Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to improve behavior, such as

altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive

behavior and/or the reduction of maladaptive behavior through its extinction, punishment and/or therapy.

Contents

• 1 Description

• 2 Techniques

• 3 Some areas of effectiveness

• 4 Criticism

• 5 See also

• 6 References

Description

The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911. His article Provisional

Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior".[1] Through early research in

the 1940s and the 1950s the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research group.[2] The experimental tradition in clinical

psychology[3] used it to refer to psychotherapeutic techniques derived from empirical research. It has since come to refer

mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior

through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former). Two related terms are behavior therapy and applied

behavior analysis. Emphasizing the empirical roots of behavior modification, some authors[4] consider it to be broader in

scope and to subsume the other two categories of behavior change methods. Since techniques derived from behavioral

psychology tend to be the most effective in altering behavior, most practitioners consider behavior modification along with

behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis to be founded in behaviorism. While behavior modification encompasses

applied behavior analysis and typically uses interventions based on the same behavioral principles, many behavior

modifiers who are not applied behavior analysts tend to use packages of interventions and do not conduct functional

assessments before intervening.

In recent years, the concept of punishment has had many critics, though these criticisms tend not to apply to negative

punishment (time-outs) and usually apply to the addition of some aversive event. The use of positive punishment by

board-certified behavior analysts is restricted to extreme circumstances when all other forms of treatment have failed and

when the behavior to be modified is a danger to the person or to others (see professional practice of behavior analysis). In

clinical settings positive punishment is usually restricted to using a spray bottle filled with water as an aversive event.

When misused, more aversive punishment can lead to affective (emotional) disorders, as well as to the receiver of the

punishment increasingly trying to avoid the punishment (i.e., "not get caught").

Martin and Pear indicate that there are seven characteristics to behavior modification,[4] They are:
  There is a strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way.

 The treatment techniques are ways of altering an individual's current environment to help that individual function

more fully.

 The methods and rationales can be described precisely.

 The techniques are often applied in everyday life.

 The techniques are based largely on principles of learning – specifically operant conditioning and respondent

conditioning

 There is a strong emphasis on scientific demonstration that a particular technique was responsible for a

particular behavior change.

 There is a strong emphasis on accountability for everyone involved in a behavior modification program.

Techniques

Therapy and consultation cannot be effective unless the behaviors to be changed are understood within a specific

context.[5][6] The process of understanding behavior in context is called functional behavioral assessment.[7] Therefore, a

functional behavioral assessment is needed before performing behavior modification. One of the most simple yet effective

methods of functional behavioral assessment is called the "ABC" approach, where observations are made

on Antecedents, Behaviors, and Consequences. In other words, "What comes directly before the behavior?", "What does

the behavior look like?", and "What comes directly after the behavior?" Once enough observations are made, the data are

analyzed and patterns are identified. If there are consistent antecedents and/or consequences, an intervention should

target those to increase or decrease the target behavior. This method forms the core of positive behavior support for

schoolchildren in both regular and special education.

Behavior modifiers like to employ a variety of evidenced-based techniques. These techniques intervene at all levels of

context. For example, given specific setting events for a behavior, a behavior modifier may develop a neutralizing routine

to eliminate that setting. If a behavior pattern has a specific antecedent, or trigger, then an antecedent control strategy can

be developed to train new behavior in the presence of the trigger. If a problem behavior readily occurs because it

achieves some function, then an alternative behavior can be instructed and trained to occur in the context of the trigger.[5]
[6]
If a behavior is particularly complex it may be task-analyzed and broken into its component parts to be taught through

chaining. While all these methods are effective, when the behavior problem gets difficult or when all else fails many turn

to contingency management systems.[8] Complex and comprehensive contingency management systems have been

developed and represent effective ways to eliminate many problem behaviors (see applied behavior analysis and positive

behavior support). Collaborativegoal setting with the client enhances treatment effects.[4]

Some areas of effectiveness

modification. Many techniques in this therapy are specific techniques aimed at specific issues. Interventions based on

behavior analytic/modification principles have been extremely effective in developing evidence-based treatments.[9]

In addition to the above, a growing list of research-based interventions from the behavioral paradigm exists. With children

with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one study showed that over a several year period, children in the

behavior modification group had half the number of felony arrests as children in the medication group.[10][11] These findings

remain to be replicated but are considered encouraging for the use of behavior modification for children with ADHD. There

is strong and consistent evidence that behavioral treatments are effective for treating ADHD. A recent meta-

analysis found that the use of behavior modification for ADHD resulted in effect sizes in between group studies (.83), pre-

post studies (.70), within group studies (2.64), and single subject studies (3.78) indicating behavioral treatments are highly

effective.[12]

Behavior modification programs form the core of many residential treatment facility programs. They have shown success

in reducing recidivism for adolescents with conduct problems and adult offenders. One particular program that is of

interest is teaching-family homes (see Teaching Family Model), which is based on a social learning model that emerged

from radical behaviorism. These particular homes use a family style approach to residential treatment, which has been

carefully replicated over 700 times.[13] Recent efforts have seen a push for the inclusion of more behavior modification

programs in residential re-entry programs in the U.S. to aid prisoners in re-adjusting after release.

One area that has repeatedly shown effectiveness has been the work of behaviorists working in the area of community

reinforcement for addictions.[14] Another area of research that has been strongly supported has been behavioral activation

for depression.[15]

One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in providing compliments, approval, encouragement,

and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for every one complaint is generally seen as being effective in altering

behavior in a desired manner[16] and even in producing stable marriages.[17]

Of notable interest is that the right behavioral intervention can have profound system effects. For example, Forgatch and

DeGarmo (2007) found that with mothers who were recently divorced, a standard round of parent management training (a

program based on social learning principles that teaches rewarding good behavior and punishing bad behavior combined

with communication skills) could help elevate the divorced mother out of poverty.[18] In addition, parent management

training programs, sometimes referred to as behavioral parent training programs, have shown relative cost effectiveness

for their efforts[19] for the treatment of conduct disorder. Thus, such intervention can have profound effects on socializing

the child in a relatively cost effective fashion and help get the parent out of poverty. This level of effect is often looked for

and valued by those who practice behavioral engineering and results of this type have caused the Association for

Behavior Analysis International to take a position that those receiving treatment have a right to effective treatment [20] and

a right to effective education.[21]

Criticism
 A concern has been raised that this article's Criticism section may be compromising the
article's neutral point of view of the subject. Possible resolutions may be to integrate the material
in the section into the article as a whole, or to rewrite the contents of the section. Please see the
discussion on the talk page. (September 2010)

Behavior modification is critiqued in person-centered psychotherapeutic approaches such as Rogerian

Counseling and Re-evaluation Counseling,[22] which involve "connecting with the human qualities of the person to promote

healing", while behaviorism is "denigrating to the human spirit".[23] B.F. Skinner argues in Beyond Freedom and

Dignity that unrestricted reinforcement is what led to the "feeling of freedom", thus removal of aversive events allows

people to "feel freer".[24] Further criticism extends to the presumption that behavior increases only when it is reinforced.

This premise is at odds with research conducted by Albert Bandura at Stanford University. His findings indicate that

violent behavior is imitated, without being reinforced, in studies conducted with children watching films showing various

individuals "beating the daylights out of Bobo". Bandura believes that human personality and learning is the result of the

interaction between environment, behavior and psychological process. There is evidence, however, that imitation is a

class of behavior that can be learned just like anything else. Children have been shown to imitate behavior that they have

never displayed before and are never reinforced for, after being taught to imitate in general.[25]

Several people have criticized the level of training required to perform behavior modification procedures, especially those

that are restrictive or use aversives, aversion therapy, orpunishment protocols. Some desire to limit such restrictive

procedures only to licensed psychologists or licensed counselors. Once licensed for this group, post licensed certification

in behavior modification is sought to show scope of competence in the area through groups like the World Association for

Behavior Analysis [6] Still others desire to create an independent practice of behavior analysis through licensure to offer

consumers choices between proven techniques and unproven ones (see Professional practice of behavior analysis).

Level of training and consumer protection remain of critical importance in applied behavior analysis and behavior

modification.

While behavior analysis continues to grow as a science by including more environmental factors and behaviorism grows

as a philosophy, some continue to criticize it for being reductionist.

See also

Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to improve behavior, such as

altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive

behavior and/or the reduction of maladaptive behavior through its extinction, punishment and/or therapy.

Contents

• 1 Description

• 2 Techniques

• 3 Some areas of effectiveness

• 4 Criticism
 • 5 See also

• 6 References

Description

The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911. His article Provisional

Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior".[1] Through early research in

the 1940s and the 1950s the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research group.[2] The experimental tradition in clinical

psychology[3] used it to refer to psychotherapeutic techniques derived from empirical research. It has since come to refer

mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior

through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former). Two related terms are behavior therapy and applied

behavior analysis. Emphasizing the empirical roots of behavior modification, some authors[4] consider it to be broader in

scope and to subsume the other two categories of behavior change methods. Since techniques derived from behavioral

psychology tend to be the most effective in altering behavior, most practitioners consider behavior modification along with

behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis to be founded in behaviorism. While behavior modification encompasses

applied behavior analysis and typically uses interventions based on the same behavioral principles, many behavior

modifiers who are not applied behavior analysts tend to use packages of interventions and do not conduct functional

assessments before intervening.

In recent years, the concept of punishment has had many critics, though these criticisms tend not to apply to negative

punishment (time-outs) and usually apply to the addition of some aversive event. The use of positive punishment by

board-certified behavior analysts is restricted to extreme circumstances when all other forms of treatment have failed and

when the behavior to be modified is a danger to the person or to others (see professional practice of behavior analysis). In

clinical settings positive punishment is usually restricted to using a spray bottle filled with water as an aversive event.

When misused, more aversive punishment can lead to affective (emotional) disorders, as well as to the receiver of the

punishment increasingly trying to avoid the punishment (i.e., "not get caught").

Martin and Pear indicate that there are seven characteristics to behavior modification,[4] They are:

 There is a strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way.

 The treatment techniques are ways of altering an individual's current environment to help that individual function

more fully.

 The methods and rationales can be described precisely.

 The techniques are often applied in everyday life.

 The techniques are based largely on principles of learning – specifically operant conditioning and respondent

conditioning
  There is a strong emphasis on scientific demonstration that a particular technique was responsible for a

particular behavior change.

 There is a strong emphasis on accountability for everyone involved in a behavior modification program.

Techniques

Therapy and consultation cannot be effective unless the behaviors to be changed are understood within a specific

context.[5][6] The process of understanding behavior in context is called functional behavioral assessment.[7] Therefore, a

functional behavioral assessment is needed before performing behavior modification. One of the most simple yet effective

methods of functional behavioral assessment is called the "ABC" approach, where observations are made

on Antecedents, Behaviors, and Consequences. In other words, "What comes directly before the behavior?", "What does

the behavior look like?", and "What comes directly after the behavior?" Once enough observations are made, the data are

analyzed and patterns are identified. If there are consistent antecedents and/or consequences, an intervention should

target those to increase or decrease the target behavior. This method forms the core of positive behavior support for

schoolchildren in both regular and special education.

Behavior modifiers like to employ a variety of evidenced-based techniques. These techniques intervene at all levels of

context. For example, given specific setting events for a behavior, a behavior modifier may develop a neutralizing routine

to eliminate that setting. If a behavior pattern has a specific antecedent, or trigger, then an antecedent control strategy can

be developed to train new behavior in the presence of the trigger. If a problem behavior readily occurs because it

achieves some function, then an alternative behavior can be instructed and trained to occur in the context of the trigger.[5]
[6]
If a behavior is particularly complex it may be task-analyzed and broken into its component parts to be taught through

chaining. While all these methods are effective, when the behavior problem gets difficult or when all else fails many turn

to contingency management systems.[8] Complex and comprehensive contingency management systems have been

developed and represent effective ways to eliminate many problem behaviors (see applied behavior analysis and positive

behavior support). Collaborativegoal setting with the client enhances treatment effects.[4]

Some areas of effectiveness

Functional behavior assessment forms the core of applied behavior analysis and thus forms the core of behavior

modification. Many techniques in this therapy are specific techniques aimed at specific issues. Interventions based on

behavior analytic/modification principles have been extremely effective in developing evidence-based treatments.[9]

In addition to the above, a growing list of research-based interventions from the behavioral paradigm exists. With children

with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one study showed that over a several year period, children in the

behavior modification group had half the number of felony arrests as children in the medication group.[10][11] These findings

remain to be replicated but are considered encouraging for the use of behavior modification for children with ADHD. There

is strong and consistent evidence that behavioral treatments are effective for treating ADHD. A recent meta-

analysis found that the use of behavior modification for ADHD resulted in effect sizes in between group studies (.83), pre-
post studies (.70), within group studies (2.64), and single subject studies (3.78) indicating behavioral treatments are highly

effective.[12]

Behavior modification programs form the core of many residential treatment facility programs. They have shown success

in reducing recidivism for adolescents with conduct problems and adult offenders. One particular program that is of

interest is teaching-family homes (see Teaching Family Model), which is based on a social learning model that emerged

from radical behaviorism. These particular homes use a family style approach to residential treatment, which has been

carefully replicated over 700 times.[13] Recent efforts have seen a push for the inclusion of more behavior modification

programs in residential re-entry programs in the U.S. to aid prisoners in re-adjusting after release.

One area that has repeatedly shown effectiveness has been the work of behaviorists working in the area of community

reinforcement for addictions.[14] Another area of research that has been strongly supported has been behavioral activation

for depression.[15]

One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in providing compliments, approval, encouragement,

and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for every one complaint is generally seen as being effective in altering

behavior in a desired manner[16] and even in producing stable marriages.[17]

Of notable interest is that the right behavioral intervention can have profound system effects. For example, Forgatch and

DeGarmo (2007) found that with mothers who were recently divorced, a standard round of parent management training (a

program based on social learning principles that teaches rewarding good behavior and punishing bad behavior combined

with communication skills) could help elevate the divorced mother out of poverty.[18] In addition, parent management

training programs, sometimes referred to as behavioral parent training programs, have shown relative cost effectiveness

for their efforts[19] for the treatment of conduct disorder. Thus, such intervention can have profound effects on socializing

the child in a relatively cost effective fashion and help get the parent out of poverty. This level of effect is often looked for

and valued by those who practice behavioral engineering and results of this type have caused the Association for

Behavior Analysis International to take a position that those receiving treatment have a right to effective treatment [20] and

a right to effective education.[21]

Criticism
A concern has been raised that this article's Criticism section may be compromising the
article's neutral point of view of the subject. Possible resolutions may be to integrate the material
in the section into the article as a whole, or to rewrite the contents of the section. Please see the
discussion on the talk page. (September 2010)

Behavior modification is critiqued in person-centered psychotherapeutic approaches such as Rogerian

Counseling and Re-evaluation Counseling,[22] which involve "connecting with the human qualities of the person to promote

healing", while behaviorism is "denigrating to the human spirit".[23] B.F. Skinner argues in Beyond Freedom and

Dignity that unrestricted reinforcement is what led to the "feeling of freedom", thus removal of aversive events allows

people to "feel freer".[24] Further criticism extends to the presumption that behavior increases only when it is reinforced.

This premise is at odds with research conducted by Albert Bandura at Stanford University. His findings indicate that
violent behavior is imitated, without being reinforced, in studies conducted with children watching films showing various

individuals "beating the daylights out of Bobo". Bandura believes that human personality and learning is the result of the

interaction between environment, behavior and psychological process. There is evidence, however, that imitation is a

class of behavior that can be learned just like anything else. Children have been shown to imitate behavior that they have

never displayed before and are never reinforced for, after being taught to imitate in general.[25]

Several people have criticized the level of training required to perform behavior modification procedures, especially those

that are restrictive or use aversives, aversion therapy, orpunishment protocols. Some desire to limit such restrictive

procedures only to licensed psychologists or licensed counselors. Once licensed for this group, post licensed certification

in behavior modification is sought to show scope of competence in the area through groups like the World Association for

Behavior Analysis [6] Still others desire to create an independent practice of behavior analysis through licensure to offer

consumers choices between proven techniques and unproven ones (see Professional practice of behavior analysis).

Level of training and consumer protection remain of critical importance in applied behavior analysis and behavior

modification.

While behavior analysis continues to grow as a science by including more environmental factors and behaviorism grows

as a philosophy, some continue to criticize it for being reductionist.

See also