Table of Contents

PROFILE ............................................................................................................................ 6
Introduction..................................................................................................................... 6
Facts and Figures ............................................................................................................ 6
Location: ..................................................................................................................... 6
Area:............................................................................................................................ 6
Border Countries:........................................................................................................ 6
Natural Hazards: ......................................................................................................... 6
Climate:....................................................................................................................... 6
Environment—Current Issues:.................................................................................... 7
Population: .................................................................................................................. 7
Median Age:................................................................................................................ 7
Population Growth Rate:............................................................................................. 7
Life Expectancy at Birth: ............................................................................................ 7
HIV/AIDS—Adult Prevalence Rate:.......................................................................... 7
Major Infectious Diseases:.......................................................................................... 7
Nationality: ................................................................................................................. 7
Sex Ratio:.................................................................................................................... 7
Ethnic Groups: ............................................................................................................ 7
Religions: .................................................................................................................... 8
Languages: .................................................................................................................. 8
Literacy: ...................................................................................................................... 8
Country Name:............................................................................................................ 8
Government Type: ...................................................................................................... 8
Capital:........................................................................................................................ 8
Administrative Divisions: ........................................................................................... 8
Independence: ............................................................................................................. 8
National Holiday:........................................................................................................ 8
Constitution:................................................................................................................ 9
Legal System:.............................................................................................................. 9
Suffrage:...................................................................................................................... 9
Government: ............................................................................................................... 9
Legislative Branch: ..................................................................................................... 9
Judicial Branch: ........................................................................................................ 10
International Organization Participation:.................................................................. 10
GDP—Real Growth Rate:......................................................................................... 11
GDP—Composition by Sector:................................................................................. 11
Labor Force—By Occupation:.................................................................................. 11
Telephones—Main Lines in Use: ............................................................................. 11
Telephones—Mobile Cellular:.................................................................................. 11
Radio Broadcast Stations: ......................................................................................... 11
Television Broadcast Stations:.................................................................................. 11
Internet Users:........................................................................................................... 11
Airports: .................................................................................................................... 11
Airports—With Paved Runways: ............................................................................. 11
Military Branches: .................................................................................................... 12

2
 Military Service Age and Obligation:....................................................................... 12
International Disputes: .............................................................................................. 12
Illicit Drugs: .............................................................................................................. 12
GEOGRAPHY.................................................................................................................. 14
Pakistan’s Neighborhood .............................................................................................. 14
Area............................................................................................................................... 18
Geographic Regions...................................................................................................... 18
Northern Mountains .................................................................................................. 18
Submontane Plateaus ................................................................................................ 18
Indus River Plain....................................................................................................... 19
Western Mountains ................................................................................................... 19
Balochistan Plateau................................................................................................... 20
Deserts....................................................................................................................... 20
Makran Coast ............................................................................................................ 20
Indus River Delta and Sindh Coast........................................................................... 21
Climate.......................................................................................................................... 21
Rivers and Lakes........................................................................................................... 22
Indus River................................................................................................................ 22
Jhelum River ............................................................................................................. 23
Chenab River ............................................................................................................ 24
Ravi River ................................................................................................................. 24
Sutlej River ............................................................................................................... 24
Kabul River............................................................................................................... 25
Manchhar Lake ......................................................................................................... 25
Population and Cities .................................................................................................... 25
Karachi...................................................................................................................... 26
Lahore ....................................................................................................................... 27
Islamabad/Rawalpindi............................................................................................... 29
Faisalabad ................................................................................................................. 29
Peshawar ................................................................................................................... 30
Multan ....................................................................................................................... 31
Environmental Concerns............................................................................................... 32
Natural Hazards ............................................................................................................ 33
Earthquakes............................................................................................................... 33
Floods........................................................................................................................ 33
Drought ..................................................................................................................... 34
History............................................................................................................................... 35
Early History................................................................................................................. 35
The Indus Valley Civilization................................................................................... 35
Crossroads of Empires .............................................................................................. 35
Islamic Empires ............................................................................................................ 36
The Early Islamic Empires........................................................................................ 36
The Mughal Period ....................................................................................................... 37
Colonial Era .................................................................................................................. 38
The British Enter the Indus River Plain.................................................................... 38
Colonial Rule ............................................................................................................ 39

3
 The Beginnings of the Hindu–Muslim Split............................................................. 41
Independence and Partition....................................................................................... 42
The Nation of Pakistan.................................................................................................. 43
Post-Independence .................................................................................................... 43
A Country Divided........................................................................................................ 44
The Bangladesh Independence War.......................................................................... 45
Bhutto and ul-Haq......................................................................................................... 45
Recent History .............................................................................................................. 46
Return to Democracy ................................................................................................ 46
Back to Military Control........................................................................................... 47
Recent Events................................................................................................................ 48
ECONOMY ...................................................................................................................... 50
Introduction................................................................................................................... 50
Industry ......................................................................................................................... 50
Agriculture .................................................................................................................... 51
Banking ......................................................................................................................... 52
Trade ............................................................................................................................. 53
Exports ...................................................................................................................... 54
Imports ...................................................................................................................... 54
Investment..................................................................................................................... 54
Energy and Mineral Resources ..................................................................................... 55
Energy ....................................................................................................................... 55
Mineral Resources .................................................................................................... 57
Standard of Living ........................................................................................................ 57
Tourism ......................................................................................................................... 58
Transportation ............................................................................................................... 59
Business Outlook .......................................................................................................... 60
International Organizations........................................................................................... 61
Society............................................................................................................................... 62
Introduction................................................................................................................... 62
Ethnic Groups and Languages ...................................................................................... 62
Punjabis..................................................................................................................... 62
Sindhis....................................................................................................................... 63
Muhajirs .................................................................................................................... 63
Pashtuns .................................................................................................................... 64
Balochis..................................................................................................................... 64
Languages ..................................................................................................................... 64
Pashtu as a Language ................................................................................................ 65
Sindhi as a Language ................................................................................................ 65
Urdu as a Language .................................................................................................. 65
Religion......................................................................................................................... 66
Islam.......................................................................................................................... 66
Sunni and Shi’a Islam ............................................................................................... 66
Islamists .................................................................................................................... 67
Traditions ...................................................................................................................... 67
Holidays .................................................................................................................... 67

4
 Celebrations .............................................................................................................. 67
Ramadan ................................................................................................................... 69
Social Customs.............................................................................................................. 69
Engagements and Weddings ..................................................................................... 70
Cuisine ...................................................................................................................... 71
The Arts ........................................................................................................................ 73
Music ........................................................................................................................ 73
Theater ...................................................................................................................... 74
Story Telling ............................................................................................................. 74
Puppetry .................................................................................................................... 74
Film and Television .................................................................................................. 74
Protest Theater .......................................................................................................... 75
Folklore ..................................................................................................................... 75
Dance ........................................................................................................................ 76
Visual Arts .................................................................................................................... 77
Truck Art................................................................................................................... 77
Embroidery ............................................................................................................... 78
Traditional Dress........................................................................................................... 78
Women...................................................................................................................... 78
Men ........................................................................................................................... 79
Gender Issues ................................................................................................................ 79
Patriarchal Culture ................................................................................................... 79
Violence toward Women .......................................................................................... 80
Bills of Protection for Women.................................................................................. 80
Marriage and Divorce ................................................................................................... 81
Marriage ................................................................................................................... 81
Forced Child Marriages ............................................................................................ 81
Divorce...................................................................................................................... 82
Sports ............................................................................................................................ 82
Field Hockey............................................................................................................. 82
Cricket....................................................................................................................... 83
Gulli Danda............................................................................................................... 83
Rugby........................................................................................................................ 83
Olympics ................................................................................................................... 83
Education ...................................................................................................................... 83
A Perspective .................................................................................................................... 85
U.S.–Pakistan Relations................................................................................................ 85
Poverty .......................................................................................................................... 86
Radical Groups.............................................................................................................. 87
Progress......................................................................................................................... 88
Looking Forward .......................................................................................................... 89

5
 PROFILE
Introduction
Pakistan has a long history as a region but only slightly more than
60 years as a country. The country’s name itself only precedes
independence by a little more than a decade. It is an acronym
referencing the many homelands of the region’s peoples: Punjab,
Afghania (North-West Province), Kashmir, Sindh, Balochistan.1 In
Urdu, this acronym translates into “land of the pure.”

Since independence, Pakistan has been in a long struggle to achieve

its national and political identity. Periods of military rule and
democratically elected governments have alternated. During the
country’s first quarter century, Pakistan was divided into two
regions—East and West—that were geographically separated by
most of India. Since 1971, when East Pakistan broke away and ultimately became the
country of Bangladesh, Pakistan has been a contiguous state, but ethnic, language, and
tribal divisions continue to influence political life. Islamic sectarian violence has also
increased over the last few decades.2

Facts and Figures3

Location:
Southern Asia, bordering the Arabian Sea, between India on the east, Iran and
Afghanistan on the west, and China in the north

Area:
803, 940 sq km (310,403 sq mi)

Border Countries:
Afghanistan 2,430 km (1,510 mi), China 523 km (325 mi), India 2,912 km (1,809 mi),
Iran 909 km (565 mi)

Natural Hazards:
Frequent earthquakes, occasionally severe especially in the north and west; flooding
along the Indus after heavy rains (July and August)

Climate:
Mostly hot, dry desert; temperate in the northwest; arctic in the north

1
Media Monitors Network. Ali, Chaudhary Rahmat. “Now or Never: Are We to Live or Perish Forever?”
28 January 2003. http://www.mediamonitors.net/nowornever.html
2
BBC News, U.K. Version. “Pakistan’s Shia-Sunni Divide.” 1 June 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3045122.stm
3
Information in this section comes from the following source: Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World
Factbook. “Pakistan.” 19 June 2007.

6
Environment—Current Issues:
Water pollution from raw sewage, industrial waste, and agricultural runoff; limited
natural fresh water resources; a majority of the population does not have access to potable
water; deforestation; soil erosion; desertification

Population:
164,741,924 (July 2007 est.)

Median Age:
20.9 years (2007 est.)

Population Growth Rate:

1.828% (2007 est.)

Life Expectancy at Birth:

63.75 years (2007 est.)

HIV/AIDS—Adult Prevalence Rate:

0.1% (2001 est.)

Major Infectious Diseases:

Degree of risk: High
Food or waterborne diseases: Bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A and E, and typhoid fever
Vectorborne diseases: Dengue fever, malaria, and cutaneous leishmaniasis are high risks
depending on location.
Animal contact disease: Rabies
Note: Highly pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza has been identified among birds in this
country or surrounding region; it poses a negligible risk with extremely rare cases
possible among U.S. citizens who have close contact with birds (2007)

Nationality:
Noun: Pakistani(s)
Adjective: Pakistani

Sex Ratio:
At birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
Under 15 years: 1.06 male(s)/female
15–64 years: 1.048 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.901 male(s)/female
Total population: 1.045 male(s)/female (2007 est.)

Ethnic Groups:
Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtun (Pathan), Baloch, Muhajir (immigrants from India at the time of
partition and their descendants)

7
Religions:
Muslim 97% (Sunni 77%, Shi'a 20%), other (includes Christian and Hindu) 3%

Languages:
Punjabi 48%, Sindhi 12%, Siraiki (a Punjabi variant) 10%,
Pashtu 8%, Urdu (official) 8%, Balochi 3%, Hindko 2%,
Brahui 1%, English (official; lingua franca of Pakistani
elite and most government ministries), Burushaski and
others 8%

Literacy:
Definition: Persons age 15 and over who can read and write
Total population: 49.9%
Male: 63%
Female: 36% (2005 est.)

Country Name:
Conventional long form: Islamic Republic of Pakistan
Conventional short form: Pakistan
Local long form: Jamhuryat Islami Pakistan
Local short form: Pakistan
Former: West Pakistan

Government Type:
Federal republic

Capital:
Name: Islamabad

Administrative Divisions:
Four provinces, one territory, and one capital territory
Provinces: Balochistan, North-West Frontier Province, Punjab, Sindh
Territory: Federally Administered Tribal Areas
Capital Territory: Islamabad Capital Territory
Note: The Pakistani-administered portion of the disputed Jammu and Kashmir region
consists of two administrative entities: Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas

Independence:
14 August 1947 (from United Kingdom)

National Holiday:
Republic Day, 23 March 1956

8
Constitution:
12 April 1973; suspended 5 July 1977, restored with amendments 30 December 1985;
suspended 15 October 1999, restored in stages in 2002; amended 31 December 2003

Legal System:
Based on English common law with provisions to
accommodate Pakistan's status as an Islamic state;
accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction, with reservations

Suffrage:
18 years of age; universal; joint electorates and
reserved parliamentary seats for women and non-Muslims

Government:
Note: Following a military takeover on 12 October 1999, Chief of Army Staff and
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee, General Pervez Musharraf, suspended
Pakistan's constitution and assumed the additional title of Chief Executive. On 12 May
2000, Pakistan's Supreme Court unanimously validated the October 1999 coup and
granted Musharraf executive and legislative authority for three years from the coup date.
On 20 June 2001, Musharraf named himself as president and was sworn in replacing
Mohammad Rafiq Tarar. In a referendum held on 30 April 2002, Musharraf's presidency
was extended by five more years, and on 1 January 2004, Musharraf won a vote of
confidence in the Senate, National Assembly, and four provincial assemblies.

Chief of state: President General Pervez Musharraf (since 20 June 2001)

Head of government: Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz (since 28 August 2004)

Cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the prime minister

Elections: The president is elected by an electoral college drawn from the national
parliament and provincial assemblies for a five-year term. Note: Musharraf was last
sworn in as President in November 2002; the prime minister is selected by the National
Assembly (next elections to be held in late 2007)

Election results: Aziz was elected by the National Assembly on 27 August 2004

Legislative Branch:
Bicameral Parliament or Majlis-e-Shoora consists of the Senate (100 seats; members
indirectly elected by provincial assemblies and the territories' representatives in the
National Assembly to serve six-year terms; half of the Senate's seats turn over every three
years) and the National Assembly (342 seats; 272 seats filled by popular vote; 60 seats
reserved for women; ten seats reserved for non-Muslims; members serve five-year terms)

9
Elections: Senate - last held in March 2006 (next to be held in March 2009); National
Assembly - last held 10 October 2002 (next to be held in 2007)

Election results: Senate results - percent of vote by

party - NA; seats by party - Pakistan Muslim League
(PML) 39, Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA) 18,
Pakistan People’s Party Parliamentarians (PPPP) 9,
Muttahida Qaumi Movement (MQM) 6, Pakistan
Muslim League/Nawaz Sharif group (PML/N) 4,
Pakhtoon Khwa Milli Awami Party (PkMAP) 3,
Pakistan People’s Party/Sherpao group (PPP/S) 3,
Awami National Party (ANP) 2, Baluch National
Party/Awami (BNP/A) 1, Baluch National Party/Mengal (BNP/M) 1, Jamhoori Watan
Party (JWP) 1, Pakistan Muslim League/Functional group (PML/F) 1, Independents 12;
National Assembly results - percent of votes by party - NA; seats by party - Pakistan
Muslim League/ Quaid-e-Azam (PML/Q) 126, PPPP 81, MMA 63, PML/N 19, MQM 17,
National Alliance (NA) 16, PML/F 5, Pakistan Muslim League/ Junejo group (PML/J) 3,
PPP/S 2, BNP/A 1, JWP 1, Pakistan Awami Tehrik (PAT) 1, PkMAP 1, Pakistan Muslim
League/Zia group (PML/Z) 1, Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) 1, Independents 4

Judicial Branch:
Supreme Court (justices appointed by the president); Federal Islamic or Shari'a Court

International Organization Participation:

ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF); Asian Development Bank (AsDB); Commonwealth (C)
(reinstated 2004); Colombo Plan (CP); Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO); Food
& Agricultural Organization (FAO); G-24, G-77, Int’l Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA);
Int’l Bank for Reconstruction & Development (IBRD); Int’l Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO); Int’l Chamber of Commerce (ICC); Int’l Red Cross & Red Crescent Movement
(ICRM); Int’l Development Assoc. (IDA); Islamic Development Bank (IDB); Int’l Fund
for Agricultural Development (IFAD); Int’l Finance Corp. (IFC); Int’l Federation of Red
Cross & Red Crescent Societies (IFRCS); Int’l Hydrographic Organization (IHO); Int’l
Labor Organization (ILO); Int’l Monetary Fund (IMF); Int’l Maritime Organization
(IMO); Interpol; Int’l Olympic Committee (IOC); Int’l Organization for Migration (IOM);
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU); Int’l Organization for Standardization (ISO); Int’l
Telecommunications Union (ITU); Int’l Trade Union Confederation (ITUC); Multilateral
Investment Geographic Agency (MIGA); U.N. Mission for the Referendum in Western
Sahara (MINURSO); U.N. Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH); U.N. Org.
Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUC); Nonaligned Movement
(NAM); Org. of American States (OAS) (observer); Org. of the Islamic Conference
(OIC); U.N. Operation in Burundi (ONUB); Org. for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW); Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA); South Asian Assoc. for
Regional Cooperation (SAARC); South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme
(SACEP0); Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) (observer); United Nations (U.N.);
U.N. Conference on Trade & Development (UNCTAD); U.N. Educational, Scientific, &
Cultural Organization (UNesco); U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); U.N.

10
Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO); U.N. Mission in Liberia (UNMIL); U.N.
Operation in Cote d’Ivoire (UNOCI); U.N. Observer Mission in Georgia (UNOMIG);
U.N. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO); World Confederation of Labor (WCL);
World Customs Organization (WCO); World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU);
World Health Organization (WHO); World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO);
World Meteorological Organization (WMO); World Trade Organization (WTO)

GDP—Real Growth Rate:

6% (2006 est.)

GDP—Composition by Sector:
Agriculture: 22%
Industry: 26%
Services: 52% (2006 est.)

Labor Force—By Occupation:

Agriculture: 42%
Industry: 20%
Services: 38% (2004 est.)

Telephones—Main Lines in Use:

5,162,798 (2006)

Telephones—Mobile Cellular:
48,289,136 (2006)

Radio Broadcast Stations:

AM 31, FM 68, shortwave NA (2006)

Television Broadcast Stations:

20 (5 state-run channels and 15 privately-owned satellite channels) (2006)

Internet Users:
10.5 million (2005)

Airports:
139 (2006)

Airports—With Paved Runways:

Total: 91
Over 3,047 m (1.89 mi): 14
2,438 to 3,047 m (1.51-1.89 mi): 21
1,524 to 2,437 m (0.95-1.51 mi): 33
914 to 1,523 m (0.57-0.95 mi): 15
Under 914 m (0.57 mi): 8 (2006)

11
Military Branches:
Army (includes National Guard), Navy (includes Marines and Maritime Security
Agency), Pakistan Air Force (Pakistan Fiza'ya) (2007)

Military Service Age and Obligation:

The minimum age is 16 years for voluntary military service, but soldiers cannot be
deployed for combat until the age of 18. The Pakistani Air Force and Pakistani Navy
have inducted their first female pilots and sailors. (2006)

International Disputes:
India–Kashmir
Various talks and confidence-building measures cautiously have
begun to defuse tensions over Kashmir, particularly since the
October 2005 earthquake in the region. Nevertheless, Kashmir
remains the site of the world's largest and most militarized
territorial dispute, with portions under the de facto
administration of China (Aksai Chin), India (Jammu and
Kashmir), and Pakistan (Azad Kashmir and Northern Areas). A
United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan
(UNMOGIP) has maintained a small group of peacekeepers
since 1949. India does not recognize Pakistan's ceding historic Kashmir lands to China in
1964. India and Pakistan have maintained their 2004 cease fire in Kashmir and initiated
discussions on defusing the armed stand-off in the Siachen glacier region. Pakistan
protests India's fencing the highly militarized Line of Control and construction of the
Baglihar Dam on the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir, which is part of the larger
dispute on water sharing of the Indus River and its tributaries.

India–Elsewhere
To defuse tensions and prepare for discussions on a maritime boundary, India and
Pakistan seek technical resolution of the disputed boundary in Sir Creek estuary at the
mouth of the Rann of Kutch in the Arabian Sea. Pakistani maps continue to show the
Junagadh claim in India's Gujarat State.

Afghanistan
By 2005, Pakistan, with U.N. assistance, repatriated 2.3 million Afghan refugees, leaving
slightly more than a million, many of whom remain at their own choosing. Pakistan has
proposed and Afghanistan protests construction of a fence and laying of mines along
portions of their porous border. Pakistan has sent troops into remote tribal areas to
monitor and control the border with Afghanistan and to stem terrorist or other illegal
activities.

Illicit Drugs:
Opium poppy cultivation was estimated to be 800 ha (3 sq mi) in 2005, yielding a
potential production of 4 metric tons (8000 lb) of pure heroin. Federal and provincial
authorities continue to conduct anti-poppy campaigns that force eradication - fines and
arrests will take place if the ban on poppy cultivation is not observed. Pakistan is a key

12
transit point for Afghan drugs, including heroin, opium, morphine, and hashish, bound
for Western markets, the Gulf States, and Africa. Financial crimes related to drug
trafficking, terrorism, corruption, and smuggling remain problems.

13
 GEOGRAPHY
Pakistan’s Neighborhood
Pakistan, a country that is nearly twice the size of
California, is strategically located within Asia.4 To
its east and north lie the world’s two most populous
countries (India and China), both with rapidly
developing economies; to the west are the oil states
of Iran and the Middle East. Its southern border lies
entirely along the Arabian Sea, the outlet for oil
tankers moving to and from the Persian Gulf. Most
of Pakistan’s western border is with Afghanistan, a country that has been embroiled in
civil wars and general instability for over 30 years. During those conflicts western
Pakistan has been home to both refugee camps and informal military bases for various
combatant groups.

Iran
Pakistan’s other neighbor is Iran, which borders the western edge of Balochistan.
Although the two countries have generally been on good terms, their relationship was
strained during the Afghanistan conflict of the 1990s, when each country supported
opposing sides (the Taliban by Pakistan, the Northern Alliance by Iran). Since the fall of
the Taliban in 2001, the two countries have moved closer together. Nonetheless, Iran (a
predominantly Shi’a nation) and Sunni-majority Pakistan still harbor suspicions about
each other. In particular, some in Pakistan suspect Iranian involvement in the unrest
taking place in Balochistan.5,6

Iran has recently built, with Indian assistance, a new deep-water port at Chabahar, only a
few hundred km down the coast from Pakistan’s new port at Gwadar. The two new ports
are both located near the strategic Gulf of Oman that leads to the oilfields of the Middle
East. They have created a competition to develop inland trade and access routes for
energy-related resources flowing to and from the ports to the Central Asian republics and
China.7 In a more collaborative economic venture, Pakistan and Iran, along with India,
are in the late stages of negotiating a pipeline that ultimately will bring natural gas from
Iran through Pakistan to India.8

4
PakistaniDefence.com. “Geo-Strategic Importance.” 2001.
http://www.pakistanidefence.com/Info/GeoStrategic.html
5
Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs, U.S. State Department. “Background Note: Pakistan.” May
2007. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
6
Asia Times Online. Ramachandran, Sudha. “‘Brothers’ in Arms.” 18 March 2005.
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GC18Df06.html
7
South Asia Program. The Henry L. Stimson Center. Haider, Ziad. “Baluchis, Beijing, and Pakistan’s
Gwadar Port.” Winter/Spring 2005. http://www.stimson.org/southasia/pdf/GWADAR.pdf
8
The Hindu Online. Varadarajan, Siddarth. “‘Peace Pipeline’: Iran for Tripartite Summit.” 8 February 2007.
http://www.hindu.com/2007/02/08/stories/2007020821100100.htm

14
Afghanistan
Perhaps the world’s most publicized border since September 11, 2001 has been the long
stretch between Pakistan and Afghanistan. It runs for 2,430 km (1,510 mi) from near the
northernmost tip of Pakistan’s Northern Areas to the country’s westernmost point at
Ribat, where Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran converge in a triangular-shaped region. The
long border in many places has more reality on maps than it does on the ground.
Smugglers, refugees, terrorists, and everyday Pashtun tribespeople have long been able to
move freely from one country to the other. The border region’s lack of governmental
control, its rugged topography, and the close Pashtun tribal ties along both sides of it
have all contributed to its situation as one of the world’s most porous international
boundaries.9

The Afghani–Pakistani border is known as the

Durand Line, drawn by British diplomat Sir Mortimer
Durand during colonial times. It divides the
traditional tribal areas of the Pashtuns and Balochs
and has long been a source of contention between the
two countries. For its part, Afghanistan has never
recognized the Durand Line boundary. This
controversy has been heightened in recent times as
terrorists and Taliban militia members have moved
freely within the only nominally governed, Federally Administered Tribal Areas (known
as FATA or, simply, “tribal areas”) of Pakistan. The Pakistani army has responded by
building fences along 35 km (22 mi) of the Durand Line border, which Afghani troops in
turn have tried to remove. The resulting border skirmishes between Afghani and
Pakistani forces have threatened the cooperation needed by Afghanistan, Pakistan, and
NATO forces to control the Taliban insurgency.10

Pakistan supported the Taliban government in Afghanistan until the post-9/11 period.
Even today, Afghani leadership continues to express distrust of Pakistani intentions with
regards to Afghanistan.11 Pakistani officials, on the other hand, have accused Afghanistan
of allowing India to use Afghani territory to support violent unrest within Balochistan
and Wajiristan (the southern portion of Pakistan’s tribal areas).12

India
Pakistan and India have generally been on bad terms since the day they both became
independent countries in 1947. The partitioning of the former British colony of India,
which included the present-day countries of Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh, was marked

9
Council for Emerging National Security Affairs. Kemp, Robert. “Counterinsurgency in Eastern
Afghanistan.” 2006. http://www.censa.net/EI_PD_Compendium/EI_PD_Kemp_Chapter.pdf
10
The Nation. Mehmood, Asif. “Build Up on Durand Line.” 20 May 2007.
http://www.nation.com.pk/daily/may-2007/20/index2.php
11
AlertNet.org. Reuters. “Musharraf Urges Karzai to Stop Finger-Pointing.” 22 April 2007.
http://www.alertnet.org/thenews/newsdesk/ISL337050.htm
12
Carnegie Endowment of International Peace. Grare, Frédéric. “Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations in the
Post-9/11 Era.” October 2006.
http://www.carnegieendowment.org/publications/index.cfm?fa=view&id=18740&prog=zgp&proj=zsa

15
by massive violence as Hindus in Pakistan areas moved to India and Muslims in Indian
areas moved to Pakistan.

The India–Pakistan partition also caused the ongoing

deadlock over Jammu and Kashmir. As a princely
state, Jammu and Kashmir’s decision on whether to
join India or Pakistan was in the hands of the ruling
Maharaja. When he delayed making his accession
decision in 1947, a series of political and military
events unfolded that have been historically debated by
both sides ever since.13 Ultimately, the Maharaja, a
Hindu, acceded to India, despite the fact that the majority of people in Jammu and
Kashmir were Muslims. In fast order, India and Pakistan began fighting over Jammu and
Kashmir; the less populated western and northern regions eventually came under
Pakistani control.

Two subsequent Pakistani–Indian Wars in 1965 and 1971 were followed in 1972 by an
agreement formalizing the “Line of Control” in Jammu and Kashmir. The Line of Control
is essentially the same as the boundary after the 1947–48 war.14 Even so, conflicts have
continued over the interpretation of this boundary near the Siachen Glacier in western
Jammu and Kashmir, resulting in another Pakistani-Indian conflict beginning in 1984.
Since then, there have been long periods of stand-off punctuated by occasional battles in
this region. Some bases near the glacier are above 5,650 m (18,540 ft), making this the
world’s highest war zone.15

In 1999, the world held its collective breath as India and Pakistan once again battled
along the Jammu and Kashmir border. These were the first major hostilities between the
two countries since Pakistan joined India as a country with nuclear weapons capability.16
In 1998, Pakistan carried out its first nuclear weapons tests, followed a month later by
Indian underground testing. The 1999 hostilities raised fears that the two long-time
enemies might be tempted to use their nuclear arsenals.17 Similar fears arose again in
December 2001 after a terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament in New Delhi. India’s
Government claimed the attack was carried out by Lashkar e-Toiba, a terrorist group
operating out of Azad Kashmir on the Pakistani side of the Line of Control.18 19

13
The Joan B. Kroc Institute for Peace Studies, University of Notre Dame. Mahmood, Cynthia. “Kashmir
and ‘The War on Terrorism.’” October 2001. http://kroc.nd.edu/polbriefs/pbrief8.shtml
14
The 1971 war began as a conflict between India and Pakistan over the East Pakistan secession revolt that
led to the creation of the nation of Bangladesh. However, it eventually spread to a western front between
the two countries, especially in Jammu and Kashmir.
15
TIME Asia. McGirk, Tim and Aravind Adiga. “War at the Top of the World.” 4 May 2005.
http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501050711/story.html
16
BBC News. “India-Pakistan: Troubled Relations—Kargil Conflict.” 2005.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1999.stm
17
BBC News. “India-Pakistan: Troubled Relations—Nuclear Rivalry.” 2005.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1998.stm
18
BBC News, UK Version. “Profile: Lashkar-e-Toiba.” 17 March 2006.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3181925.stm

16
Indian and Pakistan relations in the last decade have alternated between tense political
and military standoffs and periods of thaw, with ongoing terrorist attacks within Kashmir
a major point of conflict. Presently the two countries are in the third year of peace talks
known as the Composite Dialogue. Terrorist attacks on trains in Mumbai and near Lahore
during 2006 and 2007, respectively, threatened the peace process, but so far they have not
had any lasting effects.20

China
Pakistan’s relations with the People’s Republic of China
(PRC) have generally been good throughout the
country’s history. China has several border disputes with
India, including several areas in the Jammu and Kashmir
area, but the Pakistani–China border situation has
generally been calm. In 1963, the two countries
negotiated a border agreement in the northern part of
Jammu and Kashmir that gave China control over the
Trans-Karakoram tract, a region that India still claims as part of greater Jammu and
Kashmir.21 K2, the world’s second highest point, lies on this portion of the Pakistani–
Chinese border.

Pakistan was one of the first non-Communist countries to recognize the PRC (in 1950),
and for many years their strategic relationship was reinforced by their mutual strained
relations with India and the Soviet Union. While the external dynamics have changed
over the last two decades with the collapse of the Soviet Union and China’s
rapprochement with India, the two countries have maintained their “all weather
relationship.”22

In 1966, the two countries began to build a highway connecting them through Pakistan’s
Northern Areas, the northern administrative portion of Jammu and Kashmir under
Pakistani control. This road, known as the Karakoram Highway, was completed in 1986
and is the highest paved international border crossing in the world at 4,693 m (15,397 ft).
Pakistan and China recently announced plans to upgrade and widen this road as part of a
program to better connect western China with Pakistan’s new deep-sea port at Gwadar,
which was built with extensive Chinese aid.23, 24 China will also finance a highway link

19
Office of the Coordinator for Terrorism, U.S. Department of State. “Chapter 8—Foreign Terrorist
Organizations.” http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2005/65275.htm
20
India News Online. Singh, Harjit. “Peace Process is On Despite Train Fire-Bombing.” 5 March 2007.
http://news.indiamart.com/news-analysis/peace-process-is-on--14939.html
21
International Boundary Consultants. International Boundary Monitor. “India’s Boundary Disputes With
China, Nepal, and Pakistan.” 15 May 1998. http://www.boundaries.com/India.htm
22
Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies. Kumar, Atul. “China, Pakistan Economic Relations.” September
2006. http://www.ipcs.org/IPCS-Special-Report-30.pdf
23
The Hindu. Aiyar, Pallavi. “China, Pakistan to Renovate Karakoram Highway.” 11 July 2006.
http://www.hindu.com/2006/07/11/stories/2006071107281300.htm
24
International Herald Tribune. Associated Press. “New Pakistani Deep Sea Port a Boon for Chinese Trade,
But Locals See Little Benefit.” 12 May 2007. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/05/13/business/AS-
FEA-FIN-Pakistan-Port-of-Promise.php

17
from Gwadar to a road connecting to highways leading to Rawalpindi, near where the
Karakoram Highway to China begins.25

Area
More so than in most countries, Pakistan’s administrative divisions, known as provinces,
largely follow the country’s geographical and ethnic patterns. Balochistan and the North-
West Frontier, which make up the mountainous western and northern parts of the country,
are historically the homelands of ethnic Balochis and Pashtuns, respectively. Punjab and
Sindh, on the other hand, occupy primarily river plains.

Geographic Regions
Northern Mountains
The northern part of Pakistan, including virtually all of the areas of
Jammu and Kashmir controlled by Pakistan, consists of
mountainous terrain interspersed by river valleys. The highest
mountains lie along the northern border, including the Karakoram
Range to the northwest and the Hindu Kush to the northeast.
Prominent peaks include Tirich Mir 7,708 m (25,289 ft), the highest
peak in the Hindu Kush; K2 8,611 m
(28, 251 ft), the highest Karakoram peak and the world’s second
highest mountain; and Nanga Parbat 8,126 m (26,660 ft), the only
peak over 8,000 m in the Western Himalayas.

In the southern part of this region the mountains decrease in height.

Most of the river valleys are found in this area, including the tourist destinations of Swat
Valley and the Kaghan Valley. The rivers and streams that run through these valleys all
ultimately feed into the Indus River further downstream.

In October 2005, the Kaghan Valley was struck by a violent earthquake of magnitude 7.6.
Over 75,000 people were killed in what was ultimately one of the world’s deadliest
earthquakes of all time. Some Kaghan Valley towns and cities, such as Balakot, were so
totally destroyed that officials have decided that the town will not be rebuilt at its old
site.26

Submontane Plateaus
Between the northern and western mountains are a series of plateaus surrounded by low
hills. The largest of these is the Potwar Plateau, which is separated from the Indus River
Plain by the narrow Salt Range that runs east-west north of the Jhelum River. In the
northeastern part of the Potwar Plateau are the cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad,
Pakistan’s capital.

25
“Interpreting China’s Grand Strategy at Gwadar.” 14 February 2006.
http://www.ipcs.org/China_east_asia_articles2.jsp?action=showView&kValue=1952&keyArticle=1009&is
sue=1009&status=article&mod=a
26
BBC News, UK Version. “In Depth: South Asia Quake.” 11 May 2007.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/south_asia/2005/south_asia_quake/default.stm

18
The plateau region continues westward and northward from the Potwar Plateau to areas
on the western side of the Indus River. These plateaus include the Vale (“valley”) of
Peshwar, known as the gateway to the famed Khyber Pass, and regions to its south in the
North-West Frontier Province.27

Indus River Plain

Most of the population of Punjab and Sindh Provinces
live in the Indus River Plain, which is the agricultural
heart of Pakistan. The northern portion of the Plain,
often referred to as the Punjab Plain, is marked by the
confluence of four large tributaries of the Indus River:
the Jhelom, Chenab, Ravi, and Sutlej Rivers. (A fifth
tributary, the Beas River, merges with the Sutlej in
Punjab State in India; the word Punjab comes from
Persian and means “five waters.”) The regions between the five rivers are known as
doabs. Three of the doabs (Rechna, Chaj, Bari) are some of the most productive
agricultural lands in Pakistan owing to the extensive irrigation system that has been
developed in these areas. Several of Pakistan’s largest cities, such as Lahore, Faisalabad,
Gujranwala, and Multan, are also located in the three doabs. The westernmost doab, the
Sindh Sagar, lies between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers and is mostly desert.28

The southern Indus River Plain, or Sindh Plain, begins just south of where the Indus
River is joined by the Panjnad River (which carries the combined water received from the
five rivers of the Punjab). The Plain in this region narrows between mountains to the west
and deserts to the east. The Indus River in the southern portion is much wider, carries
more silt, and is more prone to flooding. The river’s delta region covers a wide portion of
the southern coast owing to several channel changes over historical time. It has been
suffering from seawater encroachment into inland areas as upriver irrigation diversions
have decreased the amount of Indus River water reaching the Arabian Sea. The results
have been both biohabitat degradation and loss of farm land within the delta region.29

Western Mountains
South and west of the northern mountains lie numerous lower ranges that border
Afghanistan to the west and the Indus River Plain to the east. The northernmost ranges in
the Western Mountains include the Safed Koh. The Khyber Pass, used for centuries by
traders and invaders as a passage into the Indus River Plain and northern India beyond, is
situated in a northeastern spur of this range.30 Further south are the Toba Kakar, the

27
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Pakistan: The Submontane Plateau.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23676/Pakistan
28
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Pakistan: The Indus Plain.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
23677/Pakistan
29
International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. “The Lower Indus River:
Balancing Development and Maintenance of Wetland Ecosystems and Dependent Livelihoods.” 2003.
http://www.iucn.org/themes/wani/flow/cases/Indus.pdf
30
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Khyber Pass.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9045368/Khyber-Pass

19
Sulaiman, and the Kirthar Ranges, which together form a series of mountain walls that
have traditionally isolated the arid Balochistan Plateau from the rest of Pakistan.

Balochistan Plateau
Much of Balochistan Province lies within the Balochistan Plateau. This region is
extremely arid, particularly in the northwestern areas. The Plateau contains numerous
parallel mountain ridges that run southwest–northeast to the south and north–south to the
east. Bolan Pass in the Central Brahui Range provides the main access to Quetta, the
area’s only large city and the capital of Balochistan. North of Quetta lies Khojak Pass, the
only official entry point into Afghanistan along its long border with Balochistan.

The Kharan Basin in the western part of the Balochistan Plateau is primarily desert and
extremely inhospitable. What few rivers that do exist here are ephemeral and do not drain
outside the Basin. It is in this region that Pakistan has carried out its underground nuclear
tests.31

Deserts
Much of southern Pakistan is arid, receiving an average
of less than 250 mm (9.8 in) of rain each year.32 Only the
presence of the Indus River and the numerous canals
branching from it has allowed substantial agriculture to
take place within the lower Punjab and Sindh Plains.

Some dry areas, however, have infertile soils and cannot

be irrigated. One such area is the Thar Desert, which
occupies the western side of Sindh Province and the southeastern portion of Punjab
Province.33 It also extends into adjacent portions of India. (In India, it is often referred to
as the Great Indian Desert, and the portion within Punjab Province is known locally as
the Cholistan Desert.)

Further north, in the Sind Sagar Doab between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers, lies the Thal
Desert. Some of the Thal Desert has been reclaimed through irrigation, but the remainder
supports only grazing lands.34 To the west, much of the northwestern portion of the
Balochistan Plateau is also considered desert land and is one of the most sparsely
populated areas in all of Pakistan.

Makran Coast
Pakistan’s portion of the Makran Coast extends from the Iranian border in the west to
near Karachi in the east. This region lies beyond the Monsoon areas and receives very
31
Federation of American Scientists. “Wazir Khan Khosa: Kharan Desert.” 6 July 2000.
http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/facility/kharan.htm
32
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Pakistan. “Pakistan: Mean Average Rainfall.”
http://www.mofa.gov.pk/Maps/PAK_Rainfall.jpg
33
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Thar Desert.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9071941/Thar-Desert
34
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Pakistan: The Desert Areas.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23680/Pakistan

20
little rainfall. A handful of fishing villages with natural ports dot the coastline, but
otherwise the region is mostly uninhabited. One of these port villages, Ormara, hosts a
recently built Pakistani naval installation.35 Further west the village of Gwadar has
recently been the site of the development of a new commercial deep-water port. A paved
two-lane road now runs from Karachi to Gwadar, significantly reducing the isolation of
the coastal region.36

Indus River Delta and Sindh Coast

From the southeastern outskirts of Karachi to the coastal
border with India lies a low-lying coastal region
consisting of mud flats, mangrove swamps, and
meandering creeks that run through the Indus River Delta
and adjoining areas.37 Unlike the Makran Coast, which
rises relatively abruptly from the Arabian Sea, the
continental shelf along Sindh Province is broad with a
very gentle slope.

As freshwater input from the Indus River has decreased due to irrigation projects, the
Arabian Sea has continued to encroach on upstream areas from the river mouth,
expanding the inland reach of saltwater and causing shoreline erosion along the coast.38

Climate
All of Pakistan lies within the North Temperate Zone, but
meteorological and topographical variations provide a
diversity of climate types. Much of the country is arid or
semi arid. A relatively small region in the north, just south
of the Himalaya foothills, exceeds 500 mm (19.7 in) in
average precipitation, usually considered the minimum
needed for dry farming.39 From this area southward,
rainfall drops off significantly, and only regions in the
western mountains and in the far southwestern corner of the country receive an average
precipitation of 250 mm (9.8 inches) or more.40

35
South Asia Analysis Group. Raman, B. “Chinese Activities in Balochistan.” 8 June 2001.
http://www.saag.org/papers3/paper259.html
36
Pakistan Times. Baig, Murtaza. “Balochistan Mega Projects: Musharraf Unveils Development Plans.” 17
December 2004. http://pakistantimes.net/2004/12/17/top.htm
37
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. “Fishery and Aquaculture Profile—Pakistan.”
2007. http://www.fao.org/fi/website/FIRetrieveAction.do?dom=countrysector&xml=FI-
CP_PK.xml&lang=en
38
World Deltas Database Framework, Louisiana State University. Hart, George F. and James Coleman.
“Indus River Delta, Pakistan, Asia.” 6 December 2004.
http://www.geol.lsu.edu/WDD/ASIAN/Indus/indus.htm
39
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Pakistan: Climate.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
23682/Pakistan
40
Pakistan Information.com. “Mean Annual Rainfall.”
http://www.pakistaninformation.com/pakrainfallmap.html

21
Much of Pakistan’s rainfall comes during the summer monsoons, which usually occur
between July and September. These storms arrive from the southwest, but they are not
felt equally throughout the country. In general, the eastern and northern plains in Punjab
Province, including the Potwar Plateau, receive the most rain during the monsoon season,
while areas to the south are much drier. During the winter months, some of the northern
and western regions receive rain from atmospheric depressions that move in from the
west.41

Except for the high mountain areas, much of Pakistan is very warm throughout the late
spring though early fall. The monsoon season brings increased cloud cover, even if no
rain falls, and thus temperatures are moderated somewhat. However, the higher humidity
during this period still leads to uncomfortable weather conditions. For example,
Jacobabad in northern Sindh Province has an average daily high temperature in June of
46˚C (115˚F), which decreases to 43˚C (109˚F) and 40˚C (104˚F) in July and August,
respectively, when the monsoons arrive. The relative morning humidity in Jacobabad,
however, increases from 57% in June to 65% and 71% in July and August, respectively.
Such average weather conditions have given the city the reputation of being one of the
world’s hottest and most uncomfortable places from April through October.42

Further to the north in the Indus River Plain, average temperatures are lower than in
southern Pakistan, although daily high temperatures may still average over 40˚C (104˚F)
during the hottest summer months. Only in the high regions of the northern part of
Pakistan are temperatures moderate during the entire April though October period.

Rivers and Lakes

Indus River
It would be hard to overstate the importance of the Indus River to
Pakistan. Its role in the history and development of modern-day
Pakistan can be likened to that of the Nile in Egypt. Except for
some areas along the Makran Coast and in the Balochistan Plateau,
all rivers and streams in Pakistan flow into the Indus eventually.

One of the world’s longest rivers at 2,900 km (1,800 mi), the Indus
rises in the high altitudes of the Tibetan Plateau in China. It flows
northwest through the Indian- and Pakistani-controlled portions of
Jammu and Kashmir, where it is fed by several streams flowing off
glaciers, before turning southward as it enters the North-West
Frontier Province of Pakistan.

As the Indus finishes its descent from the high northern mountains, it reaches the
reservoir at Tarbela Dam, the largest earth-filled dam in the world. The majority of

41
BBC Weather. “Country Guide: Pakistan.”
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002680
42
BBC Weather. “Country Guide: Pakistan.”
http://www.bbc.co.uk/weather/world/country_guides/results.shtml?tt=TT002680

22
Pakistan’s hydroelectricity is produced by the generators at Tarbela. Below the dam, the
Indus flows through the Potwar Plateau, where it is joined by the eastward-flowing Kabul
River. After entering the Punjab Plain, the river is fed by several streams from the
Western Mountains before the Panjanid flows into it from the east. The Panjanid carries
the combined flow of the Punjab rivers (Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Boas) and causes
the river to widen significantly, especially during high-flow times during mid July to mid
August.43

The Indus finishes its route to the Arabian Sea as it flows through the Sindh Plain.
Because of the high flow and low topography in this region, the river often shifts its
course. At the delta region, south of Karachi, the river breaks into numerous distributaries
that are crisscrossed by numerous deltaic creeks. Much of the southern coast of Pakistan
consists of remnant areas of past configurations of the Indus River Delta. This entire strip
is flooded by high tides that extend as many as 32 km (20 mi) inland from the coast.44

Jhelum River
The westernmost of the Punjab rivers that feed into the Indus is the Jhelum River. Its
headwaters are in the Indian portion of Jammu and Kashmir, and it is the principal river
flowing through the Vale of Kashmir. It flows through Muzaffarabad, the largest city of
Pakistani Azad Kashmir, before turning south to descend toward the Punjab Plain. For
much of this stretch it forms the border between Azad Kashmir and the North-West
Frontier Province. North of Jhelum, the largest city along the river, the rivers flow into
the Mangla Dam reservoir, the second largest dam in Pakistan.45, 46

Several link canals below Mangla Dam feed Jhelum

water into the Chenab River. These canals are part of
a massive water redistribution system that transfers
water from the Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab Rivers
into the eastern Punjab rivers. The latter rivers’ flows
are heavily depleted because the Indus Waters Treaty
allows India to freely use the water of those rivers
before they enter Pakistan.47 The former rivers, on
the other hand, are fully allotted to Pakistan, with the exception of limited domestic and
agricultural use and water-project development in the Indian portion of Jammu and
Kashmir.

43
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Indus River.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9110542/Indus-River
44
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Indus River.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9110542/Indus-River
45
U.S. Water News Online. “Water Levels in Pakistani Dams Drop to Low Levels.” March 2002.
http://www.uswaternews.com/archives/arcglobal/2watlev3.html
46
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Jhelum River.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9043618/Jhelum-River
47
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Indus River: Irrigation.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
48092/Indus-River

23
One ongoing dispute between India and Pakistan is the Wullar Barrage (known in India
as the Tulbul Navigation Project), a controversial water project that India began
constructing in 1984 on the Indian portion of the Jhelum before suspending work in 1987
when Pakistan claimed that the project violated terms of the Indus Waters Treaty. Since
then, ongoing talks have established a dialogue, but have yet to offer any solutions to the
standoff.48

Chenab River
The Chenab River originates in the Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh State in India. Like
the Jhelum and Indus, it flows through the Indian portion of Jammu and Kashmir. It
enters Pakistan near the city of Sialkot and from there flows southwest through the
Punjab Plains as it links first with the Jhelum River and then the Ravi River. In the
southern Punjab Plain the river is joined by the last of the Punjab rivers, the Sutlej, at
which point the combined river becomes known as the Panjnad.

As with the Jhelum River, the Chenab has been in the center of an ongoing water-
development dispute between India and Pakistan. However, in this case, the status of the
project in question (Baglihar Dam in the Indian portion of Jammu and Kashmir) was
seemingly settled in February 2007 by a neutral expert who was called in by the World
Bank to mediate the dispute, although Pakistan may decide to appeal part of the expert’s
decision.49

Ravi River
The Ravi River, like the Chenab, originates in the Himalayas of Himachal Pradesh. After
flowing northwest through the mountains, it turns to the southwest and runs along the
border of Himachal Pradesh and the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir. It subsequently
follows the Indian–Pakistani border for 80 km (50 mi) before running through the
northwestern part of Lahore, Pakistan’s second most populous city. It flows into the
Chenab River north of Multan in central Punjab Province.

The Ravi is the smallest of the Punjab rivers and is also the most polluted. It receives
47% of the total industrial and municipal pollutants discharged into all Pakistani rivers
and is completely devoid of dissolved oxygen for a lengthy stretch below Lahore.50

Sutlej River
The Sutlej River, longest and easternmost of the five
Punjab rivers, enters Pakistan from Punjab State in
India. The river begins its flow from a lake in
southwest Tibet. After flowing northwest through
China, it turns west and cuts through the Himalayas

48
Times of India. “Indo-Pak Talks on Wullar Barrage Postponed.” 17 April 2006.
http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1493609.cms
49
International Water Power and Dam Construction. Sahai, I. M. “Baglihar Decision—An End to the
Dispute?” 19 March 2007.
http://www.waterpowermagazine.com/story.asp?sectioncode=166&storyCode=2043009
50
Pakistan Water Gateway. “River Ravi.” http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/riveravi.PDF

24
in Himachal Pradesh. Near the border of Punjab State in India the Sutlej flows into the
vast reservoir behind Bhakra Dam, one of the highest concrete gravity dams in the world
and labeled the “Temple of Resurgent India” by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru
upon its dedication in 1963.51

As it nears the Pakistani border, the Sutlej receives the waters of the Beas River, the only
one of the five Punjab Rivers that does not flow through Pakistan. The Sutlej
subsequently flows along the Pakistani-Indian border for 105 km (65 mi). Several link
canals from more eastern Punjab rivers help to restore the Sutlej’s flow during this stretch
before its final stretch through the central Punjab Plain. At its confluence with the
Chenab River, the combined rivers become the Panjnad River before flowing into the
Indus.

Kabul River
The most significant Indus River tributary that flows in from the river’s west bank is the
Kabul River, which rises west of the Afghani capital of Kabul and flows into Pakistan
through a narrow river valley north of the Khyber Pass. Near Peshawar, the Warsak Dam
on the Kabul was the first large dam project built by Pakistan after partition, but today the
dam is almost completely silted up. Although its storage capacity is mostly gone, the dam
still provides electricity through its hydroelectric generating plant.52

Manchhar Lake
Located in a natural depression west of the Indus River in
Sindh Province, Manchhar Lake is naturally fed by small
streams from the nearby Kirthar Range. However, it also
receives water from the Indus River via canals, and
during flood stages it can become one of the largest
freshwater bodies in Asia. Manchhar Lake traditionally
supported a small fishing community, but decreasing
amounts of floodwater from the Indus and nearby
mountain streams and increasing amounts of highly saline agricultural runoff have led to
a massive kill off of the lake’s fishes.53

Population and Cities

Pakistan is one of the most heavily populated countries in Asia, trailing only China, India,
and Indonesia in its number of people. According to the most recent Pakistani census, a
little less than one third of the Pakistani people live in urban areas. This low percentage is
nonetheless higher than either India’s or Afghanistan’s, Pakistan’s neighbors to the east
and west.

51
India Together. Sharma, Sudhirendar. “Was the Bhakra Dam Worth It?” 21 May 2005.
http://www.indiatogether.org/2005/may/agr-bhakrabk.htm
52
Pakistan Water Gateway. “Warsak Dam.” http://waterinfo.net.pk/fswd.htm
53
Pakistan Water Gateway. Ali, Iqbal. “An Environmental Disaster Called Manchar.” 30 October 2002.
http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/artaed.htm

25
City Name Province (* = Prov. Capital) Population 1998 (2003 est.)54, 55
Karachi Sindh* 9,339,023 (11,100,000)
Lahore Punjab* 5,143,495 (6,000,000)
Faisalabad Punjab 2,008,861 (2,400,000)
Rawalpindi Punjab 1,409,768 (1,700,000)
Multan Punjab 1,197,348 (1,400,000)
Hyderabad Sindh 1,166,894 (1,300,000)
Gujranwala Punjab 1,132,509 (1,400,000)
Peshawar North-West Frontier 982,816 (1,200,000)
Quetta Balochistan* 565,137 (N.A.)
Islamabad Federal Capital Area* 529,180
N.A, Population data not available for 2003.

Karachi
Karachi is Pakistan’s most populous city and primary seaport. Following partition, it
served as Pakistan’s capital for over a decade until the government moved first to
Rawalpindi and then to Islamabad. For much of Pakistan’s history, Karachi has been
Pakistan’s only commercial port, and that role has cemented the city’s preeminence
within the country.

Karachi was a small fishing village until the 18th century.

Towards the end of that century, a fort was erected on
Manora Island at the Karachi harbor entrance by Lower
Sindh amirs, and the little fishing village began to slowly
evolve into a trading center. In 1839, the British captured
Karachi, and ultimately all of Sindh. Shortly therafter,
Karachi became a British military headquarters and the
harbor was developed into the principal port for the Indus
River region. The city’s first railway came in the early 1860s, and the city’s importance
as a port mushroomed after the Suez Canal was opened in 1869.

By 1901, the city had a population of over 100,000, of which 55 percent were Muslim
and 41 percent were Hindu.56 Following World War I, manufacturing and service
industries started up around the city. Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency in
1936; at that time Karachi became the capital of Sindh Province.

Following Independence in 1947, the city’s population changed enormously. Most of the
city’s large Hindu population moved to India while the city received a large influx of
Muslims from India. These new Karachi residents, referred to as Muhajirs, spoke Urdu

54
Population Census Organization, Ministry of Economic Affairs and Statistics. “Population Size and
Growth of Major Cities, 1998 Census.”
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/pco/statistics/pop_major_cities/pop_major_cities.html
55
Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations. “Urban
Agglomerations 2003.” 2004.
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2003/2003urban_agglo.htm
56
The Story of Karachi. Ansari, Saad W. “Karachi: The 1900’s.”
http://www.historickarachi.com/1900's.htm

26
rather than Sindhi and quickly became the majority population within the Karachi urban
area. Generally better educated than their Sindhi counterparts, many Muhajirs moved into
positions of political and economic importance.57

During the post-independence years in which Karachi was Pakistan’s capital, booming
construction and infrastructure growth brought waves of Pashtuns, Punjabis, and
Kashmiris into the city as workers. Afghani refugees and illegal immigrants from
Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka later boosted the city’s population and its ethnic
diversity.58

Today, Sindhis are a distinct minority within Karachi, which is one of the most ethnically
diverse cities within Pakistan and prone to fractious relations between its many peoples.
Muhajirs have also lost their majority status as the waves of migration into the city have
changed the demographic balance. Violence between the city’s two largest ethnic
groups—Pashtuns and Muhajirs—has plagued Karachi for several decades. In May 2007,
for example, 40 people were killed when ousted Chief Justice Iftikhar Mohammad
Chaudhry’s visit to Karachi triggered violence between his Pashtun supporters and the
mostly Muhajir supporters of Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf.59 The city has also
seen sectarian violence in the last decade between Sunni and Shi’a Muslim groups.60

Karachi’s population boom has put tremendous stress on

the city’s ability to address the needs of its burgeoning
population. The city’s location in a mostly desert-like
region with swamplands to the southeast has made water
a particularly difficult resource to adequately supply.
Most of the city’s water is piped in from the Indus River,
but the supply does not match the demand. During
drought periods, when some of Karachi’s secondary
sources temporarily dry up, water-supply conditions can become critical in some sections
of the city.61

Lahore
Lahore, Pakistan’s second largest city, is located near the Indian border in northern
Punjab. Unlike Karachi, Lahore has been a major city of the Indian subcontinent for
hundreds of years. For fourteen years (1584–1598 CE) during the reign of Akbar the
Great, Lahore served as capital of the Mughal Empire, and the modern city retains many

57
FindArticles.com. The Journal of Third World Studies. Hilali, A. Z. “The Challenges to Pakistan’s
Domestic Security.” 2002.
58
PakistanLink.com. Burki, Shahid Javed. “A Unique Mega City.” 4 October 2004.
http://www.pakistanlink.com/Letters/2004/oct04/15/02.html
59
Slate.com. Schmidle, Nicholas. “Dispatch from Karachi: Did Pakistan’s President Provoke an Ethnic
War Last Weekend?” 17 May 2007. http://www.slate.com/id/2166473/pagenum/all/
60
BBC News, International Version. “Violence at Karachi Shia Funerals.” 1 June 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3765047.stm
61
Environment and Urbanization. Ahmed, Noman and Muhammad Suhail. “Alternate Water-Supply
Arrangements in Peri-Urban Localities: Awami (People’s) Tanks in Orangi Township, Karachi.”
http://eau.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/15/2/33.pdf

27
renowned architectural remnants of the Mughal era. Foremost among these are the
Badshahi Mosque, the world’s largest “historical” mosque and the Lahore Fort. The city
also displays numerous examples of extensive building projects completed during the
British colonial period.62

Modern Lahore is capital of Punjab Province, the most

populous of Pakistan’s provinces. The traditional region
of Punjab was partitioned between India and Pakistan
during the partition of 1947. Lahore, the center of Punjabi
culture and only 24 km (15 mi) from the new Indian–
Pakistani border, was particularly hard hit by the violent
disruptions of the pre-independence period. The city’s
Hindus and Sikhs, who made up approximately one third
of Lahore’s population prior to independence, migrated to the Indian side as Muslims
from Amritsar and other northern Indian cities came to Pakistani Punjab. The ensuing
violence left nearly 6,000 homes damaged in Lahore. The city itself was still home to
nearly 1,000,000 refugees as late as April 1948, with many housed in makeshift camps.

Despite the terrible tensions and disruptions of the independence period, Lahore was able
to avoid many of the ethnic conflicts that still embroil Karachi. Partly this was due to the
fact that many of the Lahore muhajirs (migrating pre-partition Indian Muslims) spoke the
same language as the existing Lahore population (Punjabi) and in many cases had
established kinship networks in the city. In Karachi, on the other hand, there was a
greater linguistic and cultural distance between the Urdu-speaking muhajirs from North
India and the local Sindhi population. In addition, the competition for housing and
resources was more severe in Karachi than it was in Lahore.63

Today Lahore stands as the cultural capital of Pakistan and one of the country’s leading
economic and financial centers. It is home to the country’s most prestigious business and
arts colleges, as well as the historic University of the Punjab, one of the most highly
regarded general universities in Pakistan.64 As would be expected of a city its size, the
economy is diversified, ranging from steel and chemical plants to a growing information
technology segment.65 Cotton textile plants have traditionally been the largest
manufacturing employer.66

62
City Government Lahore. “Lahore Profile: History.” 2006. http://www.lahore.gov.pk/profile/history.htm
63
Cambridge University Press. Modern Asian Studies, Vol. 41 (1). Talbot, Ian. 2007. “A Tale of Two
Cities: The Aftermath of Partition for Lahore and Amritsar 1947-1957.”
http://journals.cambridge.org/download.php?file=%2FASS%2FASS41_01%2FS0026749X05002337a.pdf
&code=da2a0268fb584212e4a6c55bf429b91c
64
Higher Education Commission Pakistan. “Ranking of Universities.” 2006.
http://www.hec.gov.pk/new/QualityAssurance/Ranking_lists.htm
65
TechNewsWorld. Osama, Athar. “Fighting Image Problem: An IT Industry Rises in Pakistan.” 17 May
2005. http://www.technewsworld.com/story/42934.html
66
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Lahore.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9046850/Lahore

28
Islamabad/Rawalpindi
Pakistan’s capital, Islamabad, is one of the world’s youngest capital cities. Like Brazilia
in Brazil, Islamabad was built from the ground up in the 1960’s to be the country’s new
capital, replacing Karachi. The site chosen for the new capital was at the base of the
Margalla Hills in the northern part of the Potwar Plateau, 14 km (9 mi) north of its larger
sister city Rawalpindi. Islamabad is part of a capital territory that has a population of
nearly 1,000,000, with over 500,000 living within the city proper.

In its layout and construction, Islamabad is unlike other Pakistani cities. Most of the city
is built on a grid system, with wide, tree-lined streets. The original plan for the city called
for eight areas dedicated to particular functions: administration, education, housing,
industry, commerce, diplomatic missions, green belt, and the Margalla Hills National
Park.67 Most of the main part of the city is defined by 2 km by 2 km (1.2 mi by 1.2 mi)
square sectors that are designated by a letter followed by a number. Between the F and G
sectors lies the Blue Area, a commercial strip that runs the length of the city along Jinnah
Avenue. It is here where the Centaurus Building is being constructed.68 This striking
futuristic building, dubbed the “Ski Jump” by locals, will be Islamabad’s tallest building
when completed in 2010. Another eye-catching Islamabad building is the Faisal Masjid,
which is conspicuously situated on a terrace above the main part of the city. Built as a gift
from Saudi Arabia to the people of Pakistan, the Faisal Masjid is the one of the world’s
largest mosques.

Rawalpindi, Islamabad’s much older and larger twin, is the headquarters of the Pakistan
Army, an apt role given the city’s history as the largest military garrison in British
India.69, 70 Pindi, as it is referred to by locals, is a crowded, bustling city that hosts various
factories and industrial plants, including textile mills, a refinery, an iron foundry, and a
brewery (Pakistan’s only one).71, 72 The many bazaars in Rawalpindi’s Old City are
famous and attract both locals and tourists.73

Faisalabad

67
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Islamabad.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9042915/Islamabad
68
CIOB International. International Construction Review. “Chinese Contracting Giant to Build ‘Ski Jump’
in Pakistan.” 22 May 2007. http://www.iconreview.org/en/news/1133
69
India Daily. Chadda, Sudhir. “Pakistan Military—Another Inevitable Coup? It May Not be Good for
India and America!” 5 October 2004. http://www.indiadaily.com/editorial/10-05b-04.asp
70
Pakistaniat.com. All Things Pakistan. Shirazi, S. A. J. “Rawalpindi: Past and Present.” 29 April 2007.
http://pakistaniat.com/2007/04/29/pakistan-rawalpindi-history-travel-visit/
71
Canoe.ca. Associated Press. Pennington, Matthew. “Pakistan’s Only Beer Maker: The Historic Murree
Brewery.” 10 June 2005. http://travel.canoe.ca/Travel/Asia/Central/2005/06/10/1081218.html
72
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Rawalpindi.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9062803/Rawalpindi
73
Pakistan, 3rd edition (updated). “Islamabad, Rawalpindi, and the Murree Hills.” 2007. London: Insight
Guides.

29
Founded in 1890 as Lyallpur (named after Sir James Lyall, the
British Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab), the modern city was
renamed in 1977 after the late Saudi King Faisal. The city came into
existence during a period when newly installed perennial irrigation
canals transformed the economy of the Punjab Plain. As agricultural
production came to the doabs, the previously arid scrub lands
between the Punjab rivers, the British colonial government
established and dispensed land grants to the new agricultural areas.
They then administratively organized them into colonies. These new
Canal Colonies, as they were called, triggered a wave of immigration
from northern Punjab to the lower Punjab Plain. Lyallpur was created
to be the headquarters of the Lower Chenab Colony, the largest of the canal colonies. It
emerged as an agricultural market center that soon dwarfed the older market towns lying
along the Chenab River.

Following Pakistani independence in 1947, Lyallpur began to develop a strong industrial

base. The textile industry led the way, and the city quickly became Pakistan’s textile
center.74 Other industries include hosiery, sugar mills, pharmaceuticals, and textile and
agricultural machinery. The accumulation of industries and the lack of waste treatment
facilities have together created a major pollution problem for the city.75

Despite Faisalabad’s emergence as an industrial center, it also continues to serve its

initial role as a market and support center for the surrounding agricultural areas.
Agricultural research is one aspect of this role. In 1961, the University of Agriculture was
established in the city, upgrading the former Punjab Agricultural College and Research
Institute. The University has since become Pakistan’s largest and top-ranked agricultural
school.76, 77

Peshawar
Peshawar is the largest Pakistani city that is not located in either
Punjab or Sindh Province. The city is the capital of North-West
Frontier Province and has long held the historical role as the
gateway to the Khyber Pass and Central Asia beyond. Its location
made it one of the key trading centers along the Silk Road, and it
was the center of Gandharan (modern-day northwest Pakistan)
civilization for several hundred years during the early part of the
first millennium CE.78 The current name of the city is ascribed to

74
University of Management and Technology. Textile Bulletin, Vol. 1 (11). ul Islam, Faheem. “Insights
into the Dynamics of Clustering in Traditional Industries in Developing Countries: Faisalabad Cotton
Textile Cluster in Pakistan.” March 2007. http://www.umt.edu.pk/textile/vol01issue11/page02.htm
75
Asian Urban Information Center of Kobe. Ahmad, Ishfaq. “City Report of Faisalabad.” 2006.
http://www.auick.org/database/training/2006-1/CR/WS2006-1CR-Faisalabad.pdf
76
Higher Education Commission Pakistan. “Ranking of Universities.” 2006.
http://www.hec.gov.pk/new/QualityAssurance/Ranking_lists.htm
77
TelMedPak.com. “University of Agriculture Faisalabad.” 2000.
http://www.telmedpak.com/agricultures.asp?a=Education&b=faisalabad
78, 78
Pakistan, 3rd edition (updated). “Peshawar and the Khyber Pass.” 2007. London: Insight Guides

30
the Moghul Emperor Akbar the Great and means “the place at the frontier.”

Peshawar lies in a valley and is surrounded by agricultural fields in which sugar cane,
wheat, vegetables, maize, sugar beets, and fodder are grown. The local economy is
dominated by services and the construction industry. Industrial and manufacturing
operations tend to be relatively small. Key product areas include pharmaceuticals,
matches, marble tiles, furniture, arms and ammunition, and various types of leather and
woven handicrafts.

Since the late 1970s the city has been enmeshed in the ongoing civil wars and
insurgencies in nearby Afghanistan, and refugees and combatants from the conflicts have
streamed into the city. Best estimates for the year 2005 are that nearly 20 percent of the
population of Peshawar District (which includes Peshawar, a few smaller cities, and
surrounding rural areas) are from Afghanistan.79 The city has long been one of the centers
of Pashtun culture, and the recent influxes of mostly Pashtun Afghanis have further
increased the percentage of Pashtuns living in the city.80

As the city’s population has rapidly grown, the infrastructure of the city has struggled to
keep apace. The city suffers from a significant housing shortage, and health facilities
have been heavily stressed by the large number of Afghan refugees. The road system has
also not been able to keep up with the increased amount of traffic.81 Air, water, and noise
pollution have also become major concerns.82

Multan
As the principal city of the southern Punjab Plain, Multan serves as a
commercial and industrial center for the region. The city lies near
the Chenab River and was the location for the first of the Canal
Colonies that were developed beginning in 1886. The city is one of
the hottest locations in all of Pakistan, as is reinforced by the
following often-quoted Persian couplet:

Chahár chiz hast tuhjafat-i-Multán

Gard, guda, garma, wa goristán

In four rare things Multan abounds

Dust, heat, beggars, and burial grounds.

Few cities in South Asia have as long and as storied a history as does Multan. Alexander
the Great was wounded in battle here in 324 BCE. Over 2,000 years later, during 1848–

79
Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. “Afghans
in Peshawar: Migration, Settlements and Social Networks.” January 2006. http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-
bin/texis/vtx/home/opendoc.pdf?tbl=SUBSITES&page=SUBSITES&id=43e754da2
80
Pashto.org. “Pashtun.” 2007.http://www.pashto.org/content/view/19/63/
81
City Alliances. “City Development Strategy: Peshawar.” 2005.
http://www.citiesalliance.org/cdsdb.nsf/Attachments/Pakistan+profile/$File/PCD+Profile.pdf
82
Daily Times. “Pollution Reaches Alarming Level Throughout Peshawar.” 16 October 2006.
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C10%5C16%5Cstory_16-10-2006_pg7_15

31
49, the city was a site of battles between the local Sikh ruler and the British Army. In
between these two events, Multan has seemingly been centrally involved in every chapter
of the history of the Indus River Valley. During the 13th century the city became a center
of Sufism, and today the tombs of Sufi masters from this time provide some excellent
examples of pre-Moghul architecture.83

Modern Multan is still very much tied to the surrounding rural regions, with 80 percent of
the city’s population earning their income either directly or indirectly though
agriculture.84 Cotton and livestock are key elements of this agricultural economy, as are
mangoes, which are an important export crop for Pakistan. The city is also well known
for its blue pottery, camel-skin work, and other cottage industry products.85

Environmental Concerns
In a country in which 92% of the land is arid or semi arid, it is not surprising that one of
the biggest environmental concerns of Pakistan is water quality.86 One of the world’s
most massive irrigation systems has been built to increase Pakistan’s agricultural capacity,
but inadequate drainage systems have led to water logging and increases in soil salinity.87,
88

Industrial water pollution is a major concern as well.

The Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency reports
that only 1% of the country’s wastewater is treated
before discharging into rivers. A national study of the
water supply of 21 cities around the country found that
in 17 of the cities, over 50% of the water samples were
judged unfit for human consumption.89 The health
effects of such polluted water supplies are jarring. It is
estimated that 60% of all infant mortalities in Pakistan result from water pollution.90
Addressing the water-quality problem has become a national priority, and there are plans
to build 6,500 water-purification plants over the next few years.91

83
Pakistan, 3rd edition (updated). “South Punjab.” 2007. London: Insight Guides
84
Department of Agriculture, City District Government Multan. Haider, Muhammad Yafar Zab. “EDO
Agriculture Message.” 2006–07. http://www.multan.gov.pk/Agriculture/default.asp
85
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Multan.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9054236
86
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency. Status of Environment Report 2005 (Draft). “Chapter 1.
Water—The Essential Resource.” 2005. http://www.environment.gov.pk/pub-pdf/StateER2005/Part3-
Chp%201.pdf
87
Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency. Status of Environment Report 2005 (Draft). “Chapter 1.
Water—The Essential Resource.” 2005. http://www.environment.gov.pk/pub-pdf/StateER2005/Part3-
Chp%201.pdf
88
The World Bank. Sindh Irrigation and Drainage Authority. “Sindh—On-Farm Water Management
Project.” January 2004.
http://www.wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2003/09/30/000094946_030
91204002060/Rendered/INDEX/multi0page.txt
89
Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources. “National Water Quality Monitoring Programme.”
2002. http://www.pcrwr.gov.pk/water_quality.htm
90
IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. “Pakistan: Water Pollution Named as Biggest Killer.” 20
April 2005. http://www.irc.nl/page/17834

32
As Pakistan’s population continues to grow, particularly in urban areas, air pollution has
become a major problem as well. The country’s 2005–06 economic report noted that dust
and smoke particles in the air of Pakistani cities have been measured at levels twice the
world average and five times the average for developed nations. Automobiles are major
contributors to these air-quality problems. The number of vehicles on Pakistani roads has
increased 500% over the last 20 years, and many of these cars and trucks use low-quality,
high-emission fuels. The government has reacted by encouraging the use of vehicles
fueled by compressed natural gas, which is less polluting.92

Natural Hazards
Earthquakes
On 8 October 2005 the region around the city of Muzaffarabad in Azad Kashmir was the
epicenter of one of the most destructive earthquakes of the 20th century. Entire villages
were destroyed in the nearby mountain valleys of the region. The U.S. Geological Survey
has estimated the death toll to be 86,000.93

Pakistan’s position along the plate boundary between

Asia and the South Asian subcontinent makes
earthquakes a persistent hazard, even in areas far from
the towering Himalayas. For example, Quetta, the
largest city in Balochistan, was destroyed in 1935 by a
magnitude 7.8 earthquake.94 Ten years later, an even
stronger magnitude 8.1 earthquake shook the Makran
Coast. The earthquake and subsequent tsunami caused
significant damage and loss of life both near the epicenter and in Karachi, 443 km (275
mi) away.95

Floods
Seasonal floods are regular occurrences along the major rivers of Pakistan, particularly
during the summer monsoon season.96 As a result, protective embankments and spurs
have been built to protect river cities and nearby infrastructure. Almost all of these flood-

91
BBC News, International Version. Khan, Aamer Ahmed. “Pakistan ‘Faces Pollution Crisis.’” 5 June
2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5048308.stm
92
BBC News, International Version. Khan, Aamer Ahmed. “Pakistan ‘Faces Pollution Crisis.’” 5 June
2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/5048308.stm
93
United States Geological Survey. “Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World.”
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/world/most_destructive.php
94
Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado. Bilham, Roger.
“28 November 1945 Makran Mw 8.1 Earthquake.”
http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/Makran1945/MakranTsunami.html
95
India Meteorological Department. Scientific Notes, Vol. 10, No. 125. Pendse, C. G. “The Mekran
Earthquake of the 28th November 1945.” 7 October 1946.
http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/Makran1945/Pendse1946.pdf
96 th
8 Annual River Symposium and Environmental Flows Conference. Rehman, H. and A. Kabal. “Indus
Basin River System—Flooding and Flood Mitigation.” 2005.
http://www.riversymposium.com/index.php?element=38

33
prevention projects are located in the Indus River Plain in Punjab and Sindh Provinces.
Flood management policies have also encouraged appropriate development within
historic flood plains. Nonetheless, as recently as 1992, flooding caused the deaths of
more than 1,000 people and affected more than 13,000 villages.97

Drought
Pakistan is particularly vulnerable to drought conditions. Arid regions, such as
Balochistan and the desert regions of the Indus River Plain, have always faced limited
water resources.98 However, even in areas fed by the rivers flowing down from the
mountains, the large amount of this water devoted to agriculture can produce serious
water supply issues for a growing population that is increasingly urbanized.99 Shrinking
water storage capacity in aging dams that continue to silt up has also reduced Pakistan’s
ability to augment domestic water supplies during dry years.100

97
Pakistan Water Gateway. “Floods in Pakistan.” http://www.waterinfo.net.pk/pdf/fs2fp.pdf
98
“Living with Droughts.” http://drought.iucnp.org/drought32.htm
99
The Frontier Post. Hayat, Savera. “Water Scarcity in Pakistan.” 7 August 2000.
http://drought.iucnp.org/fparticle.htm
100
The News, International (Jang Group). Munir, Shafqat. “Conserving Water for Sustainable Human
Development.” 7 July 2002. http://drought.iucnp.org/drought116.htm

34
 History
Early History
The Indus Valley Civilization
The region today known as Pakistan has a history that stretches back to some of the
world’s earliest known cultures. The earliest found ruins are at a site in the Kacchi Desert
of eastern Balochistan known as Mehrgarh. Several thousand years of settlement history
can be traced here, going back as far as the eighth century BCE.101

Beginning sometime before 2,500 BCE, a number of

city-states emerged on the Indus River Plain. This Indus
Valley Civilization (also known as the Harappan
Civilization, after the first ruins site to be discovered)
had its own writing system, a diversified economic
system, and communal structures such as public baths.
The most famous ruins of this era are at Mohenjo daro,
near the Indus River in Sindh Province. Stone seals
discovered at Mohenjo daro display a pictographic script, but efforts to translate the seals
have so far been fruitless.102

The end of the Indus Valley Civilization has traditionally been ascribed to the invasion of
Aryan tribes from Central Asia, although archaeological evidence of demolished cities is
scant. In the ancient Hindu text, Rigveda, references to defeats of non-Aryans at a site
linked to Harappa provide some supporting evidence for this assumption.103 However,
numerous other theories posit that the decline of Indus Valley cities resulted from reasons
other than external invasion.104

Crossroads of Empires
The mountain passes through Afghanistan and northern Pakistan into the Indus River
Plain have long been used by both traders and invaders. The list of invading armies
through the region is a long one. Many groups came and were gone shortly thereafter.
Others, however, stayed and formed empires that inevitably fell to a later wave of
invaders that came through the mountain passes.

In 330 BCE, the armies of Alexander the Great entered the northern Indus River Plain in
the region known as Gandhara. His armies swept through the Indus Valley but quickly
retreated westward. As they did, an imperial power from the east moved into the Indus

101
National Fund for Cultural Heritage. Dani, Ahmad Hasan. “History Through the Centuries.” 2004.
http://www.heritage.gov.pk/html_Pages/history1.html
102
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Early
Civilizations.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0014)
103
Pakistan, 3rd Update Ed. “Early History.” 2007. London: Insight Guides.
104
Jawaharlal Nehru University. Thapar, Romila. “The Aryan Question Revisited.” 11 April 1999.
http://members.tripod.com/ascjnu/aryan.html

35
Valley: the Mauryan Empire. The Mauryan era saw an increasing Buddhist influence in
the Indus region, and the city of Taxila, near modern-day Islamabad, became a center of
Buddhist learning.105

A succession of invaders from Central Asia followed the decline and eventual retreat of
the Mauryans back to the Ganges region. Bactrians, Scythians, Parthians, and Kushans
successively came, conquered, and were dislodged. The Kushans had the most success,
ruling from the middle first century CE to the mid third century CE. They established
their capital at Peshawar, and during their period of power Buddhist culture reached its
zenith in the Indus region.106

Most of the Kushan Empire eventually fell to the Persian

Sassanians to the west and the Guptas to the east, although smaller
Kushan dynasties continued to rule in some areas.107 During the
fifth century CE, White Hun (Hepthalites) swept into modern-day
Pakistan and northern India from the north. The White Huns left no
written records, but they are thought to have been assimilated into
the local populations after being defeated by the Turks in the sixth
century CE.108

In the southern Indus River Plain, Parthians and Sassanians ruled

for much of the early first millennium. At the end of the fifth
century CE, the local Rai Dynasty came to power, to be succeeded
by the Hindu Brahman dynasty in the mid seventh century.109 The Brahman reign was to
be relatively short, however, as the entire region was soon to be changed forever by the
armies of a religious movement emerging from the Middle Eastern deserts.

Islamic Empires
The Early Islamic Empires
Unlike the earlier invaders of the Indus River Plain who entered the region from the north,
the first Islamic incursion came from the south. In 712 CE Muhammad Bin Qasim, an
Arab general of the Omayyad Caliphate, conquered the ancient Arabian Sea port of
Daibul and continued to advance his army northwards up the Indus. The southern Indus
region, primarily Buddhist at the time, was ruled by an unpopular Brahman governor.
This greatly increased the ease with which the region was conquered.110 Qasim’s forces

105
OneWorldPakistan.com. 2005–2006. “Taxilla.” http://www.oneworldpakistan.com/trips_taxilla.php
106
Pakhtun.com. Oxford History of India. “The Kushan.” 2002. http://www.pakhtun.com/Kushan.htm
http://www.geocities.com/pak_history/kushan.html
107
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Early
Civilizations.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0014)
108
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Hephtalite.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9040081/Hephthalite
109
University of Sindh. Shaikh Ayaz International Conference on Language and Literature. “Sindh: An
Introduction.” 10 January 2007. http://usindh.edu.pk/shaikh_ayaz_conf_07/sindh.html
110
Columbia University Press. Muslim Civilization in India. Ikram, S. M. “I. The Impact of the Arabs.”
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part1_01.html

36
ultimately established control of the Indus River Plain as far north as Multan, in southern
Punjab. A few decades later the Omayyad Caliphate was overthrown by the Abbasid
Caliphate, based in Baghdad, that took control of the southern Indus territories.

Under Omayyad and early Abbasid rule, intellectual contacts between the Arabs and
Sindhis became established. Islamic mystics, known as Sufi masters, helped spread the
Muslim religion. They have remained to this day a significant cultural component of
Sindhi literature and religion.111

As the Abbasid Caliphate gradually declined, a new force entered

into the Indus region from the Turkish principality of Ghazni,
located in modern-day Afghanistan. In 998 CE, Mahmud of
Ghazni succeeded his father after a brief power struggle and
quickly began to expand the Ghazni Empire. He extended control
as far as Lahore in Punjab, which eventually became the
administrative and cultural center of the Ghaznavid Empire.

By the late twelfth century, however, yet another dynasty had

replaced the Ghaznavids. Over a period of two decades,
Muhammad of Ghor moved eastward through the Ghaznavid
Empire. By 1187 CE he had conquered the Ghaznavid capital of
Lahore. His successor established the Sultanate of Delhi, which grew rapidly and
eventually included all of northern India and the Indus River Plain.112 The Delhi
Sultanate ruled more or less continuously for several hundred years, an era during which
many people in the Punjab region converted to Islam.113 A brief invasion by Mongolian
armies led by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1398 hastened a period of decline for the Sultanate,
although it did revive somewhat during the Lodhi Dynasty of the late 15th century.114
Nonetheless, the end of the Sultanate was soon to come, to be replaced by the greatest of
the Muslim dynasties.

The Mughal Period

Babur, an ethnic Mongol and descendant of Timur, saw his empire in present-day
Uzbekistan conquered at the turn of the 16th century. Regrouping, he moved
southwestward, first into modern-day Afghanistan and eventually into Punjab and then
the Ganges Plain. In 1526 Babur’s armies, despite being vastly outnumbered, defeated
the last Lodhi sultan in the Battle of Panipat. Superior weaponry and tactics were largely

111
Columbia University Press. Muslim Civilization in India.” Ikram, S. M. “I. The Impact of the Arabs.”
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part1_01.html
112
Columbia University Press. Atlas and Survey of South Asian History. Schmidt, Karl J. “Map 17.1. The
Sultanate Under Qutbuddin and Iltutmish.” 1999.
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00maplinks/medieval/schmidtset/schmidtset.html
113
MSN Encarta. “India. D. Muslim and Mongol Invaders.” 2007.
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557562_12/India.html
114
MSN Encarta. “India. D. Muslim and Mongol Invaders.” 2007.
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761557562_12/India.html

37
responsible for his victory.115 Shortly thereafter, Babur took control of a large portion of
the former Delhi Sultanate. On many previous occasions, similar incursions into the
Indian subcontinent were followed a few years later by the return of the invading armies
to Central Asia. Babur, however, stayed, and became the founder of the Mughal
Empire.116

Babur died only a few years after the Panibat battle, and his son Humayun proved unable
to consolidate control over the newly conquered regions. Under his grandson Akbar,
however, the Mughal Empire began to flourish. During Akbar’s reign, the mansabdari
administrative system was introduced. Under this military and civilian meritocracy
system, mansabdars were graded on their ability to enlist troops and provide loyal service.
Cash payments and personal fiefs were the rewards, but none of the land rewards were
allowed to become part of inherited estates. In this way, loyalty was rewarded but the
ability to generate familial power bases was lessened.117

The Mughal period is remembered, among other

things, for its storied architectural achievements. The
most famous of these—the Taj Mahal, located in
Agra in India—was built during the reign of Shah
Jahan, Akbar’s grandson. Within modern-day
Pakistan, Lahore received the most architectural
attention. The Lahore Fort, Shalimar Gardens, and
Badshahi Mosque were all built during the early
Mughal Empire.

The reign of Augrenzab, Shah Jahan’s successor, witnessed the beginning of the slow
decline of the Mughal Empire. Overextended militarily and financially, Augrenzab
introduced several taxes, including the unpopular jizya (Hindu tax). The system began to
break down, leading to a landed aristocracy who had the ability to collect rents.118 As
local rebellions broke out, a small island nation in Europe began to focus attention on the
Indian subcontinent.

Colonial Era
The British Enter the Indus River Plain
During the 18th century, the Mughal Empire fragmented into independent principalities
while England and France competed for trading posts in coastal areas. Military assistance
to support and expand the trading ventures became crucial as hostilities in Europe

115
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Babur: First Victory in India.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-525/Babur
116
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The Mughal
Period.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0016)
117
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The Mughal
Period.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0016)
118
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The Mughal
Period.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0016)

38
traveled to the far-flung trading enclaves around the world.119 The British fought three
wars with the French on Indian soil in the mid 1700s, emerging as the preeminent
European power on the subcontinent.

Within the area of modern-day Pakistan, British influence came relatively late. During
the first part of the 19th century, both Sindh and Pakistan were still independently ruled.
In Sindh the Baloch-ruled Talpur Dynasty held sway. In Punjab the Sikhs under Ranjit
Singh controlled an area extending from Peshawar to Kashmir.120

Neither region escaped British attention, however. A treaty signed

in 1832 recognized Sindhi integrity and banned British transport
of armed vessels or military stores on the Indus. Seven years later
the British ignored the ban during the First Afghan War. Armed
conflict between the Sindhi rulers and the British quickly followed.
In 1843 the British annexed all of Sindh after their victory at the
Battle of Miani.121 About the annexation, the British commander,
Charles Napier, said “We have no right to seize Sind, yet we shall
do so, and a very advantageous, useful and humane piece of
rascality it will be."122 The Upper Sindh region of Khairpur
avoided the conquest through treaty, becoming one of the many
“Princely States.”

In Punjab, the Kingdom began to unravel after the death of Ranjit Singh in 1839. Most of
his successors were either killed or incompetent. (The one exception unfortunately died
after only one year in power.)123 The British, situated to the west, watched the chaotic
events in Punjab unfold and readied for war. Ultimately, two Anglo-Sikh wars occurred
in the 1840s that left Punjab under British control.124 After the first of these wars, the
British ceded Kashmir to Raja Gulab Singh of Jammu for a concessionary sum of money.
Thus began a Hindu dynasty in a mostly Muslim land, sowing the seeds of a conflict that
continues to this day.125

Colonial Rule
The Indus River Plain regions entered into the British fold as the first major wave of
rebellion spread though India. The India Mutiny of 1857 saw Indian soldiers stage

119
MSN Encarta. “Seven Years’ War. II. European Phase. IV. Indian Theatre.” 2007.
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761575656/Seven_Years%E2%80%99_War.html
120
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig.“ Company
Rule.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0017)
121
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Spear, T. G. Percival. “India: History: The Completion of Dominion and
Expansion.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47023/India
122
The Victorian Web. “General Charles Napier and the Conquest of Sind.” 19 April 2002.
http://www.victorianweb.org/history/empire/napier.html
123
V&A Museums. “The Death of Mahraja Sanjit Singh.”
http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/sikhism/art/death/index.html
124
V&A Museums. “Sikh Wars & Annexation of the Punjab.”
http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/sikhism/art/wars/index.html
125
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Dogra Dynasty.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9030799/Dogra-Dynasty

39
uprisings in various cities of northern India. Eventually the revolt was put down by the
British with the assistance of troops from Punjab. The end of the mutiny marked the
beginning of direct British rule in India and the end of the reign of the last Mughal
emperor.126

The tribal areas of the Pashtuns and Balochis were located in the western frontiers of the
Indian Empire. The British considered these areas vital because they contained mountain
passes into Afghanistan, which Britain considered a buffer region against Russian
advances into Central Asia. The British ultimately negotiated agreements that
transformed much of present-day Balochistan into Princely States, leaving Britain with
control of the areas containing the southern mountain passes into Afghanistan.127

In the Pashtun regions to the north, the British

waged ongoing battles with the tribes. After the
Second Afghan War in 1878–79, the British realized
that maintaining a forward position all the way to
Kabul in Afghanistan was impractical. After
continued skirmishes with the Pashtuns, a treaty in
1893 defined the boundary between Afghan and
British claims (the Durand Line), which remains
today as the Afghanistan-Pakistan border. Under the treaty, the Pashtun regions were
divided by the new boundary. The British thereafter very loosely “ruled” their side of the
tribal areas as the North-West Frontier Province.128,129

The Punjab region became the granary of northern India under the British. Irrigation
systems lengthened growing seasons and expanded the amount of farmland, creating
canal colonies in once semi-arid regions of central and southern Punjab. Punjab also
became a major recruitment area for the Indian forces of the British military.130

After the British annexation in 1843, Sindh became part of the Bombay Presidency. As in
Punjab, new irrigation canals increased the agricultural output of the region. The port city
of Karachi grew rapidly as food exports from Punjab and Sindh increased. By 1914, the
city had become the largest grain-handling port of the British Empire.131

126
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The British
Raj.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0018)
127
Pakistan, 3rd Update Ed. “Balochistan: Robert Sandeman.” 2007. London: Insight Guides. [book]
128
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Durand Line.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9031550/Durand-Line
129
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The Forward
Policy.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0019)
130
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Company
Rule.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0017)
131
Encylopædia Brittanica Online “Karachi: History.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
61942/Karachi

40
The Beginnings of the Hindu–Muslim Split
The British held the Muslim aristocracy in suspicion after the Indian Mutiny of 1857.132
While the British-educated Hindu middle class thrived, the Muslim upper classes, who
for many centuries had ruled India, increasingly found themselves culturally and
politically isolated within the British Raj. As Indian nationalism began to surface as a
popular cause, many Muslim leaders viewed the nationalist groups—most notably, the
Indian Nationalist Congress—as representatives of Hindu interests.133

At the beginning of the 20th century, the British

implemented administrative and political changes that
divided Hindus and Muslims within India. After the
All-India Muslim League was founded in 1906, the
British subsequently enacted legislation that allowed
Muslims separate electorates for the Indian Legislative
Council. In 1905, the province of Bengal was split by
the British into a Hindu-dominated western half and a
Muslim-dominated eastern half. This partition of Bengal was adamantly opposed by the
Congress and was finally rescinded four years later.134

In 1916 the Congress and the Muslim League signed the Lucknow Pact, in which the
Congress accepted the separate Muslim electorates and the Muslim League agreed to
support the Congress’s drive to get the British out of India. One of the key architects of
this pact was the lawyer Muhammad Ali Jinnah, a member of both the Muslim League
and the Congress, who was often referred to as the “ambassador of Hindu–Muslim
unity.”135 During the 1920s, as the home-rule movement in India became increasingly
dominated by the nonviolence boycotts advocated by Mohandas Gandhi. Jinnah, now
Muslim League President, opposed Gandhi’s Hindu-based approach, which he felt was
unconstitutional. The Nehru Report of 1928 announced that Congress put aside their
Lucknow Pact commitment to Muslim electorates. Frustrated, Jinnah resigned his
Muslim League Presidency and moved to England for five years to resume his law
practice.136,137

132
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The Seeds of
Muslim Nationalism.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0020)
133
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The Seeds of
Muslim Nationalism.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0020)
134
Department of English, Emory University. Keen, Shirin. “The Partition of India.” 1998.
http://www.english.emory.edu/Bahri/Part.html
135
CNN.com. “Jinnah: Pakistan’s Founding Father.” 1997.
http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9708/India97/pakistan/nation.builder/index.html
136
The Story of Pakistan. “Nehru Report [1928].” 1 June 2003.
http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A036
137
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Husain, Mahmud. “Mohammad Ali Jinnah: Entry Into Politics.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-3707/Mohammed-Ali-Jinnah

41
Independence and Partition
In 1934 Jinnah returned to India to once again head the Muslim League, but he was no
longer the ambassador of Hindu–Muslim unity. He emphasized the Two Nations Theory,
first elucidated by the Muslim poet and philosopher Muhammad Iqbal in 1930.138 In 1940
Jinnah submitted the Lahore Resolution, formulating the Muslim League’s stance on
independence from British rule. It called for the eastern and northwestern Muslim
majority areas in India to “be grouped to constitute independent States in which the
constituent units should be autonomous and sovereign.”139

After the Lahore Resolution, relations between the Congress and the Muslim League
became increasingly strained, and positions hardened. During World War II, the Muslim
League cooperated with the British war effort, unlike the Congress, and thereby gained
British sympathy for their Pakistan position. In the 1946 elections following the War, the
Muslim League gained 90 percent of the Muslim seats in the Indian Parliament. This
ensured that they would have to be party to whatever agreements were reached
concerning Indian independence.

A last-ditch British plan for an independent India

proposed a central government controlling functions
such as defense, foreign policy, and currency, while
Muslim- and Hindu-majority provinces otherwise
maintained autonomy. The plan was rejected by the
Congress. When Jinnah’s proposal for equal power
sharing between the Congress and Muslim League in an
interim Indian government was later rejected by the
British Viceroy, the Muslim League decided to boycott the new government. Shortly
afterward, in August 1946, Jinnah called for “Direct Action,” triggering violent
communal riots in Bengal and Bihar in eastern India.140

As events rapidly spiraled out of control, the British hastily fashioned plans to implement
the independence of a partitioned India. Bengal and Punjab were to be split into Hindu
and Muslim areas, and the princely states were to align with the country chosen by their
rulers.141 On August 14, 1947, India and Pakistan became independent nations. Three
days later, the partition boundary was announced, triggering one of the largest and most
violent mass population migrations in history.142, 143

138
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The Two
Nations Theory.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0022)
139
The Story of Pakistan. “Lahore Resolution [1940].” 1 June 2003.
http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A043&Pg=4
140
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Toward
Partition.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0023)
141
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Toward
Partition.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0023)
142
Australian Network. “Pakistan: History.” 2006.
http://australianetwork.com/news/countries/PAKISTAN.htm
143
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Independent
Pakistan.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0024)

42
The Nation of Pakistan
Post-Independence
Pakistan began its existence facing many issues. Was the country to be an Islamic nation
under Shari’a law, or a secular state with a Muslim majority? How would a country
divided into two non-contiguous parts separated by 1,600 km (1,000 mi) of a hostile
neighboring country govern itself?144 What would be the national language when the east
spoke Bengali and the west primarily consisted of Punjabi and Sindhi speakers? How
could Sindh and other regions assimilate the new Pakistanis (muhajirs) who streamed
into the country after partition?

Beyond these fundamental questions were territorial

concerns. The status of Balochistan and the North-
West Frontier were still unresolved at independence.
Hostile relations with Afghanistan increased the
urgency to settle the relationships of the tribal border
areas and Pakistan. Military action was used to bring
some of the Balochi state of Kalat into accession to
Pakistan. In the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP),
the Pashtun leader Abdul Ghaffar Khan was a Congress member who fought against
partition. He urged his followers in the NWFP not to vote on the plebiscite to join
Pakistan, but despite a large boycott the plebiscite ultimately passed.145 Khan would later
spend many years in Pakistani prisons for his support of the Pashtun independence
movement.146

The foremost territorial issue, however, was Kashmir. When the Hindu maharajah of
Kashmir, who initially did not accede to either country, saw Pashtun tribesmen nearing
his capital of Srinigar, he quickly acceded to India. The details of that accession are still
debated and used by both sides to justify their position. The immediate result was a war
between India and Pakistan only two months after the two countries had gained
independence.147 A ceasefire line was eventually agreed to, but no long-term solution to
the Kashmir issue has yet to be found.

Muhammad Jinnah, now known as the Quaid-i-Azam (Great Leader) by his followers,
became Pakistan’s first Governor General upon independence, but a little more than a
year later he died of tuberculosis. He advocated equal rights for all citizens of Pakistan,
regardless of their religion. Jinnah’s statements suggest that he had favored following the
secular state path for Pakistan, but Pakistan eventually moved in a different direction.148

144
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Independent
Pakistan.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0024)
145
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Independent
Pakistan.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0024)
146
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Abdul Ghaffar Khan.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-
9036653/Abdul-Ghaffar-Khan
147
Pakistan, 3rd Update Ed. “Modern History.” 2007. London: Insight Guides.
148
CNN.com. “Jinnah: Pakistan’s Founding Father.” 1997.
http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9708/India97/pakistan/nation.builder/index.html

43
A Country Divided
During the first 25 years of Pakistan’s history, many of the issues at independence
continued to fester. The national language chosen was Urdu, a primary language only for
the muhajirs, and this choice particularly upset the Bengali population of East Pakistan.
Kashmir continued to be a flashpoint between India and Pakistan, and the two countries
once again went to war over the region in August 1965. Ethnic tensions in the Sindhi
cities heightened as the muhajirs became the dominant group in Karachi and Hyderabad.

In 1956, Pakistan completed drafting its constitution and became an Islamic Republic. In
the years between independence and the completion of the constitution, the country had
seen continued protests in East Pakistan over the language issue. In addition, East
Pakistan perceived economic favoritism towards the western part of the country, where
the capital of Karachi was located.149 These issues translated into a political power battle
between the Muslim League, the dominant party of West Pakistan, and the East Pakistan-
based United Front Party.150

In 1958, the Pakistani military carried out the first of a string of

coups that have subsequently characterized much of the first 60
years of Pakistan’s history. The new leader, Mohammed Ayub Khan,
abolished the constitution and put the country under martial law for
over three years until a new constitution with strong presidential
powers was put into place in 1962.151, 152

The early years under Khan saw strong economic growth,

particularly in the manufacturing sector.153 The 1965 war with India
over Kashmir, however, weakened Khan’s political base. Within
Pakistan, there was a wide perception that he had capitulated to India in negotiating the
ceasefire agreement.154 In addition, many East Pakistanis continued to bridle at what they
perceived to be insufficient Bengali representation and unbalanced distribution of tax
revenues between East and West. As disorder increased and the army was forced to quell
uprisings, Khan’s position became increasingly untenable.155 In 1969, martial law was

149
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Bangladesh: The Boundaries of East Pakistan.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33419/Bangladesh
150
Pakistan, 3rd Update Ed. “Modern History.” 2007. London: Insight Guides.
151
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Tinker, Hugh Russell. “Pakistan: History: Military Government.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23667/Pakistan
152
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “The New
Constitution.” April 1994. April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0030)
153
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Tinker, Hugh Russell. “Pakistan: History: Military Government.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23667/Pakistan
154
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Ayub Khan’s
Foreign Policy and the 1965 War With India.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0031)
155
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Ayub Khan’s
Foreign Policy and the 1965 War With India.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0031)

44
once again declared. Khan handed over power to his Commander-in-Chief, Agha
Mohammad Yahya Khan, who scheduled elections for the following year.

The Bangladesh Independence War

The December 1970 elections began the final chapter in the
continuing political battle between East and West Pakistan. The
Aswami League, strong advocates of a six-point program for
significant financial and political autonomy between the two
Pakistans, virtually swept all seats in East Pakistan. The Aswami
leader, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, now felt that his party had the
mandate to form the new national government. On this point he was
opposed by West Pakistan political leader Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, whose
party controlled the majority of the legislative seats from the western
half of the country. When negotiations led to an impasse, President
Khan, on 1 March 1971, delayed the convening of the new National Assembly. Strikes
and protests broke out across West Pakistan, inexorably leading to open revolt. By the
end of the month, Rahman was under arrest and Pakistani army forces were flowing into
East Pakistan to crush the rebellion. Pakistan was now involved in a civil war.156

The ensuing conflict eventually drew in India, where millions of East Pakistani Hindus
had fled during the civil war.157 In early December 1971, full-scale warfare broke out
between the two countries. In addition to the fighting in East Pakistan, the two countries
battled in Punjab and Kashmir.158 For Pakistan, the war was to be a major disaster for
their military. By mid December 1971, the Pakistani forces had surrendered to the
combined Indian and rebel forces. In the wake of the Pakistani defeat, East Pakistan
became the world’s newest country: Bangladesh.

Bhutto and ul-Haq

Bhutto became the new President and Chief Martial Law Administrator of the now
contiguous country, and Yahya Khan resigned only days after the 1971 war. Under
Bhutto, Pakistan began the slow process of rebuilding after the devastating defeat. The
military was purged, with Muhammad Zia ul-Haq becoming the new Chief of Staff for
the army. (One of the army’s first tasks was to suppress a nationalist insurgency in
Balochistan.) Educational and health care reforms were instituted, major industries and
banks were nationalized, and a new constitution was enacted.159 In 1973 Bhutto resigned
the presidency to become Prime Minister, the position of primary governmental power
under the new constitution.

156
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Yahya Khan
and Bangladesh.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0032)
157
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Bangladesh: The Boundaries of East Pakistan.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33419/Bangladesh
158
OnWar.com. Armed Conflict Events Database. “Bangladesh War of Independence 1971.” 16 December
2000. http://www.onwar.com/aced/nation/bat/bangladesh/fbangladesh1971.htm
159
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. Baxter, Craig. “Zulfiqar Ali
Bhutto and a New Constitutional System.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-
bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0033)

45
Elections were scheduled in 1977, and a strong opposition alliance known as the PNA
(Pakistan National Alliance) ran a vigorous campaign against Bhutto’s PPP (Pakistan
People’s Party). When the election results were announced and showed an overwhelming
victory for the PPP, street protests broke out. Bhutto ordered the army in to quell the
demonstrations and had the PNA leadership arrested.160 Once again the political
landscape in Pakistan had come to a boil.

On 5 July 1977 the military stepped in. Bhutto was arrested,

martial law was declared, and Zia became President and Chief
Martial Law Administrator. Plans were initially announced to
hold an election within 90 days, but the election was cancelled
when it appeared likely that Bhutto would win. Instead, Bhutto
was put on trial for conspiracy to murder a rival politician. After
his conviction on the charge, there was world outcry for clemency,
but Zia did not back down.161 Bhutto was hanged on 6 April 1979.

Zia pursued an Islamization policy in which Pakistan increasingly

aligned itself with the rest of the Muslim world and invoked many
Islamic laws and punishments.162 Within Pakistan provinces, the
Zia regime faced numerous challenges. Balochistan nationalism was quelled to a high
degree through economic development in the region, but ethnic tensions in the cities of
Sindh turned violent and were more difficult to control.163 After the Soviet Union entered
Afghanistan in December 1979, Pakistan’s border regions in the North-West Frontier
became bases for Afghani mujahideen fighting against the Soviets.

Recent History
Return to Democracy
Zia ended martial law in 1985, but before doing so, an amendment to the Pakistan
Constitution was passed that was to have enormous effect on the Pakistan political
landscape during the 1990s. The Eighth Amendment allowed Pakistan’s President, a
mostly figurehead position as defined in the original 1973 constitution, to reserve the
power to dismiss the Prime Minister and National Assembly and call for a new
election.164

In August 1988 a plane carrying Zia, the U.S. Ambassador to Pakistan, and top Pakistani
military officials crashed, killing all on board. The mysterious circumstances of the crash

160
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Tinker, Hugh Russell. “Pakistan: History: Bhutto’s Regime.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23669/Pakistan
161
U.S. State Department. “Background Note: Pakistan.” May 2007.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
162
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Tinker, Hugh Russell. “Pakistan: History: Zia ul-Haq’s Regime.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23670/Pakistan
163
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Country Study: Pakistan. “Zia ul-Haq and Military
Domination.” April 1994. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query2/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+pk0034)
164
The Story of Pakistan. “Historic 8th Amendment is Passed [1985].” 1 June 2003.
http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A078

46
have yet to be unraveled. An election scheduled for November went on as planned, and
the PPP, now led by Bhutto’s daughter Benazir Bhutto, won the most seats. After
successfully negotiating a fragile political majority, Bhutto became the first Muslim
woman head of state.165

Bhutto’s term lasted only 20 months before

Pakistan’s President, Gulam Ishaq Khan, used the
Eighth Amendment to dismiss her on charges of
corruption and call for a new election. The election,
held two months later, swept in the Islamic
Democratic Alliance (IJI) and their leader Nawaz
Sharif, a Punjabi industrialist. The IJI and Sharif
were successful in instituting reforms that boosted
Pakistan’s economy, although critics argued that the
fast pace of reforms negatively impacted the most vulnerable segments in Pakistani
society.166 The Sharif government also passed legislation expanding Shari’a law.

Pakistan’s government continued a decade of political ping-pong as Sharif and Khan

stepped down in 1993 after a constitutional confrontation, followed by another election,
and the return of the PPP and Benazir Bhutto. Bhutto’s second tenure as Prime Minister
was longer than her first, but economic decline, continued ethnic unrest in Sindh, and
further charges of corruption eventually weakened her political position.167 The new
Pakistani President, Farooq Leghari, dismissed Bhutto in 1996. In the ensuing elections
early the next year, Sharif’s new party, the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz), won an
overwhelming majority. Soon after Sharif returned to power, an amendment was passed
to repeal the Eighth Amendment that had been utilized so often over the preceding
decade.168

Back to Military Control

In 1998, Pervez Musharraf was appointed Army Chief of Staff by Sharif. This followed
the forced resignation of Musharraf’s predecessor after he publicly called for military
representation in Pakistan’s National Security Council.169 Some observers at the time
were quick to note that Musharraf’s muhajir background made him an outsider in the
primarily Punjabi power circles of Pakistan and thus less of a threat to Sharif.170,171

165
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Tinker, Hugh Russell. “Pakistan: History: The Administration of
Benazir Bhutto.” 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23671/Pakistan
166
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yashmeen Niaz. “Political Development Since 1947:
First Nawaz Sharif Government (1990-1993).” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
167
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. Tinker, Hugh Russell. “Pakistan: History: The Administration of
Benazir Bhutto.” 2007.http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23671/Pakistan
168
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yashmeen Niaz. “Political Development Since 1947:
Second Nawaz Sharif Government (1997-1999).” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
169
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yashmeen Niaz. “Political Development Since 1947:
Second Nawaz Sharif Government (1997-1999).” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
170
BBC News, UK Version. “Profile: General Pervez Musharraf.” 24 September 2001.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/472997.stm
171
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yashmeen Niaz. “Political Development Since 1947:
Second Nawaz Sharif Government (1997-1999).” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

47
Whatever Sharif’s motivations for the appointment, he almost certainly did not foresee
that Musharraf would replace him less than two years later. Musharraf would come to
power after Sharif tried to fire and arrest him, and instead triggered a military revolt that
led to Sharif’s ouster and Pakistan’s return to martial law.

One reason that Sharif saw Musharraf as a threat was the general
unhappiness within the Pakistani military when Sharif backed
down from the brink of another military conflict with India over
Kashmir in early 1999.172,173 This was the first military crisis
between the two long-time rivals since Pakistan carried out its
initial nuclear weapons test in 1998. U.S. and world pressure was
quickly brought to bear on Sharif to pull Pakistani-backed
infiltrators out of India’s side of the Line of Control.174 In addition
to his loss of military support, Sharif increasingly was seen as
vulnerable because of the country’s faltering economy,
unhappiness over his use of press restrictions, and legal
maneuvers to stifle political opposition.175,176

After assuming power as Chief Executive, a 1999 ruling by the Pakistani Supreme Court
validated the coup and gave Musharraf three years of executive and legislative authority
starting from the coup date. He named himself President in 2001, and a referendum in
April 2002, marked by charges of voter fraud, extended Musharraf’s presidency for
another five years.177 Subsequent National Assembly elections were held later in the year,
giving Musharraf’s political party a plurality. Following the elections, Mir Zafarullah
Khan Jamali was elected Prime Minister by the Assembly, the first Baloch to hold that
position.178 Jamali resigned in 2004 and was replaced by Shaukat Aziz, former Finance
Minister.179 Musharraf continues to remain as President and Army Chief of Staff.

Recent Events
A turning point in the Musharraf administration came in the wake of the 11 September
2001 terrorist attacks in the United States. Pakistan, up until then a supporter of the ruling
Taliban in Afghanistan, reversed policy under U.S. and international pressure and joined
the coalition to remove the Taliban from power. The country also made a commitment to

172
Pakistan, 3rd Update Ed. “Modern History.” 2007. London: Insight Guides.
173
BBC News, UK Version. “Profile: General Pervez Musharraf.” 24 September 2001.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/472997.stm
174
Jammu-Kashmir.com. The Washington Post. Lancaster, John. “Kashmir Crisis Was Defused on the
Brink of War.” 26 July 1999. http://jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives1999/99july26.html
175
BBC News. “Pakistan’s Economic Nightmare.” 14 October 1999.
http://newsvote.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/473661.st
176
U.S. State Department. “Background Note: Pakistan.” May 2007.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
177
Human Rights Watch. “Pakistan: Entire Election Process ‘Deeply Flawed.” 9 October 2002.
http://www.hrw.org/press/2002/10/pakistan-bck1009.htm
178
BBC News, International Version. “Profile: Zafarullah Jamali.” 26 June 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2498275.stm
179
BBC News, International Version. “Profile: Shaukat Aziz.” 19 August 2004.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3941185.stm

48
eliminate terrorist camps operating on Pakistani soil.180 U.S military and economic
assistance to Pakistan has subsequently increased dramatically, helping the country to
increase its gross domestic product to 6.6 percent in 2005–06.181

National Assembly elections will be held in November

2007. In the run-up to the election, Musharraf
suspended Chief Justice Ifthekar Choudhary on charges
of abuse of power in obtaining a job for his son.182
Musharraf’s move sparked protests within Pakistan’s
legal community that quickly spread into a broader
political protest against Musharraf, ultimately leading
to violence in the streets of Karachi. What the
downstream effects of this episode will be on the Pakistani elections and Musharraf’s
hold on power remains to be seen.183

180
U.S. State Department. “Background Note: Pakistan.” May 2007.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
181
U.S. State Department. “Background Note: Pakistan.” May 2007.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
182
NDTV.com. Jehangir, Munizae. “Pak: SC Order on CJ Setback for Musharraf.” 7 May 2007.
http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20070011226
183
Financial Time.com. Bokhari, Farhan and Jo Johnson. “Musharraf’s Poll Strategy in Ruins.” 13 May
2007. http://www.ft.com/cms/s/3c2d95ce-0171-11dc-8b8c-000b5df10621.html

49
 ECONOMY
Introduction
Since independence, Pakistan’s economy has gone through alternating periods of slow
growth and fast growth. Large-scale manufacturing has been a major component of the
government’s growth strategy during this period, with much of this sector focused on
consumer goods such as textiles, garments, and processed foods.184

“Resilience” is a word often used to characterize Pakistan’s

economy.185, 186 The economy has continued to grow despite
numerous shocks to its economic and political system. These
range from military coups and ethnic violence to economic
sanctions and catastrophic natural disasters. Since late 2001,
when many countries lifted economic sanctions and
developmental aid began flowing into the country, Pakistan’s
economy has grown considerably.187

However, despite a generally above-average increase in per

capita income and gross national product over the last 60 years,
Pakistan is still one of the world’s poorest nations. In the most
recent Human Development Index published by the United Nations, Pakistan ranked
134th out of 177 countries.188 High illiteracy rates (especially among women), poor
health infrastructure, and rapid population growth are some of the factors that have stifled
Pakistan in achieving further progress against poverty.189

Industry
Pakistan’s industrial sector, including manufacturing, mining, construction, and
electricity and gas, generates about 25% of Pakistan’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Further, industry employs 11% of the work force.190,191 Manufacturing is the largest

184
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Two: The Economy of
Pakistan [p. 136].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
185
BBC News, “IMF Praises Pakistan’s Resilience.” 20 August 2002.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/2205896.stm
186
Associated Press of Pakistan. “Pak Economic Resilience Gets Translated Into High Growth Rate.” 23
April 2007. http://www.app.com.pk/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=7872&Itemid=2
187
U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan—Economy.” May 2005.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
188
United Nations Development Programme. Human Development Report. “Country Fact Sheets:
Pakistan.” 2006. http://hdr.undp.org/hdr2006/statistics/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_PAK.html
189
Council on Foreign Relations. Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Coleman, Isobel.
“Gender Disparities, Economic Growth and Islamization in Pakistan.” July 2004.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/7217/gender_disparities_economic_growth_and_islamization_in_pakistan.h
tml
190
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Two: The Economy of
Pakistan.” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc. [book]
191
U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan—Economy: Industry.” May 2005.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

50
portion of this sector and has consistently shown a faster growth rate than the economy as
a whole. Large-scale manufacturing accounts for over two-thirds of manufacturing value
added, but employs only a small percentage of all manufacturing workers.192,193 Most
manufacturing workers are involved in small-scale manufacturing enterprises that
typically pay less and have working conditions inferior to the large-scale enterprises.194
These small-scale enterprises produce items such as carpets, knives, leather goods,
sporting goods, garments, and furniture.195

Large-scale manufacturing in Pakistan is dominated by

consumer goods, most notably cotton textiles. Paper,
processed sugar, and tobacco are also important goods
produced.196 Intermediate and capital goods, such as
fertilizers, cement, chemicals, steel, and automobiles,
have been increasing their percentages of overall
manufacturing. However, given that the intermediate and
capital industries are less labor intensive, the result of this
manufacturing shift away from consumer goods has been a relatively flat employment
rate in the large-scale industrial sector.197

Karachi has traditionally been the center of large-scale manufacturing in Pakistan. An

example is the country’s largest industrial complex, the Pakistan Steel Mills located
southeast of the city. The development of this facility was linked to the creation of nearby
Port Qasim in the 1970s and 1980s.198, 199 In recent decades, Lahore and adjacent areas of
Punjab Province have become competitors to Karachi in terms of industrial output.200, 201

Agriculture
Despite an increasing industrial and services sector, agriculture continues to be the largest
segment of Pakistan’s economy. Overall, agriculture contributes about 24% of Pakistan’s

192
Acountancy Business News. Business Recorder. “Highlights of Economic Survey of Pakistan 2006-07.”
9 June 2007. http://www.accountancy.com.pk/newsgen.asp?newsid=1761
193
International Development Economic Associates. Ghosh, Jayati. “Pleasure and Pain in Pakistan.” 19
April 2004. http://www.ideaswebsite.org/news/apr2004/news19_Pleasure_Pain_Pakistan.htm
194
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Two: The Economy of
Pakistan [p. 135].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
195
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Two: The Economy of
Pakistan [p. 135].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
196
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Pakistan: The Economy: Industry.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23699/Pakistan
197
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Two: The Economy of
Pakistan [p. 137-38].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
198
Pakistan Steel. “Pakistan Steel.” 2004. http://www.paksteel.com.pk/pks/intro.htm
199
Customs Port Mohammad Bin Qasim. “Brief History/Introduction of Port Qasim.” September 2004.
http://www.cbr.gov.pk/PortQasim/about.htm
200
Encylopædia Brittanica Online. “Pakistan: The Economy: Industry.” 2007.
http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-23699/Pakistan
201
APO International Symposium on Management of Industrial Estates. Muhammad, Tahir. “14. Pakistan
(2) [p. 172].” 21 September 2000. http://www.apo-
tokyo.org/gp/e_publi/penang_symp/Penang_Symp_P167-178.pdf

51
GDP and employs about 50% of the country’s work force.202 Agricultural products also
contribute directly or indirectly to over 75% of Pakistan’s exports.203

The primary agricultural regions are in the provinces of Sindh and

Punjab in the heavily irrigated Indus River Plain. Nonirrigated rain-
fed regions (barani) are located primarily in northernmost Punjab and
the North-West Frontier Province and constitute about one-fourth of
cultivated land in Pakistan. These areas rely on summer rains to grow
winter-sown crops.204

The largest crops by acreage are wheat, cotton, rice, gram (chickpeas),
maize, and sugarcane.205 Cotton is the most important cash crop, as it
is used as the raw material for Pakistan’s vital textile and garment
industries. Acreage has also been increasingly devoted to fruits,
particularly citrus, mangoes, and apples.206 Both citrus and mangoes have become
significant export crops. Pakistan is the world’s top exporter by tonnage in the
mandarins/clementines/tangerines class of citrus.207 Pakistan’s primary export in this
class is the kinnow, also spelled “kinno,” a type of mandarin, which (as is the case with
mangoes) is primarily shipped to Middle East markets.208

Banking
The national currency of Pakistan is the Pakistan rupee (abbreviated PKR). In early July
2007 the rupee- to-U.S. dollar (USD) exchange rate was 60.31, compared with 57.3 in
2003 and 59.515 in 2005.209, 210 Remittances from Pakistani workers abroad help to
bolster the value of the rupee, lowering the exchange rate. However, an increasing level
of imports into Pakistan tends to devalue the rupee’s value versus the dollar and raise the
exchange rate.211

202
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Agricultural Statistics.”
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/agriculture_statistics/agriculture_statistics.html
203
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Two: The Economy of
Pakistan [p. 125].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
204
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Two: The Economy of
Pakistan [p. 127].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
205
Ministry of Food, Agriculture & Livestock, Government of Pakistan. “Summary of Area, Production
and Yield of Agricultural Commodities.” May 2006. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/food-
division/media/asp_05-06_summary.pdf
206
Ministry of Food, Agriculture & Livestock, Government of Pakistan. “Area Under Fruit—Pakistan.”
May 2006. http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/divisions/food-division/media/fv_05-06_tbl1.pdf
207
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. “Exports: Country by Commodity (Sorted by
Value): Tang.Mand.Clement.Satsma.: Selected Year: 2004.” http://www.fao.org/es/ess/toptrade/trade.asp
208
Pakistan Agricultural Research Organization. Sharif, M. and Burhan Ahmad. “Marketing of Fruits
Under WTO Regime.” 29 October 2005. http://www.parc.gov.pk/articles/fruits_wto.html
209
GreenwichMeanTime.com. OANDA.com “Pakistan Currency Calculator.” 5 July 2007.
http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/asia/pakistan/currency.htm
210
U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. The World Factbook. “Pakistan.” 19 June 2007.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/pk.html
211
Daily Times. “Currency Market Review: Rupee Gains Value.” 2 April 2006.
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2006%5C04%5C02%5Cstory_2-4-2006_pg5_16

52
Pakistan’s banking system has undergone some
significant changes over the last decade and a half. From
1974 to the early 1990s, Pakistan’s banking sector was
dominated by five banks, all of which were
nationalized.212 During Nawar Sharif’s first term as Prime
Minister, two of the banks were privatized as part of a
general movement to dismantle some of the nationalized
industries.213 In addition, numerous new private
commercial banks were licensed until a moratorium on new bank licensing was imposed
in 1995. The moratorium was necessary because of concerns over the financial soundness
of some of these new banks.214 Two more of the national banks were privatized in the
early 2000s, leaving the National Bank of Pakistan (with a market share of 20%) as the
only public sector bank.215

The State Bank of Pakistan is in charge of managing currency, the public debt, and
exchange controls. It has also been involved in the process of developing a procedural
and regulatory framework for integrating Islamic banking practices into the national
financial system.216 To this end, banks now offer numerous financial instruments and
partnerships in lieu of interest-bearing loans. Such instruments are legally required for
commercial banking transactions that do not involve foreign currencies.217

Trade
Pakistan has been running a sizable trade deficit in recent years. In 2003–04 the trade
imbalance was PKR 166 billion (roughly USD 2.75 billion), but by 2005–06 the deficit
had ballooned to PKR 719 billion (USD 12 billion).218 The principal culprit for the
spiraling deficit has been the rising price of oil imports, which has hit developing
countries like Pakistan particularly hard.219 The trade gap has been offset primarily by
means of privatization of national companies, foreign direct investment, and the

212
Financial Sector Assessment Program, International Monetary Fund. “Pakistan: Technical Note:
Condition of the Banking System [p. 1].” October 2004.
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2005/cr05157.pdf
213
United Nations Online Network in Public Administration and Finance. The Journal of the Institute of
Bankers in Pakistan. Hanif, Muhammad Nadeem. “Restructuring of Financial Sector in Pakistan [pp 5-6].”
January 2003. http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN026320.pdf
214
Financial Sector Assessment Program, International Monetary Fund. “Pakistan: Technical Note:
Condition of the Banking System.” October 2004.
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2005/cr05157.pdf
215
Financial Sector Assessment Program, International Monetary Fund. “Pakistan: Technical Note:
Condition of the Banking System [p. 1].” October 2004.
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2005/cr05157.pdf
216
Financial Sector Assessment Program, International Monetary Fund. “Pakistan: Technical Note:
Condition of the Banking System [p. 11].” October 2004.
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2005/cr05157.pdf
217
State Bank of Pakistan. Annual Report FY 2002. “Islamization of Financial System in Pakistan.”
http://www.sbp.org.pk/reports/annual/arFY02/chap10.pdf
218
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Table 14.1. Value of Foreign Trade.” 2007.
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/external_trade/14.1.pdf
219
DAWN.com. Iqbal, Shahid. “Trade Deficit Hits $12.1 Billion. 23 July 2006.
http://www.dawn.com/2006/07/23/ebr3.htm

53
increasing amount of remittances from Pakistanis working abroad. Economic analysts are
concerned that if the trade deficit continues its current trend, Pakistan will eventually be
forced to borrow to bridge the trade deficit. Such borrowing would steer more of the
government’s budget into debt financing and away from developmental areas.220

Exports
Textiles and garments, including bedwear, knitwear,
cotton fabrics, and cotton yarn and thread, dominate
Pakistan’s list of primary exports. World Trade
Organization statistics for 2005 reveal that over two-
thirds of Pakistan’s commodity exports were in the
categories of textiles and clothing.221 Leather goods,
woolen carpets and rugs, rice, and sporting goods are also
significant export goods. Even so, their export values,
with the exception of rice, have increased only modestly over the last five years.222
Roughly 25% (by rupee value) of all Pakistani exports go to the United States, more than
the combined total of the next four biggest export customers (United Arab Emirates,
United Kingdom, Afghanistan, Germany).223

Imports
Petroleum and petroleum products are Pakistan’s largest import commodities. Machinery
and transport equipment, a broad class of items, also make up a high percentage of
Pakistan’s imports.224 Within this class, telecommunications equipment and parts,
machinery for the country’s textile and leather factories, and automobiles are the highest
value import commodities.225 Fertilizers, iron and steel, and vegetable fats and oils are
also significant import items.226 Saudi Arabia, Pakistan’s largest supplier of oil, is also
Pakistan’s largest import partner, with China, United Arab Emirates, United States, and
Japan rounding out the top five.227

Investment
Foreign direct investment in Pakistan has been increasing
dramatically in recent years after several years of decline
220
DAWN.com. Iqbal, Shahid. “Trade Deficit Hits $12.1 Billion. 23 July 2006.
http://www.dawn.com/2006/07/23/ebr3.htm
221
World Trade Organization. “Time Series: Merchandise Trade by Commodity.” 2007.
http://stat.wto.org/StatisticalProgram/WSDBViewData.aspx?Language=E
222
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Table 14.2. Exports by Commodity/Groups.”
2007. http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/external_trade/14.2.pdf
223
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Table 14.6. Cumulative Exports by Major
Countries.” 2007. http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/external_trade/14.6.pdf
224
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Table 14.3. Imports for Commodity/Groups.”
2007. http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/external_trade/14.3.pdf
225
International Trade Centre. “Imports: 2001-2005. Reporter: Pakistan.” 2007.
http://www.intracen.org/tradstat/sitc3-3d/ir586.htm
226
International Trade Centre. “Imports: 2001-2005. Reporter: Pakistan.” 2007.
http://www.intracen.org/tradstat/sitc3-3d/ir586.htm
227
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Table 14.7. Cumulative Imports by Major
Countries.” 2007. http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/external_trade/14.7.pdf

54
during the late 1990s.228, 229 In addition to an improved investment climate, much of the
foreign investment in Pakistan has been spurred by ongoing privatization of government-
owned businesses and industries. Pakistani law requires that 90% of these privatization
proceeds go towards debt retirement.230 The result of this policy is that Pakistan has been
able to reduce its debt service (the percentage of its export and remittance revenues that
go toward debt repayment) from 25% in 2000 to 10% in 2005.231

One problem that the government has had to deal with in attracting foreign investment is
what some government officials have called “the CNN effect.”232 By this, they mean that
globally publicized terrorist actions by groups operating within the country have left an
impression among some Westerners that Pakistan is an unstable and potentially unsafe
environment to conduct business. The less publicized sectarian and ethnic violence in
cities such as Karachi could also create such a negative impression.

While Pakistan clearly does have serious security concerns, government officials and
business councils have been quick to note the progress that has been made in containing
violent groups. They have also noted progress on the successful experiences that foreign
companies have had with their investments in Pakistan.233, 234 Research carried out by the
Asian Development Bank found that most terrorist attacks carried out in Pakistan were
against military or government targets, and that business losses due to such attacks were
minimal.235 Nonetheless, risks do exist, especially in areas such as Balochistan, where a
nationalist insurgency continues to simmer. China, which is involved in the construction
of several large-scale infrastructure projects in Balochistan, has seen several of its
workers and engineers killed by terrorists in recent years.236

Energy and Mineral Resources

Energy
Pakistan has extensive energy resources, including
reserves of natural gas, oil, and coal, as well as rivers
228
Daily Times. “Poverty Reduction Strategy Termed Successful.” 13 May 2007.
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007/05/13/story_13-5-2007_pg5_8
229
World Bank Group. “Pakistan Data Profile.” April 2007.
http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=PAK
230
Financial Times, Ltd. FDI Magazine. “Unstoppable Train.” 25 April 2007.
http://www.fdimagazine.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/1987/Unstoppable_train.html
231
World Bank Group. “Pakistan Data Profile.” April 2007.
http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=PAK
232
Financial Times, Ltd. FDI Magazine. “Unstoppable Train.” 25 April 2007.
http://www.fdimagazine.com/news/fullstory.php/aid/1987/Unstoppable_train.html
233
U.S.-Pakistan Business Council. President of Pakistan. “President Seeks U.S. Investment in Progressing
Pakistan. 15 September 2005. http://www.uspakistan.org/Investment_Updates_96_PAK_GOV.html
234
Embassy of the United States, Islamabad, Pakistan, U.S. Department of State. “U.S.-Pakistan Business
Council Delegates Meet With Key Government Officials in Pakistan.” 27 April 2006.
http://islamabad.usembassy.gov/pakistan/h06042701.html
235
IRMI.com. Wagner, Daniel. “The Impact of Terrorism of Foreign Direct Investment.” February 2006.
http://www.uspakistan.org/Investment_Updates_96_PAK_GOV.html
236
BBC News, International Version. “China Workers Killed in Pakistan.” 15 February 2006.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4716820.stm

55
with significant hydroelectric potential.237 Natural gas is the energy resource that has
most extensively been exploited to date. Currently it generates about 50% of Pakistan’s
energy needs, but shortages are still anticipated in the future.238 To help address this
problem, a natural gas pipeline connecting Iran’s abundant supplies to both Pakistan and
India is currently under negotiation. The ongoing insurgency in Balochistan has been a
concern in these discussions, as Pakistan’s portion of the pipeline will run through the
province. In recent years nationalist insurgents in Balochistan have targeted pipelines and
other energy facilities in their ongoing attacks against the central government.239, 240

Privatization of Pakistan’s three state-owned oil companies is a key component of the

government’s privatization program.241 Oil production in Pakistan has been flat for over a
decade, while demand has increased dramatically. As oil imports have increased,
widening the trade deficit, the government has encouraged private oil firms to bolster
their production capacity. To this end, licensing rounds for onshore and offshore tracts
have recently been completed, with new exploration wells to be drilled over the next few
years. Pakistan’s refining capacity is also being increased with the construction of a new
refinery at Port Qasim, to be supplied with crude oil from Qatar.242

Pakistan’s proven coal reserves are mostly located in the Thar Desert of Sindh Province.
The Thar deposits are immense, the largest in the world.243 Since the discovery of these
deposits in 1992, however, coal production in Pakistan has not significantly increased,
and the country still must import to meet its modest coal demands.244 The high cost to
construct and operate integrated coal-mining and power-generation facilities in the arid
Thar region has complicated efforts to attract investors to develop the coal resources.245
In May 2007, a Chinese firm pulled out of an ambitious project to mine coal and operate
a coal-based power plant in the Thar region when the Pakistan government and the
Chinese company could not come to agreement on the project’s tariff rate.246

237
U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan—Economy.” May 2005.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
238
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government. “Energy Profile of Pakistan.” December 2006.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Pakistan/Background.html
239
The Jamestown Foundation. Global Terrorism Analysis. McGregor, Andrew. “Pakistan Launches New
Offensive in Balochistan.” 27 June 2006.
http://jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2370044
240
Institute for the Analysis of Global Security. Luft, Gal. “Iran-Pakistan-India Pipeline: The Baloch
Wildcard.” 12 January 2005. http://www.iags.org/n0115042.htm
241
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government. “Energy Profile of Pakistan.” December 2006.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Pakistan/Background.html
242
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government. “Energy Profile of Pakistan.” December 2006.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Pakistan/Background.html
243
Pak Tribune. Kiani, Khaleeq. “Black Faces, Black Deeds and Black Deposits.” 22 September 2006.
http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?155007
244
Energy Information Administration, U.S. Government. “Energy Profile of Pakistan.” December 2006.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Pakistan/Background.html
245
Pak Tribune. Kiani, Khaleeq. “Black Faces, Black Deeds and Black Deposits.” 22 September 2006.
http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.shtml?155007
246
Asia Times Online. Fazl-e-Haider, Syed. “China Quits $1.5Bn Pakistan Coal Project.”
http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/IE18Df04.html

56
Mineral Resources
Pakistan’s most extensively mined non-fuel resources are
generally construction and industrial materials, such as
limestone, gypsum, aragonite/marble, and clays.247
Chromite and iron ore are the most extensively mined
metallic minerals. Balochistan, in particular, is the site of
several major reserves of valuable minerals, including the
recent discovery of what has been described as one of the
world’s seven largest copper reserves.248 Many Balochis
perceive that the national government to this point has excluded Balochistan from its fair
share of the proceeds from its extensive mineral and natural gas deposits. This perception
has become an underlying element of the ongoing unrest in the province.249, 250

Standard of Living
Pakistan has made strides since the beginning years of the current decade in raising its
per capita income and improving other measures of quality of life.251 The per capita gross
national income in current U.S. dollars has gone from USD 480 in 2000 to USD 690 in
2005, a nearly 45% increase in five years. Life expectancy has increased by nearly two
years during that time, while primary school enrollment has increased from 71% to
87%.252 The adult literacy rate as of 2006 stood just under 50%, a low value even by the
standards of low-income countries but nonetheless an improvement over the value of
35.4% in 1990.253 (The most recent governmental estimates place the literacy rate even
higher, at 54%.)254 Most health indices, such as infant and child mortality rates and
immunization rates, have also shown improvement during the 2000–2005 time period.255,
256

247
Geological Survey of Pakistan. “Metallic & Nonmetallic Mineral Resources of Pakistan.”
http://www.gsp.gov.pk/resources/metallic.html
248
DAWN.com. Kiani, Khaleeq. “$1.25 Copper, Gold Deposits Discovered.” 14 April 2006.
http://www.dawn.com/2006/04/14/top8.htm
249
IRINNews.org. U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Pakistan: More Fighting in
Balochistan, but No Aid in Eight Months.” 31 August 2006.
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=60515
250
The Jamestown Foundation. Global Terrorism Analysis. McGregor, Andrew. “Pakistan Launches New
Offensive in Balochistan.” 27 June 2006.
http://jamestown.org/terrorism/news/article.php?articleid=2370044
251
The World Bank. “Pakistan Country Overview 2006.” September 2006.
http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PAKISTANEXTN
/0,,contentMDK:20131431~menuPK:293057~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:293052,00.html
252
The World Bank Group. “Pakistan Data Profile.”
http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=PAK
253
UNESCO. “Table 2. Adult Literacy (Age 15 and Over).”
http://portal.unesco.org/education/en/file_download.php/58e279e861b2f89a3ae2ba0f64e0ab49Table2.xls
254
Associated Press of Pakistan. “Literacy Rate Increases to 54 Per Cent.” 17 June 2007.
http://www.app.com.pk/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11049&Itemid=2
255
The World Bank Group. “Pakistan Data Profile.”
http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=PAK
256
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Pakistan Social and Living Standards
Measurement Survey (2004-05).” June 2005. http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/statistics/pslm2004-
05/pslms 2004-05.pdf

57
Despite the overall improvement in standard of living measures,
Pakistan still faces several challenges. Gender gaps in school
enrollment and literacy are still pronounced, particularly in rural
regions. The literacy rate, while improving, is still one of the lowest
in all of Asia. Poverty rates vary widely by region, with the highest
rate in rural North-West Frontier Province and the lowest in urban
Sindh.257 Only one-third of all births are attended by skilled health
professionals.258

The 1990s and early 2000s in Pakistan were marked by a wide-

ranging Social Action Program (SAP). This program marshaled
government funds and international loans to address long-neglected needs in areas such
as education, health, and social assistance. The latter part of SAP coincided with a
significant economic downturn in the country’s economy, and the early gains on social
indicators such as poverty were quickly erased.259 Since then, as the economy has
rebounded, there has once again been improvement in the social indicators. However,
even generally positive reports on Pakistan’s social development are quick to note that
Pakistan’s social progress has not kept up with its economic growth.260

Tourism
Pakistan has considerable tourism potential, with many
archaeological and historical attractions and the high
mountains of the Himalayas and Karakoram Mountains
topping the list of sites to see. However, the industry has
suffered a double whammy in recent years between the
effects of 9/11, which led to a war in neighboring
Afghanistan, and the devastating earthquake in the
Kaghan Valley in 2005. The 9/11 attacks against the U.S.
also created terrorism fears associated with Pakistan.

The aftereffects of 9/11 are striking. For example, in 2001, over 46,000 foreign visitors
visited Pakistani heritage sites and another 40,000 went to one of Pakistan’s
archaeological museums. Those attendance figures dropped to less than 12,000 visitors
for each set of attractions in 2002.261, 262 In the northern areas, tourism support for
257
The World Bank. “Pakistan Country Overview 2006.” September 2006.
http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PAKISTANEXTN
/0,,contentMDK:20131431~menuPK:293057~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:293052,00.html
258
The World Bank. “Pakistan Country Overview 2006.” September 2006.
http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PAKISTANEXTN
/0,,contentMDK:20131431~menuPK:293057~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:293052,00.html
259
Asian Development Bank. “Country Strategy and Development 2002-2006. I. Development Agenda. C.
Current Development” July 2002. http://www.adb.org/Documents/CSPs/PAK/2002/csp0103.asp
260
The World Bank. “Pakistan Country Overview 2006.” September 2006.
http://www.worldbank.org.pk/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/PAKISTANEXTN
/0,,contentMDK:20131431~menuPK:293057~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:293052,00.html
261
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Table 19.11. Visitors at Archaeological
Museums in Pakistan.” 2006.
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/publications/yearbook2006/social_and_culture/19.11.pdf

58
trekkers and mountaineers in the high peaks of the Himalayas had once been a main
component of the local economy. However, after 9/11 the total number of trekkers and
mountaineers in these areas dropped from 1,872 in 2001 to 311 in 2002.263

Despite the dramatic drop in tourism since late 2001, which has only partially rebounded
in the intervening years, the Pakistan Government still sees tourism as a stabilizing factor
for the country. The government would like to increase its share of this business, the
world’s second-fastest-growing industry. The year 2007 has seen a push for tourist travel
through the staging of special events throughout the country in a Destination Pakistan
campaign.264 Whether or not these events and the parallel publicity are able to overcome
news stories about political violence in Karachi and the July 2007 storming of a radical
mosque in Islamabad remains to be seen.

Transportation
Pakistan’s transportation sector contributes over 10% to
the country’s GDP and employs more than 6% of the
workforce.265 Despite ongoing privatization initiatives
throughout Pakistan’s major industrial and service sectors,
government agencies and businesses continue to
dominate the transportation sector.266

Pakistan’s rail system, Pakistan Railways, is one of the

largest of these government-run enterprises. It handles both passenger and freight traffic.
Freight rates are less competitive than road transport, in part because freight services
partially subsidize passenger services. The result is that a very high percentage of freight
within Pakistan is carried on the nation’s motorways. The government does recognize the
competitive challenges that Pakistan Railways faces and has begun the process of
transforming it into a corporation.267

Pakistan’s roadways face challenges of their own. An aging truck fleet, poor road
conditions for over half of the network, and a poor safety record combine to increase

262
Federal Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan. “Table 19.12. Visitors at Heritage Sites in
Pakistan.” 2006.
http://www.statpak.gov.pk/depts/fbs/publications/yearbook2006/social_and_culture/19.12.pdf
263
International Mountaineering and Climbing Association. Mortenson, Greg. “Tourism Fallout and
Earthquakes in Pakistan.” 1 December 2002. http://www.uiaa.ch/article.aspx?c=231&a=151
264
Christian Science Monitor. Montero, David. “Pakistan Looks to Tourism to Fight Terrorism.” 5 April
2007. http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0405/p07s02-wosc.html
265
The World Bank. “Pakistan Transport Sector.”
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPTR
ANSPORT/0,,contentMDK:20699058~menuPK:869060~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:5
79598,00.html
266
The World Bank. “Pakistan Transport Sector.”
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPTR
ANSPORT/0,,contentMDK:20699058~menuPK:869060~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:5
79598,00.html
267
Associated Press of Pakistan. “PM Approves Plan to Upgrade Pakistan Railways.” 15 June 2007.
http://www.app.com.pk/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=10923&Itemid=2

59
travel times. Average speeds for trucks carrying container traffic in Pakistan are about
half of those for trucks in Europe. The government is working to improve the road system
through a National Highway Improvement Programme (NHIP) that is being funded by
the World Bank. Money for the NHIP is earmarked for both improvements on the current
highways and reconstruction of parts of the national highway system damaged in the
October 2005 earthquake.268 At the same time, the Asian Development Bank is supplying
funding to improve the Pakistani highway system’s ability to serve as a regional network
connecting to other Asian countries.

Domestic and international air cargo primarily goes through Karachi’s Jinnah
International Airport, although Islamabad and Lahore also handle significant amounts of
cargo. The main airline is the government-run Pakistan International Airlines, which
handles about 70% of domestic air passengers and almost all domestic freight.269

Business Outlook
Pakistan’s economy has shown impressive growth in the last few
years, although there are some causes for concern among the
generally positive economic indicators. Pakistan’s dependence on oil
imports has stressed the country’s current account balance. However,
privatization proceeds, grants, and foreign-based investments have so
far been able to offset the trade deficit.270 Pakistan’s relatively low
investment in human capital development in areas such as education
also raises questions about whether the strong economic growth will
be able to maintain in the long term. Physical infrastructure, such as
roads, pipelines, and railways, will also require additional funding.

Another ongoing issue is that much of Pakistan’s industrial exports are still tied to a
single product group: textiles and garments. Pakistan faces tremendous competitive
pressure from China, Bangladesh, India and other countries in maintaining its share of
textile exports. The textiles industry is also very sensitive to any drops in cotton
production. In addition, a large percentage of the textile exports are with only a few
countries in Europe and North America. This makes the export trade vulnerable to
downswings in trading activity with these partners.271

Pakistan continues to look for ways to diversify its economy. One business area with
potential is the outsourcing of software and information technology/business services,
which has been creating numerous jobs in neighboring India. Pakistan shares with India a

268
Daily Times. Imran, Ayub. “WB Offers $300m for Highways’ Improvement.” 23 December 2005.
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2005%5C12%5C23%5Cstory_23-12-2005_pg5_7
269
The World Bank. “Pakistan Transport Sector.”
http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/EXTSARREGTOPTR
ANSPORT/0,,contentMDK:20699058~menuPK:869060~pagePK:34004173~piPK:34003707~theSitePK:5
79598,00.html
270
Asian Development Bank. Asian Development Outlook 2007. “South Asia: Pakistan.” March 2007.
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ADO/2007/PAK.asp
271
Asian Development Bank. Asian Development Outlook 2007. “South Asia: Pakistan.” March 2007.
http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/ADO/2007/PAK.asp

60
British colonial history and has a relatively high number of English speakers. However,
several significant hurdles, including a shortage of technical graduates, high bandwidth
costs, and security concerns by some Western companies, must be overcome.272 To date,
lower tech outsourcing, such as call centers and business process offices, has been
growing the fastest.273

International Organizations
Pakistan is a member of virtually all international business and trade organizations. It also
belongs to several regional economic organizations, such as the Economic Cooperation
Organization (ECO). The ECO comprises 10 members from Central and Western Asia
and is involved in efforts to develop economic and infrastructural linkages between the
member countries.274

Pakistan is also supported by economic aid supplied by

several international financial institutions, most notably
the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the
International Monetary Fund. Aid from these
organizations has often come with stipulations that
Pakistan adjust its national economic policies to improve
its long-term prospects for growth and poverty reduction.
Bilateral aid between Pakistan and Western countries—
most notably, the U.S.—has further provided support for Pakistani economic
development.275

272
Shorenstein Asia-Pacific Research Center, Stanford University. DAWN. Mangi, Naween A. “Pakistan
Not Yet on the Outsourcing Map.” 21 September 2005.
http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/pakistan_not_yet_on_the_outsourcing_map_20050921/
273
BusinessWeek. Mangi, Naween A. “Pakistan: Better Late Than Never in Outsourcing.” 9 May 2005.
http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_19/b3932079.htm
274
Associated Press of Pakistan. “Govt. Focusing on Strong Transport Linkages with Neighbours:
Naheed.” 16 January 2007.
http://www.app.com.pk/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2130&Itemid=2
275
U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan—Economy.” May 2005.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm

61
 Society
Introduction
Pakistan is an agricultural country with many customs
that have changed little over the centuries. The culture is
rich with handicrafts dating back thousands of years, art
and literature from various sources, and culinary
traditions brought from the Moguls, Turks, and Iranians.

The people of Pakistan are known for their diverse

traditions and the courtesy they extend to guests in their
country. However, a travel advisory issued by the United States Department of State
continues to warn against any tourist travel due to possible terrorist elements.276 As a
result, Pakistan’s opportunity to share the historical and vast riches of its culture has
diminished. This chapter brings you a little closer to the Pakistani people and their way of
life.

Ethnic Groups and Languages

The five major ethnic groups of present-day Pakistan are Punjabis (roughly 60 percent),
Sindhis (12 percent), Pashtuns (8 percent), Muhajirs (8 percent), and Balochis (4 percent).
A mixture of other ethnic groups constitutes about 8 percent of the population.277,278
Before 1971, when East Pakistan broke away and became the independent nation of
Bangladesh, Pakistan’s largest ethnic group was Bengali.

The Muhajirs migrated to Pakistan from India at the time of partition (1947), and most of
them settled in urban Sindh. Sindhis and Punjabis live in Sindh and Punjab provinces,
respectively, along the valley of the Indus River. The Pashtuns (Pathans) live in the
mountains of North-West Frontier Province. Some of the Pashtuns, along with the
Balochis, live in Balochistan Province on the Balochistan Plateau.279

Punjabis 280
Punjab is part of Pakistan’s agricultural heartland, and Punjabis are known as both
farmers and warriors. They constitute approximately 60 percent of Pakistan’s army.
Punjabis are landed elite that have long dominated both the military and civil
bureaucracies. Their hold on power and monopoly of high-level government positions
generates resentment among other ethnic groups that are underrepresented.

276
United States Department of State. “Travel Warning, Pakistan.” 16 July 2007.
http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/tw/tw_930.html
277
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [p. 236].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
278
Percentages cited for ethnic groups are rough estimates.
279
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [p. 237].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
280
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [pp. 238-9].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

62
Based on Sanskrit, the Punjabi language reflects a rich oral tradition expressed in songs,
folktales, and poems. The most well known is the love story of Heer Ranjha, written by
Waris Shah, an 18th century Punjabi poet.

Sindhis 281
The name “Sindh” derives from a Sanskrit word for the Indus River
and is also the source for words like “India” and “Hindu.” The Sindhi
people have deep roots in Sindh Province where their pattern of life is
based on a strong feudal structure. Large landowners own most of the
farms on which Sindhis work as tenant farmers, and the landowners
reap most of the benefit from the arrangement. Even in elections,
Sindhi villagers cannot overrule the rules and mandates of the
landowners.

When India divided into Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan in 1947,
Sindh became an “ethnic battlefield” and “one of the most violent
places in Pakistan.” The Muhajirs who replaced the departing Hindus gained power in
Sindh at the expense of the indigenous Sindhis, and this has generated ongoing ethnic
tension. In the 1970s the Bhutto government took steps to decrease the number of
Muhajirs in the Civil Service and increase the participation of Sindhis. However, this did
not solve the problem of the unequal power structure.

Muhajirs 282
After partition in 1947, the millions of Hindus and Sikhs who fled to India were replaced
by around 7 million Muhajirs from India. Although they represent only 8 percent of
Pakistan’s population, they form 50 percent of the population of two cities in Sindh
Province, Karachi and Hyderabad. Further, they displaced many of the native Sindhis
from prominent positions. The Muhajirs had lived mainly in cities in India and a large
number possessed professional skills and high levels of education when they migrated to
Pakistan. They became entrepreneurs in their new land, coming to hold a disproportionate
share of jobs in government, finance, and business.

After they experienced repeated ethnic violence in Pakistan and hostility directed against
them, many joined the MQM (Muhajir Quami National Movement). In the 1980s and
early 1990s, this “grassroots party” won 13 out of 15 seats for Karachi in the 1988
National Assembly elections. The party has since split into branches, and one of the
splinter groups in particular has been accused of terrorizing the Sindhi population as well
as others in Sindh Province.

281
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [pp. 239-40].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
282
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [pp. 240-41].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

63
Pashtuns 283
The Pashtuns, also called Pathans, constitute the largest autonomous tribal group in the
world. They are believed by many to have descended from European soldiers in
Alexander the Great’s army. They have never been assimilated by conquerors and were
able to defeat the British who tried to defeat them.

They are known for having a complex male-centered code of conduct which involves
honor, revenge, hospitality, and formal abasement. Their code of honor demands that
women in the North-West Frontier Province where the Pashtuns live are usually restricted
to private family compounds. On the few occasions when Pashtun women leave their
homes, they wear a burqa which covers them completely except for a small opening at
the eyes. The fourth part of the Pashtun code, formal abasement, requires that those who
lose a fight show submission, and those who win show mercy.

Balochis 284
Pakistan’s second largest tribal group, the Balochis live
on a barren landscape that extends beyond Pakistan into
Iran and Afghanistan. This tribe claims an ancient
Semitic lineage and most speak Balochi, although a few
speak Brahui, an ancient Dravidian language. They
engage in pastoral nomadism and agriculture. To farm,
they must use irrigation because their lands are so dry.
They irrigate their fields by using water from oases or
through channels that bring water from rivers.

Their society is organized into a “feudal militaristic” order in which the word of the
tribe’s leader is law. Known for resisting intrusions into their way of life, they are among
Pakistan’s poorest and least developed people.

Languages
Although more than 20 languages are spoken in Pakistan, the most common are Urdu,
Pashtu, Sindhi, Western and Eastern Punjabi, and Balochi. Pashtu, Sindhi, Punjabi, and
Balochi are classified as Indo-European (Aryan) languages and use the same Arabic-
Persian script.285
English is also spoken in Pakistan by many people, including the elite, who switch back
and forth in midsentence between English and their regional language. It is used in
university classrooms, private schools, government and legal documents, and army
manuals.

283
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [pp. 241-5].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
284
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [pp. 245-6].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.
285
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [p. 236].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

64
Pashtu as a Language
Pashtu is a language with roots in eastern Iran. It is written in the Arabic alphabet which
reads from right to left, and the letters are cursive. Pashtu has the extra four letters that
Dari (of western Iran) uses for sounds not found in Arabic. Transliterating Pashtu to
English is difficult because the vowels are spelled in English the way they sound,
resulting in a variety of spellings.286

Sindhi as a Language
Of all the regional languages in Pakistan, Sindhi is the
most developed. It has about 17 million speakers in
southeast Pakistan and 2.8 million in India. The Sindhi
language appeared as a written language around the 8th
century CE.287 It is considered to have evolved from
Sanskrit and is somewhat related to Urdu, with some
vocabulary drawn from Persian, Arabic, and some
Dravidian languages. In Pakistan, it is often written in
Arabic script and uses additional letters for sounds not made in Arabic. Hyderabad is the
largest Sindh speaking city in Pakistan.288

Long before the arrival of the Arabs who brought Islam to the region, the Sindhi language
had a written script. This contributed to the growth of a rich Sindhi literature, later
enriched by contributions from other cultures. The Sindhi language was a strong element
of Sindhi identity. Consequently, it was seen as a blow to their unity as a people when the
Sindhi language was de-emphasized following partition in 1947, when Urdu was made
the national language of Pakistan. Knowledge of Urdu became mandatory, yet knowledge
of Sindhi was no longer required. Sindhis denounced this policy which they claimed
made their language and culture peripheral not only in the new state, but also in Sindh
Province.289

Urdu as a Language
Urdu is also an Indo-Aryan language and is spoken by approximately 104 million
people.290 It is Pakistan’s national language and, being similar to Hindi, is the mother
tongue of the Muhajirs who came from India. Over 75 percent of Pakistanis and 95% of
those who live in cities in Pakistan understand it.291 The word urdu comes from the
Turkish word ordu, which means “camp” or “army.” Muslim soldiers of Persian, Arab,
and Turkish descent used Urdu as a unifying means of communication during their

286
Air Force of Special Investigations. “Language and Literacy.” 2006.
http://www.osi.andrews.af.mil/library/deploymentstress/otherlinks/afghanistan/people/thelanguage.asp
287
Omniglot. “Sindhi.” c1998-2007. http://www.omniglot.com/writing/sindhi.htm
288
Flight Line. “Sindhi Around the World.” c1996-2007. http://www.flightline.co.uk/learn-to-speak/Sindhi/
289
Kashmir & Sindh: Nation-Building, Ethnicity and Regional Politics in South Asia. Das, Suranjan. 2001.
London: Anthem Press.
290
This figure includes those who speak Urdu as a second language.
291
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter Four: Pakistani Institutions
and Contemporary Culture [p. 237].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

65
conquest of ancient India. Urdu is 70 percent Farsi and the remainder is a combination of
Arabic and Turkish.292

Religion
About 97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim. Sunni Muslims make up 77 percent of that
population and Shia Islam is an additional 20 percent. Christians, Hindus, and other
religions make up the remainder of the population.293

Islam
Islam is the second largest religion in the world with over one billion
followers. The word “Islam” is from aslama, which means “to
submit.” It reflects the central belief of submitting to the will of God,
or Allah. Islam is a monotheistic religion, accepting only one god,
rejecting polytheism as well as the Christian idea of the Trinity. Islam
recognizes the validity of the Old and New Testaments, regarding
Abraham (Ibrahim) and Jesus (Isa) as prophets. The single most
important belief of Islam is that there is only one Allah (God), and
that Allah is the Creator of the perfect universe.294
The Quran is the sacred text that the Islamic faithful, or Muslims,
follow. They believe it is a record of Allah’s revelations made
through the Angel Gabriel to Mohammad, the founder of Islam. Essential to its unifying
importance, the Quran cannot be translated into a language other than Arabic, its original
language. Such a translation cannot be authorized.295

A Muslim has five main duties to perform, known as the five pillars of Islam. They are 1)
bearing witness to the unity of God and Mohammad as His messenger, 2) observing the
prescribed prayer at five set times each day, 3) paying zakat for the poor, similar to
tithing, 4) keeping the daily fast from sunrise to sunset during the month of Ramadan,
and 5) performing the pilgrimage to Mecca. A Muslim is encouraged to lead a healthy
life that exemplifies the qualities of kindness, chastity, honesty, mercy, courage, patience,
and politeness. As “the literal meaning of Islam is peace; surrender of one’s will i.e.
losing oneself for the sake of God and surrendering one’s own pleasure for the pleasure
of God,”296 a Muslim is expected to surrender his or her personal happiness for the
gratification of God.

Sunni and Shi’a Islam

After Muhammad died and his followers had to decide
who would be his successors down the line, a split
developed as to how that decision should be made. In the

292
The Urdu Language. Undated. “The Introduction.” http://www.theurdulanguage.com/index.htm
293
U.S.Library of Congress. Pakistan, a Country Study. “Religion.” 1994.
http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/38.htm
294
Religion Facts. “Muslim Beliefs about God.” http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/beliefs/god.htm
295
U.S. Library of Congress. Pakistan, a Country Study. “Religion.” 1994.
http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/38.htm
296
Pakawatan.com “Islam, Introduction.” c2005-06. http://www.pakwatan.com/islam.php

66
Sunni view, religious leadership was based on merit that could be earned and was
available to all. The Sunnis favored electing leaders based on righteousness and
leadership ability. Alternately, the Shi’a preferred naming leaders descended from
Muhammad’s lineage. The Shi’a recognized that until the Prophet was there to guide
them, human beings could not find salvation. They concluded that to live in unity with
the truth of Islam, people need the help of divinely favored individuals, those of the
Prophet’s lineage.

The Sunni sect eventually divided into four major sects, or schools. In Pakistan, the
Hanafi school is the predominant of the four schools.297

Islamists
The term “Islamist,” not to be confused with “Islamic,” refers to a practitioner of political
Islam, who seeks to end the secular state and replace it with religious control. It has
evolved from the term “Islamic fundamentalism,” or using Islamic ideas in the political
realm by creating a theocratic Islamic state in which Shari’a or Islamic law is the law of
the land. In conflicts driven by religion, such as those in Pakistan, various Islamist groups
are often opposed to each other as well as to Western ideas. The Islamist cause was
strengthened in Pakistan when Shari’a courts were established under Zia and also in the
early 1990s under Prime Minister Sharif.298

Traditions
Holidays
Holidays in Pakistan are Eid al-Azha around the first of January, Muharram around the
last of January, Pakistan Day on 23 March, and Mawlid an-Nabi around the first of April.
They also include Independence Day on 14 August, Eid al-Fitr around the middle of
October, and the birthday of Quaid-e-Azam on 25 December.299

Celebrations 300
Eid al-Fitr is a religious festival that celebrates the end of Ramadan fasting on Shawaal,
the 10th month of the Islamic calendar. Sometimes called the “Small Eid,” it is one of
Pakistan’s major festivals. In this celebration, Pakistani Muslims visit each other’s homes,
exchange gifts, give charity to the poor, and visit the gravesites of their deceased
relatives.301 Children dress in brightly colored shalwar kamis (wide trousers) and their
hands are decorated with a henna dye called mehndi. Families gather for a special meal.
Businesses close and employees often receive bonuses in honor of the holiday.302

297
U.S. Library of Congress. Pakistan, a Country Study. “Religion.” 1994.
http://countrystudies.us/pakistan/38.htm
298
Federal Research Division. Library of Congress. Pakistan: A Country Study. Ed. by Peter R. Blood.
1994. Washington DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
299
Embassy of the United States, Islamabad, Pakistan. “About the Embassy, 2007 Holiday List.”
http://islamabad.usembassy.gov/pakistan/holidays.html
300
Many celebrations listed are taken from the following source: South Travels. “Pakistan Events 2006.”
http://www.southtravels.com/asia/pakistan/pakistanevents.html
301
Religion Facts. “Eid Al-Fitr.” 10 January 2005. http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/holidays/fitr.htm
302
Pakistan in Pictures. Taus-Bolstad, Stacy. 2003. Minneapolis, MN: Lerner Publications.

67
Eid al-Azha, the second of the country’s major Islamic festivals, is
celebrated in the 12th Islamic month, around two months after Eid al-
Fitr. This three-day festival commemorates Abraham’s willingness to
sacrifice his son in obedience to Allah. Families sacrifice sheep, goats,
camels, or cows. They divide the meat among themselves and share it
with the needy, including servants, beggars, and those in
orphanages.303

Muharram, a religious observance, takes place during the first month

of the Islamic calendar. On this day, Pakistani Muslims mourn the
death of Imam Husain, Muhammad’s grandson. Most people wear
black and attend special religious services. The tenth day of mourning is called ashura,
when people march through the streets expressing their grief.

Mawlid an-Nabi is the birth anniversary of the Prophet Hazrat Mohammad. It is held in
the third Islamic month, or Rabi al-Awwal. People gather to praise the prophet through
reading poetry and singing.

Pakistan Day on 23 March commemorates the Lahore Resolution of 1940. Independence

Day is held on 14 August with rallies and parades throughout the country. Pakistan
gained its independence (its birth as a nation) in 1947.

Regional festivals are also common in Pakistan. The Basant Festival is held in early
February. It celebrates the end of winter and the beginning of spring. Because of the nice
weather in Lahore, kites of various sizes and colors are flown there.

The awami mela (People’s Festival) is held in Punjab in March. People gather to enjoy
livestock exhibitions, sporting events, and performances by artists and singers.304

The Sibi Festival is held in Balochistan in the last week of February and includes
traditional sports, handicrafts, folk music, and dancing.

The Festival of Lamps, or Mela Chiraghan, is held in March at the Shalimar Gardens in
Lahore. Thousands of lamps are lit to honor Saint Shah Hussain.

Lok Mela is a folk festival held in Islamabad in October. It is celebrated with original
handicrafts, folk dancing, songs, and unique food.
The Birth Anniversary of Quaid-e-Azam, Pakistan’s founder, is celebrated on 25
December.

303
Religion Facts. “Eid Al-Adha: Festival of the Sacrifice.” 02 February 2005.
http://www.religionfacts.com/islam/holidays/adha.htm
304
Pakistan in Pictures. Taus-Bolstad, Stacy. 2003. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Company.

68
Ramadan
A very special event in Pakistan, the month of Ramadan honors the time when Allah
(God) revealed the Quran to Muhammad. During Ramadan, Muslim adults are obligated
to seek spiritual purification by fasting, abstaining from food and drink from dawn to
sunset. Only the infirm, soldiers on duty, and the young are exempted. When families
hear the call for prayer at sunset, they gather for iftar, the evening meal. Before dawn the
following day they eat a meal called sehri before resuming their daily fast.305

This long, tiring period of fasting alters the usual rhythm of life in Pakistan. It causes
interruptions in normal patterns of business and social life in general. Working hours are
reduced during Ramadan to allow more time for prayer. There may be restrictions on
smoking, and some restaurants will close during the day.
Non-Muslims are not expected to observe Ramadan. However, they earn respect by being
sensitive to those who are fasting. Non-Muslims should try to avoid eating or smoking in
public during the fast.

Social Customs306, 307

Pakistan is a hierarchal society in which custom dictates
that people be respected for their age and status. The
elderly are treated with great deference. They are always
served first at a social function and they are always
introduced first.

Pakistan has deep familial traditions in which extended

families form the basis of social structure and identity for
all members of society. Extended families include one’s immediate family, all relatives,
tribe members, friends, and neighbors. It is customary in Pakistan that loyalty to family
comes before loyalty to any other group or to business affiliations. Within this private
family structure, women are sheltered and seen as carriers of the faith and the family
honor. Although customs concerning women are stricter in rural areas than more
modernized urban areas, Pakistani women in general are protected from having an overt
presence in society outside of the home. It is never appropriate for any man to ask a
Pakistani man about his wife or to inquire about women in the family. Neither is it
appropriate for a man to take a woman’s picture or give her a gift, unless one is invited
into her home and brings a gift for the hostess.

Other social prohibitions exist and should be known to visitors. The head is considered
the highest part of the body, and a visitor should never touch a Pakistani’s head. Equally,
a visitor should never touch people with his/her feet, step over people, or use the feet to
point at a person or object. When giving a gift or handing objects to another person, it

305
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. 2007. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC
CLIO.
306
Kwintessential.com. “Pakistan-Language, Religion, Culture, Customs, and Etiquette.” 2006.
http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/pakistan.html
307
Punjab.gov. “Facts for Travelers.” 1999. http://tdcp.punjab.gov.pk/TDCP/dosandDonts.htm

69
should always be done with the right hand, never the left. Finally, it should be noted that
alcohol is never an appropriate gift.

Social etiquette also requires that people curb their emotions in public. It is considered
bad breeding in Pakistan to lose one’s temper or show anger, and it is simply forbidden to
show public displays of affection with the opposite sex.

Customs concerning appearance are important. In general, cleanliness and conservative

dress are the norm. Although western dress is acceptable in the large cities, clothing
should not fit tightly and the body should be well covered. When entering a mosque or at
religious functions, failing to observe conventions is considered an insult against religion.
It is customary for all visitors entering religious environments to dress formally, covering
their arms, legs, and heads.

Engagements and Weddings308, 309

Marriage in Pakistan is considered the bonding of two families, and
most marriages are arranged. In some regions, marriage partners are
chosen before the children are even born, or when they are babies.
Several formal steps lead through an engagement period and up to the
marriage ceremony. Most of the customs that surround engagement
and marriage are traditions of the Indian subcontinent. At an Islamic
wedding, the one part that is specifically Muslim is nikka, the actual
legalizing of the marriage.

A dowry is usually expected from the parents of the bride. In western

areas of Pakistan and among certain tribes, families follow the
Persian system in which the young man has to provide money for his bride. Often, the
parties paying dowry take out loans to cover the cost, which can be considerable.

Preceding engagement between a young man and woman, the young man lets his parents
know he is interested in a certain woman. The parents contact the young woman’s
parents, who invite the young man and his family to a gathering. Everyone meets, and the
parents decide whether this will be a good match for their son. If they believe it is, the
father will issue a proposal to the young woman’s father. If it is accepted, a small
ceremony takes place to celebrate the newly engaged couple and an auspicious date is
chosen for the wedding. Sometimes a religious person is chosen to help determine the
best date.

During the engagement period the families prepare for the marriage, and the bride-to-be
attends rituals designed to ensure her good health and wellbeing. Her mother buys and
prepares her wedding dress and orders clothes for the bridegroom as well. She prepares a
dowry that consists of clothing and dresses, jewelry, and household items. At celebrations
before the wedding is held at the house of the bride-to-be, guests and friends sing

308
Culture Shock! Pakistan. Mittman, Karin, and Ihsan, Zafar. 2004. London: Kuperard.
309
Faosote.org. “Anatomy of a Pakistani Wedding.” 2003. http://www.fasote.org/travels/pak/shadi.html

70
together as musicians play. The bridegroom can neither visit nor see his bride until the
day of the wedding.

One day before the wedding, the mehndi celebration takes place and begins the actual
wedding ceremony. The word mehndi is Urdu for the Arabic “henna,” and at this
ceremony, the hands of the bride-to-be are lavishly painted with henna, a temporary red
dye. An artist designs images such as candles, flowers, or beautiful patterns as an
expression of joy and happiness. Much singing and dancing accompanies the ritual.

The wedding ceremony, a lavish feast, is attended by family and friends, often numbering
in the hundreds. A holy person gives religious sanction and two male witnesses
representing each party sign the marriage agreement. A marriage contract, nikka-nama,
sets out the terms of the contract including divorce rights and financial commitments.
After this, the bride’s sisters and friends bring her into the reception hall where she is
united with her husband.

Cuisine
Many kinds of bread, or roti, made of unleavened wheat
are a substantial part of Pakistani cuisine. The common
bread, chapatti, is shaped from wheat dough into a thin
disc which is baked on a hot dry iron pan. Another
slightly thicker bread cooked in oil is called parata. A
type of bread or cake called nan is cooked in a clay vessel
called a tandoor, prepared by a tandoori or a roti baker.

Pakistani cuisine consists of foods that are abundant and cheap. The milk in which both
the curds and butterfat have been removed is called lassi. Lentils are the more common
vegetable with meat, eggs, and fruits being consumed by wealthier Pakistanis. Clarified
butter is called ghee. It is typical in affluent households.

Pakistani cooks make heavy uses of spices, herbs, and flavorings to benefit an otherwise
bland dish. Spices such as chili powder, turmeric, garlic, paprika, pepper, cumin, ginger,
cinnamon, and saffron are used liberally in Pakistani cooking.

The Moghul Empire greatly influenced Pakistani food. A Pakistani style of cooking,
known as Moghlai, is common in Lahore in the Punjabi Province. Chicken Tandoori,
which is chicken roasted at a very low temperature, and shahi tukra, a dessert of sliced
bread, milk, and saffron, are two dishes that came to Pakistan from the Moghul Empire.

Every region in Pakistan has its own unique cuisine. In Sindh Province, meats and sweet
foods dominate. One popular dish, nihari, is made of stew meat that has been cooked
over a slow fire overnight. It can be mixed with lentils, whole grain wheat, and barley
with ginger and onions. Shish kabobs are bits of lamb, chicken, or goat that have been
skewered and roasted over an open flame. They are then dipped in a yogurt sauce with
spices. A dessert made with rice and milk, kheer is topped with pistachio or almond
slivers. Desserts known as Rrasgullahs and barfis are made with a milk base (khoya)

71
boiled down to the consistency of cream cheese. They are often topped with sugary
syrup called sheera.

In Baluchistan Province, sajji is a whole leg of lamb roasted over an open fire. Green
papaya is used to tenderize the meat. A pit is dug in the ground and the entire lamb is
skewered and placed in the pit. The meat is surrounded on all four sides by fire and
slowly roasted. A dish brought over from Afghanistan, kabuli pulao is a rice and meat
dish cooked with raisins.

In Punjab, waddi is a popular buffalo kidney stew dish. This is cooked in fried masala, a
mixture of spices. A popular breakfast in Lahore, halva poori is deep-fried bread served
with aloo ki bhaji, a dish of diced potatoes and cholas (chickpeas). Another popular dish
is tavay ki machli, a fresh water fish cooked on a cast iron griddle.

In North-West Frontier Province, chapli kebab is quite popular. It is a flat round kebab
made with minced meat, eggs, and onions fried on a griddle and served with naan, or
crisp bread. A popular dessert is peshawari kulfi which is rose water and pistachios
mixed with falooda, thin, lightly cooked vermicelli.310

In the Hunza region of northwest Pakistan, at the heart of the

Karakoram Mountains in the western Himalayas, cooking is an art
due to the high elevation. Salt is heavily used to help preserve the
food that could spoil quickly in this isolated region. Wheat is the
main staple here and phitti, wild yeast bread, is a common breakfast
food. Aged butter known as maltash is scalded before it is churned.
The salty hard cheese used in soups is called kurutz. Fruit such as
apricots are dried, and nuts are cultivated for food and oil. The spices
that grow indigenously are tumuro, coriander, and tumeric. A popular
drink is diltar, or a yogurt drink. The locals prepare this drink by
putting the milk in a goat skin and rolling it on the ground until butter
forms.

The people of Hunza and their unique style of food were isolated until the opening of the
Karakoram Highway in 1978. Now, the Hunza style of cooking is known throughout
Pakistan and rivals all Pakistani dishes.311

310
The South Asian. Ahmed, Tehmina. “Pakistan – the Street Food Capital of the World.” http://www.the-
south-asian.com/Pakistan_street_food.htm
311
Saudi Aramco World. Flowerday, Julie and Mareile Paley. “Cooking in Hunza.” May 2006.
http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200603/cooking.in.hunza.htm

72
The Arts
Music 312
Music has long been a large part of Pakistani culture. It can be divided into music played
or listened to for pleasure, and music for religious or spiritual purposes. Sometimes they
overlap. Within each branch, there are various styles of instruments and singing.

Qawwali
A qawwali is a male chorus of twelve singers who play
instruments and sing mystical songs of the Sufi poets.
With their rhythmic canting phrases accompanied by
drums and hand clapping, these songs bring a Sufi
message of universal love and unity. The musicians
perform in rows of six, and in the second row a tabla
player uses a bass drum plastered with whole meal
dough to make the sound louder and more resonant. This
type of music is from the Muslim Sufi and Hindu Bhakti and is performed at Sufi shrines
in the Punjab region.

Ghazals
Taken from both Arabic and Persian poetry, ghazals are songs about love. Considered
semi-classical music, these songs are accompanied by both percussion and stringed
instruments; they were originally sung in Farsi. Singers today perform them mainly in
Urdu, but can also sing them in other Pakistani languages. Pakistani women are the
primary singers of this style of music.

Musical Instruments
One of the popular musical instruments played in Pakistan is the sitar, a stringed
instrument made of wood and gourd. It is used for popular music as well as religious and
traditional music. When a sitar player masters this instrument, he or she receives the
Central Asian title of khan, or “lord.” Masters who achieve this status typically are from
schools of classical music whose members are from the same family lineage.

Wind and percussion instruments are usually played at weddings. In the harvest season,
drumming rhythms accompany the workers in the field, and women sing mill-grinding
songs to accompany this kind of work.

Other Pakistani musical instruments include the rabaab, a kind of lute played in Kashmir
and northern Pakistan, the tabla, very popular hand drums, and dhol, a double headed
drum. The dhol is constructed out of the trunk of a mango tree and covered at both ends
with goatskin. It is used between villages as a message drum and is also played at
gatherings to accompany dancing. The harmonium is a keyboard instrument originally
from France but used in Pakistan for 150 years. Last, the shahnia is a wind instrument
that uses a double reed. It is popular at weddings and outdoor festivals.
312
The Kennedy Center, Gift of the Indus: The Arts and Culture of Pakistan. “Music.” 1999.
http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/pakistan/arts-of-pakistan/music.htm

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Theater 313
Pakistani theater was not always supported by the government. As a result, the theaters
did not always receive the funding that they needed. Pakistani theater in its early years
was limited to dramas, usually Shakespearean, performed in colleges. This tradition was
later adapted into original works. Also, the oral poetry of the Moghul courts inspired a
new kind of performance that was adapted and continued in new forms.

Story Telling
Story telling to music, or dastaan-goh, is an ancient art, now becoming “endangered” in
Pakistan. One center of this art form was in North-West Frontier Province, specifically in
Peshawar where it was known as qissakhwāni bāzār, or the “bazaar of storytellers.”
People would come to the central market place to listen to story tellers from varied
cultural backgrounds tell their tales. Although professional story tellers have largely
disappeared,314 this tradition in modified form made its way into the theaters and
continues in the major cities of Pakistan. Actors similar to clowns, bhaands improvise
without a script and try to outwit each other with puns and comedy. So popular has this
type of art become that Pakistan runs videos of this on cable television stations.

Puppetry
At festivals and traveling shows all around Pakistan,
string, hand, and rod puppetry are very popular with
audiences. The oldest type is putli, or string puppetry
performed by wandering minstrels, often a husband-wife
team, on a makeshift stage. The husband is the puppeteer
who not only manipulates the puppet, but also uses a reed
instrument to create various sounds such as bird chirping.
His wife may accompany him on a dholak, a barrel
shaped had drum originating in Northern India.

Film and Television

As Pakistan grew up during the age of television in the 1950s, Pakistani TV became a
good avenue for many aspiring writers, directors, and actors. In the 1980s, most
performers turned to electronic media to pursue their art.

One kind of Lahore-based Pakistani movie has been dubbed “Lollywood,” a play on the
term “Bollywood” which is a label for some Hindi language films made in India. These
Indian films are considered “escapist entertainment,” revolving around a plot that
combines singing, dancing, and melodrama. Typical plots include evil villains, star-
crossed lovers, reversals of fate, and happy endings. Such films are popular throughout
South Asia. In contrast, other Pakistani films are usually in Urdu language and develop
themes of honor or sports. Lahore is the center of filmmaking in Pakistan.

313
The Kennedy Center, Gift of the Indus: The Arts and Culture of Pakistan. “Theater.” 1999.
http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/pakistan/arts-of-pakistan/theater.htm
314
As late as 1977, only a handful of professional story tellers could be found in Peshawar.

74
Protest Theater
Protest Theater emerged during the 1980s. It was a vehicle for the
Pakistanis to examine contemporary issues and stimulate social
change. This type of theater would take place wherever the actors
could find a stage and an audience, such as villages, city streets, and
schools. Now, these theater groups perform in cities such as Karachi
and Lahore. Famous playwrights include Ashfad Ahmad, who used
satire and humor to bring up social issues that developed out of
partition. He died in 2004. Shahid Nadeem, another contemporary
playwright, has addressed modern social issues in his work. Protest
theater groups include Lok Rehas from Lahore and Tehrik-e-Niswan
from Karachi.

Folklore
Folklore in Pakistan is a mixture of beliefs, facts, and fiction and has been told over the
generations so much that the Pakistanis claim that it has become difficult to tell the fact
from the fiction.315 The stories often revolve around themes of unconditional love with
dynamic female characters willing to fight societal norms for the love of their mate .316

Symbolism is a large part of Pakistani folklore. It is seen in characters such as faqirs, or

holy persons, who can destroy or restore life and turn blood into water. Other symbols
that figure into Pakistani folk tales are ogres, heroes, and sleeping beauties. These
characters find themselves in incredible situations that they must overcome, such as a
quest in search of fortune or responding to warning dreams. The story then attempts to
explain the situation and provide a favorable outcome. Pakistani children’s folktales
originally derived from India and have gained so much popularity that books about them
have been published and television shows have portrayed them.317

The Bitan of the Hunza Region318

Hunza is a region of northwestern Pakistan where the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and
Himalayan ranges form a network of high peaks and deep valleys. It borders Afghanistan
and the Xinjiang area of China. The Hunza people who have lived here in isolation for
centuries have developed a spiritual world view populated by powerful mountain spirits
known as pari. The earthly spokesmen for the pari is the bitan, whose role is to propitiate
and deliver messages from the gods.

315
Pakistaniat.com. “Folk Tales of Pakistan: Sohni Mahiwal.” Qalandar, Mast.
http://pakistaniat.com/2007/01/08/pakistan-sohni-mahiwal-folk-tales-culture/
316
Suite 101. “Unconditional Love.” Irshad, Sanober. 10 February 2004.
http://www.suite101.com/article.cfm/pakistan_culture/106193/1
317
University of Pennsylvania. “Tales of the Punjab: A Survey of the Incidents in Modern Indian Folk
Tales.” Temple, R.C. 1894. http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/steel/punjab/punjab-survey.html
318
Ohio State University, Columbus. “Shamans and Mountain Spirits in Hunza.” Sidky, M.H. 1994.
http://www.nanzan-u.ac.jp/SHUBUNKEN/publications/afs/pdf/a993.pdf

75
Many folk tales have been brought down from this region into the
low lands. People talk about the bitan who, to communicate with pari,
inhales juniper smoke, drinks blood from the head of a dead goat, and
enters into a trance-like state to impart his supernatural messages.
The pari is said to be the personification of natural forces. Folklore
has it that the pari of the high, isolated mountain valleys were jealous
of human encroachment in the form of the sheepherders in the rural
areas. So they would protect their domain from these sheepherders
and wreak vengeance upon them. Many believe that the pari who
inhabited the snowy peaks would strike these sheepherders with
avalanches, tumbling rocks, or other natural forces to protect their
land.

As the bitan could communicate with the pari, the bitan were able to use their
supernatural powers to protect the village. Not only was the bitan expected to protect the
village from the pari, he was also expected to protect it from shiatsu, and evil, shape-
shifting spirits. Methods to protect the community included music, dancing, goat
sacrificing, and the sprinkling of burnt juniper leaves over charcoal. The bitan’s
entranced dancing is supposed to encourage the pari to leave the village alone.

Dance

Folk Dance 319

Folk dancing was performed for many reasons often connected to the life cycle. They
include celebration of weddings, the birth of a child, harvest and seasonal festivals,
religious rituals, and community sharing. They are meant to be performed in groups,
using simple repeated steps. Each region of Pakistan has its own form of folk dance.

In Punjab, the bhangra began by celebrating the spring harvest and is now part of the
festivities at marriage ceremonies. It is performed by male dancers who form a circle
around a drummer. Then as the drummer beats the drum faster, the dancers dance to the
center of the circle and leap into the air. Also in Punjab, the luddi originally celebrated
victory in battle; it is now danced to celebrate winning a sports event.

In Sindh and southern Punjab, jhumar is a dance that means “swaying side to side.”
Similar to the bhangra, it is danced in a circle with a drummer in the middle. The dancers
clap and sing in synchronized movement twirling the body with the rhythm of the beat.
They then break into different patterns and reform the circle after the crescendo is
reached.

In Balochistan, men clap their hands and move rhythmically to the sound of the dholkar.
This dance is performed for the sake of enjoying dancing and not necessarily to an
audience. Sometimes the women participate by clapping their hands and moving their
bodies slightly.

319
The Kennedy Center, Gift of the Indus: The Arts and Culture of Pakistan. “Dance.” 1999.
http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/pakistan/arts-of-pakistan/dance.htm

76
In southern Pakistan along the coast of the Arabian Sea a dance called the leva is
performed by both men and women. The dancers sway back and forth in a rhythm.

Religious Dance 320

The dhammaal is a devotional dance with high steps and hands raised
above the heads in a movement symbolic of the unity of Creation.
This dance is accompanied by a double-headed drum that is carved
from a tree trunk and has goat skin stretched across the top of the
drum heads. Men and women dance the dhammaal during religious
festivals.

Another religious dance is not performed publicly but instead has

been integrated into a religious school. A variant of the Turkish Sufis
famous Whirling Dervishes dance is called raqs o sama (“dance and
audition”). It has been incorporated as part of a ritual into the
Chishtia school of Sufis in Pakistan.

Visual Arts 321

Pakistani artists have an old tradition of visual arts that include paintings, architecture,
textiles, decorative arts, and sculptures. Their art has been influenced by Islam’s
preference for geometric shapes, and many of their paintings are abstract with urban
landscapes and country scenes. The art of calligraphy is inspired by the Quran and a great
love of arabesque, the flowing repetition of multiplying and interlaced patterns,
representing infinity. The Mughals brought miniature art, or small, detailed art work, into
Pakistan.

Pakistan is famous for its decorative arts as seen in carpets, weaving, pottery, and
metalwork. Knotted woolen carpets with artistic Islamic designs are very popular, and
both Karachi and Lahore are important centers for the production of carpets. Pottery and
ceramics date back to 2500 BCE, and it is potters who were responsible for the elaborate
tiles that decorate the mosques. Sindh and Baloch are known for mirror embroidery,
small mirrors sewn into fabric to create a glittery effect.

Truck Art
Art has become so ingrained into the Pakistani culture that artists have taken to painting
trucks, buses, tankers, and vehicles to create colorful art work. Dubbed “truck art,” it
gained its roots from the 1920s when the local artist, Ustad Elahi Buksh, was asked by a
bus company to decorate its buses to attract clientele. As a result, buses, cars, and trucks
are painted all colors of the spectrum from bright orange to emerald green. Intricate

320
The Kennedy Center, Gift of the Indus: The Arts and Culture of Pakistan. “Dance.” 1999.
http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/pakistan/arts-of-pakistan/dance.htm
321
The Kennedy Center, Gift of the Indus: The Arts and Culture of Pakistan. “Visual Arts.” 1999.
http://artsedge.kennedy-center.org/pakistan/arts-of-pakistan/ http://www.pakpk.com/truckart.htmlvisual-
arts.htm

77
designs such as floral patterns, landscapes, flowers, mosques, and birds are used. Usually,
every inch of the vehicle is covered in art making it quite a sight when finding a ride.

Embroidery
For centuries, Pakistan, along with South Asia, has been known for its exquisite
embroidered clothes and textiles. These include a wide variety of garments and products,
such as rumals (bedding covers), bushkiri (dowry bags), theli (purses), abochhini (festive
head covers), chadar and bagh (women’s headdress), topi (caps), natiyos (children’s
caps), chola (women’s wedding tunic), and men’s wedding attire. The style and motifs of
the embroidered pattern often represented tribal affiliation and identity. The embroidery
styles, choice of designs, and color combinations would tell the location, religion, and
community of the embroiderer. In Sindh, embroiderers considered it essential to show
their group affiliation on their work. In certain regions, cowry shells, glass mirror pieces,
beetle-wing casings, and beads were used to add uniqueness or
regional identification.

Traditional Dress
The traditional dress in Pakistan is the salwar kameez, Pakistan’s
national dress. The salwar are the loose-fitting pants with the kameez
worn over them like a tunic or long shirt. This salwar kameez can be
worn by both men and women and styled accordingly.322

Women
To accompany their salwar kameez, Pakistani women wear the
dupatta, a long head scarf. The salwar kameez is worn in Pakistan
because of its loose fit, comfort, and versatility. In hot weather, it allows circulation
around the body.323 Women also wear traditional shoes are called khussa, worn in both
Pakistan and India. They are hand stitched, light weight flats, often decorated with ornate
embroidery.324 In Northwest Pakistan, the Kalash women traditionally wear a shushut, or
a headdress. To accompany this, they also wear long black dresses decorated with bead
work or embroidery. The shushut itself has very ornate and elaborate beadwork. It has a
band of woolen cloth that fits over the head with a long “streamer” that hangs down the
back. This streamer is decorated with cowry shells, buttons, beads, metallic chain and
small metal discs, and long tassels hang from the end of the streamer.325

Another head covering worn by Muslim women in Pakistan is the niqab that covers the
face completely except for the eyes. Most common of the various head scarves worn, the
hajib is square in shape and wraps around the head leaving the face exposed. 326

322
Indian Dresses.net. “Salwar Kameez Suits.” 2007. http://www.indian-dresses.net/Salwarkameez.asp
323
Indian Dresses.net. “Salwar Kameez Suits.” 2007. http://www.indian-dresses.net/Salwarkameez.asp
324
Indian Dress.net. “Khussa Shoes.” 2007. http://www.indian-dresses.net/Khussa_Shoes.asp
325
Power House Museum. “Kalash Women’s Headdress (shushut) Northwest Pakistan.” 2006.
http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=343241
326
CTV.ca. “Behind Islamic Veils and Headscarves.” Hahn, Phil. 06 October 2006.
http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20061006/veils_headscarves_061006/20061006/

78
Men
Men in Pakistan wear the salwar kameez and also usually wear a hat. There are various
hats depending on the region. In the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), a hat called
chitirali or gilgiti cap, is often worn. It is round with a flat top and made out of wool.
Locals outside of NWFP refer to it as a pakol, a name which came from Afghanistan. In
Hunza and Skardu, a white pakol is more common, often worn with a peacock feather
inserted into it.327 Turbans, or purgees, are also worn by Pakistani men, and the style
changes with each region. In the NWFP, some are designed in two pieces and
embroidered in fine gold thread. One piece is a dome-shaped cap, or kulla. The other
piece, a lungi, is a long narrow piece of cotton cloth that requires skill to wrap it properly
around the kulla. In tribal areas, men wear a one-piece turban, and in Punjab Province
they wear different styles of turbans. The Punjabi pug, a long narrow piece of cotton
wrapped around the head, is typically worn by peasants.328

Gender Issues
Patriarchal Culture 329
As Pakistan is a patriarchal culture, men and women conceptually
inhabit separate worlds. The home is defined as the women’s world
whereas the outside world is defined as the man’s world. As Pakistani
women are considered domestic producers and providers, they lack
social status and value. Also, the preference for sons is dominant in
Pakistan, so giving birth to a female child is not as celebratory as
giving birth to a son. Men in general receive a better education and
more access to public resources than women do. Among children, the
rate of chronic malnutrition is higher for girls than boys in poor
families. Women lack access to proper health care due to their low
economic, social, and cultural status. As men are allowed to eat
before women, often there is little or no food for the women, so they may suffer from
nutritional deficiencies which require health care.

Women’s roles are clearly delineated and limited. Girls are expected to marry at a very
young age and give birth to numerous children. In general, women lack access to
financial resources including earnings, formal lending institutions, or careers. Except in
urban areas, they generally do not work outside the home for wages and if they do, they
remain responsible for household duties.

327
Pakistaninat.com. “The Caps of Pakistan.” Qalandar, Mast. 27 November 2006.
http://pakistaniat.com/2006/11/27/pakistan-caps/
328
Pakistaniat.com. “The Turbans (Purgees) of Pakistan.” Qalandar, Mast. 11 December 2006.
http://pakistaniat.com/2006/12/11/turban-pugree-pug-pakistan/
329
Munich Personal RePEe Archive (MPRA). “Background, Assessment, and Analysis of the Gender
Issues in Pakistan” November 2005. Moheyuddin, Ghulam. http://mpra.ub.uni-
muenchen.de/683/01/MPRA_paper_683.pdf

79
Violence toward Women
Violence toward women is a powerful mechanism used by the family and society to
silence any voices of resistance. Past forms of violence toward Pakistani women have
included physical and mental torture, murder, honor killing, sexual harassment, rape,
kidnapping, trafficking, and prostitution. Statistics toward these occurrences has
remained low as these violations tend to go underreported.

Despite a woman’s legal right to own land and inherit property, very few women have
access to these resources. A 1995 survey found that only 36 women out of 1,000 rural
households in Punjab owned property in their names, and of the 36, only nine had control
over their property.330

Bills of Protection for Women

In 2001, the Government of Pakistan amended their
constitution to address issues of gender inequality. The
amendment gave women more representation in local and
national government. As of 2005, women’s
representation was better in Pakistan’s government than
in “most countries of the world, including the largest
democracies.”331 There has been much talk of reforms for
women in the social, political, and economic arenas, but
actual reforms have been minimal at best. A recent study revealed that “lack of political
will, weak and corrupt governance structures, limited technical and intellectual capacity
of institutions, and resource constraints have been the main impediments in policy
implementation.”332

Raping a woman has been illegal in Pakistan since 1979. A law known as the Hudood
Ordinance provides some measure of governmental protection to rape victims. However,
under this law rape victims must provide four male eyewitnesses to the crime or suffer
punishment for adultery.333 A new amended law, the Women’s Protection Bill, brings the
crime of rape under Pakistan’s penal code and is thus based on civil law rather than
Shari’a. Religious conservatives in Pakistan oppose it for this reason. They argue that this
amended law is against Articles 2a and 227 of the constitution, which states that “Islam

330
Munich Personal RePEe Archive (MPRA). “Background, Assessment, and Analysis of the Gender
Issues in Pakistan” November 2005. Moheyuddin, Ghulam. http://mpra.ub.uni-
muenchen.de/683/01/MPRA_paper_683.pdf
331
Munich Personal RePEe Archive (MPRA). “Background, Assessment, and Analysis of the Gender
Issues in Pakistan” November 2005. Moheyuddin, Ghulam. http://mpra.ub.uni-
muenchen.de/683/01/MPRA_paper_683.pdf
332
Munich Personal RePEe Archive (MPRA). “Background, Assessment, and Analysis of the Gender
Issues in Pakistan” November 2005. Moheyuddin, Ghulam. http://mpra.ub.uni-
muenchen.de/683/01/MPRA_paper_683.pdf
333
Pakistani.org. “The Offence of Zina (Enforcement of Hudood) Ordinance, 1979.” 09 February 1979.
http://www.pakistani.org/pakistan/legislation/zia_po_1979/ord7_1979.html

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will be the state religion,” and “no laws will be passed which are repugnant to the Koran
and Sunnah.”334, 335

The practice of honor killings, or karo-kari, is widespread in Pakistan. A law that took
effect in 2005 provides strong penalties for this crime, but has not reduced the number of
deaths. A United Nations office reports that across Pakistan, at least 36 women were
murdered in the name of honor in January 2007. Seventeen of the deaths took place in
Sindh Province. Islamic religious leaders, government officials, and human rights
activists have opposed the practice, which is reportedly spreading from rural areas to
large cities.

Marriage and Divorce

Marriage 336
Marriages in Pakistan are traditionally arranged and are seen as a
means to cement relationships between families. Two male heads of
household usually negotiate the marriage, and the choice of partners
is based on pragmatic concerns. Around 50 percent of marriages are
between cousins, usually the children of two brothers, which assures
that property stays in the patrilineage.337 Other marriages are between
children of family friends within the same village or area. Marriages
may continue in this way between families, reinforcing family ties
through generations. In about five percent of all marriages in Pakistan
the bride and groom do not meet at all until the wedding. In some
cases, the father forces a marriage.

A small number of marriages are based on romantic attachment. As opportunities arise

for interaction between men and women at schools and in the workplace, the number of
such marriages is increasing. Still, it remains the exception and reduces the woman’s
chance of marrying another man if the romance does not lead to marriage. Standards of
morality are rigid in Pakistan, especially for women. Sexual relations outside of marriage,
for instance, are rare and can have harsh consequences.

Forced Child Marriages

The law states that a girl can get married at the age of 16. However, if she has reached
puberty, then it is no longer illegal. Although such child marriages are considered illegal,
they are practiced widely throughout all of the country. In some parts of Pakistan girls are
not only forced into child marriages, they are exchanged for sheep with fellow herders.

334
BBC News. “Strong Feelings over Pakistan Rape Laws.” Hasan, Syed Shoaib. 15 November 2006.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6152520.stm
335
IRIN. “Pakistan: Honour Killings Continue, Despite Law.” 08 March 2007.
http://newsite.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=70575
336
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. 2007. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC
CLIO.
337
The taboo in the West against marriage between cousins is of fairly recent origin and does not exist in
Pakistan.

81
This custom is known as swara and although illegal, it is practiced widely in Sindh
Province. A sheepherder can get as much as 60 rupees for the sale of his daughter.

Divorce
The Quran states that the court should be the last resort for an Islamic
couple deciding to divorce. Still, according to Islamic laws, a couple
can divorce for several reasons. They can divorce if the whereabouts
of the husband has not been known for four years or if the husband
has neglected to provide for his wife for two years. They can file for
divorce on grounds of excessive imprisonment, failing to perform
marital obligations, impotence, or insanity. If a woman is a victim of
forced marriage, or a victim of abuse, she can file for divorce.338, 339

Laws concerning divorce are often applied without consistency.

Islamic law is codified unevenly, which presents problems in the
consideration of family law. The laws are embodied in case law which has been handed
down from jurists (revered imams) who differ in their interpretation of family law. Thus,
verdicts often represent different legal philosophies. According to the Muslim Women’s
League based in Los Angles, California, many judicial decisions about divorce have been
chaotic at best, because of the male-dominated society and justice system. 340 As a result,
it is nearly impossible to rule in favor of women.

Sports
Pakistan is a sports-oriented country. While such sports as skiing, baseball, cycling,
rowing, and yachting are quite popular, cricket remains their most popular game.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah, known as Pakistan’s founder, had a great love for sports. He
recognized its potential to promote discipline and health among Pakistan’s citizens. As a
result, Pakistan has participated internationally in the Olympics, the Commonwealth,
Asian, and South Asian Federation games, and the Cricket World Cup.341

Field Hockey
The Pakistan Hockey Federation started in 1948, and field hockey today is Pakistan’s
national sport. Pakistani hockey gained recognition during the 1960s with the team
participating internationally and later won several world titles, the last in 1994. Pakistan
has both men’s and women’s hockey teams.342

338
Helpline Law. “Divorce Laws in Pakistan.” 2005. http://www.helplinelaw.com/article/pakistan/270
339
Jamaat-e-Islami Pakistan. Social Laws of Islam. “Islamic Laws Regarding Divorce.” Undated.
http://www.jamaat.org/islam/divorce.html
340
Muslim’s Women’s’ League. “Muslim Family Law: The Latest Assault on Society.” Ahmed, Khaled.
2007. http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage&divorce/muslim_family_law_pakistan.html
341
Answers.com “Sport in Pakistan.” c2007. http://www.answers.com/topic/sport-in-pakistan
342
Pakistan Hockey Federation. “Pakistan Hockey Federation.” 2006.
http://www.phf.com.pk/federation.php

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Cricket
Cricket teams began to develop after partition and have
grown over the years. The Pakistani team first toured
England in 1954, and its World Cup contests in India are
always played to packed stadiums. Pakistan now has
men’s, women’s, youth, and school cricket leagues.

Gulli Danda
Similar to cricket or even baseball, gulli danda is a sport played by boys in rural areas of
Pakistan. It requires a danda (a stick about 12 to 16 inches in lenth) and a gilli (a smaller
stick cylindrical in shape that is about one inch diameter and about 3-4 inches long and
sharpened like a lead pencil from both sides). The danda is swung at the gilli in a golf-
like fashion as opposed to a baseball swing. As in baseball, the person hitting the gilli is
out when another player catches the ball. There is no running to bases, however, because
if the gilli is not caught, the hitter hits another gilli. After three strikes, the hitter is out.343

Rugby
The Kerachi Rugby Football Union was formed in 1926 and became almost nonexistent
by the 1980s. In the 1990s, local players established clubs in Lahore and Karachi, and
foreign staff from embassies and business agencies established a club in Islamabad. Since
then, popularity has increased considerably. In 2000 the Pakistan Rugby Union was
established and Pakistan fielded its first national team in 2003. Rugby has become so
popular that schools now offer it in their curriculums.344

Olympics
Pakistan has won three gold medals and three silver team medals in hockey since 1956.
In individual placement, the men have won gold and silver medals in hockey. There were
no female winners.345

Education
During the country’s short history, the quality and
quantity of Pakistan’s educational system has been
“dismal.” Education in Pakistan is challenged by high
levels of illiteracy. As of 2007, adult illiteracy stood at 56
percent, high in comparison with other countries. In rural
areas, adult illiteracy is as high as 66 percent. Challenges
to education also include low enrollment rates in school
at all levels, combined with high dropout rates. By the
age of twelve, only three percent of girls in rural areas are still in school. The enrollment
rates for primary school in Pakistan are below the average for both South Asia and for
developing countries.346

343
Answers.com. “Gilli-Danda.” c2007. http://www.answers.com/topic/gilli-danda
344
Pakistan Rugby Union. “ Pakistan Rugby Union.” 2007. http://www.pakistanrugby.com/about.html
345
Olympic.org: Official Website of the Olympic Movement. “Olympic Medal Winners.” 2007.
http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/results/search_r_uk.asp

83
Pakistan’s National Education Policy for 1998–2010 states that education should enable
Pakistani citizens to live by Islamic teachings as laid out in the Quran and Sunnah.
Further, it is their stated goal to use community involvement to raise literacy to 70
percent by 2010. The Policy also sets forth plans to increase education among rural
women, increase primary and secondary school enrollment, and broaden the base for
technical and vocational education. The curriculum for teacher education will also be
strengthened, according to plans.347

346
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. 2007. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC
CLIO.
347
Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Education. Undated. “Educational Policy 1998-2010.”
http://www.moe.gov.pk/edupolicy.htm

84
 A Perspective
U.S.–Pakistan Relations
Pakistan and the United States have gone through ups and
downs in their relations since Pakistan became an
independent country in 1947. Until the 1965 India–
Pakistan war, the two countries were allies. After the U.S.
suspended military assistance to both Pakistan and India
during that war, however, relations cooled.348

Relations began to improve during the 1970s, but the

early years of the Zia ul-Haq regime again saw a rapid deterioration in relations. In 1979
the U.S. cut off all economic and military aid to Pakistan because of its continuing
nuclear weapons program. The situation reached a nadir during November of that year
when the U.S. Embassy was burned to the ground by a mob reacting to untrue reports that
the U.S. was involved in the occupation of the Great Mosque in Mecca.349

Only a month later, however, the U.S.–Pakistan relationship once again changed
dramatically when the Soviet Union sent military forces into Afghanistan. The frontier
regions of Pakistan quickly became the staging areas for the resistance fighters known as
Mujahideen. During the early 1980s, a USD 3.2 billion package of military and economic
loans was approved for Pakistan, followed in 1986 by a military and economic assistance
program worth USD 4 billion.350

During the late 1990s, relations between the countries once again turned cold as Pakistan
began nuclear weapons testing and a military coup brought Army leader Pervez
Musharraf to power. As in the past, however, outside events would quickly shift the
bilateral equation between the two countries. Following the 9/11 attacks in the U.S.,
Musharraf ended Pakistan’s support of the ruling Taliban in Afghanistan. He also
allowed the U.S. to use Pakistan as a logistics area for Operation Enduring Freedom, the
U.S. mission to attack terrorists in Pakistan and oust their Taliban supporters.351

Since late 2001, the U.S. and Pakistan have been firm allies in the continuing battle
against extremist groups within the region. Hundreds of Al Qaeda members have been
captured with the assistance of the Pakistani military and intelligence organizations. U.S.

348
U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan—U.S.-Pakistan Relations.” May 2005.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
349
BBC News, On This Day. “1979: Mob Destroys US Embassy in Pakistan” 2007.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/21/newsid_4187000/4187184.stm
350
U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan—U.S.-Pakistan Relations.” May 2005.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
351
Pakistan: A Global Studies Handbook. Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. “Chapter 3. Political Development
Since 1947 [p. 215].” 2007. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, Inc.

85
economic and military aid has also been reestablished, and in 2004 Pakistan was given
Major Non-NATO Ally (MNNA) status.352

Poverty
The present economic upswing in Pakistan has helped the
country lower its high poverty rate, reducing it from 34
percent to 24 percent over the period 2001–2006.353
(These are government estimates; outside estimates tend
to place the poverty rate higher.)354 Rural areas have been
estimated to include up to 80 percent of Pakistan’s
poor.355 The highest concentrations of rural poor occur in
southern Punjab and Sindh Provinces.356 Recent increases
in per capita income in such rural areas owe more to the record-high remittances being
sent to Pakistan from workers abroad than they do to Pakistan’s growing economy.357

The majority of the poor in Pakistan’s rural areas do not work in agriculture, either as
land-owning or tenant farmers. Nonetheless, these non-farmer poor suffer economically
from the slow growth of Pakistan’s agricultural sector, since they provide the goods and
services for agricultural workers.358 Average household expenditures in rural areas are
over 30 percent lower than in urban areas. Thus, agricultural drops in production can
ripple throughout the rural areas and quickly plunge into poverty those who depend on
purchases paid for with agricultural income.359

As is the case in much of the developing world, the rural poor in Pakistan are
increasingly moving to urban areas. Many of this mostly uneducated rural migrant
population find housing in “informal settlements” (slums). They find employment within
the “informal sector,” a broad category of wageless jobs that includes everything from

352
U.S. Department of State. “Background Note: Pakistan—U.S.-Pakistan Relations.” May 2005.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3453.htm
353
Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service. Kronstadt, K. Alan. “Pakistan-U.S.
Relations: Economic Issues.” 6 June 2007. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33498.pdf
354
DAWN.com. “WB, UNDP Question Poverty Estimates.” 20 June 2006.
http://www.dawn.com/2006/06/20/top1.htm
355
The World Bank. “Pakistan Promoting Rural Growth and Poverty Reduction: Executive Summary [p.
x].” 30 March 2007. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-
1177200597243/ruralgrowthandpovertyreduction.pdf
356
Asian Development Bank. Shah, M. Ali. “Growth of Poverty and PRSP’s Capacity for Its Mitigation in
Pakistan.” 6 November 2004. http://www.adb.org/Documents/Speeches/2004/sp2004036.asp
357
The World Bank. “Pakistan Promoting Rural Growth and Poverty Reduction: Executive Summary [p.
xi].” 30 March 2007. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-
1177200597243/ruralgrowthandpovertyreduction.pdf
358
The World Bank. “Pakistan Promoting Rural Growth and Poverty Reduction: Executive Summary [p.
xiii].” 30 March 2007. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-
1177200597243/ruralgrowthandpovertyreduction.pdf
359
The World Bank. “Pakistan Promoting Rural Growth and Poverty Reduction: Executive Summary [p.
xiv].” 30 March 2007. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-
1177200597243/ruralgrowthandpovertyreduction.pdf

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street vending to criminal activities.360 In Karachi, the poverty-ridden slums have largely
divided into ethnic enclaves for Pashtuns, Muhajirs, Sindhis, and other groups.361 In a
city that has suffered several periods of rampant ethnic and sectarian violence over the
last three decades, these slums provide the kindling for future outbreaks of violence.

Radical Groups
Numerous extremist and terrorist groups operate in
Pakistan, ranging from local organizations to
transnational networks. Al-Qaeda is the most well-known
of these groups, and numerous al-Qaeda leaders have
been captured both in Pakistani cities and in the rugged
frontier regions.

The Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA), an

area of Pashtun tribespeople adjacent to Afghanistan, continues to be a particular concern
for terrorist activity.
In their annual report on terrorism released in April 2007, the State Department labeled
the FATA as “a safe haven for Al Qaeda, the Taliban, and other militants.”362

The Pakistani military has been involved in a running conflict with the Taliban and other
militant groups in North and South Waziristan, the southernmost agencies of FATA.
Recently the Musharraf government has moved toward a new strategy. It now uses
negotiations and economic development to help restore the traditional tribal structure of
FATA that has withered as religious extremists have moved into the area.363 In
September 2006 a truce was signed between the Pakistan government and the tribal
forces in North Waziristan. Since then, there has been concern that Waziristan has
become increasingly “Talibanized” and an area of refuge for other militant groups,
including al-Qaeda.364, 365

Other terrorist and extremist groups continue to operate in other parts of the country. The
Balochistan Liberation Army has staged numerous violent attacks throughout the
province, as well as in Sindh and Punjab. In the northern part of the country, the Lashkar-
e-Tayyiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed groups have been blamed for terrorist acts in both

360
Daily Times. “Pakistan’s Urban Population to Equal Rural by 2030: UNFPA.” 28 June 2007.
http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2007%5C06%5C28%5Cstory_28-6-2007_pg7_9
361
The Observer. Burke, Jason. “Pakistan Bloodshed Opens New Fault Lines.” 20 May 2007.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,,2083803,00.html
362
Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, U.S. Department of State. “Chapter 2—Country Reports:
South and Central Asia Overview.” 30 April 2007. http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/crt/2006/82734.htm
363
Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service. Kronstadt, K. Alan. “Pakistan-U.S.
Relations: Terrorism [p. CRS-15].” 6 June 2007. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33498.pdf
364
Center for World Religion, Diplomacy, and Conflict Resolution, Institute for Conflict Analysis and
Resolution, George Mason University. Nojumi, Neamat. “Iftar in the White House.”
http://www.gmu.edu/departments/crdc/neamat3.pdf
365
Federation of American Scientists. Congressional Research Service. Kronstadt, K. Alan. “Pakistan-U.S.
Relations: Most Recent Developments [p. CRS-2].” 6 June 2007.
http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33498.pdf

87
Kashmir and India. These groups have been designated Foreign Terrorist Organizations
under U.S. law.366

After 9/11, much attention was addressed to the activities of some Pakistani madrassas
(Muslim schools) that were teaching extreme Islamic fundamentalism and even jihadist
ideology. In July 2007 one such madrassa in Islamabad located at the Lal Masjid (Red
Mosque) became the center of a violent confrontation with the Pakistan government. This
conflict led to the death of at least 75 people within the madrassa complex. The Lal
Masjid madrassa attracted many students from FATA and was supported by Taliban
members in Waziristan.367

Progress
Pakistan is a country that faces many challenges. Continuing ethnic and sectarian strife,
border conflicts with its neighbors, high illiteracy rates, insurgent groups in the western
provinces, and the spread of religious militancy are just a few of Pakistan’s ongoing
issues. Despite this, there are also positive signs indicating the country may be able to
address some of its lingering problems.

Positive improvement has been observed on both the economic and political fronts.
Strong economic reform measures, backed by substantial foreign aid, have helped turn
around a dormant economy that just a few years ago seemed to totter on the brink of
disaster. As the economy has revived, more governmental attention has been placed on
improving the country’s social and physical infrastructure. Pakistani leaders clearly
recognize that stability and economic growth are only possible when education, health
care, road systems, and other key elements of the country serve the needs of its workers.

Relations with India have recently become more

normalized as transportation links between the two
countries begin to open and trade relations increase. The
two countries continue to engage in the Composite
Dialogue process which has provided hope that they may
eventually find common ground to establish a
relationship built on cooperation rather than mistrust. As
Pakistan’s Foreign Minister, Kurshid Mahmood Kasuri,
recently noted, “[India and Pakistan] have made some good progress and come a long
way from the tense period in 2001 and 2002.”368

366
Federation of American Scientists. U.S. Department of State Press Release. “Redesignation of Foreign
Terrorist Organizations. 23 December 2003. http://www.fas.org/irp/news/2003/12/dos122303.html
367
BBC News, International Version. Hasan, Syed Shoaib. “Profile: Islamabad’s Red Mosque.” 3 July
2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6503477.stm
368
Associated Press of Pakistan. “Pakistan, India Dialogue Provide Chance to Resolve Kashmir Issue:
Kasuri.” 2 July 2007.
http://www.app.com.pk/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=11970&Itemid=2

88
Looking Forward
One of the great uncertainties in Pakistan is the future of their
government. Elections are scheduled for the end of 2007, but how
that process will play out is still anybody’s guess. Current President
Pervez Musharraf has stated that he wishes to serve for five more
years. However, Musharraf has been weakened politically by his
controversial decision to fire Pakistani Supreme Court Justice Iftikhar
Chaudhury, sparking protests that led to street violence in Karachi.
Two of the strongest opposition leaders, former Prime Ministers
Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, have been in exile during most of
Musharraf’s time in office. A law passed by the Musharraf supporters
barring anyone from serving as Prime Minister for more than two
terms would seem to shut them out from taking power once again. There has been
speculation about a possible Bhutto–Musharraf alliance in order for Musharraf to secure
continued power. However, his refusal to shed his role as Army Chief while serving as
President is a stumbling block to any such arrangement.369

Against this political backdrop lies the lingering question of how the government will
deal with militant groups that have increasingly spread their influence to Pakistani cities
from their strongholds in the frontier regions. The crackdown on the Lal Masjid
madrassa in Islamabad was seen by some observers as a watershed action, as government
forces decided to take forceful action against radical clerics who had previously been able
to resist government pressure.370, 371 Whether the Lal Masjid raid will strengthen
Musharraf’s resolve to clamp down on other extremist groups in the country or will
instead incite a violent domestic backlash from parties sympathetic to the Lal Masjid
leaders remains to be seen.372

369
Council on Foreign Relations. Zissis, Carin. “Pakistan’s Political Future.” 30 April 2007.
http://www.cfr.org/publication/13160/
370
International Herald Tribune. Masood, Salman. “Musharraf Defends Raid That Ended Red Mosque
Siege.” 12 July 2007. http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/07/13/asia/13pakistan.php
371
BBC News, International Version. Hasan, Syed Shoaib. “Profile: Islamabad’s Red Mosque.” 3 July
2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6503477.stm
372
The Guardian Unlimited. “Q & A: Pakistan Mosque Siege.” 11 July 2007.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/pakistan/Story/0,,2119664,00.html

89