP,
Waste Water Treatment Plants; MSW, Municipal Solid Waste; SPV, Solar PhotoVoltaics.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (V. Kirubakaran).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110914
Received 28 May 2020; Received in revised form 22 January 2021; Accepted 28 February 2021
Available online 13 March 2021
1364-0321/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

Bio-energy is more promising, regenerative and sustainable of most biogas reduces the usage and emissions of fossil fuels in terms of utili­
emerging alternative sources of energy [5]. zation of surplus electric power and gas and reduces the volume of
Biogas, a versatile renewable energy resource, produced through garbage by eliminating the process of incineration [26].
Anaerobic Digestion is energy efficient and environmental friendly as it Efficient usage of energy and environmental protection are crucial to
can replace conventional fuels to produce heat and power and its by- integrate sustainability. Hydrogen, a sustainable fuel acts as the key
product can replace common mineral fertilizer [6]. Anaerobic Diges­ benefactor towards energy transition. Optimization of hydrogen con­
tion is a series of biological processes that takes place within sealed sumption in the aspect of cost and energy management is necessary to
containers producing biogas by digesting the plant and/or animal ma­ avoid the implications towards degradation of on-board power sources
terials using micro organisms. The organic matter that is left over is rich [28,29]. The integration of biogas and with fuel cells will bring out
in nutrients (nitrogen, phosphate and potash) is known as digestate. enormous advantages over the conventional resources and can be a
There are multiple benefits when the organic wastes are treated through relied solution for rural electrification. It paves the way to the villages to
Anaerobic Digestion(Fig. 1) It enables the production of renewable en­ become self-sustained for their energy demands through the localized
ergy, promotes climate change mitigation, contributes towards a circu­ energy production. This review paper discusses the overview of biogas
lar economy and food security, improves health and sanitation by means and fuel cell, potential of biogas at rural areas, people’s perception upon
of better solid waste management and provides economic development renewable energy and implementation of SOFC. It mainly aims at the
and job creation. Taking into consideration of United Nations Sustain­ potential and constraints with respect to biogas fed SOFC for rural
able Development Goals, the following are the contributions that make electrification.
the AD of organic waste advantageous:
2. Rural electrification
1. Diverse and local feedstock
2. Flexibility of scale Rural Electrification is providing cost-effective and reliable elec­
3. Flexible usage of biogas tricity to the people living in rural communities and unelectrified remote
4. Multiple revenue streams villages. In most rural areas of India, the energy and power needs are
satisfied only through the conventional sources such as firewood (for
At present, Biomass accounts for 14% of world energy supply and cooking) and kerosene (for lighting). The villages that are “electrified”
contributes 80% of rural energy demand. Animal dung as a domestic either have limited access with extremely poor quality or no access to
resource is an easily available and infinite biomass due to the cattle electricity. The influencing factors to opt a fuel source mainly focus on
distribution at rural areas can be converted into biogas. Enormous cost, reliability and ease of use, neglecting the environmental benefits
quantity of biomass resources are available in India that includes and safety issues. It is necessary to create awareness about the usage of
municipal solid waste, agricultural waste, crop residue, animal manure, safe and environmentally friendly fuel sources and implementing the
waste sludge from wastewater treatment plants and industrial wastes. It decentralized renewable energy system [1]. Some of the issues and
is essential to use the huge potential of energy generation from biomass challenges in rural electrification includes high capital cost, inadequate
to reduce the severe power crisis [11]. Being a clean and efficient fuel, legal frameworks for renewable energy, improper use of subsides, un­
biogas provides numerous end uses that include cooking, electricity and realistic political commitments, over emphasis on grid electrification,
transport. It is necessary to make the biogas technology feasible to rural low demand and consumption, lack of a better regulatory system and
areas where the access to electrification is limited and only 11% of the limited maintenance of the energy systems. Social benefits such as
commercial fuels accounts for rural energy use [12]. employment creation, quality of life, electricity uses at household,
Electricity generation from biogas obtained through anaerobic agriculture and small scale industries at rural and remote areas [2,3].
digestion can provide high economical benefits like levelized cost of
expenditure (LCOE) compared to other renewable energy resources like 2.1. Initiatives by the government for rural electrification
solar and wind energy [14]. Fuel cell is a device that converts the
chemical energy of a hydrogen rich fuel into electrical energy. As it Several policies and schemes are launched to by the Government of
employs one step process (chemical to electrical), it furnishes numerous India to promote electrification at rural and remote area and to support
advantages in comparison with the combustion based energy generation the expansion of renewable energy [2,3].
technologies that involves a multi-step process (from chemical to ther­
mal to mechanical to electrical). Fuel cells are consistent with energy 1. Electricity Act 2003 emphasizes the SERC and CERC to establish
carrier (e.g. hydrogen) and renewable sources (e.g. biogas) [15]. They renewable energy systems and tariffs, which was later renewed
are employed for a number of applications due to its fuel flexibility, wide its priority to promote rural electrification.
range of scaling, low chemical and thermal emissions and higher effi­ 2. National Electricity Policy 2005 allows SERC to establish tariffs,
ciencies [16]. Depending on the type of technology, fuel cells exhibit supply reliable and quality power at reasonable rates and availing
higher conversion efficiencies ranging between 45 and 60% (LHV). Fuel power to all by 2012.
cells neglects combustion and intermediate steps thereby replacing en­ 3. National Electricity Plan is a framework for five years with a
gines and conventional power equipments [16]. Due to reliability on perspective of 15 years to facilitate the addition of capacity for
power, flexibility in the choice of fuel, high quality and efficiency, generation and distribution of electricity, rehabilitation, reset­
SOFCs can be employed for Combined Heat and Power (CHP), small tlement, energy security and environmental considerations.
scale, standalone, remote and uninterrupted power supply applications 4. National Rural Electrification Policies 2006 emphasizes to pro­
[22]. SOFCs are solid structures that offer multifuel capacity (H2, CO, vide access to electricity to all by 2009 and providing standalone
CH3, syngas and biogas), high sulphur-resistance (than all types of FCs), system as solution at places where grid connection is not possible.
non-susceptible to CO, wide range of scaling up (W to MW), higher 5. Tariff Policy focuses on ensuring financial viability of sectors and
electrical efficiency (60–80% when combined with gas turbine) and promoting consistency, transparency and predictability.
thermal efficiency with CHP units (80–90%) and low emissions (CO2 & 6. Kutir Jyoti Program (KJP) was launched in the year 1988–89 to
NOx) [27]. In AD-SOFC integrated system, the high temperature gas provide a single point line connection to every household that
(unused fuel) from the outlet of SOFC can be recovered, treated by comes under below poverty line.
supplying to afterburners and can be used for thermal pretreatment in 7. Pradhan Manthri Gramodaya Yojna (PMGY) is a scheme grant by
digesters apart from the electricity generation [26]. The process of the central government to state government that was initiated in
electricity production and utilization using fuel cells that are fueled with the year 2000–01, on a 90% loan and 10% grant basis.

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

8. Accelerated Rural Electrification Program (AREP) was launched Table 1

in the year 2003–04 to provide electricity access to unelectrified Composition of biogas [7].
villages either through conventional or non-conventional Component Concentration (%)
sources.
Methane (CH4) 55–60
9. Accelerated Electrification of one hundred villages and 10 million Carbon dioxide (CO2) 35–40
households was initiated in the year 2004–05 that provided 40% Hydrogen (H2) 2–7
as capital subsidy and balance amount provided by Rural Elec­ Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 2
trification Corporation (REC) as soft term loan for rural electri­ Ammonia (NH3) 0–0.05
Nitrogen (N) 0–2
fication projects. This scheme was later merged with RGGVY.
10. Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) was
launched in April 2005 that focused in providing 100% electricity biodegradable materials are biologically broken down and biogas is
to all villages and households and free of cost electricity to the obtained. It is a simple and cost-effective process that helps in protecting
households below the poverty line. the environment from negative consequences such as pollution caused
11. Minimum Needs Program (MNP) was initiated during the year due to improper disposal of wastes from biomass, agricultural, indus­
2001–03 to electrify villages that are with low load potential. trial, animal husbandry and fish residues [5]. As a renewable, carbon
12. Rural Electricity Supply Technology Mission (REST) was neutral and sustainable resource, biogas helps in manure management
launched in the year 2002 that facilitates in identifying, pro­ and soil degradation. The biogas slurry can be used as a substitute to
moting and adopting technological solutions, funds and alterna­ chemical fertilizers that causes negative impacts to the agricultural field
tive solution for electrification at rural areas. such as degradation of ground water, soil erosion, biomagnifications of
13. Remote Village Electrification (RVE) was initiated in the year pesticides, etc. Proper utilization of wastes for biogas production leads
2005 to provide electrification to rural areas where grid to the reduction of green house gases emission provides energy security
connection is either not feasible or economical. and minimizes the consumption of fossil fuel [11].
14. Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) was launched
in the year 2009 to reduce the dependence on non-renewable
energy sources. It deployed 20 million solar lighting systems in 3.1. Stages of anaerobic digestion
rural areas all over the country.
15. Integrated Rural Energy Planning (IREP) was launched during the AD is a biochemical process where the larger polymers are converted
7th five year plan (1985–90) that mainly focuses on attaining into smaller monomers with the help of micro organisms in biodigesters.
minimum means of rural domestic energy needs (cooking, heat­ The process of biological breakdown involves four stages namely Hy­
ing and lighting), facilitating the options to meet development in drolysis, Acidogenesis, Acetogenesis and Methanogenesis [5,7,9,11].
agriculture, making the Panchayat and voluntary institutions and Fig. 3 shows the stages in anaerobic digestion.
organizations at micro level to participate in achieving the energy
goals through implementation of government schemes and plans, 3.1.1. Hydrolysis
adopting renewable energy sources and involving environmental It is the first essential stage of Anaerobic Digestion. It involves the
considerations; thus, promoting technology awareness and conversion of complex organic matter into smaller units. The larger
adoption leading to increased yield, income and sustainable molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins and fats are hydrolyzed into
development (Fig. 2). simpler monomers such as saccharides, amino acids and fatty acids
respectively. Bacteria involved in this stage include both facultative and
In accordance with the survey (IREP) that was conducted to examine
the status of village in terms of energy utilization and potential of
renewable energy sources, the following are the interpretations:

1. For cooking, firewood (62%) and LPG (38%) are being used.
2. For lighting, kerosene (15%) and electricity (85%) are being used.
3. Electricity is employed for lighting (20%), home appliances (13%),
agriculture (56%) and public utilities (11%).
4. The major bio resources available in the village include firewood
(48%), crop residues (4%), animal (38%) and human waste (10%).
Only firewood is consumed entirely.

The findings show technology awareness (knowledge of LPG and

electricity) and technology adoption (energy efficient lamps like CFL
and LED, SPV Lantern, electronic ballast and regulator, improved chu­
las, solar cooker, energy efficient pumps and biogas plants) lag behind at
villages.

3. Biogas production

Biogas is a biofuel that is obtained from biodegradable material such

as organic waste, animal manure and by products from agricultural and
industrial processes. It is a colourless, odourless gas lighter than air
which has an ignition temperature between 50 ◦ C and 70 ◦ C and a
calorific value of 22 MJ for 1 m3. It primarily consists of CH4 and CO2.
Table 1 shows the composition of biogas. The type of feedstock de­
termines the composition and yield of biogas. Anaerobic Digestion is the
process that is widely used for biogas production. In AD, the Fig. 1. Anaerobic digestion technology [10].

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

Corynebacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Staphylococcus spp., and

Escherichia coli are involved in Acidogenesis.

3.1.3. Acetogenesis
The creation of acetate is Acetogenesis, the next stage of Anaerobic
Digestion. It involves the formation of acetic acid that takes place from
the rest of the organic matter from Acidogenesis. The volatile fatty acids
are converted into acetic acid, H2 and CO2 by acetogenic bacteria (ac­
etate and hydrogen producing bacteria) such as Syntrobacterwolinii and
Syntrophomonaswolfei. It is necessary to maintain low partial pressure
of hydrogen (10.4-10.6 atm) during this stage to enable the effective
functioning of acetogenic bacteria. Such bacteria can survive only in low
hydrogen environment.

3.1.4. Methanogenesis
It is the last stage of Anaerobic Digestion during which the formation
of methane occurs. The acetic acid and the intermediary products of
Hydrolysis and Acidogenesis are converted into gaseous products such
as CH4 and CO2. Nearly, 70% of methane is produced from this stage in
AD. The end products mainly comprises of 50–75% of CH4 and 50-25%
of CO2 and trace amounts of N2, H2 and H2S. Autotrophic methanogens,
including bacteria from the genera Methanosarcina and Methanosaeta
are involved in the generation of methane.
Fig. 2. Dimensions of rural energy planning [4].
3.2. Types of biogas reactors

Biogas plants are distinguished into various designs. It includes

floating drum, fixed dome, balloon, horizontal, earth pit and ferro-
cement. However, two designs of biogas plants are extensively used
namely floating drum and fixed dome plants. Popular biogas designs in
India approved by MNRE and KVIC include Janta fixed dome, KVIC
floating drum type and Deenbandhu fixed dome. Floating drum and
fixed dome plants are small scale bioreactors that mainly comprises of
airtight digesting chamber and biogas holder, feed pit, output pit and gas
meter. Floating Drum Reactor uses a drum as gas holder and a cylin­
drical or dome shaped tank as digestion chamber. The drum floats over
the cylindrical top of the tank. The gas gets collected in the drum and the
amount of gas produced is identified by the position of the drum. A
guiding frame prevents the tilting of drum. It involves easy construction;
yet the steel drum is expensive and is prone to corrosion. Therefore, it
has a shorter span of lifetime and capital and maintenance cost is rela­
tively high. Fixed Dome Reactor uses a static gas holder and a fixed
digester constructed underground. The gas holder is made from good
quality concrete; it reduces heat factor and are cost-effective over iron
made cylinder. As the gas production starts, a part of slurry is pressed to
the compensation tank. A gas pressure is created due to the differences
in the amount of slurry in the digester and the compensation tank. Once
Fig. 3. Stages in Anaerobic Digestion [7]. the gas is released, the slurry is flown back to the digester. Since un­
derground digester is used in this type of reactor, it takes longer time to
obligatory anaerobes such as Bacteroides, Lactobacillus, Propioni­ heat up. Its construction is labour intensive. However, it has longer
bacterium, Sphingomonas, Sporobacterium, Megasphera and Bifido­ lifetime as non-movable and non-steel parts are employed. [5,8]
bacterium. The hydrogen and acetates are the additionally obtained
products during Hydrolysis. During Hydrolysis, effective solubilization 3.3. Factors affecting the performance of gas production
(process of structural breakdown) of organic matter is necessary for
effective degradation of microorganisms. Various factors influence the performance of the gas production. It
includes retention time, temperature, pH, nutrients, and toxic materials
3.1.2. Acidogenesis [5,7,9].
It is the second stage of Anaerobic Digestion. It involves the further
breakdown of the organic matter from soluble monomers into a short 3.3.1. Retention time
chain of organic acids after hydrolysis. Volatile fatty acids include lactic, Hydraulic Retention Time and Solid Retention Time are the mean
propionic and butyric acids. The intermediary products include NH3, residence time for liquids and solids wastes that are in contact with the
H2S, H2, CO2 and alcohol like ethanol. Usually, it is the fastest step in a biomass bacteria inside the anaerobic digester. HRT denotes the mean
balanced anaerobic process. During this stage, acidogenic bacteria im­ time of sublayer retention and biomass contact; SRT denotes the mean
parts in producing high concentration of hydrogen. Facultative and time of meeting the effluents and pollutants biodegradability levels.
obligate anaerobic fermentative bacteria such as Clostridium spp., HRT is higher for complex solids and smaller for simple solids. Higher
Peptococcusanerobius, Bifidobacterium spp., Desulphovibrio spp., the SRT, higher is the operational stability. Greater removal efficiency is

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

achieved from higher HRT as high amounts of contaminants are being Table 2
removed. Retention time must be chosen according to the rate of Factors affecting the performance of gas production.
decomposition of raw materials. S⋅NO FACTORS FEATURES RANGE

1. Retention • Hydraulic Retention • Higher the HRT, higher

3.3.2. Temperature Time Time (HRT) - the mean the removal efficiency
It is a sensitive parameter that has to be monitored regularly as it time of sub layer • Higher the SRT, higher is
shows the rate of the biological reactions. The temperature highly in­ retention and biomass the operational stability
fluences the quality and quantity of biogas. The micro organisms that content.
• Solid Retention Time
take part in Anaerobic Digestion includes Cryophiles (Psychrophiles), (SRT) – Meantime
Mesophiles and Thermophiles. The temperature range required for the required to achieve the
operation of cryophiles, mesophiles and thermophiles are 12–24 ◦ C, biodiversity levels of
22–40 ◦ C and 50–60 ◦ C. When the bioreactor operates at thermophilic effluents and pollutants
2. Temperature • Cryophilic- 12-24oC • Higher the temperature,
temperature, it offers decreased retention time, improved digestion of
• Mesophilic- 22-40oC higher the inhibition of
solid sublayers, complete destruction of pathogens and feasibility of • Thermophilic- 50-60oC ammonia.
liquid isolation from solid fractions. However, it consumes large energy, • Necessary to maintain
affects stability range and inhibits the rate of ammonia. When the above 30oC for ideal
temperature is high, the inhibition rate of ammonia formation is higher. fermentation.
3. pH • Uses Lime as • Low pH causes system
Climatic conditions determine the choice of the operating temperature. equilibrium buffer failure.
The warm climate neglects the additional heat requirement to the • Buffer is used to • High pH limits the
digester. Green house covering and the burial of the digester underneath maintain the level of pH process of
the soil are the commonly practiced measures during summer. The cold methanogenesis
• Necessary to maintain
climate requires heat supplement and hence the digester can be sur­
near neutral (6.5-7.5)
rounded by separate compartment where the natural materials are 4. Nutrients • C/N Ratio- the mass of • Lower the nutrient,
composed in batches. It is necessary to maintain a temperature above carbon to mass of lower the stability and
30 ◦ C for an ideal fermentation. nitrogen. performance of AD.
• C/N ratio needs to
maintained as 30:1
3.3.3. pH
5. Toxic • Soluble Salts of copper, • Higher the toxic
It is an important factor that has to be maintained near neutral in the materials zinc, nickel, mercury, materials, higher the
range of 6.0 and 8.0. Low pH results in reduction of gas generation. It chromium inhibition of ammonia;
can be improved by dilution or addition of lime. As an equilibrium • Free Ammonia decreases the rate of
• Oxygen digestion and pH value
buffer, lime maintains the level of pH constant. The optimal range
• Volatile Fatty Acids
maintained in biogas plants is 6.5–7.5. Low pH may cause system failure
and high pH can limit the process of Methanogenesis. pH value depends
on VFA and bicarbonate concentration in the digester gas. When the pH 3.4. BIOMASS potential
value goes below 6, it affects the methane production. Acidogenic and
methanogenic bacteria need pH in the range between 5.5 and 7 and 6.5 Though biomass is the organic matter used as conventional energy
and 8 respectively. Excess amount of buffer usage may result in partial or source for cooking and heating, it possesses a wide range of potential for
complete halting of the process. biogas production. The biomass resources include municipal solid
wastes, agricultural wastes, animal manure and industrial wastes. MSW
3.3.4. Nutrients includes the organic and inorganic domestic refuses; Agricultural wastes
For the selection of raw material, the C/N ratio is crucial. It must be include the crop residues and wood debris; Animal manure includes
maintained close to 30:1. Domestic sewage and animal and poultry cattle dung; Industrial wastes that varies with different industries in­
wastes are N-rich materials that facilitate the growth and multiplication cludes raw wastewater from paper and pulp industry, wastes from diary
of micro organisms. Though agricultural wastes and green grass are N- industry, wastewater and press mud from sugar industry, wastewater
poor materials, they are rich in carbohydrate substances that are stream from distilleries and slaughter houses, water sludge from
necessary for gas production. Performance and stability of Anaerobic wastewater treatment plants and poultry industry wastes that includes
Digestion are affected by the low nutrient concentration of energy crops. egg shells, waste feed, unhatched eggs, etc. [5,10].
It results in low methane yields, acidification and process instability in
crop monodigestion, low organic loading rates and long hydraulic
retention times. Organic Loading Rate is the amount of the biomass fed 3.5. Thermal pre-treatment
into the bioreactor. It is an important criterion that determines the
production of methane. With higher OLRs, the concentration of acido­ Studies revealed that thermal treatment is the most prevalently used
genic bacteria increases. This results in lowering the pH below 6.6 that technique in Anaerobic Digestion of lignocellulose and many assessed
will inhibit the growth of methanogens. Lower the methane producing the effect of different types of pretreatment on methane production that
methanogens, lower will be the gas production. Hence, it is necessary to includes thermal, mechanical (ultrasound and high pressure) and
determine the correct OLR for a particular substrate. chemical with oxidation (mainly ozonation). In order to break the cell
wall of the complex polymers in the waste streams and enable the cell
3.3.5. Toxic materials content for enzymatic biological degradation, thermal pretreatment is
They inhibit the anaerobic digestion. The common toxic materials carried out [30]. Recent studies reported that the bioprocess efficiency
include soluble salts of copper, zinc, nickel, mercury and chromium. of lignocellulose is associated with the performance of pretreatment.
Higher concentration of ammonia can also lead to inhibition of the Fig. 4 shows the effect of pre-treatment. Pretreatment technologies
process which can be rectified by maintaining C/N ratio. Free ammonia mainly focus to facilitate faster AD process, increase the yield of biogas
concentration above the level of 100 mg/l can lead to inhibition. Oxygen and utilize a wide range of new and/or locally available biomass for use
in biogas decreases the rate of digestion. During the start-up, Volatile [7].
fatty acids are high which may result in toxic and inhibitory effects. VFA Biomethane Potential Test also known as BMP Test, Batch Test or
generation leads to smaller value of pH (Table 2). Cumulative Biomethane Production Test is a very common technique

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4. Fuel cell

Fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy

of the fuel (often hydrogen) is converted directly into electrical energy
which set forth as an example of zero emission power production. Even
though, the technology is 160 years old, it is becoming commercialized
in the recent years. Improvements in properties of the materials and
process of manufacturing have emerged in the past two decades. In
1939, William Grove demonstrated the concept of fuel cell as a reverse
of electrolytic water decomposition called it as gas battery which was
after 50 years was described as fuel cell by Mond and Langer that used a
porous platinum black structure as electrode and a porous diaphragm to
hold electrolyte. Various types of fuel cells were developed that differ in
the nature of electrolyte that conducts either oxide ions or protons [22].
In a fuel cell, fuel is supplied at the anode (negative electrode) and
oxidant at the cathode (positive electrode) and produces electric current
as a result of electrochemical reactions. A fuel cell differs from battery in
Fig. 4. Effect of Thermal Pretreatment [7]. such a way that the reactants say the gases (working material) is
consumed wherein battery the electrodes say metals itself is a source of
employed to assess pretreatment. It provides information about the energy and are therefore consumed. A battery is energy storage device
quantity of biogas produced and its rate of production. Based on the but a fuel cell is an energy conversion device. Though the ideal IV curve
substrate used and the duration of the test, the following interpretations is a straight line at 1.23 V, the performance of the fuel cell is affected by
are possible: three losses that include kinetic losses that result from poor kinetics of
electrode, ohmic losses due to ohmic resistance of the cell components
1. At t1, the pretreatment (b) doubles the yield of methane and mass transport losses produced as a consequence of the blockage of
2. At t2, none of the pretreatment methods increases the methane yield the channels by the byproduct of the reaction, water [19]. Due to the
3. At t3, the pretreatment (c) increases the yield of methane by 25%; direct conversion of chemical energy to electrical energy, fuel cells
however the pretreatment (b) has no effect posses high efficiency and hence CO2 and NOx emissions are compara­
tively low. The negligence to the moving parts, results in avoidance of
Thus, a pretreatment method can either increase the rate of AD noise and vibration. To connect the fuel cells in series to have larger
(pretreatment b) or increase the methane production (pretreatment c). voltages, scaling the fuel cells from W to MW and multifuel capacity
Both the effects will enhance the running of the biogas plant. (depending upon the type of fuel cell and its operating temperature) is
possible. Also, the fuel cells involve low maintenance. However, sta­
3.6. Electricity from biomass tionary electric generation from the fuel cell and production and dis­
tribution of hydrogen is expensive [14].
It was found that the electricity from biogas through AD has low
levelized cost of electricity than solar and wind sources. As per the 4.1. Types of fuel cell
analysis of REN 21 (Fig. 5), the LCOE for AD landfill for food waste
treatment is US$ 65 MWh− 1 and for AD facilities is US$ 190 MWh− 1. The various types of fuel cells include Proton Exchange Membrane
This is low compared to Solar Power (utility scale) and Wind power off- Fuel Cell (PEMFC), Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC), Alkaline Fuel Cell
shore which is US$ 130 MWh− 1 and US$ 204 MWh− 1 respectively [13]. (AFC), Phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
(MCFC) and Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) [14–19,22].

4.1.1. PEMFC
These are the most commonly used type of fuel cell though a number
of fuel cells have evolved. PEMFCs possess enormous advantages that
include efficient energy conversion, cell durability, simplicity, operation
at low temperatures, rapid startup, high power density, fuel flexibility,
system robustness, reduced concerns for sealing, shielding, leaking and
corrosion issues and can be employed for both stationary and portable
applications. Low temperature operation neglects the possibility for
internal fuel reforming and platinum catalyst makes it expensive. Non
corrosive fluids make it suitable for transport and small power appli­
cations. However, PEMFCs meet challenges like high cost due to
employment of platinum catalyst, bigger size, low mechanical durability
and degradation of membrane.

4.1.2. DMFC
These are considered as the subset of PEM by Department of Energy.
They are simpler in structure and are relatively less weight. They use
liquid methanol as fuel, polymer electrolyte membrane and operates at a
temperature between 70 and 100 ◦ C. They require large amount of Pt
catalyst that PEM. Since the operating temperature is low, the fuel is
being injected directly to the anode. DMFCs employ MEA assembly of
thickness 1 mm that comprises of catalytic layer made from platinum at
Fig. 5. LCOE of different renewable energy sources [13]. cathode and platinum alloy at anode and diffusion layer from a mixture

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

of carbon and Teflon. The fuel gets oxidized and results in CO2, protons to operate at 650 ◦ C, the carbonate salts start to melt and becomes
that diffuse through the electrolyte and electrons that takes the external conductive of CO2− 3 ions thus transmitted from cathode to anode where
path, constitute current and reaches the cathode where the oxidant is they react with hydrogen and produce CO2, electrons and water. The
supplied. The oxidant is reduced by reacting with the electrons and electrons pass through the external path constituting electric current. In
produces water. Since methanol eliminates the issues with production order to make the CO2 that is being produced at anode to be consumed at
and storage, it can be used in portable applications. However, DMFCs cathode, CO2 has to be recirculated to cathode. Due to catalytic internal
constitutes lower power densities (200–400 mW/cm2) and lowest effi­ reforming at anode, MCFCs neglects the need of external reformers yet
ciency (35%) compared to other types of fuel cells. the coarseness of the reforming catalyst may lower their lifetime. The
efficiency of the MCFCs is 45%; however could be increased to 60–70%
4.1.3. AFC when waste heat is properly utilized. It uses wide range of hydrocarbon
These emerged as a power source for “alimentation” of space crafts fuels and neglects the expensive catalyst like platinum. Although it has
and were the first type of fuel cell used in power generators. AFCs make slow start up, electrolyte tends to corrode and impossible to restart the
use of porous electrodes, cheap catalysts such as nickel or silver, liquid cell stack after shutdown.
KOH as electrolyte (conducts OH− ions) and a variety of materials such
as potassium titanate, ceria, asbestos and zirconium phosphate gel as 4.1.6. SOFC
separator. The hydroxyl ions are conducted from cathode to anode, These are the fuel cells that operate at high temperature
electrons are conducted via the external circuit and water is produced at (800–1000 ◦ C) compared to other type of fuel cells. They use Yttrium
the cathode. It is necessary to circulate hydrogen to extract the gaseous Stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) as electrolyte due to its higher ionic conduc­
water product. They can produce a voltage between 0.5 V and 0.9 V. tivity, Nickel-YSZ as anode and strontium doped LaMnO3 as cathode
Depending upon the supply of electrolyte, three designs of AFCs are material. In SOFCs, the oxygen split into O2− ions that travel through the
viewed. First is the mobile electrolyte AFC that is supplied with pure electrolyte from cathode to anode. At anode, the ions react with
hydrogen as fuel and air as oxidant whereas the electrolyte is supplied hydrogen, generate water and releases electrons. These electrons are
externally. However, the CO2 present in the air might react with KOH conducted via an external circuit and constitute electric current. SOFCs
which may result in the production of potassium carbonate hence re­ have neglects noble metals as catalyst, possess higher efficiency up to
quires CO2 scrubber which is expensive. Second is the Static electrolyte 80% when employed as CHP unit, low emissions of NOx and SOx and
AFC that requires pure hydrogen and pure oxygen to operate and the relatively high tolerance to sulphur. However, they require high starting
electrolyte KOH is filled inside a matrix structure with asbestos as times and result in high temperature material issues (Table 3).
separator. It requires a cooling system to maintain the temperature
within the cell. Last is the dissolved electrolyte AFC which uses KOH 4.2. Hydrogen economy
mixed with hydrazine or ammonia (fuel) and hence it requires hydrazine
as fuel to dissociate with hydrogen and ammonia. Though this cell may Hydrogen has a greater energy density than many fuels used today. It
encounter fuel crossover problems, it is negligible due to the usage of is lighter than air and diffuses rapidly. It can be formed from hydro­
non-noble catalyst at the cathode. This type is usually not preferred since carbons as they don’t occur naturally which are expected to be the
hydrazine is toxic and explosive. AFCs provides fast startup, wide dominating fuel in the stationary applications. It can also be produced
operating temperature ranges, ability to achieve an electrical efficiency without emitting CO with the advent of electrolyer that can be operated
up to 65% and operating lifecycle between 10,000 and 15,000 h. AFCs from solar and wind which separates the hydrogen from water mole­
must to be provided with pure hydrogen and pure oxygen due to its cules. Reliable supply, safe and efficient storage helps in transition to
susceptibility to CO2; even smaller levels of CO2 affect the cell efficiency hydrogen economy [18].
and thus require expensive purification system.
5. PEMFC and SOFC
4.1.4.
These are the first commercialized fuel cells extensively used at
Despite the numerous types of fuel types that have been developed
Japan and US (more than 400 systems mostly 100 kWto 400 kW
over the years, PEMFC is the most common, leading and promising
installed worldwide). They have to be operated at a temperature be­
candidate in clean energy technologies. It has drawn the attention due to
tween 150 and 220 ◦ C due to its low ionic conductivity. It uses phos­
its simple design, low operating temperature and flexibility for sta­
phoric acid as electrolyte placed in a ceramic matrix, hydrogen as fuel
tionary and mobile applications. On the other hand, SOFCs are blooming
and oxygen as oxidant. At anode, hydrogen is split into protons and
with technology advancements. They are known for their fuel flexibility,
electrons; H+ ions are drawn through the electrolyte and the e− ions are
scaling capabilities and tolerance to impurities. It is necessary to analyze
forced through the external circuit that constitutes electricity. The e−
the behavior and trends in PEMFC to understand fuel cells. The overview
ions are then lead to the cathode that combines with the H+ ions and O2
of PEMFC has been discussed.
to form water. The ceramic matrix has a thickness of 0.1–0.2 mm that
avoids fuel crossover and GDL made from platinum, carbon paper coated
with PTFE. They can provide efficiency between 37 and 42%; can pro­ 5.1. Operation of PEMFC
vide 60% when operated as CHP units and operating lifecycle exceeds
65,000 h. They are susceptible to high concentration of CO and hence It comprises of a polymer membrane electrolyte (Fig. 6), provided
cannot be used at stationary power generating applications >5 MW as it with hydrogen as fuel, oxygen as oxidant and operates at a temperature
may poison the pt catalyst. They offer tolerance to CO up to 1.5% between 70 and 100 ◦ C. Hence, it requires a platinum catalyst to initiate
however, sulphur must be removed. For a massive commercialization, the electrochemical process. Hydrogen (fuel) provided at anode split
PAFCs must have an operating lifecycle atleast 80,000 h. into protons and electrons; oxygen is provided at cathode. The protons
are directed through the electrolyte and are combined with the oxygen
4.1.5. to form water. The electrons that got separated from the anode are
These are one of the high temperature fuel cells that operate up to routed to an external circuit to generate electricity. Equations (1) and
650 ◦ C and use hydrocarbon fuels. MCFCs comprise of molten mixture of (2) show the reaction at electrodes [17].
alkali carbonates (either mixture of Li2CO3 and K2CO3 or mixture of
At anode: H2 = 2H++ 2e− (1)
Li2CO3 and Na2CO3) as electrolyte, anode made with nickel alloy as
catalyst and cathode made with nickel as catalyst. When the cell begins + −
At cathode: ½ O2+ 2H +2e = H2O (2)

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Table 3
Differences between various types of Fuel Cells.
TYPE OF FUEL TYPICAL ELECTROLYTE CHARGE EFFICIENCY ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
CELL CARRIER (%)

PEMFC Perfluorinated sulfonic acid H+ 60 • Efficient energy conversion • Bigger size

• Cell durability • Low mechanical durability
• Rapid startup
• High power density
• System robustness
DMFC Solid Nafion H+ 35 • Easy production and storage of • Lower power densities
methanol
• Simple design
• Less weight
AFC Aqueous potassium hydroxide OH −
65 • Fast startup, • Must use pure H2 and O2
• Potential for non precious metal • Susceptible to CO2
catalyst
PAFC Liquid Phosphoric Acid in SiC H+ 60 • Low Cost Electrolyte • Low ionic conductivity
matrix • Reliability • Susceptible to CO and S
poisoning
MCFC Molten carbonate in ceramic CO2-
3 60–70 • Fuel flexibility • Corrosive, molten electrolyte
mixture • Usage of non precious metal catalyst
SOFC Yttria stabilized zirconia O2- 80 • Solid electrolyte • High temperature materials
• Fuel flexibility issues
• Usage of non precious metal catalyst • Sealing issues

Fig. 6. PEM fuel cell configuration [15].

commonly used due to its high chemical stability in PEMFC that facili­
tates the ionic conductivity (H+ ions) and acts as a separator between the
5.1.1. Materials and components fuel and the oxidant. Lower the thickness of the membrane, higher the
PEMFC is made up of three layers namely, anode, cathode and conductivity. To have efficient conduction of ion, it is a requisite to have
electrolyte; the layers of the electrode and electrolyte are pressed higher hydration level. In order to facilitate the less utilization of water,
together as Membrane Electrode Assembly (MEA) that comprises of a perfluorinated composite membrane was developed that involves
proton exchange membrane, two catalyst layers and two gas diffusion incorporation of thin porous polytetrafluoroethene foils with per­
layers [14,19,20]. fluorinated membrane which in turn promotes high ionic conductivity
and excellent mechanical stability. Also, nanocomposite membranes,
5.1.1.1. Membrane. Generally, the membrane of any fuel cell must sulfonated hydrocarbon polymers, fullerene-based membranes and
possess high ionic conductivity and strong enough to deal with chemical many other membranes were developed that were suggested as an
attack. Temperature of the fuel cell is an important parameter that de­ alternative for Nafion membrane that furnish improved physical and
cides the choice of the membrane. A sulphonated polymer with Poly chemical properties, wide temperature range and enhance the perfor­
Tetra Fluoro Ethylene (PTFE) backbone, Nafion is the membrane mance of the fuel cell.

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

5.1.1.2. Catalyst. The catalyst causes the dissociation of hydrogen it increases the output voltage of the cell [21].
(fuel) at anode and formation of water by Oxidation Reduction Reaction An experimental study of PEMFC (10 W) with two different condi­
(ORR). The fuel provided must be pure to avoid the advent of carbon tions of mass flow rate: (i) H2 = 2 SLPM, O2 = 4 SLPM, (ii) H2 = 4 SLPM,
monoxide (CO) which may result in degradation of performance of fuel O2 = 3 SLPM and different cell temperatures from 40 to 55 ◦ C with a
cell. To overcome the problem, development of platinum-ruthenium load of 7 A was carried out to investigate the main factor that influence
(Pt–Ru) catalyst helped to remove the effect of CO. Likewise, Pt-alloy the performance of the cell. It has shown despite the change in mass flow
was developed but it failed to maintain stability of the reaction. Since rate, the power produced is on a consistent basis. Also, with the increase
Pt costs high, nanoscopic low cost metals like Copper (Cu) and Rhenium in cell temperature, the power produced has increased indicating
(Rh) called core shell catalyst were developed. Also, many metals like operating temperature of the cell is the main criterion that has high
Cobalt (Co) and Iron (Fe) were developed as an alternative for platinum impact on the output of the cell (Fig.7-8).
free catalyst. Catalyst Support Layer (CSL), helps in maintaining the
contact between Membrane Electrolyte Assembly (MEA) and the reac­ 5.1.3. Applications
tant gas and enabling the triple phase interface. The most widely Since PEMFCs power generation range from W to kW, it can be
employed catalyst is Platinum coated with carbon black (Pt/C). employed for automobiles, aerospace and military applications. The
Although, many carbon based nanomaterials are used as CSL. The Pt main applications that the PEMFCs extend to include transportation (up
loading varies as per the application which was 0.4–0.8 mg Pt/cm2 then. to 70 kW), stationary (up to 500 kW) and portable (up to some kW)
Later, the target of 0.2 mg/cm2 for 2015 and 0.125 mg/cm2 were set by power generations. Fuel cell vehicles will be effective with the hydrogen
US Department of Energy (DOE). Thus, the catalyst layer (usually 5–15 economy. PEMFCs, for transportation application, must possess shorter
nm) is made from either platinum or platinum alloy enable the triple start-up time, smaller size and weight and a lifecycle between 3000 and
phase contact between the gas, electrode and the electrolyte to proceed 5000 operating hours; for stationary distributed power generation ap­
with the electrochemical reaction. plications, must possess lower noise level when installed indoor and
ability to operate at extreme ambient condition when installed outdoor
5.1.1.3. GDL. The Gas Diffusion Layer (GDL) is made either carbon and an operating lifecycle between 40,000 and 80,000 h; for portable
paper or carbon cloth (100–300 μm) coated with carbon powder/PTFE power generation application must possess higher power densities and
that prevents the pooling of water. The GDL ensures the mechanical larger energy storage capacities. PEMFCs can be employed for distrib­
support and gas diffusion. With the current density 0.5 A/cm2, a typical uted generation however the storage of hydrogen is difficult as it in­
fuel cell gives a voltage between 0.6 and 0.7 and thus can be connected volves pressurization which may lead to explosion. Moreover, portable
in series to have higher voltages. Though PEMFCs offers higher power application of PEMFCs is limited to military as it could be easily detected
densities, they are susceptible to CO poisoning (CO concentration should by sensors. PEMFCs can be employed for vehicles (suitably public
be below 10 ppm), poor waste heat recovery and requires proper water transport say bus) that runs on hydrogen denoted as zero emission ve­
management for sufficient ionic conductivity. hicles, can be easily refueled at central depots in cities which in turn
operating successfully around the world. The costs are high for hydrogen
5.1.1.4. Bipolar plates. Bipolar plates account 80% weight of the stack. production compared with fossil fuels. Another consideration in PEMFC
They are made either from metal or graphite. Metallic bipolar plates is is the usage of platinum catalyst. In commercial prototype, the utiliza­
made from two metal plates combined together provide with cooling tion of platinum is low. Higher the pt content and effective utilization,
channels in between. Also, corrosion protective layers are added. Due to higher is the performance of the cell. As per the data from Institut für
their high power density and low cost, they are employed for mobile Kraftfahrzeuge Aachen University, Germany, Total installation cost, for
applications. Graphite plates are not gas tight and thus impregnated PEMFC, 10 kW is 5500 ($/kW) and for 200Kw is 3800 ($/kW), for PAFC,
with resin or composite material polymer binders. The flow designs 200 kW is 5200 ($/kW), for MCFC, 2000 kW is 3250 ($/kW) and for
include pin-type, parallel channel, serpentine (single or multiple) and SOFC, 100 kW is 3620 ($/kW). Moreover, hydrogen is a perfect fuel to
interdigited. These designs are influenced by the needs of homogenous sustain the energy system to fossil fuels; yet involves challenges like cost
gas distribution, better water management, low pressure drop and good competitiveness for transportation and production that indeed involves
electrical contact. safety. The usage of Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicle may result in less
environmental pollution; however it is expensive. Difficulty of computer
5.1.2. Experimental analysis controlling of fuel cell stack for load variation, conversion of energy
Experimental study has shown that the performance of the fuel cell forms for transmission to utility and automation of production of cell
depends on increasing the operating parameters such as operating components are added on challenges [14].
temperature, mass flow rate and stoichiometric ratio. The experiment is
performed with different hydrogen and oxygen flows and different 5.2. SOFC
operating temperatures with different fixed current densities and
examined the cell voltage. At a hydrogen flow rate of 1.0 ml/s and ox­ In 1899, Nernst planted a seed for the technology of SOFC by his
ygen flow rate of 2.0 ml/s with an increment of 1.0 ml/s and 2.0 m/s discovery ‘Nernst Glower’ that used a composition of 85% zirconium
respectively and the temperature increased from 40◦ to 80 ◦ C with an oxide stabilized with 15% yttrium oxide for a glowing filament. As per
increment of 20 ◦ C, the exchange current density of the cell increased his research, the conductivity of pure metal oxide was relatively low
resulting in the reduction of activation losses (losses due to electro­ compared to the conductivity of mixture of metal oxides. Though it was
chemical reaction). Thus, the polarization curve was lower at an oper­ a failure, it led to the finding of solid oxide electrolyte. After several
ating temperature of 80 ◦ C indicating the improvement of performance experiments over a few decades, in 1937, Baur and Preis used yttria
of the fuel cell with increase in temperature. With the increase in mass stabilized zirconia electrolyte for the fuel cell and operated at 1000 ◦ C.
flow rate and cell temperature over constant increase in current density However, it caused problems with the materials used in the cell as a
valves, increase in output voltage is observed. At 80 ◦ C, H2 mass flow result of the nature of the fuel supplied and high operating temperature.
rate increased from 1.0 m/s to 3.0 m/s, O2 mass flow rate increased from Later in 1960, SOFCs were developed with thick electrolyte layers that
2.0 m/s to 6 m/s, fixed current density increased from 0.2 A/cm2 to 1.2 resulted in poor efficiency and losses due the internal resistance of cell
A/cm2 with an increment of 0.2 A/cm2 it showed an increase in voltage [20]. In the next decade, SOFCs with thinner electrolytes were devel­
(%) from 31.16 to 41.81%. It is inferred that when high temperature oped that improved the performance of the cell. SOFCs based on cell
with levelized mass flow rate and increased current density is provided, support classified as electrolyte based, cathode supported and anode
supported. Electrolyte based SOFC involves thick electrolyte; however

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Fig. 7. (a) Variation of power with mass flow rate H2 = 2 SLPM, O2 = 4 SLPM, (b) Variation of power with mass flow rate H2 = 4 SLPM, O2 = 3 SLPM.

not preferred as it reduces the cell performance. Cathode supported 5.2.1. Design configuration OF SOFC
SOFC involves highly porous cathode than anode which reduces the Over the recent years, there are several advancements and significant
mechanical strength of cell. Hence, it is not preferred due to poor sup­ developments that include designs of SOFC which mainly includes
port. Anode supported SOFC is widely used as it offers good mechanical tubular and planar (Fig. 9). Planar is made from flate plates and tubular
strength. It includes two types based on the ion conduction namely is made from tubes. Planar design is further classified as monopolar
P–SOFC and O–SOFC. P–SOFC is proton ion conducting and O–SOFC is (requires no interconnects) and bipolar (uses interconnects). Geomet­
oxygen ion conducting. The type of ion decides the direction of flow of rically modified cell designs include integrated planar (IP–SOFC), cone
ions. P–SOFC uses areyttria doped barium zerate (BCY) and barium shaped, flat tube, honeycomb and micro-tubular. Structurally modified
zirconium (BZY) as electrolyte material. As BCY is not stable in air, BZY cell designs include novel electrolyte and wet impregnated SOFC [24].
is employed. Thus, BZY-Ni is used as anode, BZY as electrolyte and LSCF Table 4 shows the comparison of modified SOFC designs.
as cathode. Though S–SOFC operates at lower temperature than
O–SOFC, it requires sintering aids which may lower the conductivity of 5.2.2. Operation OF SOFC
the cell. Hence, O–SOFC is commonly employed [23]. SOFC uses oxygen in air as oxidant supplied at cathode which gets

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Table 4
Comparison of improved designs of SOFC [24].
Cell design Advantages over Remaining challenges
conventional designs problems

Integrated planar Improved cell performance Sealing and inter-

SOFCs Reduced weight and cost of connector integrity
interconnectors
Cone-shaped SOFCs Improved performance Complex design
Flexible stack design Interconnector integrity
High power with a small
size
High thermal shock
resistance
Flat-tube SOFCs Improved power density Complex design
High thermal shock
resistance
Honeycomb SOFCs High volumetric power Interconnector integrity
Fig. 8. Cell temperature vs power. density Electrical lead
High mechanical strength Complex design
High durability
Micro-tubular SOFCs High volumetric power Current collection
density
High thermal shock
resistance
Rapid start-up
SOFCs with novel Improved cell performance Low mechanical strength
electrolyte designs Difficulties in fabrication
Wet impregnated High cell performance Long term stability
SOFCs

important that the electrolyte to be non-porous to exhibit these prop­

erties. Hence, the production of the yttria stabilized zirconia involves
sintering to hold out against rapid temperature fluctuations. Two al­
ternatives namely gadolinia-doped ceria (CGO) and lanthanum gallate
based structures that provide higher oxygen ion conductivities at low
operating temperature (500 ◦ C) are under research since YSZ electrolyte
as it uses higher operating temperature above 850 ◦ C. Providing thinner
YSZ electrolyte layers may result in would require additional structural
support. However, CGO leads to increase in electronic conductivity at
elevated temperatures and lanthanum gallate can operate between 600
and 700 ◦ C yet decreases power density.

5.2.3.2. Anode. In general, anode material is made from nickel due to

its low cost compared to cobalt and noble metals. To facilitate higher
electronic conductivity, anode must be made porous which is done by
forming a cermet (material made from the mixture of NiO and YSZ
powder). The composition of nickel, an important parameter in cermet
must be 30% in volume. This maintains the thermal expansion co-
Fig. 9. (a) Tubular (b) planar SOFCs [24]. efficient and prevents the sintering of the nickel material between the
anode and electrolyte. Higher the nickel content, higher is the thermal
reduced to oxygen ions, diffuse through the electrolyte, reaches anode expansion co-efficient; thus higher the thermal mismatch that leads to
that is supplied with hydrocarbon fuel and releases heat, H2O and cracking of electrolyte or delamination of electrode. Emergence of
electrons. These electrons passes through the external circuit, enters the alternative anode such as copper integrated with ceria in addition to YSZ
cathode and the cycle repeats (Fig. 10). enabled direct oxidation of hydrocarbon by pumping oxygen ions elec­
trochemically. However, they resulted in rapid deactivation due to
5.2.3. Materials and components carbon deposition on the anode.
The components used in SOFC includes electrolyte, electrodes and
interconnect. A SOFC stack makes use of interconnects to acquire higher 5.2.3.3. Cathode. Strontium doped lanthanum manganite (LaMnO3)
power. Internal reforming is performed for separating hydrogen from (LSM) is the widely used cathode material. Usually, cathode is made of
biogas. Despite the fact that SOFCs can provide tolerance to CO and two layers: (1) LSM and YSZ cermet to have improved porosity and
eliminate corrosion issues, slow heat up and cool down process restricts hinder sintering. (2) Pure LSM (current collect layer) to have improved
them for transport applications that require rapid temperature fluctua­ cell performance. Adding Pt to pure LSM may increase the electrical
tions [22,27]. conductivity of the cathode yet too expensive. Another cathode material
is lanthanum cobaltite (LaCoCO3) that provided higher conductivity yet
5.2.3.1. Electrolyte. The commonly used electrolyte is yttrium stabi­ receptive to reduction in higher temperature. Some other attempts were
lized zirconia due to its higher ionic (oxygen ions) conductivity, negli­ also made to improve the electrical conductivity by mixing LaCoCO3 and
gible electronic conductivity and stability at oxidizing and reducing LaMnO3.
atmospheres. Yttria as a dopant is suitable to stabilize zirconia compared
to other dopant oxides in terms of cost and chemical inertness. It is 5.2.3.4. Interconnect. Interconnects give the electrical contact between

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Fig. 10. Operation of SOFC [24].

the adjacent cells and facilitates the distribution of the fuel and air to minimum entropy production of irreversibility which is mainly due to
anode and cathode respectively. The most common in use interconnect mass transfer and coupling of mass and heat transfer.
is lanthanum chromite (LaCrO3) which is unreactive with the electrodes.
Under operating conditions, it is necessary to prevent the cross-leakage 6.1. Thermal management
of the fuel and oxidant gases. Though intermediate temperature appli­
cations can be provided with metallic interconnect (ferric stainless steel The first technical barrier is the thermal stress. The most widely used
composite) for cost effectiveness, it is not suitable for high temperature planar SOFCs suffers from thermal cracking as when the plate is heated,
applications. the center expands and the outside remains the same in size; whereas
tubular SOFCs, being one dimensional, when heated, its middle only
5.2.3.5. Internal reforming. Internal reforming is carried out in SOFCs expands and do not crack. Thermal cracking limits the lifetime of the cell
that involves reforming of hydrocarbon fuels (often natural gas) without stack. Thermal management and temperature resistant construction
the need of external reformer. Natural gas can be reformed at 600 ◦ C or helps to overcome thermal stress. Through fuel injection policy,
even at lower temperatures. This is performed by supplying steam as the reducing operating temperature and involvement of heat exchange/heat
oxidant for reforming the fuel. It involves two methods: direct and in­ recirculation, thermal management is achieved. By directly injecting
direct reforming. Direct internal reforming uses nickel anode involves fuel into different portions of fuel chamber into channel-less assembly of
the conversion of CH4 to H2 and CO, electrochemical oxidation of H2 and a multi-cell SOFC helps in free mixing of fuel together. A thermally in­
CO results in H2O and CO2 and finally conduction of electrons. Indirect tegrated SOFC system that comprises of a preliminary reformer and an
internal reforming involves a separate catalyst that reforms hydrocarbon integrated heat exchanger for catalytic combustion along with the SOFC
fuel to syn gas. Despite being less efficient to indirect internal reforming, stack eliminates the heat losses to some extent. A compact SOFC design
direct internal reforming is simple and cost effective. Problems associ­ that involves the exposure of cathode to open air without housing pro­
ated with internal reforming include carbon deposition due to hydro­ vides reduction of operating temperature. Single-chamber SOFC
carbon pyrolysis at anode and temperature gradient due to the cooling of (SC–SOFC) design helps in lowering the operating temperature and
inlet as a result of endothermic reaction. However, carbon deposition reducing size of the fuel cell. Yet, insufficient fuel utilization, lower cell
can be neglected by incorporating expensive metals like platinum and efficiency (<10%), especially gas intermixing prevails in planar design
rhodium. Direct hydrocarbon oxidation is possible without any added can be eliminated in tubular design if fully dense electrolyte is provided.
oxidant yet suffers with carbon deposition. Renewable fuels like biogas When SC-SOFC system is surrounded by spiral wound counter-current
and landfill gas can be employed. Carbon dioxide in the biogas neglects heat exchanger, the products at exit the system transfer the heat to the
steam or oxygen for reforming as it involves dry reforming. However, it incoming reactants. Closed Fermat spiral shape, another geometry
is necessary to remove sulphur and halides to prevent from poisoning design of SOFC with higher volumetric density, provides improved fuel
the anode or catalyst. utilization and performance. Double seal (first layer-compressive ma­
terial, second layer-hermetic material) SOFC with dimensional control
6. Technical barriers for SOFC offers superior thermal cycling. SOFC stack designed with electrical
connections made outside active hot zone paves way for usage of more
Theoretically, the energy conversion efficiency (electricity) of fuel common material, reduction in cost and thermal defects and improves
cell is up to 80%; however limited by technical barriers. Those technical fuel cell life span.
barriers confronted in the construction and exploitation of the SOFCs
includes insufficient thermal resistance, complexity due to the require­
ment of reforming of hydrocarbon fuels and insufficient utilization of 6.2. Hydrocarbon containing fuels
fuel. Studies reveal that the modification of the geometric parameters
and energy and material efficient design of fuel cells can help in The second barrier is the complexity due to the reforming of fuels.
SOFCs use a wide range of hydrocarbon fuels since it involves reforming

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either internally or externally. When the fuel is internally reformed, it perovskites which may reduce the capital and operational costs. Silox­
eliminates the external reformer; although causes temperature gradients anes in biogas are silicon (Si) compounds that may result in SiO2 at the
and thermal stresses at anode. Anode gas recycling to a reformer, near top surface of porous anode with the high temperature inside SOFC.
adjusting ratio of fuel to air in reformer, complete oxidation of anode off- This will decline the cell voltages (at 10 ppm) which require an activated
gas, temperature of recycled gases and recirculation of mass and energy carbon unit for the removal of siloxanes. Unlike IC engines, ammonia in
are some of the measures that improve SOFC performance with respect biogas can be used as a fuel in SOFC (cracking of NH3 into H2 and N2 at
to fuel reforming. high temperatures) with zero undesirable nitrogen oxides at Ni-anode.
Also, NH3 is an efficient H2 carrier with easier storage. Biogas conver­
sion in SOFC involves steam reforming, partial oxidation (POX), dry
6.3. Insufficient fuel utilization reforming and combined reforming. In Methane Steam Reforming
(MSR), an endothermic reaction (takes place either inside or outside of
The final barrier is the insufficient utilization of the fuel in anode. SOFC), the reforming agent is steam that reacts with CH4, produces H2
Combustibles from the outlet of the SOFC decrease the efficiency and and CO; the remaining steam reacts with CO forms more of H2. Catalytic
hence require downstream catalytic oxidizer adding complexity to the POX, an exothermic reaction, (take place outside SOFC) uses oxygen as
system. Oxidation of anode tail gases, one of the operating problems can reforming agent yields more H2 than MSR. Dry reforming, an endo­
be removed by the arrangement of a fuel cell stack with a shorted SOFC thermic reaction, uses CO2 in biogas as reforming agent in which one gas
(cell anode electrically connected to the cell cathode) that oxidizes the component (CO2) is utilized to reform other (CH4) to generate H2. To
gases which is later released to the atmosphere. avoid carbon deposition, more steam must be supplied in MSR, air must
The authors concluded problems associated with fuel to electrical be supplied to CPOX and CH4/CO2 ratio must be maintained in the range
efficiency and thermal stress increases when the individual cells are 0.5–0.75 in dry reforming. Combined steam and dry reforming in Ni
stacked. It is necessary to have series fuel path flow and parallel oxidizer catalyst influences the methane reforming since the catalytic activity for
flow, fuel reforming, segmented stack, uniform gas supply, fuel injection steam is better rather than CO2 for Ni. Therefore, combined reforming is
in different locations, integration of heat exchanger, usage of oxidation an opportunity to optimize SOFC performance. The final section exam­
resistant materials, location of non-resistant parts outside hot zones, ines the operational challenges for biogas fueled SOFC, technical eval­
crack free geometry and catalytic anode [27]. uation of biogas SOFC performance and implementation of biogas
SOFCs (Fig.11). Since direct internal reforming is exclusively an endo­
7. Operational challenges in biogas fueled SOFC thermic reaction, the temperature gradient at the entrance of the fuel
channel that leads to thermal stresses. Studies reveal SOFC materials
Since hydrocarbon fuels are used in SOFC, its performance is especially anode that is usually made from Ni-YSZ has higher carbon
analyzed through the purity of the fuel. When investigated, the power deposition and cell degradation than Ni-ScSZ (Scandia stabilized Zir­
density of the biogas fueled SOFC (207 mW/cm2) was lower compared conia). Nickel re-oxidation occurs when the O2− ions conducted through
with humidified hydrogen fueled SOFC (245 mW/cm2) that emphasizes the electrolyte reacts with nickel or when air enters the cell due to
the necessity of biogas reforming. The quality and characteristics of sealing failure and also the air supplied with fuel in case of POX
waste is the determining criteria of the concentration of methane con­ reforming. It increases with increase in temperature and may lead to cell
tent which is estimated by the potential for methane production and cracking [30].
COD in waste stream. Biogas contains undesirable compounds such as Experimental Analysis of internal forming of biogas has been per­
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), siloxanes and ammonia (NH3). Presence of H2S formed with anode supported SOFC that operated with a cell voltage of
(>20 ppm) in biogas decreases the concentration of CH4 which when 0.8 V and a current density of 200 mA cm− 2 for a month. Biogas ob­
supplied to SOFC that uses Ni-based anode gets poisoned resulting in Ni- tained from Anaerobic Digestion of MSW varied in composition is
sulfide that reduces the sites of triple phase boundaries. Thus, it leads to directly fed to SOFC. With the fluctuation in concentration of CH4 (be­
degradation of electrochemical activity and cell performance. It is tween 58 and 66%), the voltage fluctuations (maximum 50 mV) were
necessary to develop sulphur tolerant anodes (Ni-free) such as

Fig. 11. Generation of electricity and heat from bio-waste using SOFC technology [25].

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

observed. Biogas with CH4/CO2 = 1.5 promoted the electrochemical and gas and reduction in volume of garbage by eliminating the process
reaction and adding some amount of oxygen resulted in anodic over­ of incineration. The initial stage of the facility utilized a part of produced
voltage. H2S concentration of 1 ppm, at an operating temperature biogas for generating electricity using a gas engine (178 kW). The fa­
800 ◦ C was fatal compared to 1000 ◦ C. This insisted the need of desul­ cility uses two 100 kW phosphoric acid power units each supplied with
furizer for low operating temperature. The risk of coking was reduced as 45 m3/h digested gas (CH4-60%, CO2-40%) as fuel. The power gener­
air was added to the biogas that facilitated the stable operation of SOFC ating efficiency of the facility is 38% LHV. The overall efficiency is 87%
[25]. LHV. The prospects of biogas powered fuel cells in terms of adopting the
technology is that it aids the reduction of CO2 (1140 t/year), SOx (412
8. Implementation of models, WWTPs with biogas fueled fuel kg/year) and NOx (460 kg/year) emissions, provides energy savings
cell (crude oil equivalent- 458 kL/year) and an example towards setting
forth the Food recycling law in Japan that involves reduction of food
Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) use conventional aerobic waste. Also, it was anticipated to develop fuel cells that use low density
digestion to treat waste water which requires cost intensive aerators. methane (as low as 50%), respond to fluctuations (0–100%) to the
When replaced with anaerobic digestion for waste water treatment, biogas supplied and utilization of exhaust heat from the methane
WWTPs pave the way for resource recovery (biogas) and power gener­ fermentation unit [26].
ation. Literatures show electricity demand and heat requirement of WWTPs requires desulfurization unit to burn biogas in boiler or CHP
WWTPs is met out from the energy generated from biogas (about unit; however when used as fuel requires advanced gas processes for
50000m3/day at Prague Central WWTP, approximately 25000m3/day at treatment, storage and reforming. WWTPs use heat depending upon
Amsterdam-west WWTP) [30]. their quality; low temperature heat (<60 ◦ C) can be utilized only when
A power generating facility (Fig. 12) produces electricity from fuel the waste stream contain the sufficient energy to be digested wherein
cell unit fueled with biogas and the electricity is utilized by Yamagata high temperature heat (60–180 ◦ C) is necessary for thermal pre-
City Purification center at Japan. It treats 40,000 m3 of sewage water per treatment (5–15 h) which decreases the required retention time and
day and produces 4200 m3 of digested gas through anaerobic fermen­ slightly increases the methane production. At WWTPs, IC engines (small
tation. The power generating facility includes the pretreatment unit that ones) can be replaced by SOFCs; ammonia in biogas can be used as fuel
involves in the collection and segregation of garbage (6t/day), methane in SOFCs which results in increase of NOx production in IC engines. In
fermentation unit that involves anaerobic digestion using a bioreactor AD-SOFC integrated system, the electricity generated is provided to the
(average retention time-8 days) that produces biogas, desulfurizer unit WWT process, the high temperature gas (unused fuel) from the outlet of
that removes sulphur constituents and a gas holder unit (30 m3) to store SOFC is supplied to afterburner and the heat from it is directed to the
the refined biogas, wastewater treatment unit that involves the collec­ WWT process for thermal pretreatment. Various modeling methods have
tion and treatment of the wastewater that flows from the bioreactor and been evolved to analyze the response of steam and oxygen to the
a fuel cell power unit (two 100 kW) that involves the production of methane reforming process. A model developed to analyze the perfor­
electricity from phosphoric acid fuel cell. As high temperature anaerobic mance of complete SOFC system (100 kW) revealed with steam
fermentation is performed to obtain biogas, the byproduct from the fuel reforming, electrical efficiency was 48% and thermal efficiency was 40%
cell unit, hot water is used as a source for heat exchanger that heats up and with POX electrical efficiency was 43% and thermal efficiency was
the fermented liquid to 55 ◦ C (required for efficient biogas production) 46%.
and returns it to bioreactor. The project (power generation from biogas) Also, many integrated system modeling designs evolved that in­
implementation and verification was scheduled for a duration of three cludes gas turbine (GT) combined with pressurized, non-pressurized
years. The advantages out of the project are reduction in usage and SOFC, fuel coupling and indirect thermal coupling. Inclusion of after­
emissions of fossil fuels in terms of utilization of surplus electric power burner and anode gas recirculation for improves efficiency and

Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of power generating system using biogas from garbage [26].

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

increased amount of reforming agent decreases the electrical efficiency 224 million and 97 million respectively. Annually, the quantity of total
of the integrated system. CFD Modeling helps to estimate the scope of dung was 659 Mt accounting averagely 4.5 kg/day for cattle and 10.2
electrochemical reaction through the fuel channel; correspondingly kg/day for buffaloes. In 2010, the total dung estimated from cattle and
other parameters such as gas composition, local temperature and current buffalo was 730 Mt and recoverable estimation of dung was 510 Mt. The
density can be calculated. Biocell project, BioZEG pilot plant, SOFCOM biogas potential from recoverable was 17,850 Mm3 [10].
demonstration project are developed to investigate the efficiencies,
develop zero emission hydrogen station respectively; LOTUS project and 9.3. Barriers to biogas disemmenation
TU Delft Global Initiative are to be developed projects and WWT tech­
nologies to utilize the biogas in SOFC. The economical challenges with Though the potential of biomass is enormous, its utilization is
the biogas-SOFC system include the cost of SOFC and gas cleaning unit. restricted by certain barriers. Low adoption of biogas technology is the
The capital cost for SOFC–CHP unit ranges between 3600 and 4000 major barrier that causes high investment costs, sub-optimal biogas
$/kW, cost of electricity for a conventional plant generating 300kWe is technology and social biases. Fig. 12 shows the barrier related to biogas
10.5 c$/kWh and cost of gas clean up accounts 20% of the cost of in rural areas [12].
electricity and for SOFC–CHP with WWTP unit is 3590 $/kW (small Though the potential is enormous, there are many technical, social
scale plant) and 5780 $/kW (large scale plant) with cost of electricity is and economical barriers that directly or indirectly affect the adoption of
5–8 c$/kWh [30]. biogas plant (Fig. 13). The key barrier that hinders the adoption of
Biogas fueled SOFC can be a scope of applications in future due to its biogas plant at rural areas is the outlay costs that include high capital
fuel flexibility, low emissions and high efficiency; however, the con­ cost, high upfront cost (construction, equipment and installation of
straints with respect to reforming and cost intensiveness towards the biogas plant), lack of purchasing power, limited access to the easy credit
SOFC materials and stacks need to be investigated. for installing biogas plant and delayed subsidy release among the rural
households. Biogas faces market barriers such as fuel substitutes that are
9. Biogas as an energy source in India cheaper alternatives (solid biomass, firewood and cow dung). Also, LPG
remains a competition to biogas due to its better distribution network at
9.1. PEOPLE’S perception UPON renewable resources the most areas. As majority of the low income households do not own
2–3 cattle, it tend to the difficulty of getting the capital subsidy through
A survey was performed at the village of Habbanatti and Kusmalli National Biogas and Manure Management Programme (NBMMP).
located in Khanapur Taluk of Belgaum district of the Indian state during Temperature, adequate water and substrate are the crucial parameters
the month of June 2014 to access the pattern of rural energy con­ that influence the production of biogas. Wrong ratios of feeding and
sumption and the perception of the people towards renewable technol­ underfeeding of inputs may result in dysfunction of the biogas plant
ogy. It was found in Habbanatti, for cooking people used firewood and which may create a negative perception; thus, suppressing the potential
biogas as no supply to LPG. In Kusmalli, only 25% used LPG and others users. It is the absence of technical awareness and trained manpower
used firewood. Electricity from grid was available only some days for that prevents the penetration of biogas technology at rural communities.
agricultural purposes and late at light. Kerosene, firewood and candles Socio-cultural influences such as reluctance to the usage of night soil/
were used for household lighting. Respondents were able to recognize human excreta and limited decision making power of women are the
some of the renewable resources. Table 5 shows the response from the additional challenges that subdue the dissemination of biogas
villagers. Nearly 78% of the respondents emphasized the choice of technology.
alternative energy use. They are ready to contribute to setup costs and
pay slightly for a safer and more reliable supply [1]. 10. ELECTRICITY generation from biogas: a comparative study

A comparative study of electricity generation from conventional

9.2. Present status of biogas potential
methods as such biogas fed diesel engine and gasification of MSW with
biogas fueled fuel cell has been carried out with the specification [26] of
In India, the biomass potential from various types of waste for
fuel cell power unit at Yamagata City Purification Center. The waste
anaerobic digestion is vast. Industries such as distilleries, pulp and paper
treated is 3 tons per day that is fed to a 100 kW fuel cell power unit. The
industry, poultry, slaughter houses and sugar industry possess larger
fuel consumption is 45m3/hr. The average calorific value of biogas is
quantity of wastes that can produce biogas in Mm3/day. The potential
21–23 MJ/m3.
for producing biogas from rural areas mainly focuses on MSW, crop and
agricultural residues and animal manure. In India, an average com­
10.1. Biogas fed diesel engine
postable matter from MSW is 42.194%. The total waste generated is
97,173m3/day and biogas potential is 9.23 Mm3/day. The biomass left
Biogas as an alternative fuel can be used to run diesel engine.
over after burnt, dumped or used as fodder is estimated as 278.71 Mt/
Equivalent quantity of 1 m3 of biogas for diesel fuel is 0.5–0.6 L. 1.7 kWh
year and the biogas potential is 45.8 Mm3/day. In India, the population
of electricity can be generated from 1 m3 of biogas. When 45 m3/h of
of bovines such as cows, calves, buffalos and bullocks) is nearly 294
biogas is supplied, the electricity that can be produced is 1836 kWh.
million. In 2010, the population of cattle and buffalos were estimated as

10.2. Gasification of MSW

Table 5
Recognition of most beneficial and renewable means of generation [1].
Gasification of MSW is an alternative way of converting waste to
Energy Source Renewable means of energy Most beneficial energy energy. 1 Ton of MSW can yield 550 kWh of electricity. With the supply
generation (%) source (%)
of 3 tons of MSW, 1650 kWh of electricity can be produced.
Biodiesel 30 20
Bio-digester 80 80
10.3. Biogas fed PAFC
(biogas)
Geothermal 05 00
Hydroelectricity 70 60 In recent days, the fuel cells are fueled biogas for electricity gener­
Solar panels 80 100 ation. With the supply of 45 m3/h of biogas to fuel cell of 100 kW, the
Wind turbines 70 40 electricity yield is 2400 kWh.
Tidal energy 05 00
It is inferred that the electricity generated from fuel cell is higher

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

Fig. 13. Biogas related barrier in rural areas [12].

compared to the conventional methods. Biogas fed fuel cell unit gener­ into energy. It provides economical benefits, as it can reduce the cost of
ates 2400 kWh, biogas fed diesel engine generates 1836 kWh and gasi­ electricity compared to other renewable energy sources. As it is avail­
fication of MSW generates 1650 kWh. Thus, the electricity generation able plenty at rural areas, it is ensuring source for meeting the energy
from fuel cell that is powered with biogas is proved to be effective. The needs. Anaerobic Digestion is a simple technology that offers multiple
fuel cell employed for electricity production is Phosphoric Acid Fuel advantages that includes waste disposal in an environmental friendly
Cell. PAFC can tolerate CO up to 1.5%; however sulphur has to be way and provides nutrient rich fertilizer. The yield of biogas potential
removed completely. Whereas in SOFC, CO can be used as fuel and it from household and commercial food waste is high as they are rich in
provides sulphur tolerance up to 20 ppm. energy content and available in abundant. AD paves a sustainable way
for such food waste that are either incinerated or disposed in landfills by
11. Inference recovering their energy through biological breakdown and thus
reducing their environmental impacts. Biogas potential is influenced by
The following reasons make SOFC a better choice compared to other the operating temperature, pH, retention time, C/N ratio, presence of
types of fuel cells: toxic materials, pretreatment and addition of nutrients.
Fuel Cell is an efficient technology that facilitates diverse range of
1. Hydrogen fuel cells (PEMFC and AFC) need a humidifier to maintain applications and promotes energy security and better energy conver­
the membrane hydrated as the conductivity of the cell is influenced sion. SOFC is a fuel-flexible fuel cell with greater fuel to electricity
by its humidity, uses Pt as catalyst and requires pure hydrogen as conversion efficiency. They are clean and efficient type of fuel cell for
fuel. power generation applications. Since, waste heat from medium and high
2. PAFCs have less tolerance to CO and zero tolerance to Sulphur. temperature fuel cells can be utilized for chemical fuel processing, they
facilitates increased system efficiency. The composition of the hydro­
SOFC neglects the usage of humidifier as water is formed at the carbon fuels and operating temperature mainly influences the output of
anode side. Owing to the usage of oxygen conducting electrolyte, using a the fuel cell. Hence, the efficiency of the SOFCs depends on the materials
humidifier may lead to water condensation that eventually result in used for components of the cell and the physical and chemical properties
corrosion problems. It employs hydrocarbon fuels due to internal like mechanical strength, durability, thermal expansion co efficient,
reforming. Hence, it requires no pure fuel and expensive catalyst. Also, ionic and electronic conductivities.
SOFC shows better tolerance to sulphur and CO is itself a fuel to SOFC. Today, Biogas is used as an alternative for many fuels due its prop­
erties. At present, the usage of biogas as a fuel for cooking remains
12. Conclusion unattractive in village as per the field study. However, the biogas uti­
lization can be effective in fuel cells to yield efficient electrical output
Globally, most rural and remote areas have no access to electricity and can help in fulfilling the electricity needs of the villages. SOFC,
and modern energy services. Nearly 70% of the population of India lives mainly due to its impurity tolerance and higher efficiency than other
in villages. Due to this larger population and small income levels, the type of fuel cells, it can be employed for electricity generation. India has
extension of grid at villages is economically unviable. Decentralized a huge potential of biomass which can attribute to large quantity of
power systems and renewable energy sources are clean, affordable and biogas. There is need for an alternative energy source and willingness of
reliable; thus fulfills the electrification demand of the rural areas. Biogas the rural people towards renewable energy is positive. This paves the
is a promising technology that can convert the vast potential of biomass way for Biogas fed fuel cell power units for Rural Electrification. As per

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N. Kamalimeera and V. Kirubakaran Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 143 (2021) 110914

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