SECTION 3: POWER

TRANSFORMERS
ESE 470 – Energy Distribution Systems
 Power Transformers
2

 Transformers are used throughout the electrical grid

 Step voltages up and down for transmission, distribution, and
consumption
 Located at power stations, substations, along distribution feeders,
and at industrial customers

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 We’ll first review the fundamentals of ideal transformers,

then look at how we can model real transformers for
analysis within the electrical grid
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3 Ideal Transformers

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 Ideal Transformers
4

 A single-phase transformer consists of two coils of wire wound

around a magnetic core
 Used for stepping
voltages up or down
 Stepped up for
transmission
 Stepped down for
distribution and
consumption
 To understand
transformers, we must
review two laws of
electromagnetics
 Ampere’s law
 Faraday’s law

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 Ampere’s Law
5

 Electrical current flowing through a wire

generates a magnetic field encircling that wire
 Direction of field given by right-hand rule
 Thumb points in direction of current
 Fingers curl in direction of field

 Ampere’s law
1
∮ 𝑯𝑯 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜇𝜇
∮ 𝑩𝑩 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼 (1)

 𝑯𝑯 is the magnetic field intensity, 𝑩𝑩 is the magnetic flux density,

𝜇𝜇 is permeability, and 𝐼𝐼 is current
 Ampere’s law says:
 Integrating the magnetic field around a closed contour gives the
total current enclosed by that contour
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 Faraday’s Law
6

 A time-varying magnetic flux through

a loop or coil of wire will produce a
voltage across that loop or coil
 Faraday’s law gives the voltage
produced across an 𝑁𝑁-turn coil
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = −𝑁𝑁 (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 𝜙𝜙 is the magnetic flux penetrating the coil:

𝜙𝜙 = 𝐵𝐵 ⋅ 𝐴𝐴 (3)

where 𝐴𝐴 is the cross-sectional area of the coil

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 Lenz’s Law
7

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 = −𝑁𝑁
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
 The negative sign in Faraday’s law
gives the voltage polarity
 Close the loop with an external
resistance
 Current flows and generates a magnetic
field
 Magnetic field opposes the original
change in magnetic flux
 This is Lenz’s law
 Often see Faraday’s law written without the negative sign

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 Ideal Transformers
8

 Current flow in the

primary winding generates
a magnetic flux in the core
 Ampere’s law

 Flux in the core penetrates

the secondary winding

 If that flux is time-varying, a voltage is induced across

the secondary
 Faraday’s law

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 Ideal Transformers
9

 For ideal transformers, we assume the following:

1. Windings have zero resistance – no losses in windings
2. Permeability of the core is infinite, 𝜇𝜇 = ∞, and the
reluctance of the core is zero, 𝑅𝑅 = 0
3. All flux is entirely confined to the core – no leakage flux
4. No core losses – no hysteresis or eddy currents

 Dots on symbol indicate polarity

 Current enters one dotted
terminal, current leaves the other
 Positive voltage at one dotted
terminal, positive voltage at the
other
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10 Transformer Current Relationships

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 Ideal Transformers – Current Relationships
11

 Evaluate Ampere’s law around a closed 𝐶𝐶, 𝑙𝑙

contour, 𝐶𝐶
 Through center of core
 Length 𝑙𝑙
 Everywhere tangential to the 𝑯𝑯-field

� 𝑯𝑯 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼

 The magnetic field is tangential to 𝐶𝐶, so

∮ 𝑯𝑯 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑯𝑯𝑙𝑙 (4)

 Contour encloses 𝑁𝑁1 turns of the primary winding and

𝑁𝑁2 turns of the secondary in the opposite direction
 Total enclosed current:
𝑰𝑰 = 𝑁𝑁1 𝑰𝑰1 − 𝑁𝑁2 𝑰𝑰2 (5)
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 Ideal Transformers – Current Relationships
12

 Ampere’s law gives us 𝐶𝐶, 𝑙𝑙

𝑯𝑯𝑙𝑙 = 𝑁𝑁1 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 − 𝑁𝑁2 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 (6)
 We can relate magnetic field intensity to
flux density
𝑩𝑩
𝑯𝑯 = (7)
𝜇𝜇
 And, multiplying by the cross-sectional area
of the core, we get the flux
𝚽𝚽
𝚽𝚽 = 𝑩𝑩𝐴𝐴 = 𝜇𝜇𝑯𝑯𝐴𝐴 → 𝑯𝑯 = (8)
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

 Substituting (8) into (6), we have

𝑙𝑙
𝚽𝚽 = 𝑁𝑁1 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 − 𝑁𝑁2 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 (9)
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

 The term in parentheses is the reluctance of the core

𝑙𝑙
𝑅𝑅 = (10)
𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
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 Ideal Transformers – Current Relationships
13

 Using (10) in (9) gives

𝑁𝑁1 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 − 𝑁𝑁2 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = 𝑅𝑅𝚽𝚽 (11)
 Recall that, for an ideal transformer, 𝑅𝑅 = 0, so
𝑁𝑁1 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 = 𝑁𝑁2 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 (12)
or
𝑁𝑁2 𝑁𝑁1
𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 = 𝑰𝑰 and 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = 𝑰𝑰 (13)
𝑁𝑁1 𝟐𝟐 𝑁𝑁2 𝟏𝟏

 We define the turns ratio as the ratio of the number of turns on the
primary winding to the number of turns on the secondary winding
𝑁𝑁1
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 = (14)
𝑁𝑁2
 Using the turns ratio, the current relationships are
1
𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 = 𝑰𝑰 and 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 (15)
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝟐𝟐

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14 Transformer Voltage Relationships

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 Ideal Transformers – Voltage Relationships
15

 Faraday’s law relates the voltage at each winding to

the flux through that winding
𝑑𝑑𝚽𝚽 𝑑𝑑𝚽𝚽
𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 = −𝑁𝑁1 and 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 = −𝑁𝑁2 (16, 17)
dt 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

 Dividing the (16) by (17) gives

𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 𝑁𝑁1
=
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑁𝑁2
So,
1
𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 and 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 = 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 (18)
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡

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 Ideal Transformers
16

 To summarize current and voltage relationships:

𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 (15)
1
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 = 𝑽𝑽 (18)
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝟏𝟏

 Step-up transformer
 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 < 1, 𝑁𝑁1 < 𝑁𝑁2
 Voltage increases from primary to secondary
 Current decreases
 Step-down transformer
 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 > 1, 𝑁𝑁1 > 𝑁𝑁2
 Voltage decreases from primary to secondary
 Current increases

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17 Transformer Power & Impedance

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 Ideal Transformers - Power
18

 The complex power entering the primary side of the

transformer is
𝑺𝑺𝟏𝟏 = 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 𝑰𝑰∗𝟏𝟏 (19)
 And, the complex power delivered out of the secondary side
is
𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐 = 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰∗𝟐𝟐 (20)
 Using the transformer voltage and current relationships,
(19) becomes
1 ∗
𝑺𝑺𝟏𝟏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰∗𝟐𝟐 = 𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡
 We see that power is conserved in an ideal transformer
 As expected, since we’ve assumed there are no losses

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 Ideal Transformers - Impedance
19

 By definition, the impedance seen

looking into the primary side of a
transformer is
𝑽𝑽
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝟏𝟏 (21)
𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏
 An impedance 𝑍𝑍2 , connected to the secondary side dictates
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
𝑍𝑍2 = (22)
𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐
 Using the 𝐼𝐼/𝑉𝑉 relationships, we get
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑉𝑉2 𝑉𝑉2
𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡2 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡2 𝑍𝑍2
1/𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝐼𝐼2 𝐼𝐼2

𝑍𝑍𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡2 𝑍𝑍2 = 𝑍𝑍2′ (23)

 The impedance seen looking into the primary side of a transformer is the
impedance connected to the secondary side multiplied by the turns ratio
squared
 The reflected load impedance
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20 Real Transformer Models

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 Real Transformers
21

 In practice, transformers are not ideal

 Winding losses
 Leakage flux

 Finite core permeability – non-zero reluctance

 Core losses

 Need an equivalent circuit model to account for

these non-idealities

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 Winding Losses
22

 Wires of the primary and secondary windings have

non-zero resistance
 Results in losses in the windings
 Add series resistance to each side of the ideal
transformer model

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 Leakage Flux
23

 Not all flux generated by the primary side links the

secondary winding
 Leakage flux
 Results in a voltage drop that leads the current by 90°
 Winding inductance

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 Finite Core Permeability
24

 Going back to (11), we have

𝑁𝑁1 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 − 𝑁𝑁2 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = 𝑅𝑅𝚽𝚽 (11)

where we’ll now account for non-zero reluctance

 Faraday’s law in phasor form tells us
𝑽𝑽 = 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝚽𝚽
so
𝑽𝑽
𝚽𝚽 = (23)
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
 Substituting (23) into (11) we have
𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏
𝑁𝑁1 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 − 𝑁𝑁2 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = −𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗
𝑁𝑁1 𝜔𝜔
𝑁𝑁2 𝑅𝑅
𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 − 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = −𝑗𝑗 2 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏
𝑁𝑁1 𝑁𝑁1 𝜔𝜔
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 Finite Core Permeability
25

𝑁𝑁2 𝑅𝑅
𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 − 𝑰𝑰 = −𝑗𝑗 2 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 (24)
𝑁𝑁1 𝟐𝟐 𝑁𝑁1 𝜔𝜔

 These are all currents

 The term on the right-hand side is the magnetizing
current
 Due to non-zero reluctance
 Lags 𝑽𝑽𝟏𝟏 by 90°
 Model as a shunt inductor

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 Core Losses
26

 In addition to losses in the windings, real transformers

have losses in the core
 Hysteresis in the 𝑩𝑩/𝑯𝑯 relationship
 Eddy currents

 Modeled as shunt resistance on the primary side, 𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚

 Laminated cores are used to limit eddy current

losses
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 Real Transformer Model
27

 The model can be simplified by referring the secondary-

side impedances to the primary side

 We can make a further simplifying approximation by

combining series impedances

 The transformers themselves in these models are ideal

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28 Identifying Model Parameters

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 Identifying Model Parameters
29

 Open-circuit test
 Rated voltage applied to the primary
 Secondary is open – no load
 Measure current and power loss at the primary
 Neglect series impedances

 Here, 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 is the excitation current admittance

1 1
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 = + = 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 − 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚
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 Open-Circuit Test
30

 Measuring the primary-side voltage and current allows for

calculation of the magnitude of the excitation admittance
𝐼𝐼1,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 = = 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 − 𝑗𝑗𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉1,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
 Measured power loss allows for calculation of 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 = 2
𝑉𝑉1,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
 Finally, calculate 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 from 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 and 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐

𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 = 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐2

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 Short-Circuit Test
31

 Short-circuit test
 Rated current applied at the primary side
 Secondary side is shorted
 Measure voltage and power loss at the primary side
 Neglect shunt admittance

 Here, 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 is the equivalent series impedance

𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
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 Short-Circuit Test
32

 Determine 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 from the measured primary-side voltage

and current
𝑉𝑉1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 = = 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 + 𝑗𝑗𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠
𝐼𝐼1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
 Use the power loss measurement to determine 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠
𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 2
𝐼𝐼1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
 Finally, calculate 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 from 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 and 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠

𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 = 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2

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 Transformer Model – Example
33

 A single-phase, 100 kVA, 480/120 V transformer is

subjected to short-circuit and open-circuit tests to
determine model parameters
 The results:
 Open circuit: 𝐼𝐼1,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0.05 𝐴𝐴 , 𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 0.1 𝑊𝑊
 Short circuit: 𝑉𝑉1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 80 𝑉𝑉 , 𝑃𝑃𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 Determine model parameters: 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 , 𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 , 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 , and 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚

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 Transformer Model – Example
34

 From the open-circuit test:

𝐼𝐼1,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0.05 𝐴𝐴
𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 = = = 104 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇
𝑉𝑉1,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 480 𝑉𝑉
𝑃𝑃𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0.1 𝑊𝑊
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 = 2 = = 434 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑉𝑉1,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 480 𝑉𝑉 2

𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚 = 𝑌𝑌𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐2 = 104 𝜇𝜇𝜇𝜇

1 1
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 = = 2.3 𝑀𝑀Ω and 𝑋𝑋𝑚𝑚 = = 9.62 𝑘𝑘Ω
𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚
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 Transformer Model – Example
35

 From the short-circuit test:

𝑉𝑉1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑉𝑉1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 = =
𝐼𝐼1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐼𝐼1,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
 Here, the applied current is the rated current
 Determine from the nameplate power rating
𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 100 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼1,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = = 208.3 𝐴𝐴
𝑉𝑉1,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 480 𝑉𝑉
 The magnitude of the series impedance is
80 𝑉𝑉
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 = = 384 𝑚𝑚Ω
208.3 𝐴𝐴
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 Transformer Model – Example
36

 Using the measured power and primary-side current, we

can calculate series resistance
𝑃𝑃1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠 = 2 = = 230 𝑚𝑚Ω
𝐼𝐼1,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 208 𝐴𝐴 2

 The equivalent series reactance is

𝑋𝑋𝑠𝑠 = 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 2 − 𝑅𝑅𝑠𝑠2 = 307 𝑚𝑚Ω

 The equivalent circuit model is:

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37 The Per-Unit System

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 The Per-Unit System
38

 Power systems contain many, many transformers

 System analysis would require always referring impedances from
one side of transformers to the other
 Tedious and error prone
 Instead, we use a system of normalized voltages, currents, power,
and impedance
 The per-unit system
 In per-unit, all quantities are normalized by base values – for
example:
𝑉𝑉
𝑉𝑉𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = (1)
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

 The selected base values are all related by transformer turns ratios
 Transformers are eliminated from the per-unit schematic

K. Webb ESE 470

 The Per-Unit System - Preview
39

 Initial schematic:

 Per-unit schematic:
 Transformers have
been eliminated
 All values are in
per-unit (p.u.)

 To understand how to interpret per-unit schematics,

we’ll see how to convert both single- and three-phase
circuits to per-unit
K. Webb ESE 470
 Per-Unit Conversion – Single-Phase
40

 To convert a single-phase circuit to per-unit:

1. Re-draw the circuit
 Eliminate all transformers
 Clearly delineate voltage zones, as defined by the transformers
 Do not label any numerical voltage, current, impedance, or power values
2. Select a single power base value, 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏 = 𝑄𝑄𝑏𝑏
3. Select a voltage base, 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 , for each voltage level
 Must be related by transformer turns ratios
4. Calculate the impedance base at each voltage level
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = = 𝑅𝑅𝑏𝑏 = 𝑋𝑋𝑏𝑏 (2)
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏

5. Calculate the current base at each voltage level

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 = = (3)
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏
6. Convert all actual values to per-unit values

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transformer Base Impedance
41

 Transformer impedances are typically specified in per-unit or as

percent of base impedance values
 For example:

 Here, the reactance accounting for leakage flux (series inductance) is

specified
 10% of base impedance value for the transformer
 Base impedance given by nameplate voltage and power ratings
 At the primary side
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏 240 𝑉𝑉 2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 1.92 Ω
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
K. Webb ESE 470
 Transformer Impedance
42

 Per-unit reactance is calculated from actual reactance as

𝑋𝑋
𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏
 So the actual leakage reactance is
𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = 0.1 ⋅ 1.92 Ω = 192 𝑚𝑚Ω
 The per-unit leakage reactance is specified on the base
dictated by the transformer’s nameplate ratings
 System base voltages and impedances at primary and secondary
side may differ from the intrinsic transformer base
 Per-unit reactance can be converted to a new base when
necessary

K. Webb ESE 470

 Per-Unit Base Conversion
43

 Convert an old per-unit reactance, 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 , to a per-unit reactance

on a new base, 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑋𝑋 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = = 𝑋𝑋 2 (4)
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

 We know we can express the actual reactance as

2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑋𝑋 = 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 (5)
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜

 Substituting (5) into (4)

2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑋𝑋𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
 This provides a general formula for converting from one base to
another
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑍𝑍𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 2 (6)
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛

K. Webb ESE 470

 Single-Phase Per-Unit Conversion – Example
44

 Convert the circuit above to a per-unit circuit

 Note that transformer reactances are already specified
as per-unit values
 Three zones – three voltage bases

K. Webb ESE 470

 Single-Phase Per-Unit Conversion – Example
45

 First, re-draw the schematic in per-unit form

 We’ll fill in the various per-unit values as we calculate them

 Next, arbitrarily select a single power base for the network

𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 = 500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

K. Webb ESE 470

 Single-Phase Per-Unit Conversion – Example
46

 Next, select a voltage base and calculate impedance and current

base values for each voltage level
 Zone 1:
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 2.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏 2.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 11.5 Ω
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏 2.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 208.3 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 11.5 Ω
 Zone 2:
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏2 = 9.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏2 9.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏2 = = = 184.3 Ω
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏2 9.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏2 = = = 52.1 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏2 184.3 Ω

K. Webb ESE 470

 Single-Phase Per-Unit Conversion – Example
47

 Zone 3:
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏3 = 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏3 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏3 = = = 46.1 Ω
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏 500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏3 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏3 = = = 104.1 𝐴𝐴
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏3 46.1 Ω
 Next, calculate the per-unit circuit impedances, starting with zone 1:
𝑋𝑋1 2Ω
𝑋𝑋1,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = = 0.174 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 11.5 Ω
 For transformer T1, the base voltages are the same as the
nameplate rating for the transformer
 Per-unit leakage reactance is the same as the nameplate value
𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇1,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.08 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
K. Webb ESE 470
 Single-Phase Per-Unit Conversion – Example
48

 In zone 2:
20 Ω
𝑋𝑋2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 0.109 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
184.3 Ω

 For transformer T2, the base voltages differ from the

rated nameplate values
 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 must be converted to the system base
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏
𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏,𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏2
10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2 500 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.1 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
300 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 9.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2

𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.18 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.

K. Webb ESE 470
 Single-Phase Per-Unit Conversion – Example
49

 In zone 3, at the load:

10 Ω
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 0.217 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
46.1 Ω
and
8Ω
𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 0.174 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
46.1 Ω
 The resulting per-unit circuit:

 Note that there are no ideal transformers in the per-unit circuit

K. Webb ESE 470
 Per-Unit Circuit Analysis – Example
50

 For the circuit from the previous example, determine the per-unit
and actual load current
 Very simple when using the per-unit circuit
𝑉𝑉𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 =
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿 + 𝑗𝑗 𝑋𝑋1,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇1,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑋𝑋2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑋𝑋𝑇𝑇2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑋𝑋𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
1∠0°
𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 1.33∠ − 73.2° 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
0.217 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗.717 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.

𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1.33∠ − 73.2° 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.

K. Webb ESE 470

 Per-Unit Circuit Analysis – Example
51

 The current base at the load is

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏 4.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝑰𝑰𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 104.1 A
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 46.1 Ω

 So, the actual load current is

𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿 = 𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 104.1 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 1.33∠ − 73.2°

𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿 = 139∠ − 73.2° 𝐴𝐴

K. Webb ESE 470
52 Example Problems

K. Webb ESE 470

Find:
 Load voltage
 Load power

K. Webb ESE 470

54 K. Webb ESE 470
Draw a per-unit schematic for the following circuit, and
determine the load voltage and power in both per-unit
and actual values. Use a power base of 200 kVA.

K. Webb ESE 470

56 K. Webb ESE 470
57 K. Webb ESE 470
58 Three-Phase Per-Unit System

K. Webb ESE 470

 Three-Phase Per-Unit Circuits
59

 Balanced three-phase circuits can be represented in per-unit

as well
 Use a 3-𝜙𝜙 power base
 Use line-to-line voltages

 Procedure for conversion to per-unit:

1. Re-draw the circuit
 Eliminate all transformers
 Clearly delineate voltage zones, as defined by the transformers
 Do not label any numerical voltage, current, impedance, or power
values
2. Select a single 3-𝜙𝜙 power base, 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
3. Select line-to-line voltage bases, 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 for each voltage level
 Must be related by transformer turns ratios

K. Webb ESE 470

 Three-Phase Per-Unit Circuits
60

4. Calculate the impedance base at each voltage level

2 2 2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 3𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = = = (7)
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 3𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

 Note that this is identical to (2), the single-phase impedance base

5. Calculate the current base at each voltage level
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 3𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 = = =
3𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 3 3𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
or (8)
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏 = =
3𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏
 Again, identical to the single-phase impedance base, (3)
6. Convert all actual values to per-unit values
K. Webb ESE 470
 Three-Phase Per-Unit Analysis - Example
61

 The following is a per-phase schematic for a balanced three-

phase circuit

 The power delivered to the load is

𝑺𝑺𝐿𝐿 = 100 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
 The line-to-line voltage at the load is
𝑽𝑽𝐿𝐿,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 69∠0° 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 Determine:
 Supply current
 Complex power delivered from the supply
K. Webb ESE 470
 Three-Phase Per-Unit Analysis - Example
62

 We’ll first convert the circuit to a per-unit circuit

 Begin by drawing the per-unit circuit
 Eliminate ideal transformers
 Don’t yet know the per-unit values

 Next, arbitrarily select a three-phase power base

𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 150 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

K. Webb ESE 470

 Three-Phase Per-Unit Analysis - Example
63

 Select line-to-line voltage bases for each voltage level

 At the source: 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 138 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 At the load: 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 Use the power and voltage bases to calculate the

impedance base at each voltage level
2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 138 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 126.96 Ω
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 150 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

2
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿2 69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 31.74 Ω
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 150 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

K. Webb ESE 470

 Three-Phase Per-Unit Analysis - Example
64

 Calculate the current base at each voltage level

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 138 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 627.6 𝐴𝐴
3𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏𝑏 3⋅126.96 Ω
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿2 69 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏 = = = 1255 𝐴𝐴
3𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏2 3⋅31.74 Ω

 Next, convert the circuit impedances to per-unit

 At the source:
5.06 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗.7 Ω
𝑍𝑍1,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 0.19∠77.9° 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
126.96 Ω
 At the load side:
4∠90° Ω
𝑍𝑍2,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = = 0.126∠90° 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.
31.74 Ω
K. Webb ESE 470
 Three-Phase Per-Unit Analysis - Example
65

 The per-unit, three-phase power to the load is

100+𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 111.8∠26.6° 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝑺𝑺𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = =
𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 150 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑺𝑺𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.745∠26.6° 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.

 We can now complete the per-unit, per-phase circuit:

K. Webb ESE 470

 Three-Phase Per-Unit Analysis - Example
66

 Now, use the per-unit circuit to determine the per-unit load current

∗ ∗
𝑺𝑺𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 0.745∠26.6°
𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = =
𝑽𝑽𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 1∠0°
𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.745∠ − 26.6° 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢. = 𝑰𝑰𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝

 The source voltage is

𝑽𝑽𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1∠0° + 𝑰𝑰𝐿𝐿,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 0.19∠77.9° + 0.126∠90°
𝑽𝑽𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1.147∠9.76°

K. Webb ESE 470

 Three-Phase Per-Unit Analysis - Example
67

 The per-unit source power is

∗
𝑺𝑺𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑽𝑽𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑰𝑰𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 1.147∠9.76° ⋅ 0.745∠26.6°
𝑺𝑺𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.855∠36.4°
 We can now use the per-unit values to determine actual quantities
 The actual supply voltage is
𝑽𝑽𝑠𝑠 = 𝑽𝑽𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 1.147∠9.76° ⋅ 138 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑽𝑽𝑠𝑠 = 158.3∠9.76 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 The actual supply current is
𝑰𝑰𝑠𝑠 = 𝑰𝑰𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝐼𝐼𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 0.745∠ − 26.6° ⋅ 627.6 𝐴𝐴

𝑰𝑰𝑠𝑠 = 467.6∠ − 26.6° 𝐴𝐴

 And, the actual supply power is

𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 = 𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠,𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 ⋅ 𝑆𝑆𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = 0.855∠36.4° ⋅ 150 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

𝑆𝑆𝑠𝑠 = 128.18∠36.4° 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 103.2 + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗.1 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀

K. Webb ESE 470

68 3-𝜙𝜙Transformers – Y/Y, Δ/Δ

K. Webb ESE 470

 Three-Phase Transformers
69

 Three-phase transformers are constructed from

banks of single-phase transformers
 Primary and secondary sides can each be connected
as a Y or a Δ configuration
 Four Possible configurations:
 Y-Y

 Δ-Δ

 Y-Δ

 Δ-Y

K. Webb ESE 470

 Y-Y Transformer
70

One-line diagram:

Phasor diagram:

 Note nomenclature:
 High-voltage terminals: H1, H2, H3
 Low-voltage terminals: X1, X2, X3
 Terminal labels serve as dots
 High-voltage phases: A, B, C  No phase shift through the
 Low-voltage phases: a, b, c transformer

K. Webb ESE 470

 Δ-Δ Transformer
71

One-line diagram:

Phasor diagram:

 Voltages across windings are

line-to-line voltages
 No phase shift through the
transformer

K. Webb ESE 470

72 3-𝜙𝜙Transformers – Y/Δ, Δ/Y

K. Webb ESE 470

 Y-Δ (or Δ-Y) Transformer
73

Input Phasor diagram:

 Here the phase relationships are a bit more complicated

 Each primary voltage is in phase with its corresponding secondary
voltage
 𝑽𝑽𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 is in phase with 𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
 𝑽𝑽𝐵𝐵𝑁𝑁 is in phase with 𝑽𝑽𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
 𝑽𝑽𝐶𝐶𝑁𝑁 is in phase with 𝑽𝑽𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
K. Webb ESE 470
 Y-Δ (Δ-Y) Transformer
74

 The Y- and Δ-side phasor diagrams:

 Note that there is a phase shift of −30° between line-to-

neutral voltages on the Y side and line-to-neutral voltages
on the Δ side

K. Webb ESE 470

 Y-Δ (Δ-Y) Transformer – Voltage Relationship
75

 Transformer turns ratio, 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 , relates line-to-neutral

voltage on the Y side to line-to-line voltage on the Δ
side
1
𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑽𝑽𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡
 On the Δ side
𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 3𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∠30°
so
1
𝑽𝑽𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑽𝑽𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ∠ − 30°
3𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡

 The turns ratio is effectively increased by a factor of 3

and there is a phase shift of −30°
K. Webb ESE 470
 Y-Δ (Δ-Y) Transformer – Current Relationship
76

 For current, we have

𝑰𝑰𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑰𝑰𝐴𝐴
 On the Δ side, we know
𝑰𝑰𝑎𝑎 = 3𝑰𝑰𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ∠ − 30°
or
𝑰𝑰𝑎𝑎
𝑰𝑰𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ∠30°
3
 So the current relationship is

𝑰𝑰𝑎𝑎 = 3𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡 𝑰𝑰𝐴𝐴 ∠ − 30°

 Again, this shows that the effective turns ratio is

3𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡
 And, there is a phase shift through the transformer of −30°
K. Webb ESE 470
77 Per-Phase, Per-Unit Models

K. Webb ESE 470

 Per-Phase, Per-Unit Transformer Models
78

 Each of the three single-phase transformers in the three-phase bank

can be modeled as

 In the per-phase model, we need the equivalent line-to-neutral

impedances
 Unchanged for Y connections
 Divided by 3 for Δ connections
 The Y-Y or Δ-Δ equivalent per-phase circuit is the same as above:

K. Webb ESE 470

 Per-Phase, Per-Unit Transformer Models
79

 The transformer disappears from the per-unit equivalent circuit:

 It is common to neglect the exciting current and winding losses and

account only for leakage flux

 For an ideal Y-Y or Δ-Δ transformer, the per-unit circuit is

K. Webb ESE 470

 Per-Phase, Per-Unit Transformer Models
80

 For the Y-Δ or Δ-Y transformer, we must account for the phase shift
 Per-unit includes a conceptual phase-shifting transformer
 Voltage bases must be related by the effective turns ratio – must include
the 3 factor
 Simplified Y-Δ per-unit circuit:

 Simplified Δ-Y per-unit circuit:

K. Webb ESE 470

81 Power Transformer Miscellany

K. Webb ESE 470

 Transformer Uses
82

 Δ connection advantages:
 Third harmonic current confined to the core
 Due to non-linear B-H characteristics of the core
 Y connection advantages
 Neutral point simplifies grounding
 Reduced insulation requirement

 𝚫𝚫-Y transformers
 Most common type of transformers
 Step-up/step-down with Y connection at high-voltage side to reduce insulation
requirements
 Δ winding confines third harmonic currents
 𝚫𝚫-𝚫𝚫 transformers
 Attractive from repair/maintenance standpoint
 Can remove one transformer and still deliver (reduced) 3𝜙𝜙 power
 Y-Y transformers
 Not commonly used due to problems with third harmonic currents
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 Transformer Nameplate Ratings
83

 Transformer properties and ratings are specified on the transformer

nameplate:

 Includes, among other specs:

 Power rating
 Voltage ratings – turns ratio
 Configuration – delta or Y
 Impedance
K. Webb ESE 470
 Transformer Impedance
84

 Impedance specified on the nameplate as a percentage

 Per-unit value multiplied by 100%
 Typically stamped on the nameplate – determined through testing
 Assume this is series impedance magnitude
 For example:
 𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 750 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = 13.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
 %𝑍𝑍 = 5.6% or 0.056 𝑝𝑝. 𝑢𝑢.

 The impedance base at the primary:

2
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 13.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 2
𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = = = 253.9 Ω
𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 750 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 The actual impedance magnitude is

𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 = %𝑍𝑍 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍𝑏𝑏 = 0.056 ⋅ 253.9 Ω
𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 = 14.2 Ω
K. Webb ESE 470
 Transformer Impedance
85

 Another way to understand transformer impedance:

 Voltage drop at the rated load due to transformer impedance,
expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage

 For the previous example, the rated current is

𝑆𝑆𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 750 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 = = = 54.3 𝐴𝐴
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 13.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

 We determined that the actual impedance was 14.2 Ω, so

𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐼𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 ⋅ 𝑍𝑍𝑠𝑠 = 54.3 𝐴𝐴 ⋅ 14.2 Ω = 771.7 𝑉𝑉

 Expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage, we have

𝑉𝑉𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 771.7 𝑉𝑉
%𝑍𝑍 = ⋅ 100% = ⋅ 100% = 5.6%
𝑉𝑉𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 13.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
K. Webb ESE 470
 Distribution Transformers
86

 Neighborhoods are
typically in the range of
7.2 kV, line-to-neutral
 Pole-mounted
distribution transformers
step voltage down
 Single phase 120/240 V
 Pad-mounted or vault
(underground)
distribution transformers
are also common

K. Webb ESE 470

 Distribution Transformers
87

 Single-phase distribution transformers tap off of a single phase

 Neutral center tap on

secondary
 Single-phase 120 V and
240 V service to homes
and businesses

K. Webb ESE 470

88 Example Problems

K. Webb ESE 470

Using the single-phase per-unit conversion procedure,
a) Draw a per-phase, per-unit schematic
b) Determine the generator voltage in per-unit and in volts
c) Determine the power delivered by the generator in p.u. and VA

K. Webb ESE 470

K. Webb ESE 470
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K. Webb ESE 470
Using the three-phase per-unit conversion procedure,
a) Draw a per-phase, per-unit schematic
b) Determine the generator voltage in per-unit and in volts
c) Determine the power delivered by the generator in p.u. and VA

K. Webb ESE 470

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