Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

FORMULA SHEET
Quantization of charge q = ne
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
Coulomb force between two charges 𝐅⃗ = ( ) 𝐫̂
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝟐

Absolute Permittivity 𝛆 = 𝛆o 𝛆r
𝐤𝐪
Electric field intensity ⃗⃗ = 𝐅⃗ / qo =
𝐄 𝐫̂
𝐫𝟐
𝐤𝐪
⃗⃗ due to a point charge
𝐄 ⃗⃗ =
𝐄 𝐫̂
𝐫𝟐

Electric flux for open surface: ⃗⃗ . 𝐀

ΦE = 𝐄 ⃗⃗ = EA Cos θ
𝟏
ΦE through close surface(Gauss’s law) ΦE = ( )q
𝛆𝐨

Electric field due to infinite sheet of charge:

𝛔
E=½
𝛆𝐨

Electric field between two opposite infinite sheets of charge:

𝛔
E=
𝛆𝐨
𝐔𝐄
Electric potential V=
𝐪𝐨
𝐤𝐪
Electric potential due to a point charge V =
𝐫
𝚫𝐕
Relation between electric field and electric potential: E = − 𝚫𝐫

Capacitance C=Q/V
𝛆𝐨 𝐀
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor Cvac =
𝐝

Energy stored in a capacitor U = ½ Q V = ½ CV2 = ½ Q2/C

𝟏
Energy density u = 𝟐 εo εr E2

For charging q = qo (1 – e -t / R C )
For discharging q = qo ( e -t / R C )
Time constant RC = τ
Dipole moment P=qd

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Chapter 11
ELECTROSTATICS
Electrostatics
It is a branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of stationary or slow-
moving electric charges with no acceleration.
Electric Charge
Electric charge is an intrinsic property because of which it produces electric field and exerts
electric forces.
Types of Charge
Two kinds of electric charges are present in nature i.e., positive and negative. Electrons have
a negative charge and protons have positive charge
Elementary Charge
The magnitude of charge on an electron or proton is called as elementary charge.
Its value is: 1 e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
Unit of Charge
In SI units, charge is measured in coulombs (symbol C). The charge carried by an elementary
particle is written as e, and its magnitude is:
1 e = 1.6 × 10-19 C
⇒ 1 C = 1 e / 1.6 × 10-19
⇒ 1 C = 6.25 × 10 18 electrons
Source Charge
“A charge which causes electric field in the space is called as source charge.”
Test Charge or Unit Charge
“A test charge or unit charge is a positive charge which gives the strength and direction of
the electric field in space without affecting it.”
Point Charge or Localized Charges
“When the size of the bodies carrying the charges is very small as compared to the distance
between them then they are called as point charges.” Or
“Charges which have no internal dimensions.”
Basic Properties of Electric Charge
Can you tell what is the unit of charge
 Additivity of Electric charges in CGS system?
 Quantization of Electric charge Ans. Two separate units have been
 Conservation of Electric Charge used;
Additivity of Charges 1. Electrostatic unit (esu) or
Charges can be added by simple rules of algebra. statcoulomb
Quantization of Charge 2. Electromagnetic unit (emu)
Quantization of charge means that it exists in or abcoulomb
discrete packets. Charge q is an integral multiple of minimum elementary charge e, i.e.,
q = ne

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 Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Conservation Of Charge
Conservation of charge means that in an isolated system charge can neither be created nor
destroyed.

Question: State and explain Coulomb’s law. Include case when the charges are placed in
dielectrics. Discuss how the unit of charge Coulomb is defined?
COULOMB’S LAW
Statement
“The magnitude of the force between two stationary point charges is directly proportional
to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them and it acts along the line joining the two charges.”
Mathematical Form
According to Coulomb’s law, the force of interaction is:
i. Directly proportional to the product of magnitude of charges q1 & q2 i.e.,
F ∝ q1 q2
ii. Inversely proportional to square of distance between two electric charges i.e.,
F ∝ 1/r2
Combining above relations we get:
𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
F∝
𝐫𝟐
𝐤 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
⇒ F= (1)
𝐫𝟐
Where k is a constant of proportionality and its value depends upon:
i. The system of the units used and
ii. The medium between the charges
In SI system,
k = 1 / 4πεo
For charges placed in air and system of units being SI, the value of “k” is;
k = 9 × 109 N m2 / C2
Where εo is the permittivity of the free space or static permittivity and it is defined as;
“The property of a medium which affects the magnitude of force between two point
charges”,
Its value is; εo = 8.85 × 10-12 C2 / N m2
Putting the value of k in equation (1), we get;
𝟏 𝐪𝟏 𝐪𝟐
F=( ) (2)
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝐫𝟐
Unit of Charge
“One coulomb is defined as that charge, which, when placed at rest at a distance of 1 m in
air or vacuum from an equal and similar charge, repel it with a force of 9 x 109 N.”
Limitations of Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb’s law holds well for:
i. Point or localized charges.
ii. Stationary charges

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Vector Form
In figure 11.1, 𝒓̂21 is a unit vector, pointing from the charge q1 towards the charge q2 which
show the force𝑭 ⃗⃗21 on charge q2 due to charge q1 given by:
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗21 = (
𝑭 ) 𝒓̂21 (3)
𝟒𝛑 𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
Similarly the force on charge q1 due to charge q2
given by:
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗12 = (
𝑭 ) 𝒓̂12 (4)
𝟒𝛑𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
From figure 11.1 we can write,
𝒓̂12 = − 𝒓̂21 (5)
Comparing above three equations we get;
Using equation (5) in equation (4);
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭⃗12 = ( ) − 𝒓̂21
𝟒𝛑𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗𝑭⃗12 = −[ ( ) 𝒓̂21] (6)
𝟒𝛑𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
Using equation (3) in (6)’ we get; Figure 11.1
⃗⃗12 = − 𝑭
𝑭 ⃗⃗21
Hence Coulomb’s law is in accordance with Newton’s 3rd law.
Nature of the Force
For like charges, product q1 q2 will be Positive and it represents a force of repulsion between
these two charges.
Similarly for unlike charges the product q1 q2 will be negative and it represents a force of
attraction between these two charges.
Coulomb’s Law in Material Media
Material 𝛆r
It is experimentally observed that when an insulator is vacuum 1
placed between the electric charges, it reduces the force Air 1.0006
between charges. The coulomb’s force can now be written Water 78.5
as: Rubber 2.94
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Fmed = ( ) (7) Benzene 2.284
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆 𝒓𝟐
The quantity 𝛆 is called absolute permittivity given by; Germanium 16
𝛆 = 𝛆o 𝛆r (8) Glass 4.8 - 10
Where 𝛆 r is called as relative permittivity or dielectric Mica 3 - 7.5
constant and it is defined as; Paraffin paper 2
The permittivity of a material medium compared with the Metals infinite
permittivity of vacuum. It is given by;
𝛆
𝛆r = (9)
𝜺𝒐
Obviously 𝛆r is dimensionless constant and its value is always greater than unity for various
dielectrics.
The force in a medium of relative permittivity 𝛆r, is given by;

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Fmed = ( )
𝟒𝛑𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Fmed = ( )
𝜺𝒓 𝟒𝛑𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Since ( ) = Fvac
𝟒𝛑𝜺𝒐 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
Therefore Fmed = Fvac
𝜺𝒓
The above relation shows that the presence of a material medium reduces the force between
the charges.
Question: Explain the concept of electric field and hence define electric field intensity.
Discuss the direction as well as the unit of E.
ELECTRIC FIELD
Definition
“The region around a charge in which an electric test charge would experience an electric
force is called as electric field.”
Explanation
The concept of field theory was introduced by Michael Faraday. He explained it as follows:
i. The charge “q” produces an electric field in the space surrounding it.
ii. The existence of electric field can be proved by bringing a test charge “qo" in its field.
iii. When a test charge “qo" is brought in its field then “q” exerts an electric force on it.
iv. The electric field around a charge is like a sphere within which other charges are
influenced by it.
ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY
Definition
The electric force experienced by a unit positive test charge is called as electric field intensity.
Symbol
Electric field intensity is represented by symbol “ ⃗𝑬⃗ ”.
Mathematical Form
The electric field intensity is given by:
⃗𝑭⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝑬
𝒒𝒐
Electric field intensity characterizes the strength and direction of electric field at every point
in space.
Unit
The SI unit of electric field intensity is newton per coulomb (N C-1).
Electric Field Intensity Due To A Point Charge
In order to find out the field intensity due to a point charge q, a unit positive test charge q o
is placed at a distance r from point charge q as shown in fig (11.2). In accordance with
coulomb’s law, the force experienced by a unit positive test charge qo due to the field of

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

point charge q is;

𝐤 𝐪 𝐪𝐨
⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝐫̂ (1)
𝐫𝟐
𝐅⃗
Field intensity is; ⃗𝑬⃗ = (2)
𝐪𝐨
By putting values from equation (1) in equation (2)
we get;
𝟏 𝐤 𝐪 𝐪𝐨
⃗𝑬⃗ = × 𝐫̂
𝐪𝐨 𝐫𝟐
𝐤𝐪
⇒ ⃗⃗ =
𝑬 𝐫̂
𝐫𝟐
Hence we conclude that;
i. Strength of field is proportional to the Figure 11.2
magnitude of the charge,
ii. Decreases inversely with square of the distance as the test charge moves away from
source charge and
iii. It also depends upon the medium between the two charges.

Question: Explain the concept of electric field lines and describe the characteristics of electric
lines of force.
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES
Definition
“The electric lines of force are the path followed by
a unit positive test charge in the field of source
charge.”
Representation of Electric Field Lines Figure 11.3
The electric field in the vicinity of a charged body can
be represented by imaginary lines called as electric filed lines or electric lines of force.
The arrows indicate the electric field at different points. The direction of these arrows is
radially outward for positive charge and is radially inward for negative charge as in figure
11.3.
These field lines increase as we move radially inward and
decreases as we move outward in the field. So drawing the
lines around a charge helps in visualizing the field.
Characteristics of Field Lines
1. Field lines start from positive charge & terminate at
negative charge. (fig:11.4 a)
2. The resultant intensity at any point is equal to the
algebraic sum of intensities due to all charges.
⃗⃗net = 𝐄
𝐄 ⃗⃗ 1 + 𝐄
⃗⃗ 2 + …………. + 𝐄
⃗⃗ n
At some points the resultant intensity may be zero. Such
points are called neutral points (N). (fig:11.4 b)

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

3. Figure 11.4 c show two infinitely large parallel plates

separated by a very small distance. The upper plate
has a uniform positive charge distribution while the
lower plate has a negative one. If the lines of force
are parallel to each other and plates are of infinite
extent then the electric field is uniform. (fig:11.4 c).
For plates of finite extent then the field lines at the
ends of plates will be a little bulging out, showing that
field is not uniform at the ends. The field such as at
the ends of plates is called “fringing field”.
4. The small or large distance between the field lines
gives us the information about the electric field being
strong or weak. (fig:11.4 d)
5. The tangent to the lines of electric field gives the direction of
field at that point. (fig:11.4 d)
6. The electric lines of force do not intersect.
7. Suppose that a charge +q is placed near a metal plate. The
positive charge will attract the negative charges (electrons) in
the metal plate, resulting in the motion of these charges until
some of them reach the surface of the metal which is near to +q
charge where they will be at rest. Thus, the field lines starting
from +q charge will end on the negative charges of the metal
plate. (fig:11.4 e)
8. Electric field lines always strike perpendicularly to the metal
surface. (fig:11.4 e)
9. The electric lines of force cannot pass through a conductor.
Therefore electric field is zero inside a conductor.
10. The electric lines of force have the tendency to contract in
length. This explains attraction between oppositely charged
bodies.
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROSTATICS
PHOTOCOPIER
A photocopier is an electrically operated machine used for making instant copies of written,
drawn, or printed document.
The copying process of photocopier is called xerography. The word “Xero” means dry and
“graphy” means writing.
Principle
Xerography is based on the principles of electrostatics and photoconductivity.
Construction
The main components in the Photocopier are:
i. Rotating Drum ii. Optical system iii. Toner iv. Heated rollers
Working

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

1st stage: The drum is made up of aluminum and is coated with selenium. Selenium is
photoconductive material. It is an insulator in dark and conductor in light. The rotating drum
is given a positive charge by Corotron.
2nd stage: When the paper to the copied is laid on the glass plate, then the dark and light
areas of the document produce same image on the drum. The dark areas retain their positive
charge but light areas become conducting, lose their positive charge and become neutral.
Thus the positively charged image of the document remains on the selenium surface.
3rd stage: The negatively charged powdered ink or toner is sprinkled onto drum. The toner is
attracted to the positively charged areas of the surface.
4th stage: A blank piece of paper is charged more positively than drum and the drum is rolled
over it. Negatively charged toner is attracted to the paper.
5th stage: The paper is now passed between heated rollers. The toner is melted and fused
onto the paper to make a permanent copy.

Figure 11.5

LASER PRINTER
Laser printer is a type of printer that utilizes a laser beam to produce printed document.
Principle
Laser printer works on the principle electrostatics.
Explanation
In a laser printer, a laser beam is scanned across a photoconducting drum, leaving a positive
charge image. The other steps for charging the drum and transferring the image to paper are
the same as in xerography. Laser light can be very precisely controlled, enabling laser
printers to produce high-quality images.

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Figure 11.6
INKJET PRINTERS
Inkjet printing is a liquid deposition technique, by which the droplets of the ink are ejected
and printed on the page.
Principle
Inkjet printer is based on the principles of electrostatics.
Construction
Elements of inkjet printer are shown in fig: 11.7.
i. Ink supply ii. Pump iii. Print head
iv. Charging plates v. Deflection plates iv. Gutter
Working
 The inkjet print head ejects a thin stream of ink.
 During their flight, the droplets pass through two electrical components;
(a) An electrode and
(b) Deflection plates (a parallel plate capacitor).
 When the print head moves over regions of the paper that are not to be inked, the
charging control (electron gun) is turned ON. The electron gun must give the droplet a
net charge. The deflection plates divert the charged droplets into a gutter and thus
prevent them from reaching the paper.
 Whenever ink is to be placed on the paper, the charging control, (responding to
instructions from the computer) turns OFF the electric field. The uncharged droplets fly
straight through the deflection plates and strike the paper.

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Figure 11.7
Quiz? What are the basic differences between laser printer and photocopier?
Photocopier Laser printer
1. Corona wire charges the 1. Corona wire charges the
photoreceptor drum positively. photoreceptor drum negatively.
2. In a photocopier the page to be 2. In a laser printer, light from a laser
copied is scanned using a very bright beam is used to discharge areas of the
light, and the light reflected from the photoreceptor to create an electrostatic
white areas on the page is used to image of the page to be printed.
discharge a photoreceptor drum.
3. Light reflected from white areas 3. Light reflected from mirror causes
causes the areas on photoreceptor areas to discharge the negative charge
drum to lose their charge and dark and acquire positive charge while dark
areas retain positive charge. areas retain negative charge.
4. Photocopier scanning is a 4. Laser printing is a fast process.
slow process.
5. It produces low quality text and 5. Laser printing produces high quality
graphics. text and graphics.

Question: Explain concept of electric flux. Using mathematical expressions of electric flux,
show that how electric flux is maximum and minimum.
ELECTRIC FLUX
Definition
“Electric flux is the number of lines of force that pass through the area placed in the electric
field.” OR

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

“Electric flux is the scalar product of the electric field E and plane surface of area A.”
Symbol
Electric flux is represented by ΦE .
Explanation
Consider an arbitrary surface as shown in figure
11.8. The electric field lines passing through the
surface area. Electric flux is the flow of electric
field lines through a surface area which is placed
in that field.
Mathematical Form
Figure 11.8
Mathematically electric flux ΦE for uniform field
⃗⃗ and area 𝑨
𝑬 ⃗⃗ is given as;
ΦE = 𝑬⃗⃗ . 𝑨
⃗⃗
ΦE = E A Cos θ
This equation gives the value of flux at any angle θ.
Factors
The electric flux through a surface depends upon the
following factors.
I. Orientation of the area vector
II. Magnitude of E
III. Magnitude of A Maximum flux
I. Orientation of the Area Vector
Maximum Flux
When area vector is in the direction of electric field, then θ = 0o;
ΦE = E A Cos 0o = E A (1) = E A
In this case surface is placed perpendicular to the electric
field such that surface area A is parallel to electric field E.
Hence electric flux will be maximum through the surface.
Zero Flux
When area vector is perpendicular to electric field, then θ =
90o;
ΦE = E A Cos 90o = EA (0) = 0 Zero flux
In this case surface is placed parallel to the electric field such
that surface area A is normal to electric field E. Hence no electric field lines will pass through
surface.
ii. Magnitude of Electric Field
Keeping the area and angle constant, the greater the magnitude of electric field, greater will
be the electric flux and vice versa.
iii. Magnitude of Area
Keeping the electric field and angle between “E” and “A” constant, the greater the
magnitude of Area vector, greater will be the electric flux and vice versa.
Unit

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

The SI unit of electric flux is N m2 C-1.

Dimensions
The dimensions are [M L3 T-3 A-1]
ELECTRIC FLUX THROUGH A CLOSED SURFACE
Let us consider a closed surface of arbitrary shape. The positive normal is taken to be
“outward” from the volume being enclosed. If the
case is such that either field is non-uniform or the
surface is curved, then we divide the surfaces into
very small patches of area ∆𝑨 called differential area
and assume that these are approximately flat and
they are so small that electric field E is almost uniform
over it. For one of these small patches of area (see
Fig.11.9) electric flux is defined by relation;
∆ΦE = 𝑬⃗⃗ . ∆ 𝑨
⃗⃗
∆ΦE = E ∆A Cos θ
To calculate total flux through the whole surface we Figure 11.9
add flux from each patch such that
ΦE = ∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 ⃗𝑬⃗i . ∆ ⃗𝑨⃗i
In case of closed surface the electric flux may be positive, negative or zero depending upon
the number of lines entering or leaving the surface:
Positive Flux
The electric flux is positive if more field lines are leaving than entering the closed surface i.e.,
there is source of field lines in the closed surface.
Negative Flux
The electric flux is negative if more field lines entering than leaving the closed surface i.e.,
there is a sink of field lines in closed surface.
Zero Flux
The electric flux is zero if numbers of field lines entering are equal to field lines leaving the
surface or there is neither any source nor sink within closed surface.

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Question: State and prove the Gauss’s law for electrostatics. Also discuss its applications.
GAUSS’S LAW
Statement
“The net electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the
1/εo times the total charge q enclosed by the surface.”
Derivation
Consider a sphere of radius r having a positive point charge q at
its center as shown in fig. 11.10. We divide the surface into n-
number of small pieces having area ∆A1, ∆A2, ∆A3, ……… ∆An. Figure 11.10
The intensity of electric field is same at every point as they are
equidistant from the charge.
The electric flux through the small elements ∆A1 is;
ΦE1 = 𝑬⃗⃗ . ∆ 𝑨⃗⃗1
ΦE1 = E ∆A1 Cos 0o = E ∆A1
The electric flux through the other small element ∆A2 is;
ΦE2 = ⃗𝑬⃗ . ∆ ⃗𝑨⃗2
ΦE2 = E ∆A2 Cos 0o = E ∆A2
Similarly the electric flux through ∆An is;
ΦEn = 𝑬⃗⃗ . ∆ 𝑨⃗⃗n
ΦEn = E ∆ An Cos 0o = E ∆ An
The total flux through the entire surface is
ΦE = ΦE1 + ΦE2 + ΦE3 +…………… + ΦEn
ΦE = E ∆ A1 + E ∆ A2 + E ∆ A3 +…………… + E ∆ An
ΦE = E (∆ A1 + ∆ A2 + ∆ A3 +…………… + ∆ An)
ΦE = E ∑𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 ∆ 𝐀
𝟏 𝒒
As 𝑬 = ( ) and surface area of the sphere is ∑𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 ∆ 𝐀 = 4 π r2
𝟒𝛑𝛆𝐨 𝒓𝟐
Thus the above equation can be written as;
𝟏 𝒒 𝟏
ΦE = ( ) × 4 π r2 = ( ) ×q
𝟒 𝛑 𝛆𝐨 𝒓𝟐 𝛆𝐨
𝟏
ΦE = ( 𝛆𝐨 ) × q
Conclusion
The above equation shows that
i. Electric flux does not depend upon the shape of closed surface
ii. Electric flux does not depend upon geometry of closed surface
iii. But it depends upon the total charge enclosed by that surface.
GAUSS’S LAW FOR IRREGULAR SURFACE DUE TO n-CHARGES
In order to calculate the electric flux, let us consider a closed surface S, enclosing point
charges q1, q2, q3……… qn as shown in fig 11.11.

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Electric flux due to q1 is;

𝟏
ΦE1 = ( 𝛆𝐨 ) × q1

Electric flux due to q2 is;

𝟏
ΦE2 = ( 𝛆𝐨 ) × q2

Electric flux due to q3 is;

𝟏
ΦE3 = ( 𝛆𝐨 ) × q3

Electric flux due to qn is;

𝟏
ΦEn = ( ) × qn Figure 11.11
𝛆𝐨

Then total electric flux through that closed surface is;

ΦE = ΦE1 + ΦE2 + ΦE3 +…………… + ΦEn
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ ΦE = ( )×q1 + ( )×q2 + ( )×q3 +……… + ( )×qn
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨
𝟏
⇒ ΦE = ( ) × (q1 + q2 + q3 +…………… + qn)
𝛆𝐨
𝟏 𝟏
⇒ ΦE = ( ) × (∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝒒i) = ( ) × (Q)
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐨
𝟏
⇒ ΦE = ( ) × (total charge enclosed in the surface)
𝛆𝐨

Thus Gauss’s law shows that the electric flux through any closed surface is 1/εo times the
total charge Q enclosed by it.
Mastering the Concept
The electric flux through arbitrary Gaussian surface can be calculated as

-4μC+2μC+5μC 3×10-6 C
E = =
ε0 8.85×10-12 C2 .N-1.m-2
=3.4×10 5 N.m2 .C-1

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Project Solution.
Calculate the electric flux through each Gaussian surface shown in Figure.

The flux through the rectangular box is zero as net charge is zero.
The flux through the spherical shell is also zero as net charge is zero.
− 𝟑 𝝁 𝑪+𝟐 𝝁 𝑪−𝟓 𝝁𝑪 −𝟔 𝝁𝑪
The flux through the 3rd surface = = = -6.8×𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝝐𝒐 𝟖.𝟖𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐂𝟐 / 𝐍 𝐦𝟐
− 𝟏 𝝁 𝑪+𝟒 𝝁 𝑪 𝟓 𝝁𝑪
The flux through the 4th surface = = = 5.65 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓
𝝐𝒐 𝟖.𝟖𝟓×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐂𝟐 / 𝐍 𝐦𝟐

APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS’S LAW

Gauss’s law provides a convenient method to calculate E in case of sufficiently symmetrical
charge distribution. Some examples are now presented.
1. LOCATION OF EXCESS CHARGE ON A CONDUCTOR
Case A
A conductor is a material with is neutral atoms rather than
a volume distribution of charge. Figure 11.12 shows a
spherical conductor with an imaginary Gaussian surface S1
that lies just below the actual surface of the conductor.
Let us consider that the conductor has freely moving
charges inside the surface. If a resultant field exists inside
the conductor, these charges will experience an electric
force. As a result, internal currents will set up and charges
move till electrostatic equilibrium is achieved. The resultant
force in such conditions is zero and therefore the electric
field is also zero.
According to Gauss’s law, Figure 11.12
𝟏
ΦE = ( )×Q (1)
𝜺𝒐

Also ΦE = E ∑𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 ∆ 𝐀 (2)

𝟏
Comparing eq.1 and eq.2; E ∑𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 ∆ 𝐀 = ( )×Q
𝜺𝒐

15
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Since E = 0 everywhere in this surface, FOR YOUR INFORMATION

𝟏
⇒ 0=( )×Q
𝜺𝒐
⇒ Q=0
Hence the net charge inside the surface is zero.
Case B
Another imaginary Gaussian surface S2 is shown by
dotted line outside a conductor. At the surface of
a charged conductor, the electric field is normal to
Airlines Airbus A380 flew through
the surface at every point. All the charge is
a storm when 500 peoples were on
deposited on the outer surface of the conductor.
the board but none of them were
Thus the excess charge is not inside a conductor
injured. As there is no electric
nor outside but it resides on the conductor's
field, no potential difference
surface.
inside a metal shell, so one of the
safest way to be inside a metal
2. ELECTRIC FIELD INTENSITY DUE TO AN INFINITE
shell during thunderstorm.
SHEET OF CHARGE
Consider an infinite plane sheet of area A with total charge “Q” and surface charge density
“σ” given by;
σ=Q/A (1)
Let “P” be the point at a distance “r” from the sheet and “E” be the electric field at point “P”
due to positive sheet of charges. Consider Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder of face
area “A” perpendicular to the sheet of charge. The direction of “E” is parallel to face
containing “P” and perpendicular to the curved surface.
The flux through the curved surface of area 𝑨 ⃗⃗/ is;
ΦE = ⃗𝑬⃗. ⃗𝑨⃗/
ΦE = E 𝑨/ Cos 90o
ΦE = E 𝑨/ (0) = 0
Hence the flux through the curved surface is zero.
The flux through the two end faces of the closed surface is;
ΦE = 𝑬⃗⃗. 𝑨⃗⃗ + 𝑬
⃗⃗. 𝑨
⃗⃗ = 2 (𝑬
⃗⃗. 𝑨
⃗⃗)
o
ΦE = 2 E A Cos 0
ΦE = 2 E A (2)
𝟏
From Gauss’s law, flux is; ΦE = (Q) (3)
Є𝒐
𝟏
Comparing eq.2 and eq.3; (Q) = 2 E A (4)
Є𝒐
Also from eq.1; Q=σA (5)
𝟏
Putting eq.5 in eq.4; (σ A) = 2E A
Є𝒐
𝟏
⇒ (σ) = 2 E
Є𝒐

16
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

𝟏
⇒ E= (σ)
𝟐Є𝒐
𝟏
In vector notations; ⃗⃗ =
𝑬 ̂
(σ) 𝒏
𝟐Є𝒐
Where 𝒏 ̂ is the unit vector normal to the sheet and directed away from it.
3. ELECTRIC FIELD BETWEEN TWO OPPOSITELY CHARGED PARALLEL PLATES
Consider two oppositely charged parallel metal plates. The charge densities of these metal
plates are “+σ” and “-σ”. These plates are
assumed to be of infinite length in order to avoid
fringing field at the ends. In order to find the
electric field intensity “E”, at point “P” between
the plates consider a Gaussian surface in the form
of a cubical box as shown in figure 11.13. Let “A”
be the area any face of the box.
The front and back face areas and side faces are
perpendicular to electric field lines hence their Figure 11.13
electric flux is zero;
Φfront face = E A cos 90o = E A (0) = 0
Φback face = E A cos 90o = E A (0) = 0
Φside faces = 2 E A cos 90o = 2 E A (0) = 0
The electric flux through top face is also zero as it is outside the electric field.
⃗⃗ . ∆ 𝑨
Φtop face = 𝑬 ⃗⃗⃗ . ∆ 𝑨
⃗⃗top face = 𝑶 ⃗⃗top face = 0
The electric flux through top face is;
Φ bottom face = 𝑬⃗⃗ . ∆ 𝑨
⃗⃗ bottom face = 𝑬∆𝑨 bottom face Cos0o
Φ bottom face = 𝑬 ∆ 𝑨 bottom face (1)
Φ bottom face = 𝑬 𝑨 (Let ∆𝑨 bottom face = 𝑨)
The total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is the sum of flux through all surfaces.
ΦE = Φ bottom face+ Φtop face + Φfront face + Φback face + Φside faces
ΦE = 𝑬 𝑨 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0
ΦE = 𝑬 𝑨 (1)
𝟏
By Gauss’s Law electric flux is; ΦE = Є (Q) (2)
𝒐
Putting values from eq.2 in eq.1;
𝟏
(Q) = 𝑬 𝑨 (3)
Є𝒐
But Q=σA (4)
Putting values from eq.4 in eq.3, we get;
𝟏
(σ A) = E A
Є𝒐
𝟏
⇒ E= (σ)
Є𝒐
𝟏
In vector notations; ⃗⃗ =
𝑬 (σ) 𝒓̂
Є𝒐

17
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

This gives the electric field between oppositely charged parallel plates. The magnitude of the
field is independent of the position between plates.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY

Definition
“The amount of work needed to move a unit charge from one point to another point against
the electric field without producing any acceleration is called as electric potential energy.”
Symbol
It is denoted by “U”.
Mathematically
Let WBA be the work done by the
electric force in carrying a positive
charge qo from point “B” to point
“A” without producing any
acceleration as shown in Fig.11.17.
This work done will be stored as Figure 11.17
electrical potential energy in the charge.
If UA and UB are the potential energies at point A and B respectively, then change in potential
energy ∆U is equal to the work done WBA.
ΔU = WBA
⇒ UA – UB = WBA
Unit
The SI unit of electric potential energy J.

Question: Explain the concept of electric potential. Derive an expression for electric
potential at a field point due to a source charge.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Definition
“The electric potential energy “U” per unit test charge “qo” is called as electric potential.”
Symbol
It is denoted by “V”.
Mathematically
𝑼𝑬
The electric potential V is given by; V =
𝒒𝒐
Unit
The SI unit of electric potential is volt and 1 V = 1 J /C.
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Definition
“The work done per unit positive charge in moving it from one point to another point against
electric field without producing any acceleration is called electric potential difference.” Or
“The difference between the electric potential of two points in an electric field is called
electric potential.”

18
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Symbol
It is denoted by “ΔV”.
Explanation
Consider a unit positive test charge +qo
as shown in fig (11.18). In order to
move the charge qo, with uniform
velocity from B to A an external force
“F” must be applied which is equal and
opposite to electrostatic force “FE”.
Let “WBA” be the work done that Figure 11.18
changes the potential energy of the
charge qo by ΔU. Then we can write;
ΔU = WBA
⇒ UA – UB = WBA (1)
The change in potential energy per unit charge from equation (1) is therefore given as;

𝑼𝑨 −𝑼𝑩 𝐖𝐁𝐀
⇒ =
𝐪𝐨 𝐪𝐨
𝑼𝑨 𝑼𝑩 𝐖𝐁𝐀
⇒ − =
𝐪𝐨 𝐪𝐨 𝐪𝐨
𝑼𝑨 𝑼𝑩
Since = 𝑽𝑨 & = 𝑽𝑩 therefore;
𝐪𝐨 𝐪𝐨
𝐖𝐁𝐀
⇒ VA – VB =
𝐪𝐨
𝐖𝐁𝐀
⇒ ∆V = VA – VB = (where ∆V = VA – VB)
𝐪𝐨
Where VA & VB are the electric potentials at point A and B, respectively.
Unit
Other multiples and sub-
The unit of potential difference is volt in SI system.
multiples of volt are
One volt is the potential difference between two -3
points in an electric field if one joule of work is done 1 milli volt (mV) = l0 -6V
in moving one coulomb of charge against electric 1 micro volt (μV) = 10 V
field without acceleration. 1 kilo volt (kV) = I03 V
1 mega volt (MV) = l06 V
1 volt = 1 joule/1 coulomb
1 giga volt (GV) = l09 V

ELECTRIC FIELD AS POTENTIAL GRADIENT

Definition
“The rate of change of electric potential with respect to displacement is known as electric
potential gradient.”
Explanation
Consider the electric field of a point charge in figure 11.19. If a test charge qo is moved a
small distance Δr from point A to B then work done on test charge is;
W = F . Δr (1)

19
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

In an electric field, the force acting on

charge qo is;
F = qo E (2)
Hence work done by the field on this
charge qo is obtained by putting values
from equation (2) in equation (1).
W = qo E . Δr
W = qo E Δr Cos180o
W = qo E Δr (−𝟏) Figure 11.19
W = − qo E Δr (3)
The negative sign indicates that the work is done against the field force.
Also the work done on the charge is given by;
W = qo ΔV (4)
Comparing (3) & (4) - qo E Δr = qo ΔV
⇒ E Δr = - ΔV
∆𝑽
⇒ E=−
∆𝒓
The negative sign in above equation indicates that the direction of the field is opposite to
the direction in which the potential difference is increasing.

Question: Describe the concept of equipotential surfaces and derive an expression for
electric field as a negative of potential gradient.
Equipotential Line
Definition
“An equipotential line is a line which connects points in space where the potential of an
electric field is the same.”
Explanation
Electric field lines are very difficult to
represent in a diagram because both
strength and direction has to be
indicated at every point in the field. As
an alternative to field line diagrams,
contour maps of the electric field can
be drawn using equipotential lines as in
figure (11.20).
Potential is a scalar quantity. Potential
can be either positive or negative, Figure 11.20
depending upon the sign of the charge.
𝐤𝐪
For positive point charge; V+ =
𝐫
𝐤𝐪
For negative point charge; V- = −
𝐫

20
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

So all points at the same distance “r” from the charge will have same potential. Hence the
equipotential lines around a point charge form circles
centered on the charge.
The surface made by equipotential lines is called as
equipotential surface.
EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES DUE TO MULTIPLE CHARGES
The equipotential lines due to opposite charges are
shown in figure 11.21. If there are two or more
charges, then the potential at any point is sum of the
potentials due to each charge.
Hence for two similar charges;
Vnet = V1 + V2
And for two opposite charges;
Vnet = V1 − V2
The following points must be remembered.
1. The closer the lines, the stronger the field is at that
point and vice versa.
2. If there is constant gap between equipotential lines
then electric field is constant. Dotted lines are equipotential
3. Equipotential lines can never cross each other lines and solid lines are field lines
because a charge placed at the point of intersection Figure 11.21
cannot have two potentials at the same time.
4. The equipotential lines are always perpendicular to field lines.

THE CONCEPT OF ABSOLUTE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

In order to give concept of electric potential at a point in an electric field a reference point
is required where electric potential is zero and this point is taken at infinity. If point B is at
infinity where electric potential is VB =0, then the potential at point is given by;
𝐖𝐀
∆V = VA – 0 =
𝐪𝐨
𝐖
On dropping the subscripts; V=
𝒒𝒐
ABSOLUTE ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Definition
“The absolute electric potential at any point is equal to the work done in bringing a unit
positive charge from infinity to that point without producing any acceleration.”
Explanation
Consider a charge q at infinity in Fig 11.22. Work is done in moving charge q from point “A”
towards a point charge “Q” at point “B” against the force of repulsion. Electric field does
not remain constant but varies as the square of the distance from the “Q” charge. The
equation for electric field intensity of point charge is;
𝒌𝑸
E= (1)
𝒓𝟐

21
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Fig 11.22

In order to keep E constant the test charge is moved through infinitesimally small
displacements Δ𝒓.
The work done is; ΔW = 𝑭⃗⃗ . Δ𝒓
⃗⃗
ΔW = 𝑭 Δ𝒓 Cos 180o
ΔW = − 𝑭 Δ𝒓
ΔW = − (q E) Δ𝒓 (2)
The negative sign in the above equation shows that E and Δ𝒓 are in opposite direction. Now
putting the value of E from Eq (1) in Eq (2), we get;
𝒌𝑸𝒒
ΔW = − 𝟐 Δ𝒓 (3)
𝒓
Now let the test charge be at a large distance rA
from charge Q. We divide the distance between Since the average 1/r2 over each small
rA and rB into infinitesimally small displacements displacement is given by;
such that the field intensity over each 1/<r2> = 1/ rA r1
displacement remains constant. At the i.e., <r2> = rA r1
beginning of first displacement E varies as 1/rA2
PROOF Let rA = 2.0 r1 = 1.9
and at the end, E varies as 1/r12. The average
𝟐.𝟎+𝟏.𝟗
displacement is; L.H.S <r> = 𝟐 = 1.95
2
1/<r> = 1/ rA r1 (4) <r>2 = 1.952 = 3.80
Also Δ𝒓 = (r1 – rA) = – (rA – r1) (5) R.H.S rA r1 = 2.0 × 1.9 = 3.80
To calculate work done in this small THUS L.H.S = R.H.S
displacement we put (4) & (5) in (3);
We get;
𝒌𝑸𝒒
ΔW rA →r1 = − × − (rA – r1)
𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟏
𝒓𝑨 – 𝒓𝟏
ΔW rA →r1 = kQq × ( )
𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟏

22
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

𝟏 𝟏
Hence ΔW rA →r1 = kQq × ( – )
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝑨
𝟏 𝟏
ΔW rA →r1 = kQq × (– + ) (6)
𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟏

Similarly for second small displacement Δ𝒓 = (r2 – r1), work done is

𝟏 𝟏
ΔW r1 →r2 = kQq × (– + ) (7)
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
And ΔW rB – 1 →rB = kQq × ( – + ) (8)
𝒓𝐁 – 𝟏 𝒓𝑩
The total work done in moving a charge q from rA to rB can be calculated by taking its sum:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
ΔW rA →rB = kQq (− + − + − +⋯ + )
𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝑩
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
ΔW rA →rB = kQq (− + − + − +⋯ + )
𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝑩

𝟏 𝟏
⇒ ΔW rA →rB = kQq× ( − + )
𝒓𝑨 𝒓𝑩
This total work done in moving charge “q” from rA to rB is retained by charge q as change in
electric potential energy ΔU (work energy principle)
ΔU = ΔW rA →rB
𝟏 𝟏
ΔU = kQq × ( – )
𝒓𝑩 𝒓𝑨

Change in electric potential energy per unit charge gives electric potential difference ΔV,
𝝙𝐔 𝟏 𝟏
ΔV = = kQ ( – )
𝐪 𝒓𝑩 𝒓𝑨
𝒌𝑸 𝒌𝑸
ΔV = –
𝒓𝑩 𝒓𝑨
𝒌𝑸 𝒌𝑸
VB – VA = –
𝒓𝑩 𝒓𝑨
In order to find absolute potential, put rA = ∞ ;
𝒌𝑸 𝒌𝑸
VB – VA = –
𝒓𝑩 ∞
𝒌𝑸
VB – VA = – 0
𝒓𝑩
𝒌𝑸
⇒ VB = & VA = 0
𝒓𝑩
Since point B can be any point inside the field so we can drop the subscript B. Hence the
absolute potential is;
𝐤𝐐
V=
𝐫

23
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

THE ELECTRON VOLT (eV)

Definition
“One electron volt is the work (energy)
required to move an electron or proton
across a difference of one volt.”
Explanation
Since the potential difference is;
𝐖𝐁𝐀
∆V =
𝐪𝐨
⇒ W = qo ΔV (1)
By work-energy theorem
W = ∆K.E (2)
(2) = (1) ⇒ ∆K.E = qo ΔV (3)
By putting q = e & ΔV = 1 V in equation (3) we get;
We get; ∆K.E = 1 eV
Since charge on electron is; 1 e = 1.602 × 10-19 C
Therefore 1 e V =1.602 × 10-19 C × 1 V
1 e V = 1.602 × 10-19 J (C × V = J )
The electron volt (eV) is smaller unit of energy.

CAPACITOR
A device which is used for storing electric charges is called capacitor.
Construction
It consists of two parallel metal plates, separated by small distance. The medium between
the two plates is air or a sheet of some insulating material. This medium is known as
dielectric as shown in figure 11.23.
Explanation
When a charge Q is transferred to one of the plates
say “A”, it would induce charge – Q on the inner
surface of the other plate “B” by electrostatic
induction. The capacitor is commonly charged by
connecting its plates to the terminals of a battery. In
this way some electrons are transferred through the
battery to one of the plates of capacitor. Charge +Q
and -Q appear on the plates. Mutual attraction
between the charges keeps them bound on the inner
surface of two plates and thus the charge remains
Figure 11.23

24
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

stored in the capacitor even after removal of the battery. Circuit symbol for capacitor is also
shown in figure 11.23.

CAPACITANCE OF A CAPACITOR
Definition
“The capability of a capacitor to store charges is called as capacitance.”
Symbol
It is denoted by “C”.
Explanation
When a charge Q is transferred on one of the plates of a capacitor, the potential difference
V between the plates also increases. In other words, the charge ‘Q’ on the plate of a capacitor
is directly proportional to the electric potential difference V between them i.e.
Q∝V
Q=CV (1)
or C=Q/V
Where C is a constant called the capacitance of capacitor.
The capacitance is thus defined as the ratio of magnitude of charge on either plate to the
potential difference produced between the plates.

25
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Factors on which capacitance depends

Capacitance depends upon;
i. The dimensions of a capacitor
ii. The medium (dielectric) between plates
iii. Shape of capacitor.
Special Case
Substituting V = 1 volt in Eq.1, we get
Q=C
This implies that if the potential difference between the plates of capacitor is 1 volt then
amount of charge stored on its plates is equal to its capacity.
Unit of Capacitance
The SI unit of capacitance is called farad (symbol F).
One farad (F) is defined as “the capacity of that capacitor which stores a charge of one
coulomb when connected to a battery of P.D of 1 volt”.
Question: Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor when a
dielectric is inserted between the plates of a capacitor.
CAPACITANCE OF A PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR
Let us consider that the charge on the plates of a parallel plate capacitor is +Q and -Q as
shown in figure 11.24. Then the electric field strength
between the plates is;
𝑽
E= (1)
𝒅
Where V is the P.D. between the plates and d is the
separation between the plates.
By using Gauss’s law the electric field intensity E
between the plates of capacitor is
𝛔
E=
𝛆𝐨
𝐐
Where σ=
𝐀 Figure 11.24
𝐐
Hence E= (2)
𝛆𝐨 𝐀
From Eq (1) & (2) we have;
𝐕 𝑸
=
𝐝 𝟄𝒐 𝑨

𝞊𝐨 𝐕 𝐀
⇒ Q= (3)
𝐝
𝐐
Since Cvac = (4)
𝐕
Putting eq.3 in eq.4, we get;
𝛆𝐨 𝐀
Cvac = (5)
𝐝

26
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

EFFECT OF DIELECTRIC MEDIA ON CAPACITANCE

In case of a parallel plate capacitor completely filled with a dielectric, the capacitance is;
𝞊𝐀
Cmed =
𝐝
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐫 𝐀
Cmed = (6)
𝐝
Above equation shows the dependence of capacitance upon
i. Area of the plates,
ii. The separation between the plates &
iii. The medium between them.
By comparing Eq. (5) and eq. (6), we have;
Cmed = εr Cvac
⇒ εr = Cmed / Cvac
Hence relative permittivity εr can also be defined as the ratio of the capacitance of a
capacitor with a given material to the capacitance of the same capacitor when the medium
is vacuum.
Conclusion
When a dielectric is inserted between the plates of a capacitor, then it is seen that the charge
storing capacity of capacitor is enhanced by the dielectric which permits it to store εr times
more charge for the same potential difference.
εr is a dimensionless quantity which is always greater than unity for dielectric and is
independent of the size and shape of the dielectrics.
COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
We know that the capacitors can be connected either in series or in parallel. We want to find
out an equivalent capacitor that has the same capacitance as that of the combination of
capacitors.
SERIES COMBINATION
Definition
“When the capacitors are connected in such a way that each capacitor have same amount
of charge then it is called series combination.”
Explanation
Consider the figure 11.25 (a). A battery of
voltage V and three capacitors having
capacitance C1, C2 and C3 are connected in
series between points “a” and “b”.
Characteristics of Series Combination
1. There is an equal amount of charge Q on
each capacitor i.e.,
Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = Q (1)
2. There is different potential drop across Figure 11.25 (a)
each capacitor due to same amount of
charge and different value of capacitance.

27
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

𝑸𝟏 𝑸
i.e., V1 = = (2)
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟏
𝑸𝟐 𝑸
V2 = = (3)
𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟐
𝑸𝟑 𝑸
V3 = = (4)
𝑪𝟑 𝑪𝟑
3. The applied potential difference V must be equal to the sum of potential differences V1,
V2 & V3 across the capacitors i.e.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 (5)
4. Substituting values from equation (2),(3) and (4) in (5), we get;
𝑸 𝑸 𝑸
V= + +
𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
V=Q(𝑪 + 𝑪𝟐
+ 𝑪𝟑
) (6)
𝟏
Let CS be the capacitance of an equivalent capacitor, which would hold the same charge
when the potential difference V is applied. That is;
𝑸
V= (7)
𝑪𝒔
Putting value from equation (6) in equation (7), we have;
𝑸 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
=Q[ + + ]
𝑪𝐬 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ = + +
𝑪𝒔 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
Conclusion
Thus the equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected in series combination is always less
than any individual capacitance in combination.
PARALLEL COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
Definition
“When two or more capacitors are connected between the
same two points in a circuit, so that voltage across all
capacitors is same, then it is called parallel combination of
capacitors.”
Explanation
Consider fig 11.25 (b). A battery of voltage V and three
capacitors having capacitance C1, C2 and C3 are connected in
parallel between points “a” and “b”.
Characteristics of Series Combination
1. The potential difference across each capacitor is Figure 11.25 (b)
same i.e.,
V1 = V2 = V3 = V (1)
2. When Q charge is supplied to the capacitors C1, C2, and C3, they acquire different

28
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

amount of charges Q1, Q2, and Q3 due to same potential difference and different
capacitances such that;
Q1 = C1V (2)
Q2 = C2V (3)
Q3 = C3V (4)
3. The total charge on the combination of capacitors is the sum of charge stored on
each capactior i.e.,
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 (5)
4. Putting values from equation (2),(3) and (4) in equation (5), we get;
Q = C1V + C2V + C3V
Q = (C1 + C2 + C3) V (6)
Let CP be the capacitance of an equivalent capacitor, which would hold the same amount of
charge as all the three capacitors C1, C2, and C3 hold under the same potential difference then,
Q = CeqV (7)
By comparing equation (6) and (7), we get;
⇒ Ceq V = (C1 + C2 + C3) V
⇒ Ceq = C1+ C2 + C3
Conclusion
The equivalent capacitance of a parallel combination is always larger than any individual
capacitance in the combination.
Question: Explain the phenomenon of electric polarization. Discuss how the phenomenon of
polarization accounts for the increase in capacitance of a capacitor when instead of air,
dielectric is inserted between its plates?
ELECTRIC POLARIZATION
Definition
“The slight relative shift of positive and negative electric charge in opposite direction within
a dielectric, induced by an external electric field is called electric polarization.”
Explanation
When insulating material with
relative permittivity εr is inserted in between
charged parallel plates of a capacitor then
negative charges appear on the left face and
positive charges on the right face of the
dielectric as shown in fig 11.26. The
phenomenon is known as electric
polarization and dielectric is said to be
polarized under such condition.
Induced Charges
“The charges on the dielectric faces are called Figure 11.26
induced charges.”
They are induced by the external field and appear on the dielectric faces only. The electric
field between capacitor plates is directed from left to right whereas the electric field due to

29
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

induced charges is from right to left.

Effect of Induced Field on Applied Field
Molecules in the dielectric material have their positive and negative charges separated
slightly, causing the molecules to be oriented slightly in the electric field of the charged
capacitor. As electric field due to induced charges is opposite to external electric field, so it
reduces the intensity of external field due to oppositely charged plates of the capacitor.
Hence we have;
Enet = Eapplied – Einduced
Types of Dielectric Materials
We know that dielectric materials are made up of the two types of molecules;
(i) Polar
(ii) Non-polar molecules.
A polar molecule behaves like a permanent dipole although electrically neutral as a
whole e.g, in NaCl, the end with Sodium ion is positive while the end with Chlorine ion is
negative even when external field is zero.
On the other hand, a non-polar molecule like proteins and CH4 molecule have no
electric dipole moment in the absence of an external field. The center of positive and
negative charges coincide in the absence of an external electric field. When a non-polar
dielectric material is placed in an external field, it gets polarized, that is, positive and
negative charges are displaced slightly and their centers do not coincide. Thus they form an
electric dipole.
DIPOLE MOMENT
Definition
“The product of magnitude of the charge at either end of the molecular dipole times the
distance between the charges is called as dipole moment.”
Mathematical form
Dipole moment (P) is the measure of net molecular polarity. The system in which two
charges of equal magnitude but of opposite sign separated by small distance are present, is
termed as a dipole.
If P is dipole moment then
P=qd
P is a vector quantity, directed from NEGATIVE to POSITIVE charge.
Unit
The SI unit of dipole moment is C m.
Question: Describe the construction of capacitor and derive an expression for the energy
stored in a capacitor.
ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR
Let us consider an uncharged capacitor connected to a battery. The potential difference
between the plates is zero initially. After some time, when charge +Q and -Q are deposited
on the plates, the P.D between the plates becomes V. The average voltage on the capacitor
during the charging process is V/2. Thus the energy stored by the capacitor is;
Energy = charge stored x Avg P.D

30
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

U=½QV (1)
Since Q=CV (2)
Therefore the expression for energy can be written as:
U = ½ C V2 (3)
As V = Q/C so U = ½ Q2/C (4)
It is also possible to regard the energy as being stored in the electric field between the plates
rather than potential energy of the charges on plates.
We know that;
V=Ed (5)
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐫 𝐀
And C= 𝐝
(6)
Putting eq(5) and eq(6) in eq. (2). We get;
𝛆𝐨 𝛆𝐫 𝐀
U=½ (E d)2
𝐝

U = ½ ε o ε r A E2 d
U = ½ εo εr E2 (A d)
The product (Ad) is volume in between the capacitor plates. Let “u” denote the energy
density that is, the energy contained in a unit volume of the field.
Then
u = energy / volume = U / (Ad)
𝟏
u = ε o ε r E2
𝟐

Question: Describe the process of charging a capacitor. Give the diagram and mathematical
expressions for the growth and decay of charge on the capacitor.
CHARGING AND DISCHARGING A CAPACITOR
CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
“The storing of charge on the plates of the capacitor is
called as charging of a capacitor.”
Explanation
Consider figure 11.27. When the switch S is closed, a
battery of voltage V starts charging the capacitor through
resistor R.
Suppose at t = 0 charge on a capacitor is zero i. After some Figure 11.27
time t, as charge builds up on the plates to the maximum value of q0. When P.D. between
the capacitor plates is equal to the emf of battery the charging process will stop.
Now
Maximum charge on capacitor = Capacitance x emf of battery
i.e., qo = C Vo

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

The charging process of a capacitor exhibits the exponential behavior therefore we can write
its equation as:
q = qo (1 – e -t /R C ) (1)
Where q = instantaneous value of charge
qo = maximum value of charge
For your information
e = 2.7182 (exponent)
In principle, a capacitor can never
We divide equation (1) by C on both sides, we get;
charge up fully, because the rate
𝐪 𝐪𝐨 of charging decreases as the
= (1 – e-t /R C )
𝐂 𝐂 charge increases. In practice, after
⇒ V = Vo (1 – e-t /R C ) a finite time the charging current
Where V = instantaneous value of voltage across becomes too small to measure,
capacitor plates and the capacitor is effectively
Vo = maximum value of voltage across fully charged.
capacitor plates
And the factor RC is called as “time constant of capacitor”.
Time Constant for Charging
Definition
“The time constant of a capacitor is the duration of time in which the capacitor acquires
63.2 % of the maximum value of charge.”
Proof
Let we put t = R C in eq.1; Then
q = qo (1 – e- RC /R C ) = qo (1 – e- 1 )
q = qo (1 – 1 /e) = qo (1 – 1 /2.7182)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
q = qo (1 – 0.367) = qo (0.632) ×
𝟏𝟎𝟎

q = qo 63.2 %
𝐪
= 63.2 %
𝐪𝐨
Figure 11.28
The time constant depends upon:
i. The capacitance of the capacitor
ii. The resistance of the resistor
The larger the capacitance or resistance, the longer it takes to charge the capacitor.
Graph
Figure 11.28 shows a graph between charge “q” and time “t”. According to this graph, the
charge reaches to its maximum value qo sooner when time constant is small and vice-versa.
DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR
“The liberation of charge from the plates of a charged capacitor is called as discharging of
capacitor.”

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Explanation
Fig.11.29 illustrates discharging of a charged capacitor through a resistor.
Assuming the fully charged capacitor begins discharging at time t = 0, when q = q0, and
decreases gradually to zero.
It can be shown that charge left on either plate at time t is given by;
q = qo (e-t / R C ) (1)
Where q = instantaneous value of charge
qo = maximum value of charge
e = 2.7182 (exponent)
We divide equation (1) by C on both sides, we get;
𝒒 𝒒𝒐
= e-t /R C
𝑪 𝑪

⇒ V = Vo e-t /R C Figure 11.29

Factor RC is called as “time constant”.
Time constant for discharging
“The time constant is the duration of time in which the capacitor losses 63.2% of the
maximum value of charge.” OR
“The time in which 35.7% charge is left on a fully charged capacitor.”
Let we put t = R C in eq.1; we get;
q = qo (e- RC / R C) = qo (e- 1)
q = qo (1/e)
q = qo (1 /2.7182)
q = qo (0.367)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
q = qo (0.367) × 𝟏𝟎𝟎

q = qo 36.7 % Figure 11.30

𝐪
⇒ = 36.7%
𝐪𝐨

Graph
Smaller values of time constant “ RC ” lead to a more rapid discharge and Vice-versa. This is
evident from the graph of fig 11.30.
Applications
The charging and discharging of a capacitor has many applications. Capacitor discharge
ignition (CDI) is a type of automotive electronic ignition system which is widely used in
motorcycles, lawn movers, chain saws, small engines, turbine powered aircraft, and some
cars. Other applications include electronic flashguns in cameras and wind shields of cars.

33
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

For your information For your information

Electronic flashguns for
cameras have to be left for a
short period of time between
flashes. There is a capacitor
inside that stores energy,it
needs to be charged up again
by the battery in the
flashgun.

An axon membrane acts as a capacitor. Axon of a

resting human nerve cell has a potential difference of
65mV.Current enters the axon (or dendrite) through
ion channels (e.g. Na+ channels) in a region of
membrane, depolarizing that region. The intracellular
+ charge is attracted to adjacent negatively charged
regions of membrane.

34
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Assignments
Assignment 11.1
Three charges +q1 = 10 μC, +q2 = 50 μC and q3 are placed as shown in the Figure. What is the
electrostatic charge on charge q3 if the net electrostatic force on charges q2 is zero?
Given
Charge (q1) = 10 μC = 10 x 10-6 C
Charge (q2) = 50 μC = 50 x 10-6 C
The distance between charge q1
and q2 (r12) = 2 cm = 2 x 10-2 m
The distance between charge q2 and q3 (r23) = 6 cm = 6 x 10-2 m
Required
The magnitude of charge q3 = ?
Solution
Let the force between charge q1 and q2 is F12 acting at a distance r12
While the force between charge q2 and q3 is F23 and distance is r23
Net force F on the q2 is zero means that the force exerted by q1 on q2 is equal to the force
exerted by q3 on q2. Hence we can write;
F 12 = F23
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
k =k
𝒓𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟑
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑
=
𝒓𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟑
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑
=
𝒓𝟐𝟏𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟐𝟑

𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒒𝟑
=
( 𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 ) 𝟐 ( 𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 ) 𝟐

𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝒒𝟑
=
𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒 𝟑𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐱 𝟑𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
q3 = = 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐱 𝟗
𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟒
q3 = 90 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 C
Assignment 11.2
When a 12.0 V car battery powers a single 30.0 W headlight, how many electrons pass
through it each second?
Given
ΔV = 12.0 V P = 30.0 W Δt = 1 s

35
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Required
The number of electrons n = ?
Solution
The potential energy ΔU = q ΔV
ΔU = n e ΔV
𝚫𝐔
n=
𝐞 𝚫𝐕
𝚫𝐔
As P =
𝚫𝐭
⇒ ΔU = P Δt = 30 W × 1 s = 30 J
𝟑𝟎
Now n= = 1.56×1019 electrons
𝟏.𝟔×𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 ×𝟏𝟐
Assignment 11.3
Two charges 5 x 10-8 C and -3 x 10-8 C are located 16 cm apart. At what point on the line
joining the two charges is the electric potential zero?
Given
Charge (q1) = 5 x 10-8 C Charge (q2) = - 3 x 10-8 C
The distance between charge q1 and q2 (r) = 16 cm = 16 x 10-2 m
Required
The point “x” on the line joining the two charges where is the electric potential zero = ?
Solution
Consider the figure. Let the potential due
to charge q1 is V1 and potential due to
charge q2 is V2 and let P be the point
where the net potential due to both
charges is zero. Also the distance
between point P and charge q2 is
supposed to be x.
Mathematically
Vnet = V1 + V2
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Vnet = k +k
( 𝟏𝟔−𝒙 ) 𝒙
According to given condition Vnet = 0
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
0=k +k
( 𝟏𝟔−𝒙 ) 𝒙
Divide k on both sides to cancel, we get;
( 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟖 ) ( −𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟖 )
0= +
( 𝟏𝟔−𝒙 ) 𝒙
𝟓×𝟏𝟎 −𝟖 𝟑×𝟏𝟎 −𝟖
=
𝟏𝟔− 𝒙 𝒙
Solving for x get; 5 x = 3 (16 – x)
5 x = 48 – 3x
5x + 3x = 48
8 x = 48

36
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

x = 6 cm
So the point where net electric potential Vnet is zero lies at a distance of 6 cm from charge
q2 and at a distance of ( 16 – 6 ) = 10 cm from q1.

SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 11.1
Three charges q1 = -5 μC, q2 = +10 μC and q3 = -12 μC are placed in a line as shown in figure.
Calculate the net electrostatic force on charge q2 due to the other two charges.
Given
Charge (q1) = -5 μC = -5 x 10-6 C Charge (q2) = +10 μC = +10 x 10-6 C
Charge (q3) = -12 μC = -12 x 10-6 C k = 9 x 109 N m2 C−2
The distance between charge q1 and q2 (r12) = 6 cm = 0.06 m = 6 x 10-2 m
The distance between charge q2 and q3 (r23) = 4 cm = 0.04 m = 4 x 10-2 m
Required
The magnitude of net electrostatic force on charge q2 = Fnet = ?
The direction of electrostatic force=?
Solution

Figure with examples 11.1

Electrostatic force on charge q2 due to charge q1is;

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 )× − 𝟓 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ×𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
F12 = k = = - 125 N
𝒓𝟐 ( 𝟔 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 ) 𝟐
Electrostatic force on charge q2 due to q3 is;
𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟑 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 )×𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 ×−𝟏𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
F32 = k = = - 675 N
𝒓𝟐 ( 𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 ) 𝟐
The net electrostatic force on charge q2 is;
F2 = F32 – F12 = (– 675 ) – (– 125) = – 675 + 125 = –550 N.
The direction of the net electrostatic force on charge q2 points towards charge q3 (points to
the right). The negative sign shows that force is attractive force.

Example 11.2 Find electric field at a distance of 30cm from a 3µC charge?
Given
r = 30 cm = 0.30 m q = 3 µC
Required
E=?
Solution

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Using relation for electric field due to point charge

𝒒 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 )( 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
E=k = = 3 x 105 N/C
𝒓𝟐 ( 𝟎.𝟑 ) 𝟐

Example 11.3 A metallic sphere of diameter 40 cm carries a charge of 600 µC. Find the electric
field intensity (a) at a distance of 60 cm from the center of the sphere and (b) at the surface
of sphere.
Given
d = 40 cm = 0.40 m q = 600 µC
Required
𝒅 𝟎.𝟒𝟎
E = ? at (a) r = 60 cm = 0.6 m and (b) at r = = = 0.2 m
𝟐 𝟐
Solution

𝒒 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 ) ( 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
(a) E=k 𝟐
= = 1.5 x 107 N/C
𝒓 ( 𝟎.𝟔 ) 𝟐
𝒒 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 ) ( 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
(b) Esurface = k 𝟐
= = 13.5 x 107 N/C
𝒓 ( 𝟎.𝟐 ) 𝟐

Example 11.4
You have a 12.0-V motorcycle battery that can move 5000 C of charge, and a 12.0-V car
battery that can move 60,000 C of charge. How much energy does each deliver?
Given
For the motorcycle battery, q=5000C and ΔV=12.0V
For the car battery, q=60,000C and ΔV=12.0V
Required
ΔUcycle =? ΔUcar=?
Solution
ΔUcycle = (5000C)(12.0V)=(5000C)(12.0J/C)=6.00×104J.
ΔUcar= (60,000C)(12.0V)=7.20×105J.

38
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Example 11.5 A point charge of 3µC placed at point “0” between “M” and “N”, 3cm apart.
Point M is 2cm from charge and N is 1cm from the charge. What is the potential difference
VM - VN ?
Given
q = 3 µC r1 = 2 cm = 0.02 m r2 = 1 cm = 0.01 m
Required
VM - VN =?
Solution

𝒒 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 ) ( 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
Potential at M is VM = k = = 13.5 x 10 5 V
𝒓𝟏 𝟎.𝟎𝟐
𝒒 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 ) ( 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
Potential at N is VN = k = 𝟎.𝟎𝟏
= 27 x 10 5 V
𝒓𝟐
Therefore, VM - VN = 13.5 x 10 5 V - 27 x 105 V = - 13.5 x 105 V
Example 11.6 A particle carrying a charge (3e) falls through a potential difference of 5V.
Calculate in joules the energy acquired by the particle.
Given
q=3e ΔV= 5 V
Required
ΔK.E = ?
Solution
The energy acquired by the charged particle is
ΔK.E = q ΔV= (3 e) (5 V) = 15 eV
ΔK.E = 15 × 1.602 × l0 -19 J = 2.4 × l0 -18 J
Example 11.7 Figure shows combination of
capacitors, if total charge is 600 µC. Then determine
values of V1 and C2.
Given
C1 = 15𝝻F C3 = 8𝝻F V2 = 20V Q = 600𝝻C
Required
V1 = ? C2 = ?
Solution

39
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

𝑸 𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
P.D across C1: V1 = = V1= 40 V
𝑪𝟏 𝟏𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔

Total P.D; V = V1 + V2 = 40 + 20 V = 60 V
Charge on C3: Q3 = C3 x V2
Q3 = 8 x 10 -6 x 20 = 160 µC
Charge on C2; Q2 = Q - Q3 = (600 – 160)C = 440 𝝻C
𝐐𝟐 𝟒𝟒𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎−𝟔
Capacitance C2 = = = 22 𝝻F
𝐕𝟐 𝟐𝟎

Example 11.8 A 6 µF capacitor is charged to a P.D. of 200V and then connected in parallel
with an un-charged 3µF capacitor. Calculate the P.D. across the parallel plate capacitors.
Given
Capacitance of charged capacitor = C1 = 6µF
Capacitance of un-charged capacitor = C2 = 3µF
Required
V=?
Solution
Charge on capacitor C1 is:
Q = C1 V = (6x10-6) ×200 = 0.0012C
The equivalent capacitance of parallel combination of capacitors is
Ceq = C1 + C2 = 6 + 3 = 9 µF
Charge 0.0012C is distributed between two capacitors to have common P.D.
P.D. across Parallel plate capacitors:
𝐐 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐
V= = = 133.3V
𝐂 𝐞𝐪 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

40
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

EXERCISE
MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS.
1. A charge Q is divided into two parts q and Q-q and separated by a distance R. The force
of repulsion between them will be maximum when:
a. q = Q/4 b. q = Q/2  c. q = Q d. None of these
Justification. Since
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
F=k (1)
𝒓𝟐
Putting q1 = q and q2 = Q – q in eq.1 we get;
𝒒 (𝑸−𝒒)
F=k (2)
𝒓𝟐
𝑸/𝟒 (𝑸−𝑸/𝟒) 𝟑𝑸𝟐 𝑸𝟐
Now if q = Q/4 ⇒ F=k =k = (0.19 ) k
𝒓𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝒓 𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑸/𝟐 (𝑸−𝑸/𝟐) 𝑸𝟐 𝑸𝟐
If q = Q/2 ⇒ F=k =k = (0.25 ) k
𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
𝑸 (𝑸−𝑸)
If q = Q ⇒ F=k =0
𝒓𝟐
Hence force maximum if q = Q/2.
2. Three objects are brought close to each other, two at a time. When objects A and
B are brought together, they attract. When objects B and C are brought together, they
repel. From this, we conclude that
a objects A and C possess charges of the same sign.
b. objects A and C possess charges of opposite sign.
c. all three of the objects possess charges of the same sign.
d. one of the objects is neutral
Justification. Since A and B attract, it means they both are oppositely charged. Then, if B and
C repel, it means they have same charge. Hence A and C attract each other.
3. Object A has a charge of +2 µC, and object B has a charge of +6 µC. Which statement is
true about the electric forces on the objects?
A. FAB = — 3FBA B. FAB = — FBA  C. 3 FAB = — FBA D. FAB = 3 FBA
Justification. The magnitude of the force exerted by charges on each other obeys Newton
3rd law. Hence both charges exert a force on each other equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction.
4. Some charge is being given to a Conductor. Then its potential
a. Is maximum at surface
b. Is maximum at center
c. Is same throughout the conductor (correct)
d. Is maximum somewhere between surface and center
Justification. Since
ΔV = E Δ r
But according to Gauss’s law electric field inside the conductor is zero, therefore
ΔV = 0 × Δ r = 0
⇒ ΔV = 0

41
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

⇒ V = Constant
5. Electric potential of earth is taken to be zero because the earth is good:
a. Semiconductor b. Conductor (correct)
c. Insulator d. Dielectric
6. A proton is about 1840 time heavier than an electron. When it is accelerated by a
potential difference of 1 kV, its kinetic energy will be:
a. 1840 keV b. 1/1840 keV c. 1 keV (correct) d. 920 keV
Justification. Since
K.E = q V (1)
Given that q = e and V = 1 kV
Eq.1 ⇒ K.E = e × 1 kV = 1 k eV
7. The electric field at a distance of 20 cm from 2 µC charge is;
a. 3 x 105 N b. 3 x 103 N c. 9 x 103 N d. 9 x 105 N e. none

Justification. The electric field due to a point charge is given as follow; Ф

𝒌𝑸 𝟗 ×𝟏𝟎𝟗 ×𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟔
E= = = 4.5 × 105 N/C2
𝒓𝟐 (𝟐𝟎×𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )𝟐
8. An electric charge q is placed at the center of a cube of side “a”. The electric flux on its
one side will be;
a. q/6 εo B. q/εoa2 C. q/4 𝝅εo D. q/εo

Justification. The total electric flux through any closed surface is given by gauss’s law
𝟏
Ф= ×q
Є𝒐
Since cube has six faces therefore each face contribute
1/6 times the total charge. Hence
𝟏
Фone side = 𝟔 × Ф
Putting values from eq.1 in eq.2, we get;
𝟏 𝟏
Фone side = × ×q
𝟔 Є𝒐
𝟏
Фone side = ×q
𝟔Є𝒐
𝐪
Фone side =
𝟔Є𝒐
9. The electric flux through the surface of a sphere due to a charge q placed at its center
depends upon;
a. the radius of the sphere
b. the quantity of charge outside the sphere
c. the surface area of the sphere
d. the quantity of charge inside the sphere 
Justification. The total electric flux through any closed surface is given by gauss’s law;
𝟏
Ф= ×q
Є𝒐
Hence the flux depends on the value of charge enclosed.

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Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

10. A one microfarad capacitor of a TV is subjected to 4000 V potential difference. The

energy stored in the capacitor is;
a. 8 J  b. 16 J c. 4 ×10-3 J d. 2 × 10-3 J
Justification. Given that C = 1 μF = 1 × 10 F
-6
V = 4000 V
𝟏
As U = C V2
𝟐
𝟏
⇒ U = × 1 × 10-6 × (4000)2 = 8 J
𝟐
11. In the figure, charge on 3 µF capacitor
a. 5 µC b. 10 µC  c. 3 µC d. 6 µC
Justification. From the given figure it is evident that the capacitors are connected
in series. Hence the charge on each capacitor is same. Therefore we will find the
equivalent capacitance of the combination
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑪 𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑪 𝒆𝒒 𝟐 µ𝐂 𝟑 µ𝐂 𝟔 µ𝐂
⇒ 𝑪 𝒆𝒒 = 1 µF
Now the charge; MCQ’s no. 11
Q = 𝑪 𝒆𝒒 V = 1 µF × 10 V = 10 µC
12. Two parallel, metal plates are a distance 8 m apart. Electric field between the plates is
uniform, directed toward right and has a magnitude of 4.00 N/C. If an ion of charge +2e
is released at rest at the left-hand plate, what is its kinetic energy when it reaches the
right-hand plate?
a. 4 eV. b. 64 eV  c. 32 eV d. 16 eV
Justification.
K.E = q V = 2 e × V = 2 e × E d = 2 e × 4 × 8 = 64 eV
13. The electric potential between two points A and B is ΔV. The work done W by the field
in moving a charge q from A to B is;
a. W = - q ΔV (correct) b. W = q ΔV c. W = - ΔV /q d. W = ΔV /q
Justification. Work done by the field on the charge is negative and our work done on
the charge is positive.

43
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

CONCEPTUAL QUESTIONS
Q 1. The electric potential is constant through a given region of space. Is the electric field
zero or non-zero in this region? Explain.
Ans: Electric field may or may not be zero if potential V is constant.
As electric field is defined as negative gradient of potential, i.e,
𝚫𝐕
E=−
𝚫𝐫
So if in any region of space potential V is constant then;
ΔV = 0
𝟎
Hence E=− = 0.
𝚫𝐫
e.g, interior of hollow conducting spherical shell.
There does also exist a case where electric field is non-zero when potential V is constant. For
example, an equipotential line in an electric field. Mathematically
ΔV = ⃗𝑬⃗ . Δ𝒓
⃗⃗
ΔV = E Δr Cos θ
ΔV = E Δr Cos900 (for an equipotential line θ = 900 )
ΔV = 0
So ΔV = 0 ⇒ V = Constant although E≠0.
Hence electric field may or may not be zero if potential is constant in a given region of space.
Q.2. If a point charge q of mass m is released in a non-uniform electric field with field lines
pointing in the same direction, will it make a rectilinear motion?
Ans: In the given statement it is clearly mentioned that all field lines point in the same
direction. It means that only magnitude of field varies, not direction.
So whenever a charge “q” of mass “m” is released in such a non-uniform electric
field, force of electric field ( F = qE ) will act on it which will produce acceleration. So charged
particle will move in a straight line (rectilinear motion) with accelerated motion.
Q.3. What is relationship between voltage and energy? More precisely, what is the
relationship between potential difference and electric potential energy?
Ans: Whenever a charged particle qo is moved against the electric field, work has to be done
on it. This work done is retained by the charged particle as electric potential energy. It is
represented by “U” and its unit is joules. Potential difference “V” between two points is the
potential energy “U” per unit charge “qo” in moving it from one point to the other point
against electric field. Its unit is volts.
Mathematically we can express the relationship between potential difference and
potential energy as
U=qxV
Q.4. How are units volts and electron volts related? How do they differ?
Ans. The term “volt” represents unit of potential difference and 1 volt is the potential
difference when one joule of work is done in moving 1 coulomb charge between two points

44
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

against electric field.

Electron-volt (eV) is the unit of energy and 1eV is the energy gained or lost by an
electron when it moves through a P.D of 1volt.
Relation
The energy E in electron-volts (eV) is equal to the voltage V in volts (V), times the electric
charge Q in elementary charge units (e):
E(eV) = V(V) × Q(e)
Electron-volt = volt × elementary charge
1 eV = 1 V × 1 e
1 eV = 1 x 1.6 x 10 -19 J ( coulomb x volts = Joules )
Difference
volt is unit of potential difference and electron-volt is the unit of energy.

Q.5. In what region of space is the potential due to a uniformly charged sphere the same as
that of a point charge? In what region does it differ from that of a point charge?
Ans: Electric potential due to a point charge “Q” at some point P at a
distance “R” is given by the equation;
V = k Q/R (1)
The above equation shows that potential varies inversely with distance
from the point charge.
Now let us suppose we have a uniformly charged sphere of radius “r”
having charge “Q”. Then electric potential at a distance r < R is;
V = k Q/r (2)
The potential due to a uniformly charged sphere at a distance ≤ r
remains constant. However for a distance greater than “r” at a point
outside the charged sphere, electric potential at same point P is;
V = k Q/R (3)
This is because a uniformly charged sphere behaves a point charge for any point lying outside
the sphere.
Hence from equation (1) and equation (3), we can say that for a distance greater than “r” at
a point outside the charged sphere, electric potential is same as potential due to point charge
at the same distance. While it differs for all points lying inside or on the surface of sphere.

Q.6. Can the Potential of a non-uniformly charged sphere be the same as that of a point
charge? Explain.
Ans: For a conducting sphere, the charge spreads uniformly even if charge is distributed non-
uniformly. Hence the potential outside the sphere will be the same as that of a point charge
but it will be different for any point inside the conducting sphere.
The potential of a point charge varies inversely with distance from the charge given by
equation;

45
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

V = k Q/r
But for a non-conducting sphere, charge distribution remains non-uniform and the potential
does not vary inversely with distance from the center of sphere both inside and outside the
sphere.
Thus potential of a point charge is not comparable to potential of a non-uniformly charged
sphere in any region of space.

Q.7. What are equipotential lines and equipotential surfaces?

Ans:
A line which connect points in space whose potential are same is called as equipotential line.
Equipotential lines are lines of constant potential in two dimensional plane.
In three dimensions, these lines form equipotential surfaces. Equipotential surface is a
surface having constant value of potential i.e.,
ΔV = 0 (1)
Movement along an equipotential surface requires
no work because potential difference is zero.
As W = q ΔV
From equation 1 W = q (0) = 0
In the figure shown, dashed lines are equipotential
lines whereas solid lines represent electric field which
are perpendicular to equipotential lines.

Q.8. Can different equipotential lines cross? Explain.

Ans. No. If they cross each other, then their corresponding electric fields will also cross each
other. This means that potential as well as their associated electric fields have two values at
a single point in space which is not possible. As potential and electric field both have a single
value at each point in space therefore different equipotential lines cannot cross.

Q.9. Water has a large dielectric constant but it is rarely used in capacitors. Explain why?
Ans. Water is rarely used in capacitors as dielectric material because of following three
reasons;
i. It has low dielectric strength where the term dielectric strength is defined as
maximum electric field strength above which an insulating material begins to break
down and start conduction.
ii. It ionizes certain materials. If it comes in contact with metals, some ions may be
leaked into the water, thus raising the conductivity of the water and making it a bad
dielectric.
iii. It has property of corrosion and will corrode the plates of capacitor, making it useless.
Q.10. A capacitor is connected in series with a resistor and charged. Explain why the P.D
across the resistor decreases with time during the charging?

46
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Ans: Initially when the capacitor is uncharged, a large amount of current flows through
resistor towards capacitor to charge it and thus potential drop is maximum across the
resistor in the beginning. The potential drop across the resistor is given by;
VR = i R
But, with the passage of time the potential across the plates of the capacitor increases given
by equation;
Vc = Vo (1 – e -t /R C )
The increase in Vc decreases the current in the circuit given by the equation,
i = io e -t /R C
Thus potential drop across the resistor also decreases due to decrease in current.

PROBLEMS
11.1. What is the magnitude of force of attraction between an iron nucleus bearing charge q
= 26e and its innermost electron if distance between them is 10-12 m.
Solution
F=? q1 = 26 e q2 = 1 e r = 10-12 m
According to Coulomb’s law the magnitude of force between two charges is
𝒒𝟏𝒒𝟐
F=k
𝒓𝟐
( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 ) ( 𝟐𝟔 𝒙 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟗 ) ( 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟗 )
F=
( 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟐 ) 𝟐
F = 6 x 10 -3 N

11.2. Charges 2 µC, -3 µC, & 4 µC are placed in air at the Vertices of an equilateral triangle of
sides 10 cm, what is magnitude of resultant force acting on 4 µC charge?
Solution
q1 = 2 µC q2 = -3 µC
q3 = 4 µC r = 10 cm = 0.1 m
Net force F = ? on q3
Magnitude of Coulomb force between q1 and q3 is F1
and given as
𝒒 𝒒
F1 = k 𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
𝒓
( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 ) ( 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 ) ( 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
F1=
( 𝟎.𝟏 ) 𝟐
F1= 7.2 N
Now the magnitude of force between q2 and q3 is F2
𝒒 𝒒
F2 = − k 𝟐 𝟐 𝟑
𝒓
( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 ) ( 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 ) ( 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
F2 = − = − 10.8 N
( 𝟎.𝟏 ) 𝟐
From figure it is clear that angle between forces F1 and F2 is 120 o .
So the magnitude of resultant force F is

47
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

F = √( 𝑭𝟏 ) 𝟐 + ( 𝑭𝟐 ) 𝟐 + 𝟐 𝑭𝟏 𝑭𝟐 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽
F = √(𝟕. 𝟐) 𝟐 + (−𝟏𝟎. 𝟖) 𝟐 + 𝟐(𝟕. 𝟐)(−𝟏𝟎. 𝟖)𝑪𝒐𝒔𝟏𝟐𝟎
Since F = √𝟐𝟒𝟔. 𝟐𝟒
F = 15.69 N = 15.7 N

11.3. Two equal and opposite charges of magnitude 2 × 10-7 C are placed 15 cm apart. What
is the magnitude and direction of electric intensity (E) at a point mid-way between the
charges? What force would act on a proton (charge = 1.6 x10-19 C) placed there?
Solution
q = 2×10-7C d = 15 cm E = ? F=?
⃗𝑬⃗ mid = ⃗𝑬⃗ 1 + ⃗𝑬⃗ 2 both fields are directed right from positive charge towards negative charge
Solution
q = 2×10-7C d = 15 cm E = ? F=?
(a) Since both fields are directed right from positive
charge towards negative charge
Emid = E1 + E2
𝒒 𝒒
Emid = k +k
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐
As r = d/2 = 15 cm/2 = 𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐
( 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ) ( 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 ) ( 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 ) ( 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 )
Emid = +
( 𝟕.𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )𝟐 ( 𝟕.𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐 )𝟐
Emid = 0.64 x 106 N/C from positive to negative charge
(b) Force on proton of charge q = 1 e is
F = q E = ( 1.6 x 10-19 ) ( 0.64 x 106 )
F = 1.024 x 10 -13 N
Direction of force is same as direction of E i.e towards -ve charge.
11.4. Two positive point charges of 15 × 10-10 C and 13 × 10-10C are placed 12 cm apart. Find
the work done in bringing the two charges 4 cm closer.
Solution
q1 = 15 x 10-10 C q2 = 13 x 10-10 C r = 12 cm
W = ? when d = 4 cm = 0.04 m
r1 = 0.12 m r2 = 0.08 m
𝟏 𝟏
W = k q1 q2 × ( – )
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
W = 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 × 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 × ( – )
𝟎.𝟎𝟖 𝟎.𝟏𝟐
-8
W = = 7.9 x 10 J
11.5. A hollow sphere is charged to 14 µC. Find potential (a) at its surface (b) inside sphere
(c) at a distance of 0.2 m from the surface. The radius of the sphere is 0.3 m.
Solution

48
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

q = 14 x 10-6 C Radius r = 0.3 m

( a ) V = ? at surface i-e r = 0.3 m
( b ) V = ? inside the sphere
( c ) V = ? at d = 0.2 m from surface
( a ) Potential due to a point charge is given by the equation
𝒒 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 )( 𝟏𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
V=k = = 4.2 x 105 V
𝒓 ( 𝟎.𝟑 )

( b ) Electric potential inside a uniformly charged conducting sphere is same as that on the
surface. Hence;
V = 4.2 x 105 V
( c ) At a distance of 0.2 m from surface means R = r + d = 0.3+0.2 = 0.5 m
𝒒 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 )( 𝟏𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
Now V=k = = 25.2 x 104 V
𝑹 ( 𝟎.𝟓 )

11.6. If 280 J of work is done in carrying a charge of 2C from a place where potential is – 12
V to another place where potential is V, calculate value of V.
Solution
W = 280 J q=2C V1 = – 12 V V2 = V
W = q ΔV
280 = 2 x ( V2 – V1 )
140 = V2 – (– 12 ) = V2 + 12
⇒ V 2 = 128 V
11.7. The electric field at a point due to a point charge is 26 N/C and the electric potential at
that point is 13 J/C. Calculate the distance of the point from the charge and magnitude of
charge.
Solution
E = 26 N/C V = 13 J/C r=? q=?
𝐕
Since E=
𝐫
𝐕 𝟏𝟑
⇒ r= = = 0.5 m
𝐄 𝟐𝟔

Now potential due to point charge is

𝐪
V=k
𝐫
𝐫 𝐕 ( 𝟎.𝟓 ) ( 𝟏𝟑 )
So q= = = 0.722 x 10-9 C
𝐤 ( 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝟗 )

11.8. Two point charges of 8 µC and -4 µC are separated by a distance of 10 cm in air. At what
point on line joining the two charges is the electric potential zero?

49
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

Solution
Consider the figure. Let the potential due
to charge q1 is V1 and potential due to
charge q2 is V2 and let P be the point where
the net potential due to both charges is
zero. Also the distance between point P
and charge q 2 is supposed to be x.
Mathematically
Vnet = V1 + V2

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Vnet = k +k
( 𝟏𝟎−𝒙 ) 𝒙
According to given condition Vnet = 0
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
0=k +k
( 𝟏𝟎−𝒙 ) 𝒙

Divide k on both sides to cancel, we get;

( 𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 ) ( −𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 )
0= +
( 𝟏𝟎−𝒙 ) 𝒙

𝟖×𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝟒×𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
=
𝟏𝟎− 𝒙 𝒙

Solving for x get; 8 x = 4 (10 – x)

2 x = 10 – x
2x + x = 10
3x=8
x = 3.3 cm
So the point where net electric potential Vnet is zero lies at a distance of 3.3 m from charge
q2 ( – 4µC) & at a distance of ( 10 – 3.3 ) = 6.7 cm from q1 (8µC)

11.9. An electron with an initial speed of 29 ×105 m/s is fired in the same direction as a
uniform electric field with a magnitude of 80 NC-1. How far does the electron travel before
being brought to rest momentarily and turned back?
Solution
v = 29 x 10 5 m/s E = 80 N/C d=?
Whenever a charged particle is in an electric field, it gains kinetic energy ( q V ) where q is
the charge and V is the potential difference. Mathematically
𝟏
𝟐
mv2=qV
Since q = 1 e ( for electron ), m = mass of electron ( 9.11 x 10 -31 kg ) and E = V d
𝟏
𝟐
m v2 = q ( E d )

50
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

𝟏
d= mv2
𝟐𝒒𝑬
𝟏
Putting all the values we get d= ( 9.11 x 10-31 ) ( 29 x 105 )2
𝟐 ( 𝟏.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟏𝟗 )( 𝟖𝟎 )
d = 0.299 m

11.10. Three capacitors of capacitance 4µF, 6µF and 8µF respectively are connected in series
to a 250V D.C supply. Find (i) the total capacitance (ii) charge on each capacitor and (iii) P.D.
across each capacitor.
Solution
C 1 = 4 x 10 -6 F C 2 = 6 x 10 -6 F C 3 = 8 x 10 -6 F
V = 250 V ( i ) Ceq = ? ( ii ) q1 = ? q2 = ? and q3 = ?
( iii ) V1 = ? V2 = ? V3 = ?
( i ) equivalent capacitance C eq in series combination of capacitors is
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑪 𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + +
𝑪 𝒆𝒒 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

Ceq = 1.846 µF
( ii ) Total charge Q = C eq V = ( 1.846 x 10 -6 ) ( 250 ) = 462 µC
Since capacitors are connected in series, therefore charge on each individual capacitor is
same as total charge Q.
q 1 = q 2 = q 3 = Q = 462 µC
( iii ) In series, voltage across each individual component is different. So
𝑸 𝟒𝟔𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
V1 = = = 115.5 V
𝑪𝟏 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

𝑸 𝟒𝟔𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
V2 = = = 77 V
𝑪𝟐 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

𝑸 𝟒𝟔𝟐 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
V3 = = = 57.7 V
𝑪𝟑 𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

11.11 Find the charge on 5 µF capacitor in the circuit shown in Figure.

C1 = 3 x 10 -6 F C2 = 2 x 10 -6 F C3 = 5 x 10 -6 F

51
Chapter 11 Electrostatics Genius Series

V=6V Q3 = ?
Solution
C2 and C3 are in parallel so net capacitance C is
C = C 2 + C 3 = 2µF + 5µF
C = 7 µF
Now this C is in series with C1 so their equivalent
capacitance Ceq
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + = +
𝑪 𝒆𝒒 𝑪𝟏 𝑪 𝟑 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 𝟕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
solving for Ceq
Ceq = 2.1 µF
This is the net capacitance of the circuit.
Total charge Q on capacitor
Q = Ceq V
Q = ( 2.1 x 10-6 ) ( 6 )
Q = 12.6 x 10-6 C
In order to find charge on C3 , we use equation
q3 = C3 V3 ……………………… (1)
Now P.D across C1 and C, being in series, is different but
P.D across C2 and C3 is same as they are in parallel ( say V3 )
Then
𝑸 𝟏𝟐.𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
V3 = =( = 1.8 V
𝑪 𝟐+𝟓 ) 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
Putting this value in eq ( 1 ) above we get
Q3 = C3 V3
Q3 = ( 5 x 10 -6 ) ( 1.8 )
Q3 = 9 µC
11.12 A 6µF capacitor is charged to a P.D. of 120 V and then connected to an un-charged 4µF
capacitor. Calculate the P.D. across the capacitors.
Solution
C 1 = 6 x 10-6 F V 1 = 120 V C 2 = 4 x 10-6 F V = ? ( Parallel )
-6
Q = C 1 V 1 = ( 6 x 10 ) ( 120 ) = 720 µC
When capacitors are connected in parallel then total capacitance
C eq = C 1 + C 2 = ( 6 + 4 ) µF = 10 µF
As both are in parallel so P.D across both will be same, given by equation
𝐐 𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔
V= = = 72 V
𝐂 𝟏𝟎 𝐱 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

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