Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum ~

Arts of the Book & Calligraphy

Sabanc› University Sak›p Sabanc› Museum, Istanbul

November 5, 2010 — February 27, 2011
Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum ~ Sabanc› University Sak›p Sabanc› Museum
Arts of the Book and Calligraphy Dr. Nazan Ölçer
Sabanc› University Director
Sak›p Sabanc› Museum, Istanbul
5 November 2010 – 27 February 2011 Bülent Bankac›
General Secretary

An exhibition organised by the Sabanc› University

Sak›p Sabanc› Museum and the Aga Khan Trust for Aga Khan Trust for Culture
Culture, with the support and expertise of the Luis Monreal
General Manager
Centre de Conservation du Livre, Arles, France

Benoît Junod
ISBN 978-605-4348-08-4
Director, Museums and exhibitions

© 2010 Aga Khan Trust for Culture and

Centre de Conservation du Livre, Arles
Sak›p Sabanc› University & Museum Stéphane Ipert
Director

François Vinourd
Deputy Director

Marie d’Adhémar
Assistant

Centre de Conservation du Livre, Arles, received support

from the Provence – Alpes – Côte d’Azur Region and
the European Union for this project.

We are grateful to Princess Catherine Aga Khan

for lending Catalogue Nos. 19, 20, 38, 42, 60, 115,
154 and 156.
Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum Education
Arts of the Book and Calligraphy Maryse Posenaer
Sibel Sönmez - Söz Dan›flmanl›k
Exhibition Asuman Akbabacan
Curator Sinem Kaftano¤lu
Benoît Junod Aysun Tanyeri
Aga Khan Trust for Culture, Geneva
Public relations
Scientific advisor A&B ‹letiflim A.fi.
Stéphane Ipert Sam Pickens
CCL, Arles Asl› Kaymakçalan
‹rem Konukçu
Exhibition coordination
Hüma Arslaner Security
Pelin Sarpkan Yekta T›rafl
Charlotte Bulte Group 4

Conservation experts Transportation

Stéphane Ipert Rodolphe Haller. S. A.
François Vinourd Bergen Fine Art Logistics
Nurçin Kural Özgörüfl
Ayfle Aldemir Kilercik Catalogue
Editors – English version
Scenography and art direction Margaret S. Graves
ˇ
Boris Micka Benoît Junod
Editor – Turkish version
Technical direction Ça¤atay Anadol
Manuel Serrano
Design
Technical content production Gözde Oral
Victoria Llanos
Execution
Assistant of technical direction Kemal Kara
Umut Durmufl
David Tirado Photography
Gérald Friedli, Geneva
Design and exhibition fit-out
GPD Exhibitions and Museums Translation
Lotech Design Carol LaMotte
Cyan Animatica Shannon de Viviès
DDC Reklam
Abdullah Bölükçü Proofreading
Mert Torun Margaret Graves
Stéphane Ipert
Financial coordination Ayse Aldemir Kilercik
Aytekin Afll›
Production
Technical application Kitap Yay›nevi Ltd. fiti.
Yahya Ulusal Kufl
Abbas K›l›ç Printing and binding
Seyfettin V›c›l Mas Matbaac›l›k A.fi.
Mustafa S›ra Hamidiye Mahallesi, So¤uksu Caddesi 3
Bülent Turan 34800 K⤛thane-‹stanbul
Tel: 0212 294 10 00
Academic support E-posta: [email protected]
Ayfle Aldemir Kilercik Sertifika no: 12055
VI Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy

CATALOGUE AUTHORS http://www.gehimab.org). He is a participant of the

Aristhot Project (sciences in the Mediterranean).
Margaret S. Graves wrote the entries for all items not
Michael Barry, born in 1948, teaches medieval
previously exhibited by AKTC, and prepared material
Spanish-Islamic history as well as the medieval and
from earlier entries to fit an exhibition on the Arts of
modern histories, arts and literatures of Iran,
the Book. She is a postdoctoral fellow of the British
Pakistan and especially Afghanistan, at Princeton
Institute of Persian Studies and the Institute for the
University’s Department of Near Eastern Studies.
Advanced Study of the Humanities, University of
Recipient of many literary and scholarly awards in
Edinburgh, where she also teaches art history.
France, the United States and Iran, he has advised
Moya Carey wrote the introductory texts for the the New York Metropolitan Museum on the
catalogue sections. She is the curator for Iranian arts reorganisation of its Islamic galleries and is a
at the Victoria & Albert Museum, London. consultant to the Aga Khan Trust for Culture.

Earlier entries were written by Eloïse Brac de la Perrière obtained her Ph.D. in 2003 at
Ladan Akbarnia (British Museum) the Université de Paris IV – Sorbonne on L’Art du livre
Michael Barry (Princeton University) dans l’Inde des sultanats (1206-1600): le cas des
Monique Buresi (Louvre Museum) manuscrits à peinture, under the direction of Marianne
Sheila Canby (Metropolitan Museum) Barrucand. She is a specialist in Islamic India, the
Moya Carey (Victoria & Albert Museum) Persian-speaking world and illuminated manuscripts.
Annabelle Collinet (Louvre Museum) She teaches history of art and archaeology of the
Verena Daiber (Bamberg University) Muslim world at the Université de Paris IV – Sorbonne.
Aimée Froom (former Brooklyn Museum)
Carine Juvin (Louvre Museum) Frantz Chaigne, having studied at the Ecole Normale
Sophie Makariou (Louvre Museum) Supérieure de Saint-Cloud, is professor of physical
Charlotte Maury (Louvre Museum) sciences at the École Boulle. Since 2006 he has been
Alnoor Merchant (IIS Head Librarian) preparing a doctoral thesis at the Université de Paris
Stephan Popp (Bamberg University) IV – Sorbonne on illumination in the IlKhanid
David Roxburgh (Harvard University) Empire, directed at first by Prof. Marianne Barrucand
Fernando Valdés (U. A. Madrid) and now by Prof. Jean-Pierre Van Staëvel.

Mathilde Cruvelier specialised in the art of Christian

ESSAY AUTHORS Arab books under the Mamluks, and was research
associate at the Department of Manuscripts
Prince Amyn Aga Khan was born in London in 1937. (Oriental section) of the Bibliothèque nationale de
He obtained his BA Magna Cum Laude and his MA France in 2008–2009. She is at present preparing
from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at her Ph.D. on the arts of Islamic and Christian Arab
Harvard University. From 1964 he worked in the books in Mamluk Egypt and the Middle East.
United Nations Secretariat in New York (Department
of Economic and Social Affairs), and in 1968, he Annabel Teh Gallop is Head of the South and
joined the Aga Khan Development Network. A Southeast Asia section at the British Library, London,
director of the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) and the where she has been curator for Indonesian and
Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC), Prince Amyn Malay materials since 1986. Her research interests
chairs the Museum Oversight Committee of the are in Malay chancery practice and the art of the
future Aga Khan Museum and is on the Acquisitions Islamic book in Southeast Asia, and her Ph.D. (SOAS
Board of the Louvre. 2002) was on Malay seal inscriptions: a study in
Islamic epigraphy from Southeast Asia.
Djamil Aïssani teaches mathematics and computer
sciences at the University of Béjaia (Algeria). As Oleg Grabar is Emeritus Professor at the Institute for
research director, he presides over the GEHIMAB Advanced Study at Princeton University as well as
association, the principal task of which is to Harvard where he was Aga Khan Professor of Islamic
contribute to the gathering and analysis of texts Art for close to fifteen years. He is the author of
relating to early scientific activities in the Mahgrib, about 20 books and over 100 articles. He has
especially in Béjaia (Bougie, Bugia, Bgayet: directed the PhD theses of 71 students from 13
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy VII

countries. He is a corresponding member of the Fahmida Suleman is a curator in the Department of

British Academy and of the Académie des the Middle East at the British Museum (London),
Inscriptions et Belles–Lettres. specialising in Islamic art with a focus on the
ethnographic collections of the Middle East and
Stéphane Ipert is an expert in the conservation of Central Asia. She completed her Doctorate at Oxford
books and director of the Centre de Conservation du University on the iconography of lustre ceramics from
Livre in Arles (France), which he founded in 1987. He Fatimid Egypt. She has published articles relating to
has carried out many expert and training missions in Islamic ceramics and Shi‘i iconography and has
Muslim countries and coordinates international EU edited a volume entitled Word of God, Art of Man: The
and Unesco projects in book conservation. He is the Qur’an and its Creative Expressions (Oxford 2007). She
author of several books, on marbled paper (Paris is currently editing a multi-author publication entitled
1985), book conservation (Fribourg 1987), methods People of the Prophet’s House: Art, Architecture and
of evaluation of preventive conservation practices Shi‘ism in the Islamic World (London 2012).
(Paris 2002), and the manuscript treasures of the
Mediterranean (Dijon 2006). Annie Vernay-Nouri is Chief Curator at the
Bibliothèque nationale de France, in charge of Arab
Ulrich Marzolph is Professor of Islamic Studies at the manuscripts and specialising in the iconography of the
Georg-August University in Göttingen, Germany, and Islamic world. She is the author of many articles and
a senior member of the editorial committee of the several catalogues of exhibitions which she curated,
Enzyklopädie des Märchens. He specialises in the amongst which are L’Art du livre arabe (2001), La
narrative culture of the Muslim Middle East, with géographie d’al-Idrisi (2001), Torah, Bible, Coran (2006;
particular emphasis on Arab and Persian folk Islamic section) and Livres d’Arménie (2007).
narrative and popular literature. His recent
publications include The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia Lale Uluç completed her ph.D. at the Institute of Fine
(with Richard van Leeuwen, 2004), The Arabian Arts, New York University and is currently teaching at
Nights Reader (2006), The Arabian Nights in Bo¤aziçi University in Istanbul. She is the author of
Transnational Perspective (2007), and the Arabian the book, Turkman Governors, Shiraz Artisans and
Nights Bibliography (online since 2008). Ottoman Collectors: Arts of the Book in 16th Century
Shiraz (Istanbul, 2006) and many articles.
Alnoor Merchant is Head Librarian at the Institute of
Ismaili Studies, London, and has been involved in François Vinourd is the deputy director of the Centre
recommending acquisitions to the Aga Khan for the de Conservation du Livre in Arles and a book
Aga Khan Museum for the past 15 years. conservation expert. Specialising in oriental bindings,
in particular from the Byzantine world, he has
Laura Emilia Parodi (Ph.D. University of Genoa 1999) is studied and restored many Greek bindings in key
a Mughal art specialist. She has taught at the University collections (Mount Athos, Patmos, etc.) as well as
of Genoa, the “Carlo Bo” University of Urbino, the Islamic bindings (Balamand Monastery, Lebanon,
University of Oxford and University College Dublin and and the Monastery of St. George, Syria). He has
has published numerous articles on Mughal
published numerous articles on Greek bindings.
ceremonial, painting and architecture. She is currently
editing a volume titled The Visual World of Muslim India:
The Art, Culture and Society of the Deccan in the Early
Modern Era (forthcoming from I.B. Tauris, London).

Francis Richard, born in 1948, was responsible for

Persian Manuscripts at the Bibliothèque nationale de
France (BnF) from 1974 to 2003, and then directed
the newly founded Department of Islamic Arts at the
Louvre Museum. At present, he is the scientific
director of the new Library of Languages and
Civilisations which will open in Paris in 2011. He is a
specialist in manuscripts and the arts of the book,
and is the author of many catalogues and other
publications.
VIII Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy

EDITORS’ NOTE Folios, manuscripts and documents of the

Arts of the Book and Calligraphy form well over half
the collection of the Aga Khan Museum, and in our
Twenty-eight years ago, an exhibition organised by
opinion they are the prime source for understanding
Anthony Welch and Stuart Cary Welch at the Asia
the cultures and civilisations of Islam and their
Society in New York brought to public attention
artistic and spiritual accomplishments. Beyond the
many of the superb miniature paintings and
barriers of language, the arts of the book are
manuscripts in the collection of Prince Sadruddin
witnesses to a heritage which plays a key role in
Aga Khan. In 1998 and 2000, Sheila Canby, then at
today’s world and about which too little is known
the British Museum, presented the exhibition Princes,
outside the Umma. This catalogue and its
Poets and Paladins in London and Geneva, enabling
accompanying essays are an attempt to go a little
the European public to share the discovery. Since
further than scratching surfaces. The texts are the
then, Prince Sadruddin passed away in 2003 and His
work of academics and researchers, but aim at being
Highness the Aga Khan integrated the collection into
of interest to the widest possible public.
a wider context, with a view to creating a museum
With a wide readership in mind, diacritical
dedicated to Islamic arts in Toronto, Canada: the
marks have been kept to a minimum within this
museum is under construction as we write.
volume. To afford the interested reader the chance to
The opportunity for a major exhibition of the
understand the pronunciation of proper names, titles
Aga Khan Museum’s holdings in the the arts of the
of works and technical words transliterated from
book and calligraphy – extended to include epigraphy
Arabic or Persian, within the essays and the title
– arose with the Sabanc› Museum’s offer to host the
information of the catalogue entries long vowels have
show within the context of 2010 – Istanbul, European
been indicated with macrons, the letter ‘ayn is
Capital of Culture. This justified the effort to prepare
indicated by the symbol ‘, and hamza by the symbol ’.
a substantial catalogue including essays by a broad
For convenience, the plurals of transliterated words
range of experts. Our contributing authors are to be
have been formed following the English convention
sincerely thanked for their good grace in the face of
of adding s. Words that have entered English usage
the inevitably tight schedule that a project of this
(Mani, Baghdad, sufi and so forth) have not been
nature entails.
provided with diacriticals. For similar reasons of
Some of these essays contain broad
simplicity, dates are given in the Common Era (CE)
considerations on the word and the book in the
calendar unless otherwise stated. One piece which
Islamic world, and will remind readers of the specificity
had originally been intended for this exhibition was
of the field being presented in the exhibition. A second
unfortunately unavailable; subsequently, item no. 64
group contains essays examining approaches to the
has been removed from the catalogue.
catalogue contents. Finally, the third group contains
specific investigations into some of the most exciting
Margaret S. Graves
manuscripts in the AKM collection. Their authors
Benoît Junod
“discovered” that these manuscripts were in the Aga
Khan Museum collection – mainly through the
exhibitions which have taken place in Western Europe
since 2007. We sincerely hope that through the
development of the AKM website, and later through
the publication of a “Catalogue raisonné” of the
collection, even more researchers will turn their
attention to the numerous treasures which the Aga
Khan Museum will put at their disposal for research
and study when it opens in 2013. A first step in this
direction has been to digitise some 20 manuscripts,
which will be available on the AKM website
(www.akdn.org/museum) by the end of 2010; a
sustained development in this direction, in
cooperation with the Centre de Conservation du Livre
in Arles, should enable all of the 90-odd manuscripts
of the AKM collection to be available for study in
digital form within the next two years.
XII Preface
His Highness the Aga Khan

XIV Preface
Nazan Ölçer

2 The Collection of the Aga Khan Museum

Alnoor Merchant

1 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

Prince Amyn Aga Khan

12 The Word in Muslim Tradition

Oleg Grabar
16 The Book in the Islamic World

2 Later Calligraphic Scripts

Annie Vernay-Nouri
58 Calligraphy and Scripts in the Islamic World

Fahmida Suleman
64 Epigraphy and Inscriptions on Objects

3 The Arts of the Book

Francis Richard
104 The Kit$bkh$na: An Institution in the Service of
Culture and the Art of the Book

Eloise Brac de la Perrière ~ Frantz Chaigne ~ Mathilde Cruvelier

114 The Qur’an of Gwalior, Kaleidoscope of the Arts of the Book

4 The Illuminated Text

Annabel Teh Gallop

162 The Boné Qur’an from South Sulawesi
 XI

5 Science and Learning

Djamil Aïssani
200 Scientific Manuscripts of the Islamic World

Ulrich Marzolph
206 The Hundred and One Nights: A Recently Acquired Old Manuscript

6 The Illustrated Text

Michael Barry
238 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

Lâle Uluç
256 The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

7 Portraits and Albums

Laura Parodi
308 Portraits and Albums

347 Chart of Dynasties

348 Calligraphic Scripts

Stéphane Ipert ~ François Vinourd CCL

351 Arts of the Book Glossary

355 General Glossary

358 Bibliography

373 Index
XII Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy

His Highness the Aga Khan

Preface I am very grateful to the Sak›p Sabanc› Museum, and to the Chairman of its Board, Ms Güler
Sabanc›, for hosting this presentation of treasures of the future Aga Khan Museum’s collections,
particularly in this year 2010 when Istanbul celebrates its heritage as cultural capital of Europe.
Istanbul has always been a nexus between Europe and the Muslim world, and it is even
more so today than ever before. This has been brilliantly demonstrated by the exhibition, on the
city’s 8000 years of history, which preceded ours. Our exhibition now takes, so to speak, a step
eastwards – or to be more precise, towards the broader Dar al-Islam, in its classical extension
which spread from Spain and the Maghrib to the Far East.
The choice was made to focus on the arts of the book and calligraphy, themes which have
been central to Islamic culture for close to fifteen hundred years. They are the core of the future
Aga Khan Museum’s collection, and the works on parchment and paper shown here are
complemented by a range of objects (metalwork, ceramics, wooden beams, textiles, jewellery,
etc.) bearing examples of fine epigraphy, both Qur’anic and poetic.
The collection presented here will provide the public with greater insight into the pluralism
of Muslim cultures, with aesthetics as contrasting as those of the Mughal Empire in India and
the Fatimids in Egypt. At the same time, a common ground can be perceived, as well as the
cross-cultural exchanges which at all times took place with local cultures, as with the Far East
and Europe. At a time when ignorance of different specificities breeds intolerance, this exhibition
seeks to underline commonalities and draw attention to our shared artistic heritage.
The Aga Khan Museum, which will house the pieces in this exhibition and close to one
thousand other objects, spanning a millennium of Islamic history, is under construction in
Toronto, Canada, and will open in 2013. It will be the first museum dedicated to Islamic arts and
culture in North America, and will have a key role in the field of education. Hopefully this
exhibition at the Sak›p Sabanc› Museum will be the first step in a durable cooperation between
our institutions to bring understanding of the cultural accomplishments of our civilisations to
the attention of a wider international public.
XIV Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy

N a z a n Ö l ç e r D›rector — Sabanc› Un›vers›ty Sak›p Sabanc› Museum

Preface The script in which the Qur’an is written has been the primary contributing element to
Islamic art, having developed over the centuries and provided Islamic art with its most constant
decorative character.
The concern to duplicate copies of the Qur’an in the most perfect form possible opened
up an incomparable horizon for the art of calligraphy. Calligraphers were considered the most
important practitioners of Islamic art; they created new styles of calligraphy, providing craftsmen
such as the designers, illuminators and bookbinders involved in the arts of the book with an
important breeding ground for creativity.
But the art of calligraphy is not limited solely to the orthography of the Qur’an. Accounts
of historical events and scientific research, literary texts and albums of portraits were prepared
with the same diligence. Commissioning the writing of a book or developing a library became an
expression of privilege and prestige for sovereigns, the nobility and persons of wealth. In a
parallel with the patrons of the great painters and sculptors in the West, this tradition in Islamic
art was directed in greater part to the arts of the book.
From this aspect, the Aga Khan collection hosted by the Sak›p Sabanc› Museum today
should be viewed as a distinguished contemporary representative of this long tradition.
The backbone of the collection consists of exceptional calligraphic inscriptions, typical of
those in the collections of sovereigns of previous eras, accumulated with deep knowledge and
love by Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, which like all the libraries created by the noble classes of the
past, has been available to academic circles.
This collection, together with the rich collection of works in various branches of
Islamic art accumulated by His Highness Prince Karim Aga Khan from a diversity of places
from Africa to Spain, Eastern Europe to the Near East, India to Central Asia and China, will
be presented to visitors at the Museum building in Toronto, Canada, when it has been
completed in 2013.
We are indebted to the great patron of the arts, Prince Amyn Aga Khan, for his desire to
display this important collection in our museum during Istanbul’s 2010 celebration as European
Cultural Capital.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy XV

It would have been very difficult to realize this project without the tremendous support of
the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (AKTC) Director General Luis Monreal, who joined the
International Board of Advisors of the Sak›p Sabanc› Museum when it was still in the early days
of its foundation. The AKTC Museums and Exhibitions Director Benoît Junod was at least as
desirous of the realization of this exhibition as we were.
Exemplary work was contributed by the team of Stéphane Ipert, director of CCL Arles, France,
renowned centre of book and paper conservation, and responsible for the conservation of the Aga
Khan collection, who, together with Benoît Junod and Margaret Graves, provided the catalogue texts;
by our Museum’s director of collections Hüma Arslaner and her team of Pelin Sarpkan and Charlotte
Bulte, who provided their expertise at every phase of the project; by Collection Director Ayfle Aldemir
Kilercik and Conservation Laboratory Director Nurçin Kural Özgörüfl.
The exhibition here of the world-renowned Aga Khan Museum collection of works of
Islamic art chosen from a variety of geographical areas that we do not always have the chance to
view provides a wonderful opportunity for our Museum’s art-lovers.
We are deeply indebted to the Aga Khan Trust for Culture for providing the possibility
for this important encounter, to Sabanc› Holding for giving us the chance to realize this
exhibition, to Chairperson of the Board of Directors Güler Sabanc› and to the Board itself for
supporting our project.
I am very happy to have had the opportunity to work with architect Boris Micka and his
team on this as well as many other projects. It is also my hope that this presentation of Islamic
art in all its dynamism and universality will provide a challenge to the more established and
static techniques of exhibition to which we have been accustomed thus far.
In the belief that the Aga Khan Museum exhibition will represent a new milestone in the
history of the still very young Sak›p Sabanc› Museum, I offer my thanks to the members of all the
departments of the Museum who have contributed their efforts to the exhibition.
Alnoor Merchant

A Medium of Discourse, a Vehicle of Discovery

and Understanding:
The Collection of the Aga Khan Museum
The arts have always had a special significance for my family. More than a
thousand years ago my ancestors, the Fatimid Imams, encouraged patronage of
the arts and fostered the creation of collections of outstanding works of art and
libraries of rare and significant manuscripts. Many of my family members are art
lovers and collectors.1

These words, expressed by His Highness the Aga Khan in the catalogue of the Spirit &
Life exhibition held in London, reflect a remarkable and special relationship that has existed
between artistic, intellectual and cultural patronage and the Shi‘a Ismai‘li Imams throughout
history. The purpose of this short essay is to provide an historical overview, and to trace the
more recent history leading to the development of the Aga Khan Museum’s collection of the
arts of the Muslim world.
In his Kit$b al-maj$lis wa’l-mus$yar$t (Book of Homiletic Sessions and Accompaniments
on Journeys), the jurist-scholar al-Q$d› al-Nu‘m$n describes numerous events associated with
the early decades following the establishment of the Ismai‘li Fatimid caliphate in North Africa
in 909. In particular, he reports on the Fatimid Imam-caliph al-Mu‘izz as a great constructor of
palaces, gardens, irrigations works, canals and reservoirs, including an aqueduct begun in 959
conveying water on its arches to the city of Qayrawan. This interest in scientific and technical
matters is reflected in al-Nu‘m$n’s description of the Imam-caliph’s commissioning the
construction of a fountain pen. Al-Nu‘m$n relates an occasion when al-Mu‘izz mentioned the
topic of the pen:

We wish to construct a pen which can be used for writing without having recourse
to an ink-holder and whose ink will be contained inside it. Whenever a person
wishes to write with it, he fills it with ink and thereby writes whatever he likes.
When he wishes to stop writing, and the ink has ceased flowing and the pen has
become dry, the writer can then put it in his sleeve or anywhere he wishes and it
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 3

will not stain it at all, nor will any drop of ink leak out of it. The ink will only flow
when he expressly desires it to do so and when there is an intention to write it.
[Such a pen] will be a remarkable contrivance, [the like of] which we are unaware
of anyone ever previously constructing.2

Subsequently, the craftsman to whom the construction of this device was assigned,
brought a pen fashioned from gold, which “when a secretary takes up the pen and writes with
it, he is able to write in the most elegant script...[and] when he lifts the pen off the sheet of
writing material, it holds in the ink.”3
That writing was inextricably linked to the notions of intellectual and philosophical
inquiry, scientific pursuits and artistic endeavour is best exemplified by the Fatimids’
establishment of the Dar al-‘Ilm, the “House of Knowledge”, in Cairo on 24 March 1005. In his
account of this day, the court chronicler al-Musabbih› (as quoted by al-Maqr›z›) writes:

On this Saturday...the so-called House of Knowledge in Cairo was

inaugurated...Into this house, they brought all the books that the commander of
the faithful al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered to bring there, that is, the manuscripts
in all the domains of science and culture, to an extent to which they had never
been brought together for a prince...People from all walks of life visited the
House; some came to read books, others to copy them, and yet others to study. 4

This centre of learning attracted the finest minds of the age, whatever their religious
persuasion. Under the year 1012–13, al-Musabbih› reports: “From the House of Knowledge a
number of mathematicians, logicians and jurists, as well as several physicians were summoned
by al-Hakim; the representatives of each discipline appeared before him separately, in order to
argue in his presence; thereupon he presented all of them with robes of honour and gifts.”5
The libraries established by the Fatimids were unmatched anywhere in the Muslim
world. For example, in 993–94 the Imam-caliph al-‘Az›z had, in his library, more than thirty
copies of the lexicographical masterpiece Kit$b al-‘ayn of al-Khal›l ibn Ahmad, twenty copies of
al-Tabar›’s multi-volume History, and more than one hundred copies of Ibn Durayd’s al-
Jamhara. In 1012–13, nearly 1,300 manuscripts of the Qur’an were taken to the Dar al-‘Ilm, and
in 1045, the library was said to contain 6,500 volumes on various subjects. When the Fatimid
palace was looted in 1068, the

number of book chambers was forty, including eighteen thousand books on

ancient sciences and two thousand four hundred manuscripts of the Qur’an. They
were written in well-proportioned calligraphy of the highest beauty and illuminated
with gold, silver, and other [paints]. This was apart from [the books] kept in the
vaults in Dar al-‘Ilm in Cairo.6

It would be intriguing if a number of Qur’an pages and sections in the present exhibition
(cat nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 11 and 17) were part of the manuscripts housed in the Fatimid libraries.
As impressive and extensive as the libraries were the Fatimid caliphal treasuries. Textual
sources which provide details of the looting of the Fatimid treasuries that occurred in 1068–69
4 A Medium of Discourse, a Vehicle of Discovery and Understanding: The Collection of the Aga Khan Museum

describe the articles that were brought out: textiles with thick gold embroidery, military
equipment inlaid with enamel, emeralds, turquoise and pearls, silver staffs with their gold-
embroidered cases, knives with handles made of precious stones, chess and backgammon
pieces made of all kinds of gemstones, saddles and bridles, swords and leather shields, rock
crystal tablewares, as well as penboxes made of gold, sandalwood, ebony, ivory and other
kinds of wood, all adorned with precious stones and other types of ornament. 7 While only a
few of these objects have survived – the tir$z textile (cat. no. 22) in the current exhibition being
an example – they illustrate the outstanding artistic vitality of the Fatimid period and “are
impressive enough to lend substance to the vivid picture painted in the historical accounts of
this vanished world of luxury”.8
In the late eleventh century, the Ismai‘li Imams moved to northern Iran, where they
established a state comprising a defensive network of fortified settlements centred on Alamut.
The Ismai‘li rulers continued their policy of patronage towards men of learning – the
outstanding philosopher-scientist Nas›r al-D›n al-Tüs› being amongst the most prominent –
and impressive libraries were created in these fortresses. This is confirmed by the vizier and
court historian of the Mongols, ‘At$ Malik Juwayn› who, in his Ta’r›kh-i jah$n-gush$, writes:

Being desirous of inspecting the library, the fame of which had spread throughout
the world, I suggested to the King [Hülegü] that the valuable books in Alamut ought
not to be destroyed. He approved my words and gave the necessary orders; and I
went to examine the library, from which I extracted whatever I found in the way of
copies of the Koran and [other] choice books... I likewise picked out the astronomical
instruments such as, armillary spheres, complete and partial astrolabes.9

After the destruction of the Ismai‘li state by the Mongols in 1256, the Ismai‘li Imams
lived in various parts of Central Asia, Afghanistan, and Iran for several centuries. The
beginning of the modern phase of Ismai‘li history in the mid-nineteenth century brought about
a renewal of artistic and intellectual patronage. The forty-eighth Ismai‘li Imam, Sultan
Mahomed Shah, Aga Khan III, in his autobiography, writes about the family’s extensive library
of books in English, French, Persian and Arabic, and the long conversations on Persian poetry
and Arabic literature that he shared with his mother. 10 Throughout his life, Aga Khan III viewed
the works of Firdaws›, Niz$m›, Rüm›, Sa‘d›, Q$’$n› and H$fiz as a vast and almost limitless
treasure; indeed, he saw in poetry and prose, as well as in art and literature, the wealth and
splendour inherent in the human soul. On one occasion, commenting on Safavid art, he wrote:
“...so rich in architecture and in textiles, in beautiful metal and glass work, in its lovely
brocades and carpets. Can we deny that there is here immense search for expression of the
highest aspirations of man’s soul?”11
Aga Khan III’s appreciation of art, poetry and literature had a particular influence on his
son, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan12 who, recalling his first exposure to Islamic art, writes:

My first awareness of art from the Islamic world goes back to the library of the
Villa Jane-Andrée at Cap d’Antibes where my parents spent much time before and
after the Second World War. It was a musty and dark place. The curtains were
often drawn to prevent the Mediterranean sun from bleaching the huge 14th-
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 5

century Mamluk Qur’an which lay open on the rosewood stand, usually at the
beginning of ‘Surat-ul-Nas’, which my father never tired of quoting. I was
fascinated by the power of its calligraphic counterpoint, the diacritics and
illuminations. Though I could not decipher the text, the burnished pages and their
dark corners where thumb and forefinger had left their mark over the centuries
exuded a special mystery which I never forgot.13

It was at Harvard University, where Prince Sadruddin arrived as a freshman in 1950 and
first met his mentor and fellow collector, Stuart Cary Welch, that his interest in the cultural
heritage of the Muslim world took on a new dimension. During his years as a student at
Harvard, Prince Sadruddin made frequent visits to New York, where several art dealers –
Adrienne Minassian, H. Khan Monif – possessed collections of outstanding miniatures,
calligraphies, ceramics, metalwork, and other objects; these proved to be a treasure house and
a collector’s dream. Indeed, Prince Sadruddin’s first acquisition was “a page from a 14th-
century Mamluk Qur’an for which the dealer Khan Monif... was asking thirty dollars”. 14 This
page is now displayed (cat. no. 28) in the current exhibition.
Over the course of the next two decades, Prince Sadruddin bought from dealers in
London, Paris, and Switzerland, as well as from auction house sales, so that by the early 1970s
his collection of Islamic art had already “become one of the most important in private
hands”.15 Over the next two decades (1976–1995), Prince Sadruddin acquired additional
outstanding art works, including the “Album page with four mounted paintings” (cat. no. 144),
the “Portrait of Sultan Selim III” (cat. no. 135), the “Letter from the Crown Prince ‘Abbas Mirza
to Napoleon I” (cat. no. 91), as well as a number of folios from the Shahnama of Sh$h
Tahm$sp (cat. nos. 121 and 123). Prince Sadruddin shared his treasures, both as a frequent
lender of important works to temporary exhibitions, and through exhibitions devoted to
specific elements of the collection. In 1982–83, the first public exhibitions concentrating on the
collection’s greatest strength, the arts of the book, were presented in New York, Fort Worth
and Kansas City,16 and during 1998–99, one hundred and forty-five paintings and drawings
from the collection of Prince Sadruddin and Princess Catherine Aga Khan were exhibited at
various museum venues in Europe and the United States. 17 In 2003, Prince Sadruddin passed
away, and the collection of the arts of the book will form part of the Aga Khan Museum’s
collection.18
Like Prince Sadruddin, Prince Amyn Aga Khan19 made his first purchase while a student
at Harvard: an eighteenth-century chinoiserie screen for his student rooms. While not
specifically devoted to the arts of the Muslim world, Prince Amyn’s collection, divided between
Paris and Geneva, “calls to mind the style of the Wallace Collection in miniature, an epicurean
collection in which the decorative arts set the tone”, 20 and comprises drawings by Watteau,
Boucher, and Fragonard, paintings by Canaletto, Robert, Chardin, and Liotard, with furniture
and porcelain pieces of the highest quality, as well as a select and choice collection of
Ottoman and Qajar art works.
Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah, Aga Khan III, passed away in July 1957, having designated his
grandson, Prince Karim, to succeed him as the forty-ninth hereditary Imam of the Shi‘a Ismai‘li
Muslim community. Under the leadership of His Highness the Aga Khan, the institutions and
activities of the Ismai‘li Imamat have expanded far beyond their original scope. Over the past
6 A Medium of Discourse, a Vehicle of Discovery and Understanding: The Collection of the Aga Khan Museum

four decades, His Highness the Aga Khan has expressed on numerous occasions his own
engagement with the artistic heritage of Islam. In a speech to the Asia Society, New York,
made in 1979, His Highness reflected on the importance of architectural heritage in Muslim
societies and how it is entwined with matters of faith:

Islam does not deal in dichotomies but in all-encompassing unity. Spirit and body
are one, man and nature are one. What is more, man is answerable to God for
what man has created. Many of our greatest architectural achievements were
designed to reflect the promises of life hereafter, to represent in this world what
we are told of the next. Since all that we see and do resonates on the faith, the
aesthetics of the environment we build and the quality of the social interactions
that take place within those environments, reverberate on our spiritual life. The
physical structure of Islam is therefore an important concern for me, charged as I
am with the leadership of a Muslim community.21

A few passages later, His Highness continues:

... the overwhelming unity of Islamic life which sees no division between body and
spirit, between this world and the next, was a powerful influence on Islamic
architecture. The desire to bring to this world some of the beauty of the hereafter
acted as a constant barrier to the discordant or the haphazard in Islamic styles.
The calligraphy which adorns so much of what we have built was a constant
reminder of spiritual content through its common design, the endless expression
of the name of God.22

Nearly thirty years later, His Highness highlighted this important observation in his
Foreword to the Spirit & Life exhibition:

The Qur’an has inspired works in both art and architecture, and shaped attitudes
and norms that have guided the development of Muslim artistic traditions.
Scientific pursuits, philosophic inquiry and artistic endeavour alike are seen,
within Islam, as a response to the Qur’an’s recurring call to ponder creation as a
way to understand God’s benevolent majesty. Faith challenges the artist, as much
as the mystic, to go beyond the physical – the outward – to unveil that which lies
at the centre and gives life to the periphery. Masterpieces are like the ecstasy of
the mystic: a gesture of the spirit, a stirring of the soul that attempts to capture
that which is ineffable and beyond being.23

In his commitment to create an environment that manifests this understanding, His

Highness the Aga Khan has, over the past decades, established a variety of programmes and
initiatives: in 1977, the Aga Khan Award for Architecture was established to enhance the
understanding and appreciation of Islamic culture as expressed through architecture; also in
1977, the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture was established at Harvard University and
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; the Aga Khan Historic Cities Programme was
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 7

established in the early 1990s to promote the conservation and re-use of buildings and public
spaces in historic cities in the Muslim World; in 1999, ArchNet, a web-based international
community of scholars, students, and professionals working in architecture, planning, landscape
design, and related fields focussed on addressing the built environment in Muslim societies, was
established; and, in 2000, the Aga Khan Music Initiative in Central Asia (AKMICA) was created
to support the efforts of Central Asian musicians and communities to sustain, further develop
and transmit musical traditions that are a vital part of their cultural heritage.
In 1977, His Highness the Aga Khan established, in London, the Institute of Ismaili
Studies to promote scholarship and learning on Islam, and this research institute included a
library devoted to acquiring and collecting manuscripts, books, artefacts and other material of
interest and relevance to Islam. In the initial period, the Institute’s library focused on acquiring
printed textual materials and, although an important collection of manuscripts on various
aspects of Ismai‘li and Shi‘i history had been gathered, a more concerted programme of
acquisitions was initiated in late 1998. Among acquisitions made in 1999 were the tir$z textile
(cat. no. 22), the Qajar Qur’an manuscript (cat. no. 74) and the fifth volume of Ibn S›n$’s
Q$nün f›’l-tibb (cat. no. 94). Besides a number of highly important Qur’an folios and
manuscripts (cat. nos. 1, 3, 17, 30, 47, 48, 74 and 79), additions to the collection in 2000
included two exquisite lacquer penboxes (cat. nos. 59 and 75) and two folios from the
Shahnama of Sh$h Tahm$sp (cat. nos. 120 and 124). During 2001–02, a third folio from Sh$h
Tahm$sp’s Shahnama (cat. no. 122) and further manuscripts (cat. nos. 32 and 98) were added,
as well as a number of outstanding objects, including the carved wooden beam (cat. no. 24),
and fourteenth-century planispheric astrolabe (cat. no. 103). These and other acquisitions,
made in consultation with both Prince Amyn and Prince Sadruddin, provided a strong
framework when, in October 2002, the Aga Khan Development Network announced its
intention to establish a museum dedicated to housing its exceptional collections of Islamic art
in Toronto.24
With this announcement, the task of collection development was continued under the
aegis of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, and astute acquisitions have allowed the collection to
grow to its present form. In 2004, the Mamluk bowl (cat. no. 34), Safavid boat-shaped vessel
(cat. no. 43), scribe’s cabinet (cat. no. 51), bronze lamp holder (cat. no. 52), and a number of
pottery pieces (cat. nos. 111–114) were acquired alongside art works on paper, including the
folio from a monumental Qur’an (cat. no. 11), the calligraphy by Ism$‘›l Jal$yir (cat. no. 49),
and the Qur’an manuscript from Sulawesi (cat. no. 80). In 2005, acquisitions included works
on paper – the manuscript of the ‘101 Nights’ (cat. no. 53) and the miniature of the prince
with mystics (cat. no. 142) – alongside pottery pieces (cat. nos. 9 and 10), as well as the
marble capital (cat. no. 83). The marble stele (cat. no. 7) and the three albarelli (cat. nos. 100-
102) were significant additions to the collection in 2006, alongside three sets of doors (cat.
nos. 84, 85 and 87) acquired in 2007. The Mamluk tray stand (cat. no. 33), the Iznik dish (cat.
no. 70) and the miniature of an Ottoman dignitary (cat. no. 138) were among major
acquisitions in 2008–09, and the most recent acquisitions made earlier this year – the
Ottoman inlaid box (cat. no. 44) and the Safavid hunting carpet (cat. no. 133) – are being
exhibited for the first time.25
The collections of the Aga Khan Museum are still being developed, and it is hoped they
will show, as Prince Amyn has remarked, “the diversity that exists within the cultural
8 A Medium of Discourse, a Vehicle of Discovery and Understanding: The Collection of the Aga Khan Museum

expressions of a single religion”.26 Prince Amyn further elaborates upon this aspect of diversity
as being an integral element of the Museum’s mission: “The mission of the Museum will be to
make the art of Islam in all its diversity better known. It will show the multiplicity of voices with
which Islam has spoken. I hope, too, that it will show something of the dialogue that has
existed between the arts and the aesthetics of the non-Muslim world and the Muslim world”. 27
And as elucidated by His Highness the Aga Khan:

The Aga Khan Museum... is conceived primarily as an educational institution in

the field of Islamic art and culture, a specific mandate unique in North America. It
will be dedicated to presenting Islamic arts and culture in their historic, cultural
and geographical diversity, with the aim of fostering knowledge and
understanding both within Muslim societies and between these societies and
other cultures.28

The mission of the Aga Khan Museum, its collection, and its educational programmes is
to become a medium of discourse, a vehicle of discovery, and “to promote intellectual
openness and tolerance and to create increased cultural understanding”. 29
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 9

1 His Highness the Aga Khan, ‘Foreword’, in Spirit & Life: 23 Spirit & Life, 7–8.
Masterpieces of Islamic Art from the Aga Khan Museum Collection 24 Due to open in 2013, the Aga Khan Museum has been designed
(London 2007), 7. by one of the best known contemporary architects in the world,
2 As quoted in C. E. Bosworth, “A Mediaeval Islamic Prototype of Fumihiko Maki from Japan. Elucidating the choice of Toronto for
the Fountain Pen?”, Journal of Semitic Studies, XXVI/2 (1981), 232. the Aga Khan Museum, Luis Monreal, General Manager of the Aga
3 Ibid. Khan Trust for Culture, explains:

4 As quoted in Heinz Halm, The Fatimids and their Traditions of His Highness thought about several possible locations, initially
Learning (London 1997), 73–74. in London, but gradually the idea emerged that this entity could
be effective in North America. Toronto was the logical choice
5 Ibid., 74. for a number of reasons. The first is the pluralistic environment
6 As quoted in Ghada al-Hijjawi al-Qaddumi (trans. and ed.), Books that exists in Canada, as His Highness as often stated. It is an
of Gifts and Rarities: Kitab al-Hadaya wa al-Tuhaf (Cambridge, MA. environment that is very open, very liberal and very curious
1996), 240. about other cultures and civilizations, including Islam.
7 Ibid., 230–41. Secondly, Toronto is strategically placed – there are sixty to
seventy million people within one hour’s flying distance,
8 Richard Ettinghausen, Oleg Grabar and Marilyn Jenkins-Madina,
constituting a potentially very significant audience for the
Islamic Art and Architecture, 650-1250 (New Haven – London 2001),
Museum. The favourable attitude of government instances and
200.
civil society to this project in Canada was another determining
9 Halm, Fatimids and their Traditions, 94–95. factor. It was also a happy coincidence that a piece of land was
10 See Aga Khan III, The Memoirs of Aga Khan: World Enough and found next to another project that had already been started –
Time (London 1954), 16–20. the Ismaili Centre in Toronto, designed by Charles Correa. His
Highness the Aga Khan availed himself of an opportunity to
11 Aga Khan III, Hafiz and the Place of Iranian Culture in the World
join two large sites and create an interesting landscaping
(London 1936), 5–6.
project in an excellent location.
12 Prince Sadruddin, His Highness the Aga Khan’s uncle, was the
(As quoted in Philip Jodidio, The Aga Khan Museum Toronto
United Nations’ High Commissioner for Refugees, United Nations’
[Munich 2008], 24.)
Coordinator for assistance to Afghanistan and United Nations’
Executive Delegate of Iraq-Turkey border areas. 25 Since 2007, selections of art works from the collection have
been exhibited in various European cities: Barcelona, Berlin,
13 Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, ‘Foreword’, in Sheila R. Canby, Princes,
Lisbon, London, Madrid, Paris Parma, and Toledo.
Poets & Paladins: Islamic and Indian Paintings from the Collection of
Prince and Princess Sadruddin Aga Khan (London 1998), 6. 26 Prince Amyn Aga Khan, as quoted in Jodidio, Aga Khan Museum, 32.
14 Ibid., 7. 27 Ibid., 23.
15 Stuart Cary Welch, ‘Introduction’, in Anthony Welch, Collection of 28 His Highness the Aga Khan, as quoted in Jodidio, Aga Khan
Islamic Art: Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan Volume 1 (Geneva 1972), 8. A Museum, 7.
substantial part of Prince Sadruddin’s collection of Islamic art was 29 Ibid., 10.
presented in a four-volume, limited-edition catalogue that appeared
between 1972 and 1978; volumes 1 and 2 generally included art
works purchased before 1967, and volumes 3 and 4 centred on
purchases made in the nine subsequent years until 1976.
16 See the catalogue by Anthony Welch and Stuart Cary Welch, Arts
of the Islamic Book: the Collection of Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan
(Ithaca 1982).
17 See Canby, Princes, Poets & Paladins.
18 Princess Catherine Aga Khan has generously donated the
showcases and ceramics of the ‘Salon Persan’ in Bellerive Castle,
Geneva, to the Aga Khan Museum, where the room will be
reconstituted.
19 Prince Amyn, His Highness the Aga Khan’s brother, joined the
United Nations Secretariat, Department of Economic and Social
Affairs, following his graduation from Harvard in 1965. Since 1968,
Prince Amyn has been closely involved with the governance of the
principal development institutions of the Imamat. He is Director of
the Aga Khan Foundation (AKF) and a member of the Board of the
Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development (AKFED) and Chairman
of its Executive Committee. Prince Amyn was also deeply involved
in the establishment and the development of the Tourism
Promotion Services (TPS). He is also a Director of the Aga Khan
Trust for Culture (AKTC), which is responsible for the Aga Khan
Museum project.
20 James Stourton, Great Collectors of Our Time: Art Collecting since
1943 (London 2007), 41.
21 Speech given by His Highness the Aga Khan to the Asia Society,
New York, 25 September 1979, reproduced in full at
http://www.iis.ac.uk/view_article.asp?ContentID=101437 [accessed
21 September 2010], n.p.
22 Ibid.
I Early Kufic and the Transition
from Parchment to Paper
12

Prince Amyn Aga Khan

The Word in Muslim Tradition

Of all the Muslim art forms, calligraphy holds pride of place as the foremost and perhaps most
characteristic of the modes of visual expression in Islam. From China to Canada and from
Russia to South Africa, the widespread use of calligraphy still unites Muslims and visibly
differentiates them from the adepts of other religions.
This tradition started with the earliest written versions of the Qur’an in the mid-
seventh century, gained speed between the ninth and tenth centuries when Arabic calligraphy
entered a more codified form, knew a slight decline with the spread of printing through the
Muslim world, but basically enjoyed ten centuries of uninterrupted growth and splendour. It
is a tradition which still endures today among Muslims scattered across the far reaches of
the globe.
Just as the Qur’an and its message pervade every aspect of a Muslim’s life, secular or
religious, material or philosophic and abstract, almost any physical object can bear calligraphy,
whether sacred or secular, whatever its size and use.
Calligraphy is indeed ubiquitous in the arts of Islam. It is perhaps most visible in
architecture, and particularly in places of worship, but it is present on all forms of decorative
arts – from coins to jewellery, textiles, weapons and armour and even household utensils,
painting and, of course, on all manner of written documents such as manuscripts, scientific
documents, political acts, and so forth.
For Muslims, calligraphy has never had the Greek connotations of simply “Beautiful
Writing”. It goes far beyond such a definition and has an importance both deeper and broader.
Beautiful writing existed in the West in the Middle Ages, but largely in monasteries and generally
playing little role in purely secular circles, and it virtually disappeared with the birth of printing.
In Islam, the Divine message was passed through the Prophet, first orally and
subsequently written down as the Qur’an. Muhammad (pbuh) is Allah’s Prophet, a Messenger
who transmits faithfully to humanity Allah’s words addressed directly to him. Muhammad
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 13

being a Messenger, it is his message, the Word of Allah, that is all-important and the Qur’an is
the direct visual embodiment of Allah’s Message.
The written form of the Qur’an is the visible reflection of the Eternal and for mankind the
perpetual ability to glimpse the Divine. Where most other Faiths make use of, or turn around,
figural images to express their essential beliefs, the figural imagery of Islam is largely the
written word, which is held up in opposition to the image. Since the words of the Qur’an are of
Divine origin, both in form and content, it is natural that the word should become the sacred
symbol of Islam.
The written word thus has from the outset a symbolic content for Muslims which
underlines and inspires the aesthetic significance that it developed as calligraphy grew to
become a genuine art form. The written word as a symbol, with both religious and aesthetic
significance, is pervasive and is as important today as it was several thousand years ago.
Contemplation of the written verses of the Qur’an, or of the names of Allah and holy persons,
becomes an aesthetic path to a spiritual, a religious experience.
In this sense, the Word becomes epigraph, a visible manifestation of the Intangible, the
Eternal and Divine. By extension, the Word or name can become monogram – all the more so
as the monogram is a natural bearer of symbolic meaning and content. This tradition endured
right through the nineteenth century, for instance in the Turkish tughras.
Letters themselves, which convey both the text of the Qur’an as well as the ninety-nine
names of Allah, tend thus to become also imbued with a special aura. They were studied with
the greatest care by scribes, scholars, mystics and even lay people, in many periods of Muslim
culture, and the symbolism inherent in the Word is extended to include the individual letter,
individual letters thus becoming imbued with esoteric meanings.
This tendency was perhaps reinforced by the famous Alif L$m M›m letters which occur in
the Qur’an and whose exact significance has been much debated, as also, for instance, by the
fact that the word Allah begins with an Alif which is the first letter of the Arabic alphabet, the
numerical equivalent of one and the symbol of Divine unity, and that the Prophet’s name
begins with M›m.
It was thus not unnatural that in the Muslim world the Word should have come
frequently to be considered to possess talismanic properties, or that individual letters should
have been thought by some to have cabalistic and mystical qualities as well as pictorial
associations.
Script is the binding visual medium not only of Muslims through the Qur’an, but also
between the various peoples and minorities forming the Muslim Umma. It thus becomes the
formal expression of Islam’s universality and of its universal aspirations. The visible testimony
of Islam on buildings, objects and elsewhere, was an affirmation of religious and cultural
belonging and it was this affirmation which held a vital social function. The role of calligraphy
in uniting believers in Islam and in strengthening their feeling of having their own religious
identity cannot be overstated.
The Arabic script lends itself by its very nature to a decorative treatment, with its
diacritics that can be used purely or largely as embellishment, and its mixture of ascending
14 The Word in Muslim Tradition

verticals, descending curves, discreet horizontals and isolated letters which give it a measured
visual balance, in the static perfection of the individual forms of different isolated letters, as
well as visual rhythm of upward and downward movement, straight and circular forms.
The range of possibilities with the Arabic script is almost limitless: words and individual
letters can be compacted or drawn out, curved into almost any shape and embellished in
almost any way. Perhaps only the scripts of China and of the civilizations of regions under
Chinese influence present such possibilities and I wonder whether even they have the flexibility
of the Arabic script and its consequent aesthetic power. It is meant to be both read and
admired. Islamic calligraphy blends content and design which, whether legible or not, conveys,
when used on religious text, the central symbol of Faith.
The calligrapher is an artist who copies, and the text which he has to copy is given in
advance. As the meaning of what he writes unfolds and simultaneously images appear, logic
and imagination are combined and calligraphy becomes enchantment, writing itself tends to
become an absolute, the Absolute. As I have indicated, although Islamic calligraphy assumes to
some extent the Greek attitude that writing is a fine garment clothing meaning (as Abü Hayy$n
al-Tawh›d› put it, “Hand-writing is jewellery fashioned by the hand from the pure gold of the
intellect. It is also a brocade woven by the pen with the thread of discernment”), in part Islamic
calligraphy also assumes the status of a fundamentally sacred character.
The Qur’an makes several references to the pen and to writing, in particular pointing out
that Allah teaches by the pen (and teaches man) that which he does not know. As the Qur’an is
eternal, both in content and form, the Word of God embodied in physical form in the process
of Divine emanation, so the pen becomes an actual agent of creation.
Legibility, in fact, becomes of minor importance, since calligraphy always conveys and
constitutes by its very essence the central symbol of Faith. The attitude that the intrinsic
meaning or content is secondary to the beauty, i.e. to the form and the abstraction of the
letters considered as artistic composition, can lead one to positions not far distant from the
“art for art’s sake” school of the West, so many centuries later. Abu’l Fazl, author of the
Akbar-n$ma in the late sixteenth century, says that “the written letter is spiritual geometry
emanating from the pen of invention”. A closeness to Plato’s view that writing is the geometry
of the soul is evident.
Monumental architectural inscriptions, like those in tiny household objects, were more
often observed and admired than read. If religious in content – that is, if extracted from the
Qur’an – for most Muslims the recognition and the understanding of part of the inscription
sufficed for him or her to know what the rest of the inscription said and for the viewer to
recognize that he found himself before a building or an object emanating from his own culture
and tying him to his religious brethren. Such inscriptions, however, if unread or even illegible to
the mass of believers, served a symbolic function confirming the power and rectitude of Islam
simply by their presence.
Every human in Islam is invited to copy the text of the Qur’an and to do so in the most
beautiful manner possible. Calligraphy appears in religion as it does in political and cultural life.
It is not an art reserved to any particular group or minority. It is intended to produce a beautiful
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 15

work of art and simultaneously to constitute a pious act of faith, to be practised by any man,
whether a professional scribe or a common believer. Throughout Muslim literature and
philosophy one finds connections between moral rectitude and calligraphic excellence.
Civilization and sedentary culture developed rapidly throughout the expanding Muslim
empire in the early years. Books were copied and recopied, they were written and bound.
Libraries were created and filled with them, and the libraries vied with each other and rivalled
each other in their collections. These copies covered everything from biographies to scientific
treatises, works of literature, poetry, letters, devotional literature, works of philosophy and
many other subjects and they not only preserved culture but they enabled (and indeed were
essential to) the dissemination of knowledge throughout the Islamic world.
Most skilled calligraphers were also scholars and many were also poets and prose
writers. Indeed, the later master calligraphers came to be respected both as scholars and
artists, just as Renaissance painters gained greater respect among intellectuals following the
invention of one point perspective. It strikes me though, that the “Renaissance man” of the
Islamic world, well-versed in astronomy and medicine, botany and the arts, philosophy and
mathematics, preceded his erudite Italian counterpart by several hundred years. There is a link,
both historic and essential, between the development of calligraphy and the development of
scientific and philosophical thought.
The pervasiveness of this one single art form in Islamic culture did not have a stultifying
effect, partly because the development and the use of different scripts and partly because of the
inventive way in which Islamic calligraphy is treated, yielding simultaneously fascination and
variety. The invention of distinctive calligraphic styles went very fast and largely endured even
after the tenth century. From the outset, calligraphy has played a role in bringing
simultaneously unity and diversity to the arts of Islam.
This ethnic variety and historical debt still vitalises Islamic culture. Traditional motifs and
styles can be traced in contemporary Muslim art even as modern Muslim artists explore new
techniques such as mixed media or collage, and adopt new formats. There is a continuing
tradition that has maintained its full diversity from spectacular monuments to infinitely refined,
if modest, amulets, garments and household wares.
For the time being, the collection of the future Aga Khan Museum, planned to open in
Toronto in 2013, is composed of the classical arts of the Islamic world, from the eighth to the
eighteenth century. It incorporates the important collection of works on paper collected by my
uncle, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan – essentially calligraphies and manuscripts, miniatures,
illustrations and paintings – as well as several hundred objects acquired by my brother over the
last twenty years with a view to the creation of this museum. Many of these objects are adorned
with calligraphy – and in all imaginable styles of writing. In the exhibition presented at the
Sabanc› Museum, they are the counterpoint to works on paper.
My hope is that visitors to the exhibition, and people who peruse this catalogue, will
understand more fully the depth and vitality of an essential tradition of Islam.
16

Oleg Grabar

The Book in the Islamic World

Whether at the learned level of academic discourse, in the simplified and usually poorly
informed statements of the media, the strident proclamations of religious extremists, or the
mundane world of the general public, the world of Islam is almost always associated with “The
Book,” the Qur’an, the written record of the prophetic revelation which created Islam and with
which Islamic thought, beliefs, and practice are forever bound. Other religious systems, most
strikingly Judaism and Christianity but many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism as well, also
used holy, if not always sacred, books in a great variety of ways, but none gave to one book the
uniqueness of the Qur’an for Muslims; for many of them, it is the eternally existing uncreated
Word of God.
This conception of an extraordinary and, so to speak, timeless Book is presumed to have
had many consequences in the world of art, of material creativity, of man-made things in
general, even though there is no clear evidence of its direct and immediate impact on the arts.
Nor am I aware of an incident or of a statement suggesting that it was a model for something
else. Much in the contemporary explanations of the many old Qur’anic fragments and of the
social and aesthetic uses of the Book is a construct whose logic satisfies academic, social, or
pious minds rather than an explanation justified by actual documents.
In the paragraphs which follow I will identify and then comment upon a few of the ways
in which the belief in a unique Book may have affected the making of books in general and their
decoration. These are the ways through which one can study and admire many of the treasures
in the exhibition.
One material reflection of this uniqueness of the Book has been that, almost from the
very beginning of Islam in the seventh century, the text of the Qur’an acquired one or more
scripts, usually angular ones known as “Kufic”. That script was distinguished visually from a
cursive naskh› script used for more mundane subjects for writing, as on papyri dealing with taxes
or appointments. Contemporary scholarly thought has understood this development as the
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 17

creation of calligraphy, “beautiful writing,” as a form of art developed during the first decades of
Islamic history. Although much studied in recent years and with much progress in their
understanding, the many fragments from these early manuscripts, of which there are several
examples in the exhibition, are still difficult to date (between the seventh and the tenth
centuries) and to localize (were they Syrian, Iraqi, Yemeni, or Arabian?) properly. But, perhaps
more importantly, we have no idea of the technical practice or aesthetic inspiration used for the
creation of these scripts and especially for the contemporary evaluation and judgement of the
results. Some of these early Qur’ans were restricted to private reading, others were meant for
collective recitation. In some cases, it has even been argued that each page was composed so
as to fit the needs of groups of public reciters, something comparable to much later sheets of
Psalter fragments for church reciters in Christian liturgies. In all instances, it can be assumed
that, at least after around 700 CE, all manuscripts copied a single model for the text, but could
use different variants of scripts, thus reflecting some external, social or even political, perhaps
pious, function and interpretation of forms.
Other features affected the development of scripts and of books. One was the
appearance of paper in the second half of the eighth century which made the making of books
less expensive and which increased the number of places where copying could take place.
Another feature was the development of techniques of power in the central government,
especially after the establishment of the ‘Abbasid caliphate in Iraq around 750 CE. Successful
governance required a consistent and relatively easily read script to transmit orders and to
exchange documents and information. A tendency toward standardization was a means of
control. From the tenth century technical reforms attributed to the vizier Ibn Muqla all the way to
the variety of scripts defined and practiced by the great calligrapher Y$qut in the thirteenth
century, a set of canonical cursive scripts replaced the old angular types, which only remained in
occasional use for Qur’ans or for sections of the holy book in order to enhance its visual quality.
There is thus a continuity and an evolution in the copying of Qur’ans and, after c. 1300
in Mongol Iran or Mamluk Egypt, eventually in Ottoman Istanbul and Safavid Iran, magnificent
and luxurious codices of the holy book were made, of which there are several examples in the
exhibition. They all show technical perfection in writing and decoration; the divisions within the
text are clearly indicated; the titles of Suras are often written in a different script from the one
used for the text and are surrounded by illuminations, usually in gold or on a golden
background. The names and titles of illustrious patrons as well as the date of production or all
sorts of statistical lists of the number of signs, letters or words in the Qur’an are usually
included in the composition of the pages and the layout of the book. Altogether, there is
something classically proper, formally restricted, about these Qur’ans. They are beautiful, richly
soothing to the senses, but perhaps without visual excitement in the perfection of their
designs. Curiously, it is the rather unique and relatively late Chinese Qur’an in the exhibition
which strikes the viewer with its originality (cat. no. 82). It is not perfect in design, nor is its
script particularly refined, but its decorative medallions and its occasionally very original
combination of letters in the margins clearly reflect the desire to make a uniquely striking work
of art, not to copy a standard manner, however high its quality.
18 The Book in the Islamic World

In order to understand in full these manuscripts within a fairly well established history
which begins with the appearance of Islam, we are still lacking the essential element of the
contemporary judgment passed on them. How were they read by believers who usually knew
the text by heart? As reminders of things to do or as revelations affecting private piety? Was
there some special psychological need to read passages already inscribed in one’s memory?
Perhaps, as so often with Christian liturgies, passages were recited without being understood.
Their very recitation was the act of piety, not the understanding of their meaning. Alternately, it
is possible that these Qur’ans were not so much meant to be read as they were to be owned.
They were part of the pious baggage or treasure belonging to the faithful, from whose perusal,
at times purely haphazard, one could derive solace or simply act out one’s faith. In fact, in
Ottoman times, some Qur’ans were used as divination books to answer queries about the
personal needs of the believers. And it is a striking feature of taste throughout Islamic history
that pompously large manuscripts, like the one made for Timur which had to be carried in a
wheelbarrow and for which impressive stone stands still exist in Samarqand (cat. no. 30), were
made alongside minuscule Qur’ans on a single sheet of paper or in tiny hexagonal boxes,
whose texts cannot be really read, at best recalled, but whose physical presence among one’s
possessions was a testimony of faith and piety.
In short, there is still a lot to learn about the many available manuscripts of the Holy
Book. Some of this learning may well flow from detailed analyses of individual pages or
manuscripts. Some may emerge from a better understanding of the human and social settings
in which they were used. Most of it will come from a better awareness than we currently have of
the judgments of those who, even today, admire both the writing and the book.
While Qur’ans form the most unique corpus of fancy books produced from the Atlantic
Ocean to Indonesia or China, they were not the only texts to become books in Islamic
civilization. Especially after the development of paper in the late eighth century, books became
the most common way of acquiring knowledge, developing thought, spreading ideas and
knowledge wherever Islam went, eventually making it available beyond the frontiers of the
Islamic world. Initially these books were all in Arabic, whether they were copied in Central Asia
or in Andalusia. Many stories have been preserved about the large size of some private,
palatial, or public libraries as early as the tenth century, and the contrast is particularly striking
with the Christian world and its monastic libraries with a few volumes of sacred texts on
parchment. Some collections had even several copies of the same text, implying thereby an
instinct for hoarding books, a form of speculation in acquiring books, or reflecting some more
practical purpose we have yet to figure out. This hoarding can easily be seen in the manuscript
collections of Istanbul. Originally attached to religious institutions, most of them contain many
copies of the same text.
From the thirteenth century onward, other languages appear for books, the most
common one being Persian, and it is interesting to note that very soon afterwards several fancy
calligraphic scripts appeared for the transmission of Persian literature in general and poetry in
particular. These new scripts were usually very delicate and elegant. In contradistinction to
earlier Arabic scripts, they did not lend themselves easily to monumental inscriptions, but they
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 19

revolutionised the design of individual pages, especially for poetical texts usually copied in
several columns. At times single pages with elaborately copied poems and more or less fancy
illuminations were kept in albums together with images of all sorts (cat. no. 147). What we see
today as a book was in fact the repository, almost a museum, of treasures made for the albums
in which they were found or gathered from various sources. These book-albums contain some
of the most amazing treasures of Islamic art next to unique historical documents without
particular aesthetic value.
When they were not albums with exhibitions of works of art, what were these books other
than Qur’ans, regardless of the languages in which they were written? And how should we look
at them today?
Sometimes, they were simply texts of history, theology, law, philosophy, literature and
whatever else concerned the elites of Muslim societies. Their interest, beyond curiosity,
disappears once the text is found in print and it is only a form of simple-minded romanticism
that explains the pleasure we can encounter in touching, as I did decades ago in an Istanbul
library, a copy of the Maq$m$t of al-Har›r› that had been put together by the author himself, or
for him, some time in the eleventh century. The existence of such manuscripts, like Ibn S›n$’s in
the exhibition (cat. no. 94), can help in defining the history of a text but is of secondary value for
the collector of works of art.
A special case can be made around what are usually called “scientific” manuscripts,
depictions of the heavenly bodies, technological manuals like various books on engineering
practices, long catalogues of plants usually with some medicinal purpose, or books on the
“usefulness” of animals which are a mixture of scientific observations and legendary accounts
about real or fictional animals. These manuscripts were often illustrated, especially in the
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, and some of them, like the exhibition’s own book on the
usefulness of animals (cat. no. 95), comprise carefully composed pages in which images, titles,
and stories are successfully intertwined. The subjects of these pages and books are easy to
understand and to identify, but how should we look at them today? One answer is purely
codicological, as we seek to understand and explain the variety of means scribes and
illustrators (at times the same individual) have used to present plants or animals meaningless
to us and probably of little use to the physician and pharmacist of the time. Each drawing or
each page must be seen as a sort of advertisement for much more than itself, as an illustration
of the range of information available to the owner or user of the whole book. Another answer is
more physical, more sensuous. We must see these pages as demonstrations of a deep-seated
desire to make practical purposes – the reading of a book, the usefulness of a plant, the story
of an animal – attractive to the senses, in the ways in which we today are more easily attracted,
if not seduced, by the advertisements for products than by the products themselves. The whole
issue of the visual and psychological impact of these illustrations to technical and restricted
texts still requires more scholarly attention than it has received.
Finally, there are books with literary subjects provided with images reflecting the stories
found in the books. Here we have an art of painting penetrating into the fabric of the book and
other essays will discuss the ways in which this art of painting operated then and can still affect
20 The Book in the Islamic World

us today. Images transform our relationship to the book, in the sense that they are often
separated from the text which surrounded them and become works of painting rather than
pages of a book. From our point of view in this essay of understanding the book, their
importance is difficult to evaluate. Should they be seen separately from the rest of the book? Or
should we develop a way of looking at a book and see its images together with its text and all
the illuminations found in it? For the Qur’ans we know more or less the forms of belief and
piety that were present in the minds of every Muslim. But we are far less informed about the
ways in which secular literature like the epic of the Shahnama or the lyric mode, often tinged
with mysticism, of Niz$m›’s Khamsa or of the poems of H$fiz and J$m›, affected those who knew
them. How important were images to those who read the poems? Are they involved in a better
understanding of the text or simply ornaments?
There is still much work to be done. And, beyond the inner structure of the book with its
texts and decoration, the making of the book developed a set of side activities: bookbinding,
many varieties in the making of the paper, many uses of colours and pens of different sizes,
and so forth. This technology of the book affected everything in it, from its appearance to its
format and the design of individual pages. The book in the Islamic world was a universe of its
own that we are only beginning to discover.
Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 21
Early Kufic and the Transition
from Parchment to Paper

Catalogue Entr›es 1 — 26
Calligraphy is the major theme of Islamic visual culture, primarily because of the
sacred significance of written Arabic as the language of the Qur’anic revelation.
The tremendous spiritual authority of the Qur’an generated a wider respect for the
written word, pens, calligraphers and Arabic language across Islamic culture, and
also made considerable early demands upon the art of writing and its development.
This section of the exhibition demonstrates how Muslim calligraphers developed
Arabic scripts in response to a remit of daunting responsibility: to record and
transmit the Qur’an, the text of supreme spiritual, political and legal importance in
the Islamic world. These scripts not only needed to be clear and unambiguous, but
were also required to appropriately beautify and exalt the recording of the divine
transmission, and to promote a new creed.
Early Qur’ans were written on vellum, or animal skin, and usually laid out in a
horizontal format. Elements of punctuation, orthography and text-markers counting
verses and chapters could be rendered in gold, silver, plain colour or illuminated
designs (cat. no. 3), but the strongest aspect of these early manuscripts is their
striking calligraphy (cat. nos 4, 11). Calligraphers exploited the remarkable elastic
quality of Arabic script, stretching words and letter-combinations in order to fit the
page area in a harmonious fashion, without distorting the style of the script. The
remarkable Blue Qur’an (cat. no. 2) not only demonstrates this subtle calligraphic
technique, but also offers a rare and lavish format, that of gold script (chrysography)
written upon deep blue indigo-dyed vellum, to superb graphic effect. More
commonly, the graphic contrast was achieved with dark brown or black ink written
upon pale cream vellum. This aesthetic seems to have been imitated with some wit
by ceramic artists in the northeastern Iranian provinces of Khurasan and Transoxiana
(cat. nos 8–10). Earthenware vessels and plates were covered with a white slip and
inscribed with Arabic proverbs in dark brown slip, written in fine calligraphy distinctly
reminiscent of contemporary luxury manuscripts (cat. Nos 9, 12, 13, 18, 20). One
example here (cat. no. 10) reverses the colour formula, with some humour.
24 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

1 Qur’an leaf in gold Kufic script

North Africa, ninth or tenth century This page is one of the few surviving folios from an extremely lavish early Qur’an manuscript, two other leaves
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold
from which are now in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Tunis. Like the famous Blue Qur’an (cat. no. 2), the
on vellum
17.9 x 26 cm laborious and expensive process of chrysography has been employed on this folio to create gold letters in Kufic
Inv.: AKM00479 script: the letter forms were first written in glue, then filled in with a solution containing a suspension of finely-
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 35 (no. 2); ground gold, and finally outlined in a fine brown ink. By thus creating a painstaking “painting” of each word, the
AKTC 2007b, p. 31 (no. 2);
scribe was in fact imitating the forms of letters executed with a single stroke of the pen: see the slanted terminals
Makariou 2007, p. 112 (no. 36);
AKTC 2009a, p. 32 (no. 1); AKTC of the letter shafts, which reproduce those created by a skilled calligrapher with a reed pen. A further interesting
2009b, p. 32 (no. 1); AKTC 2010a, aspect of this manuscript is the inclusion of red, blue and green vocalisation dots next to individual letters,
p. 33 (no. 1). which were sometimes used to aid reading and recitation of the rather austere Kufic script employed in Qur’ans
of this period. Additionally, the small letter kaf which is contained within a rosette on the second bottom line is a
marker in the abjad system of verse division, whereby every letter of the Arabic alphabet is assigned a numerical
value corresponding with a verse number in the chapter. Here kaf has been assigned the value twenty and
signals the end of the twentieth verse of the Sura, in this case Sura Qaf (50: 14–22).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 25

Folio from the “Blue Qur’an” 2

This folio comes from the renowned and unique “Blue Qur’an”, perhaps the most famous of all early Qur’an North Africa (?), tenth century
or earlier
manuscripts. The text is from Surat al-Baqara (2: 148–155). The complex art of writing letters in gold, known as
Ink, gold and silver on indigo-dyed
chrysography, can be seen on other Qur’anic manuscripts from the early period, but no other surviving vellum
manuscripts of the Qur’an make a comparable exploitation of the dramatic potential of gold lettering with that 28.5 x 35.3 cm
achieved here through the use of a deep blue ground. Bloom has proposed that other gold-on-blue manuscripts Inv.: AKM00248
Publ.: Raeuber 1979, fig. 5;
of the Qur’an were recorded in Fatimid times but have since been lost; the Blue Qur’an has also been linked with
Welch–Welch 1982, no. 1; AKTC
contemporary Byzantine manuscripts written in gold on vellum painted with murex purple, although the so- 2007a, p. 36 (no. 3); AKTC 2007b,
called “purple codices” that survive are generally much more rosy in colour and do not carry the same p. 32 (no. 3); AKTC 2008b.
magisterial depth of contrast as that seen in the Blue Qur’an. On the basis of both the colour scheme and the
stately, measured Kufic script of the manuscript, the regularity of which has been achieved through the use of
ruling lines, comparisons have frequently been made with the gold-on-blue mosaic inscription found in the
interior of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem (completed 691). In spite of this very early point of comparison,
recent scholarship has largely settled on a site of production in Fatimid North Africa prior to the conquest of
Egypt in 969; however, a very recent article has opened discussion on this enigmatic masterpiece once more by
suggesting an early Abbasid date and more eastern provenance for the Blue Qur’an (George 2009).
26 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

3 Qur’an leaf with gold Kufic script

North Africa, ninth or tenth century This unusual Qur’an folio gives the complete text of the final Sura of the Qur’an, Surat al-Nas (114: 1–6). The
Ink, colours and gold on vellum
verse, one of the shortest in the Qur’an, has been written in an elongated Kufic script, again executed in the
16 x 25 cm
Inv.: AKM00478 technique of chrysography (see cat. nos 1 and 2) and, like cat. no. 1, includes vocalisation dots. In this instance
Publ.: Makariou 2007, p. 110 (no. 35). not only have the gold letters of the Sura been outlined in brown ink, but a further outline has also been created
around each word by the use of delicate brown hatching in the blank space between the lines of text, leaving only
a fine margin of clear ground outlined around the sacred words. This strong decorative impulse is not limited to
the text itself. The illuminator, who may have been the same person as the scribe, has built up an extremely
dense arrangement of ornamental blocks around the central text panel: delicate vinescroll motifs executed in ink
have been framed by tight panels of interlace in gold, alternating with squares of a repeating geometric design
picked out in gold and ink. The overall effect is one of the utmost luxury with the golden text itself becoming a
decorative component of the overall design whilst simultaneously retaining its sacred primacy. A written
reference on the verso of this leaf states that the manuscript was made in the Great Mosque of Qayrawan in
Tunisia; it is not known at present whether the whole manuscript would have been as densely and expensively
illuminated as this final Sura.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 27

Qur’an folio in Kufic script 4

The progressive refinement of the letter forms enacted by individual scribes took the script type that is very North Africa or Near East, tenth
century
generally referred to as “Kufic” in a number of different directions. This leaf from a dispersed Qur’an presents
Ink, opaque watercolours and gold
Surat al-Nisa (4: 52–56). The elongation and attenuation of the script is coupled with an extraordinary level of on parchment
control on the part of the scribe. For example, in addition to near-perfect regularity, the crescent-like terminal 23.8 x 33.1 cm
letters lying below the baseline also attest to a masterful control of the pen in order to maximise the width of the Inv.: AKM00482
Publ.: AKTC 2008a, pp. 46–47
stroke at both the beginning and end of the curve. This particular script style is only found on two known
(no. 3).
manuscripts, both now dispersed: pages from these are now held in the National Library, Tunis; the Museum of
Islamic Arts, Qayrawan; the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; the Al-Sabah Collection, Kuwait, and the Nasser D.
Khalili Collection, London, and two further folios are held in the Aga Khan Museum collection, AKM00481 and
AKM00483. Leaves from this manuscript are also characterised by the use of red, green and yellow dots for
vocalisation, short black diacritical lines, triangular arrangements of six gold dots (as seen on the middle line
here) functioning as verse markers, and large medallions with gold illumination. In addition to the very high
quality of the scribal execution and illumination, the huge amount of breathing space given to the script with
only three lines of text presented on each page must have made this manuscript a colossally costly undertaking:
parchment was an extremely expensive material to produce.
28 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

5 Beam with Qur’anic inscription

Egypt, Tulunid, ninth century Woodwork from the early and medieval periods is very rare today because of its perishable nature, and this
Carved wood
wooden beam is one of only a scarce handful of surviving inscribed wooden elements produced under the
Length: 120 cm
Inv.: AKM00701 Tulunids, the first independent Islamic dynasty of Egypt. The beam contains both mortice and tenon joints and
Publ.: AKTC 2009a, pp. 114–115 may have been originally intended to form part of a mosque furnishing such as a Qur’an stand, rather than
(no. 64); AKTC 2009b, pp. 114–115 functioning as an architectural element. The use of a form of Kufic for the Qur’anic inscription that decorates
(no. 64); AKTC 2010a, pp. 116–117
this object demonstrates the broad application of that script in sacred contexts, and recalls the early
(no. 66).
development of Kufic as an architectural and lapidary script. The strong baseline and gravity of Kufic script made
it eminently suitable for the communication of the Qur’anic message in both architectural contexts and
manuscripts, and in time the script itself seemed to acquire something of an aura of sanctity through association
with the sacred text. The inscription on this piece contains verses from the sixty-seventh Sura of the Qur’an,
Surat al-Mulk (67: 13–14) “[13] And whether ye hide your word or publish it, He certainly has [full] knowledge, of
the secrets of [all] hearts. [14] Should He not know, He that created? and He is the One that understands the
finest mysteries [and] is well-acquainted [with them]” (...[a]jharü bih› innahü ‘al›mun bi-dh$ti al-sudür. A-l$ ya‘lamu
man khalaqa wahuwa al-lat[›f]...).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 29

Architectural fragment 6

Egypt, owing to its climate, presents a more complete story of carved woodwork from the early Islamic period than Fatimid Egypt, tenth or
eleventh century
many other countries: the earliest surviving pieces of Egyptian Islamic woodwork are from the seventh century and
Carved wood
show a strong connection with Coptic artistic traditions (Contadini 1998, pp. 111–112). The Fatimid period in Egypt Length: 28.5 cm
(969–1171) saw the development of more elaborate and complex woodcarving designs, as woodwork came into its Inv.: AKM00629
own as an artistic medium in Islamic North Africa, and very ornate examples of figural woodcarving have survived Unpublished
from the eleventh century. Far more austere in appearance are these two lines of carved inscription without any
decoration, which have much in common with architectural inscriptions of the time found on stone. The text on
this fragment has not yet been deciphered: it may well be Qur’anic, and the wooden fragment that bears it may
have been part of an architectural element. Although rather thickly cut, the style of the Kufic script shows the
spatulate endings to the letter shafts that would be subsequently elaborated into floriated Kufic (see cat. no. 7).
30 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

7 Funerary stele

North Africa, dated 377 H/ 987 CE There is a long tradition of inscribed marble funerary steles in the Islamic world. This stele is a fine example of
Carved marble
North African production, typically Tunisian, during the tenth and eleventh centuries. The fifteen-line Kufic
Height: 59.7 cm
Inv.: AKM00662 inscription includes the name of someone who was possibly a leather merchant (jallad, although this could also
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, pp. 72–73 imply the profession of a torturer, according to Abdullah Ghouchani). Mid-Sha‘ban 376 H / 29 December 986 CE
(no. 42); AKTC 2007b, pp. 68–69 is the date given for his death and for the collection of his body by his brother from the city in which he died. The
(no. 42); AKTC 2009a, pp. 104–105
date inscribed for his burial in another city, most likely his hometown, is mid-Jumada 377 H / 15 October 987 CE,
(no. 58); AKTC 2009b, pp. 104–105
(no. 58); AKTC 2010a, p. 107 (no. 59). which means he was interred some ten months after he died. The city of death has been read as Cairo (Misr) but
also as Mansuf. The stele has been made from a reused piece of architectural marble, in this case a Roman
baluster with large scrolling acanthus leaves carved in deep intaglio, as can be seen from the back view. The use
of marble spolia in this manner for a funerary marker indicates both the prestige and scarcity of the material in
areas such as North Africa. The carving of the Kufic inscription demonstrates the departure from the more
restrained manuscript styles that had taken place in architectural scripts: the letters are lively, closely crowded
and vertical in emphasis, with little space between the lines; foliation has begun to take place on the letter shafts,
as their exaggeratedly thick trumpet-like serifs begin to turn into vegetal volutes.
32 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

8 Vase

Khurasan (Nishapur) or The calligraphic ceramics of the eastern Iranian world that were produced in the late ninth and tenth centuries
Transoxiana (Samarqand), late
must, at their best, be ranked alongside the great calligraphic achievements in the more typical media of
ninth or tenth century
Earthenware, white slip with black manuscripts and architectural decoration. Rather than relying on expensive or luxurious materials, the greatest
slip decoration under a transparent practitioners of this craft used only earthenware, most commonly covered in a white slip (a semi-fluid coloured
glaze clay) and decorated with black or dark brown slip, sometimes with touches of red, to create calligraphic
Height 19.8 cm
masterpieces. A final coating of transparent glaze sealed the decoration. The inscription reads Baraka li-sahibihi
Inv.: AKM00544
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 174 (no. 148); (“blessing to its owner”). Although the message of this vase is a wholly formulaic expression, found on a huge
AKTC 2007b, p. 174 (no. 148); number of mid-status objects from across the medieval Islamic world, the inscription has been executed with a
AKTC 2008a, pp. 274–275 (no. 107); degree of skill that lifts the piece to an altogether higher artistic plane. The debt this object owes to manuscript
AKTC 2009a, p. 170 (no. 122);
calligraphy is clear in the exaggerated tapering uprights on the upper surface of each vertical letter, mimicking
AKTC 2009b, p.170 (no. 122);
AKTC 2010a, p. 170 (no. 124). the slanted pen-work of scribal letter forms, and in the remarkable degree of comfort with empty space exhibited
in the design of this piece and related ceramics (cat. nos. 9 and 10).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 33

Dish 9

The fine Kufic inscription on this dish displays the features that are most prized in slip-painted calligraphic wares Tashkent, late ninth or tenth century
of this period. The rhythm and balance of the near-black script, with its elongated shafts forming spokes towards Earthenware, white slip with dark
brown and red slip decoration
the centre around which the radial design turns, is punctuated by the smaller repeated inscription in red. The
under a transparent glaze
overall message of the inscription is fairly typical of this group of wares, which generally present pious aphorisms Diameter: 34.9 cm
of this type: the Arabic inscription “Generosity is the disposition of the dwellers of Paradise” (al-jud min akhlaq Inv.: AKM00546
ahl al-janna) is written in dark brown, and “Good health” (al-sala[ma]) in red. The frequency with which these Publ.: Ilyasova–Imamberdyev 2005,
dishes allude to noble qualities within the context of food, eating or health suggests that they may have been 93 fig. 4; AKTC 2007a, p. 174 (no.
149); AKTC 2007b, p. 175 (no. 149);
intended as tableware, rather than purely decorative pieces, although the lack of reliable archaeological data Makariou 2007, pp. 176–177 (no.
makes it frustratingly difficult to gauge their original social context. Epigraphic slipwares of this type have been 62); AKTC 2009a, p. 171 (no. 123);
excavated at or attributed to centres of production at Nishapur and Afrasiyab (old Samarqand), and are AKTC 2009b, p. 171 (no. 123); AKTC
presumed to have been made for local consumption rather than mass export: they are not found in excavations 2010a, pp. 170–171 (no. 125).
west of central Iran or at Rayy. These wares, along with a great number of other styles of ceramic decoration, are
commonly associated with the Samanids, the first native Persian dynasty in Greater Iran after the Arab conquest,
who ruled Khurasan and Transoxiana in the tenth century.
34 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

10 Dish

Khurasan or Transoxiana, ninth or This dish employs the tonal inverse of cat. no. 9 to equally striking effect. Samanid ceramics that employ a white-
tenth century
on-black colour scheme are much less common than their black-on-white counterparts, and it has been
Earthenware, black slip with white
slip decoration under a transparent suggested by Wilkinson that the high-quality examples of this colour scheme found at Nishapur were imports. A
glaze large number of white-on-black wares of apparently local manufacture were also found at Nishapur, but these
Diameter 33.5 cm tend to have far less carefully-executed inscriptions, with no sharpening or tidying of the outlines, and are not
Inv.: AKM00545
really comparable with the example displayed here in terms of the quality of their inscriptions. Letter features that
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 174 (no. 150);
AKTC 2007b, p. 175 (no. 150); owe much to developments in manuscript calligraphy, such as the interlaced lam-alif that curves back on itself
Makariou 2007, pp. 178–179 (no. like a pair of callipers or the greatly exaggerated distance between certain letters (see cat. no. 12), are here
63); AKTC 2009a, p.171 (no. 124); employed as compositional devices and very successfully adapted to the radial format of the dish. The
AKTC 2009b, p.171 (no. 124); AKTC
inscription in Arabic reads as: “Be aware of the fool, do not associate with him, and do not trust the bewildered
2010a, pp. 170–171 (no. 126).
admirer. With blessing” (Iyyaka wa-l-ahmaq la tu‘ashiruhu wa-l-ta’ih al-mu‘jab la tujawiruhu. Bi-l baraka).
36 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

11 Large Qur’an leaf in Kufic script

North Africa, eighth century The very earliest extant Qur’an fragments were written in a script that slants to the right, known as Hijazi after
Ink on parchment the tenth-century scholar Ibn al-Nadim’s attribution of that script to the Hijaz region of the Arabian peninsula,
55 x 70 cm
and were normally inscribed in parchment manuscripts of vertical format. Subsequent developments saw
Inv.: AKM00475
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 34 (no. 1); horizontally oriented Qur’an manuscripts come to the fore, and the horizontal format remained the standard for
AKTC 2007b, pp. 30–31 (no. 1); the most luxurious Qur’ans for several centuries. Simultaneously, the more refined and regulated Kufic script
Makariou 2007, pp. 106–107 (no. evolved rapidly into the script of choice for religious texts. This example is unusually large – most early Qur’ans
33); AKTC 2008a, p. 42 (no. 1).
are relatively small – but it is typical of early Kufic examples inasmuch as it has no diacritical or vocalization
marks to aid reading and recitation, and makes no use of gold decoration. Verse endings are marked by little
panels of diagonal lines, but the strong, well-modulated Kufic script is largely left to speak for itself. The text is
from Surat al-Anbiya’ (21: 76–82). The extensive use of mashq, a horizontal elongation of certain letters, gives the
text a stately visual rhythm: the fifth line contains a particularly pronounced example of this. The folio comes
from a monumental Qur’an of which approximately one third is held in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, while individual
leaves are held in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, and the Forschungs-und Landesbibliothek, Gotha. The
manuscript was held in St. Petersburg in the nineteenth century and it is conjectured that it must have travelled
along the silk roads at some point in its history, reminding us that even the largest manuscripts are portable,
and that highly regarded objects have a tendency to travel.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 37

Fragment of Juz’ Thirty of the Qur’an 12

The Qur’an can be divided into thirty even parts, or Juz’, so that one section may be read on each day of the Iran or Iraq, eleventh century
Ink and gold on paper
month. Thirty-volume Qur’an sets were produced, and these folios are from the final volume of such a set, Juz’
25.4 x 19.5 cm
Thirty. The opening pages shown here display the first verses of Surat al-Naba’ (78: 1–5) with only three lines to a Inv.: AKM00261
page and densely ornamented border panels to mark its special status as the start of both a new Juz’ and a new Publ.: Welch 1972b, pp. 21–22 and
Sura: subsequent leaves employ five lines to the page, still richly decorated with gold roundels for abjad verse- 25–27; Welch 1979a, pp. 62–63
(no. 12), Makariou 2007, pp.
counters and text markers. The distinctive angular script of this manuscript with its elongated slim verticals is
116–117 (no. 38); AKTC 2008a,
sometimes termed “eastern Kufic”, and was used in the Iranian world from the second half of the tenth century pp. 48–49 (no. 4).
to the thirteenth: it can be related to the script used on Samanid ceramics (see cat. nos. 9 and 10). This
manuscript marks a number of new departures taking place in Qur’anic manuscripts by the end of the tenth
century: paper was beginning to replace parchment as the preferred medium of transcription, and the vertical
format was beginning to appear more regularly, while it has also been argued that the appearance of this script
shows scribal practice moving closer to the cursive styles that would come to dominate Qur’an production and
other types of inscription in the centuries to come (Makariou 2007, pp. 116–117).
38 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

13 Folio from the “Qarmathian Qur’an”

Iran, mid twelfth century The so-called “Qarmathian Qur’an” from which this leaf originates is thought to have comprised some 4,500
Ink, gouache and gold on paper pages in its original state (Blair 2008, p. 198). The high level of decoration seen on this page was apparently
Page: 31 x 20.8 cm; text 21.4 x
employed on every folio in the manuscript, which must have made this in its entirety an extraordinarily time-
14.2 cm
Inv.: AKM00256 consuming project. The text is from Surat al-Ma’ida (5: 44–45). Like the text of cat. no. 3, the lines of script are
Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982, pp. set within contour panels against a ground filled with linear decoration, in this case quite complex scrolling
46–48 (no. 11); AKTC 2007a, pp.1 foliate designs that recall contemporary ceramic and metalwork decoration. A frame of braid-like decoration in
38–39 (no. 5); AKTC 2007b, p.
gold surrounds the text panel of each leaf, and the overall impression gained from the complete volume must
34–35 (no. 5); AKTC 2009a, p. 36
(no. 5); AKTC 2009b, p. 36 (no. 5);
have been one of unceasing visual stimuli. Four lines of text are allotted to each page, using a broken angular
AKTC 2010a, p. 37 (no. 5). script that has come to be called, with little apparent foundation, “Qarmathian”. The script itself is characterised
by towering verticals and a dramatic modulation between thick and thin strokes, with a strict baseline. In
contrast with earlier Qur’an manuscripts this example does not break lines in the middle of a word. Taken in
conjunction with the comprehensive use of vocalisation and diacritical marks seen in Qur’ans by this time, this
suggests a shift had taken place in the way the text was used, changing from the role of aide mémoire for
recitation towards a document that was expected to be immediately and fully comprehended through reading.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 41

Prayer amulet and accompanying case 14

This tiny prayer amulet would have been worn about its owner’s body to ensure protection from illness or Egypt, probably eleventh century
Ink on paper, lead case
misfortune. The text, which has been translated by Abdullah Ghouchani, contains excerpts from different Suras
Paper: 7.2 x 5.5 cm; case: 2.7 x 1.3 cm
of the Qur’an, including parts of Suras 2, 3, 6, and 15. The use of Qur’anic texts as a form of personal talisman Inv.: AKM00508
can be seen in a whole range of different types of apotropaic material, including miniature Qur’ans and shirts Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 61 (no. 30);
decorated with the holy text, and appears to have formed part of everyday life at all levels of society. This example AKTC 2007b, p. 58 (no. 30);
Makariou 2007, pp. 130–31 (no. 45);
is an extremely rare and interesting object: not only is the amulet apparently unique in being accompanied by its
AKTC 2008a, pp. 86–87 (no. 23);
original case, but the text has also been produced in a very early form of printing known as tarsh. This involved AKTC 2009a, p. 60 (no. 27); AKTC
creating the letters in reverse on a block of wood, or possibly metal. It is not at present known which material 2009b, p. 60 (no. 27); AKTC 2010a,
was used, and whether the print block would have been carved, cast or moulded from a clay matrix (see Bulliet p. 62 (no. 28).
1987). The early history of printing in the Middle East is still an under-researched area, but several printed
amulets have been found in Fustat (old Cairo) and can be dated from the archaeological context to the tenth
century or thereabouts; the form of Kufic employed on this piece would also fit with a Fatimid date.
42 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

15 Amulet case

Egypt, eleventh or twelfth century Like cat. no. 14, this little amulet case would almost certainly have contained Qur’anic texts written on paper, and
Gold with repoussé and chased
was probably designed to be hung around the wearer’s neck, suspended by loops. However, as it is made from
decoration
4.2 x 3.7 cm gold and therefore a far more expensive and luxurious item, the present example has been worked into a very
Inv.: AKM00599 beautiful object of personal adornment and is entirely different in appearance from the functional lead case of cat.
Publ.: AKTC 2010a, pp. 120–121 no. 14. Within the decorated face of this gold example, the notched band running across the middle and the style
(no. 84).
of the Kufic inscription are characteristic of metalwork from Fatimid Egypt. A comparable form of Kufic script,
with similar notched bands framing the upper and lower edges of the inscription, can be seen on a silver mirror-
back from eleventh-century Egypt, now in the Benaki Museum (acc. no. 13770; Bloom 2007, p. 98). Similarly the
vegetal decoration with trefoil palmettes seen below the inscription on the amulet case can also be compared
with the repeating s-shaped palmettes, ending in trefoil buds, of the same mirror. The inscription on the amulet
case reads al-mulk li‘llah (“Sovereignty to God”), a pious phrase found on a wide variety of objects in various
media (for example, cat. no. 16), and particularly appropriate to the apotropaic function of the personal amulet.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 43

Bead and pendant necklace 16

Rock crystal is a pure, transparent form of quartz, distinct from crystal glass. This necklace, which bears six faceted Iran or possibly Egypt, ninth –
eleventh centuries
cylindrical beads, four with Kufic inscriptions, as well as plain polygonal beads and a crescent pendant, is a
Rock crystal, drilled and carved
composite of rock crystal pieces from different sources. While Fatimid Egypt (969–1171) is justly famous for its use Full length: 45 cm
of rock crystal, with a number of spectacular and well-known rock-crystal vessels surviving from that period, less Inv.: AKM00654
often discussed is the early Islamic tradition of rock crystal work from Iran. Iranian rock-crystal work does not Unpublished
appear to have been made significantly later than the eleventh century, leading Kröger to suggest that by the time of
the Mongol invasion jade had already overtaken rock crystal in popularity (Kröger 1993, n.p.). An Iranian rock-crystal
bead excavated at Nishapur has been published, and the form seems to have been relatively common
(Jenkins–Keene 1982, pp. 30–32); other common uses in early Islamic Iran include various forms of talisman and
seal, to which the four inscribed beads in this collection may be related. The cylindrical beads with Kufic inscriptions
include the common pious phrases “I put my trust in God”, “Sovereignty to God”, “Might to God”, and “Praise be
to God”. The form of the central, crescent-shaped pendant is known from a number of other Iranian examples
thought to date from the ninth century. A closely comparable example has been published by Pinder-Wilson (1998,
pp. 292–293), who has provided an interesting interpretation of the distinctive form of these pieces and their
symmetrical decoration of grooved lines: he suggests that the lines imitate the bindings of a small leather bag, and
the whole pendant symbolises an amulet case worn around the neck.
44 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

17 Miniature manuscript of the Qur’an

Probably Fatimid or Ikhshidid North The text of this diminutive incomplete volume of the Qur’an, Suras 7 (al-A‘raf) to 90 (al-Balad), is written in a
Africa, tenth century
tiny, finely wrought form of script that appears to be related to the so-called “eastern Kufic” styles that began to
Brown ink with gold and colours on
vellum; gilt red morocco binding appear widely in the tenth century (see cat. no. 12). These have been convincingly argued by Whelan and latterly
(not contemporary with Blair to be descended from a chancery script rather than solely from angular Kufic, and scripts of this type have
manuscript) been named by them “broken cursive” (Blair 2008, p. 144). The combination of a closely written broken cursive
10 x 8.2 cm script with red vocalisations dots, the vertical manuscript format and the use of vellum make this an unusual
Inv.: AKM00825
Unpublished
and arresting manuscript: paper, which had been introduced to the Islamic world via Chinese soldiers captured
at the battle of Talas (in modern-day Kyrgyzstan) in 751, took longer to take hold in the western Islamic world
than the eastern, and parchment continued to be used for Qur’anic manuscripts in the western Islamic world
until the eleventh century and even later. The illumination of the manuscript, meanwhile, is comparable with that
of some larger tenth century Qur’ans, with gold Sura headings extended with gold and blue margin palmettes,
and lobed gold roundels functioning as verse markers further decorating the margins (see also cat. no. 4). Two
vertical-format parchment manuscripts in the Khalili Collection, London, dated by Déroche to the tenth century,
bear close resemblances to the current codex in terms of both script type and decoration (Déroche 1992, nos 78
and 87, pp. 143 and 153).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 45

Bowl 18

The design of this dish, with isolated palmettes in black and red standing out sharply on a white ground, Khurasan (Nishapur, Iran) or
Transoxiana (Samarqand,
roundels floating in isolation, and abstracted, debased or “pseudo-Kufic” inscriptions, is typical of one of the
Uzbekistan), tenth or eleventh century
many forms of ceramic decoration that developed alongside each other in the Eastern Iranian world in the Earthenware, white slip with black
Samanid period. Wares of this type can be related to some of the calligraphic bowls of similar provenance and red slip decoration under a
(cat. no. 9) in terms of materials and colour scheme, but the draughtsmanship and composition cannot be transparent glaze
Diameter: 28.6 cm
compared. Rather than the highly skilled, meditative and meticulously planned decoration of the purely
Inv.: AKM00547
calligraphic pieces, these wares blend a more rapid and less precious style of drawing with appealing but often Publ.: Welch 1972b, p. 81.
eccentric composition. Presumably located somewhere in the middle of the social scale, such pieces often bear
inscriptive content that is difficult or impossible to make out, as inscriptions were slowly abstracted into illegible
design elements.
46 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

19 Dish

Khurasan (Nishapur, Iran) or The dense and colourful decoration of this dish pivots around a central panel containing a debased inscription
Transoxiana (Samarqand,
based on a repetition of the name of God, “Allah”. It is not entirely clear whether the debased and sometimes
Uzbekistan), tenth century
Earthenware, white slip with black, illegible inscriptions that appear so frequently on the ceramics of this period were the work of craftsman who were
red and olive slip decoration under not fully literate, or if they were the result of the image of the word gradually becoming more important than its
a transparent glaze legibility, at least at the lower levels of production. The contrast between the inscriptive panel of this piece and the
Diameter: 36.8 cm
radial or symmetrical patterns based on vegetation that dominate the composition places the inscriptive content
Inv.: AKM00742
Publ.: Welch 1972b, p. 81; Falk 1985, as a static centre within a revolving design. In the braided design that encircles the central area of the dish there is
p. 218 (no. 211). a distant echo of the knotwork motifs sometimes used to decorate Qur’an manuscripts (see cat. no. 3), which are
in turn thought to refer to the ancient use of knotwork as an apotropaic device. This piece is exhibited with the
kind permission of Princess Catherine Aga Khan.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 47

Dish 20

In common with other wares of this type, the calligraphic decoration of this piece has thus far proved resistant to Eastern Iran›an world or
Transoxiana, possibly Samarqand,
being deciphered, in spite of the appearance of several recognisable letter shapes within the dark brown
tenth century
repeating designs: a comparable example can be seen in Pancaro¤lu 2007, p. 27. The rather ebullient execution Earthenware, cream-coloured slip
of the calligraphic elements sees the long letter shafts dangling down into the centre of the dish in a lolloping with dark brown and red slip under
rhythm, rather than forming the tight spokes seen on the more controlled calligraphic slipware (see cat. no. 10). a transparent glaze
Diameter: 23.8 cm;
The “words” themselves are surrounded by contour panels – the blank, red-outlined bubble that surrounds the
height: 6.5 cm
dark brown calligraphic decoration – a device that has been borrowed from manuscript illumination (see cat. no. 13). Inv.: AKM00748
The ground outwith the contour panels has been filled in with a restless decoration of red-rimmed “peacock’s Unpublished
eyes” and dense small dark dots, further adding to the sense of rhythmic dynamism that makes this an excellent
example of the so-called “Samarqand wares”. This piece is exhibited with the kind permission of Princess
Catherine Aga Khan.
48 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

21 Blue silk robe

Central Asia, possibly thirteenth Long-sleeved robes with flared skirts suitable for riding and crossover frontal openings are depicted in many
century surviving miniature paintings from the eastern Islamic lands (see for example cat. no. 109), although the robe
Woven silk
most commonly seen in miniature paintings is that with front panels that cross right over each other to fasten at
Length from collar to base: 142 cm;
width of arm span: 197 cm; width of the sides of the body, as is the case on a further robe in the Aga Khan collection (AKM00677), but not on this
waist: 60 cm garment. The structure of the present garment is comparable to a silk lampas robe sold at Sotheby’s London,
Inv.: AKM00816 31 March 2009 (lot 94), which was also decorated across the front of the shoulders with a calligraphic band.
Unpublished In the present instance the calligraphic decoration appears to be pseudo-Kufic rather than a true script: the use
of pseudo-Kufic, sometimes plaited, in high quality silk textiles developed in the eleventh century in the eastern
Iranian area and apparently spread to the rest of the Islamic world. The question of why pseudo-Kufic, frequently
associated with lower quality products, should be used in such instances in preference to true script has not yet
been solved (Folsach–Bernstead 1993, pp. 44–47). The high regard in which “cloth of gold” or panni tartarici
from Central Asia was held in Europe as well as the Middle East is borne out in its presence in church treasuries
and burial contexts (Kadoi 2009, p. 21).
50 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

22 Tir$z textile

Egypt, late tenth or early eleventh The term tiraz is used to refer to both a type of inscribed textile, and the government-run factories in which those
century
textiles were produced. Tiraz can also refer to the band of inscription itself: this could be woven, embroidered or
Linen, tapestry-woven silk
151 x 51 cm painted, and generally bore laudatory or benedictory phrases and the name of the ruler. It was the prerogative of
Inv.: AKM00670 the ruler to distribute these textiles to his courtiers as badges of honour, effectively making them “walking
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 93 (no. 62); advertisements for the monarch” (Hillenbrand 1999, p. 50), and to judge from slightly later manuscript paintings
AKTC 2007b, p. 91 (no. 62); AKTC
(such as those of the 1237 Maqamat of al-Hariri) tiraz came to function in the Islamic world as a form of
2009a, pp. 122–123 (no. 84); AKTC
2009b, pp. 122–123 (no. 84); AKTC portable, wearable status symbol. The Fatimid caliphs were fully aware of the propagandistic value of impressive
2010a, p. 122 (no. 86). ceremonial, and periodically outfitted the court with new clothing for religious, civil and military ceremonies. In
this light it is not surprising that Fatimid Egypt became famous for its luxury textile production and the tiraz
factories of Damietta, Alexandria and other cities produced tiraz for the Fatimid caliphs and possibly also for
their rivals the Abbasid caliphs. The foliated Kufic inscription of this textile includes blessings to the Prophet
Muhammad and to the Fatimid caliph al-Mu‘izz li-Din Allah (r. 952–975): “In the name of God the Beneficent,
the Merciful; may God’s blessing be upon Muhammad, Seal of the Prophets, and his family… from God… for the
servant of God and His believer, Ma‘ad Abu Tamim, the Imam al-Mu[‘izz]” (trans. Abdullah Ghouchani).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 51

Woven tir$z fragment 23

The circulation of large numbers of high-quality tiraz textiles (such as cat. no. 22) in the upper levels of Egyptian Egypt, eleventh or twelfth century
Linen (?)
society appears to have generated a middle-class, aspirational market for inscribed textiles. The significance of
11.2 x 40.2 cm
textiles within the medieval Islamic world as a widely-traded form of material wealth has sometimes been Inv.: AKM00675
overlooked, due to the relative lack of surviving remains. However, textual evidence shows that huge quantities Unpublished
of luxury textiles were given as gifts between rulers (al-Qaddumi 1996, p. 77) and a thriving market can be
assumed at the middle levels of society as well. The inscription on this fragment is a repetition of the phrase
Nasr min Allah (“Victory from God”): textiles with repeating benedictory formulae emulated the court textiles
inscribed with caliphal protocol but were executed in less luxurious materials. Some others bear inscriptions that
are not of sufficient quality to make them legible; again, these may have been manufactured for the commercial
market. The use of a cursive script, rather than the formal Kufic that was often employed on caliphal tiraz,
suggests that this piece was intended for a less stately environment than the court, and may also point to a date
in the twelfth century.
52 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

24 Polychrome wooden beam

Fez, Morocco, Almohad period, Inscription (Arabic):

twelfth century
We are a people who do not find shame at death in combat
Pine, carved and painted
30.8 x 313 cm Even when we consider [the tribes of] Amir and Salul.
Inv.: AKM00631 Love of death brings us closer to our fated time
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 189 (no. E); Whereas they hate the moment and drag out the hours.
AKTC 2007b, p. 191 (no. E);
None of us has died in his bed
Makariou 2007, pp. 192–193
(no. 70); AKTC 2008a, pp. 252–253 And no one was killed without being avenged.
(no. 99); AKTC 2008b; AKTC Our lives are run on the steel of our swords
2009a, pp. 100–101 (no. 54); On nothing but our blades do they meet their end.
AKTC 2009b, pp. 100–101 (no. 54);
AKTC 2010a pp. 102–103 (no. 55).
This beam is the second half of a pair that together would have been placed on two perpendicular walls, probably
at the base of the ceiling. In conjunction the two beams originally presented a pre-Islamic Arabic poem of a type
known as a qasida, by Jahiliyya Samaw’al ibn ‘Adiya, who died c. 560. The use of pre-Islamic poetry deserves to
be highlighted: it indicates a particularly literate environment resonant with memories of original Arab poetry.
This sensitivity underscores the Maghrib’s self-ordained role as the land of the preservation of classical Arab
poetry. This in turn gave way, more than a century later, to a dialogue between the most illustrious of poets,
historians and viziers of Nasrid Spain, Lisan al-Din ibn al-Khatib (died in 1374), and one of the great historians of
Islam, Ibn Khaldun (died in 1406), on the preservation of the vestiges of the literary glory of the Arabs at the end
of Arab Spain.The inscription itself is written in an angular script without diacriticals and with a low emphasis:
the letters are reduced to a third of the available height, while the stabbing white shafts of the tall letters
rhythmically punctuate the upper area of the panel. Certain aspects of the script, such as the twisted form of the
ha on the partner beam (not pictured), indicate a date later than the eleventh century. However, it is the
simplicity of the plant-like decoration behind the white inscription that affirms the twelfth-century date.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 53

Nasrid beam 25

The integration of inscriptions into architecture was a mainstay of Islamic architectural decoration from the early Nasrid Spain, fourteenth century
Carved wood
Islamic period onwards, leading to a sometimes overwhelming volume of text in richly-decorated interiors. This
29.8 x 146 cm
skilfully carved, long rectangular wooden beam includes an inscription in Kufic of an Arabic couplet framed Inv.: AKM00725
between two horizontal bands, and the entire inscription is intertwined with, and almost subsumed by, an intricate Publ.: AKTC 2009a, pp. 100–101
vegetal design composed of interlacing vine scrolls ending in single leaves and split palmettes. Vegetal and (no. 53); AKTC 2009b, pp. 100–101
(no. 53); AKTC 2010a, pp. 102–106
epigraphic ornament here manage to retain their separate identities through the addition of fine detailing and
(no. 54).
inner lines carved into the foliate pattern, in contrast with the smooth bevelled surface of the inscription. The
overall carving style seems to have been common in Nasrid Spain (1238–1492) and even in contemporary North
Africa in a variety of media, such as the stucco decoration of the “Hall of the Two Sisters” at the Alhambra. Similar
motifs involving calligraphy juxtaposed with vegetal carving can also be observed in a wooden beam from Toledo
dated 1360 and in a carved stucco panel from thirteenth- or fourteenth-century Spain or North Africa, both in the
David Collection, Copenhagen (von Folsach 2001, p. 270 [ no. 434, inv. no. D 14/1986] and p. 251. [no. 400, inv. no.
35/1978], respectively).
54 Early Kufic and the Transition from Parchment to Paper

26 Ceramic architectural tile

Timurid western Central Asia, Glazed tile, already established as a sophisticated and expensive form of wall covering in Iran under the Ilkhanids
late fourteenth century (1256–1353), underwent rapid developments in technique and aesthetic under the Timurids (c. 1370–1507) and
Carved terracotta with
emerged as the medium of some of the Islamic world’s most breathtaking architectural decoration. The
turquoise glaze
51.8 x 37.5 x 6.4 cm extraordinary Timurid predilection for turquoise and lapis lazuli blues, often highlighted with white, is apparent
Inv.: AKM00827 in both the extant tile work revetments found at sites such as the funerary complex of Shah-i Zinda (Samarqand,
Unpublished c. 1370–1425), and in the tile panels that are now in museums around the world. The technique of carving precise
and intricate motifs in high relief into thick earthenware to create designs which, although largely
monochromatic, make great play of light and shade, was perfected in western Central Asia in the fourteenth
century and in fact seems to have been largely abandoned in favour of newer methods in the fifteenth century.
This example boasts both a panel of the finely carved interlace palmettes that are a hallmark of the genre (see
Pancaro¤lu 2007, pp. 151–152) and a more unusual plaited Kufic inscription of remarkable complexity, which
forms part of the common pious phrase al-mulk [li’llah] (“Sovereignty to God”). Elaborate and dominating
inscriptions are a notable feature of imperial Timurid architectural decoration, and this tile would have been part
of a larger inscriptive frieze, itself possibly only one element amongst a larger inscriptive programme. Carved and
turquoise-glazed tiles with comparable inscriptions in plaited Kufic are held in the Metropolitan Museum (no.
2006. 274) and the Museum für Islamische Kunst, Berlin (illustrated in Kalker–Pavaloi 1997, p. 90).
2 Later Calligraphic Scripts
58

Annie Vernay-Nouri

Calligraphy and Scripts in the Islamic World

Over the course of several decades a people from the Arabian Peninsula, bearers of a new
religion, conquered a vast territory that extended, at its peak, from Spain to the Indus. Arabic,
the liturgical language of the newly converted population, thus became the principal instrument
of communication. As such it was the principal tool for the transmission of knowledge and for
the administration of the empire. Writing, at the heart of the Arab-Muslim civilization, very
quickly assumed a triple function, at once religious, utilitarian and ornamental. It was this same
script that was later used to write down other languages such as Persian and Ottoman Turkish.
The Arabic language, which belongs to the Semitic group, has since its origin employed a
consonantal alphabet and is written from right to left. There are three long vowels in addition to
the notation of twenty-five consonants. The letters, with the exception of six that are partially or
completely separated, are bound together by their ligatures. Their shape varies slightly according
to their position: initial, central or final. Difficulties of interpretation due to confusion between
consonants of the same line (there are only eighteen different characters) and the absence of
notation of short vowels quickly led to the invention of more legible signs. The vowels were
indicated by the addition of coloured dots placed above or below the letters. This custom, which
according to legend is attributed to Abü al-Aswad al-Du‘al› (d. 688), was modified and led to the
current practice of noting the vowels with small signs on or under the characters. Indeed, the
need to standardize the Qur’anic text more accurately than the existing script allowed quickly
became a necessity. Writing, born long before the time of Muhammad and confirmed since the
early sixth century, was practiced by few people and served mainly to record commercial
transactions or contracts. The word of God, revealed orally to the Prophet in revelations
beginning around 610 CE was then, according to tradition, taken down in written form under the
Caliph ‘Uthm$n in 653, breathing great momentum into writing and giving it a strong symbolic
connotation. The desire to glorify the sacred word rapidly made calligraphy, from the earliest
Qur’anic text onwards, an essential component of Arabic-Muslim art.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 59

Furthermore, the great conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries led to the
Islamisation and Arabisation of much of the non-Arabic speaking population. With the decision
of ‘Abd al-Malik in 685 to Arabise the administration, Arabic became the language of the
chancellery of the empire. Writing then developed along two axes: one for non-book written
forms, in cursive, which served to record on papyrus official documents; the other for majestic
scripts on parchment codex reserved for religious texts, principally Qur’ans. The earliest of the
preserved Qur’ans date from the late seventh century and were copied in a script that is called
Hij$z›, of which there are several variants. This name was given by nineteenth-century European
paleogeographers in reference to Ibn al-Nad›m, who in the tenth century described in the Fihrist
(“catalogue” or “bibliography”) early scripts used in Medina and Mecca, cities of Hijaz. While
limited at that time, this aesthetic preoccupation grew over the following decades. The Qur’anic
text then came in a variety of scripts, angular and varied, slow to execute and difficult to read but
of great beauty. They were grouped together under the traditional term Kufic, now sometimes
known by the name “ancient ‘Abbasid script”. The same paleographers, still relying on Ibn al-
Nad›m, thought this written form was originally from the city of Kufa in Iraq and they opposed
the idea that the earliest Hij$z› writings came from Arabia. Modern studies have shown that they
were in fact widespread throughout the burgeoning Muslim world, from the Maghrib to Iran.
Between the late eighth and tenth centuries, volumes of the Qur’an on parchment, of an
oblong format, presented great diversity in size, number of lines, and the form and the module of
the letters (cat. nos 11, 4). The line was strongly pronounced, the horizontal component
emphasized, while the vertical elements were brought back as much as possible to the
perpendicular. The scribe played on the numerous possibilities that were offered to him: he
stretched certain letters horizontally and contracted others, counterbalancing the vertical height of
letters such as l$m and alif (cat. no. 11). He contrasted the coloured red, yellow or green dots
designating the vowels with the white parchment across which cut the black writing. He made
ample use of the possibility to break a line in the middle of a word, which would later be
inadmissible. Geometric ornamentation was predominately in gold with motifs from late antiquity
such as palmettes highlighting the different punctuations of the Qur’anic text: beginnings and
endings of volumes, titles of Suras and groups of verses (cat. no. 3). More luxurious specimens
were copied in letters of gold (cat. no. 1). There is a single example of a Qur’an probably executed
in Tunisia on dyed blue parchment, pages from which are now dispersed around the world (cat.
no. 2). In the tenth century, the format for Qur’ans became vertical and paper was substituted
more frequently for parchment. A new style of writing developed, similar to administrative cursive
with broken lines and angular shapes found particularly in the east of the Islamic Empire. The
contrast between the thickness and delicacy of the letters was clearly marked, and the long vertical
letters were bevelled on the ends (cat. nos 12, 13).
The introduction of a new technique, paper, offered a medium that was less expensive and
less fragile than papyrus or parchment. It coincided in the tenth century with the increasing need
for more copies of religious books as well as scientific and literary volumes. As a result the
current administrative writing, naskh› (or naskh), gradually became the most common script of
the entire Arab world. This supple and rounded script without prominent angles was more
60 Calligraphy and Scripts in the Islamic World

legible and quicker to execute than the stately Kufic. At the same time, another cursive script
from the Maghrib and Muslim Spain with more generous curves, maghrib› (cat. no. 27), was also
in common use. With the advent of printing it was replaced by naskh›. More bulbous than the
angular Kufic script and with a light line, maghrib› maintained the ancient custom of noting the
vocalization in colour. The large curves of the letters spilled over to adjacent words and into the
lines above and below. Two consonants f$’ and q$f had a different notation from that of the
eastern scripts. Maghrib› had many regional variations, like the small-sized andalüs› or f$s›
scripts, and it gave birth to the style used throughout the West African Sudan, a dense script of
fairly thick letters.
Paralleling the development of these scripts, a calligraphic knowledge theorised over the
centuries came into place, codifying letter-forms and writing styles. Other more elaborate cursive
scripts replaced Kufic for copying the Qur’an and other costly works. Kufic was then used largely
in an ornamental manner in epigraphy or in the titles of manuscripts (cat. no. 95) where it
became a decorative element, opposing with its angular letters the rounded naskh›. The letters
became true ornaments adorned with braids or interlacing.
Arabic script possessed in this way a dual status, at once material and aesthetic,
contained in the word khatt. Arabic in fact uses this unique term to designate the act of writing
and the art of calligraphy. Ordinary writing (cat. no. 53) and calligraphy coexisted and
corresponded to the different requirements of the book, yet the differences between the two were
sometimes subtle. State dignitaries, wealthy merchants and notables commissioned precious
specimens where the writing, as well as the quality of the paper, the delicacy of the illuminations
and the richness of the bindings, contributed to the creation of a harmonious whole. At the
same time, there was a constant increase in the number of copied manuscripts intended for the
enrichment of knowledge; in these the writing did not require the same care but it could still be
of high quality and take into account a certain aesthetic dimension.
Whether for an ordinary copy or a luxurious one, the work of the scribe always began with
the preparation of the sheets of paper and his instruments. The paper was often tinted with
vegetable dyes boiled in water in which the sheets were soaked. They were then coated with a
special formula based on starch or egg white, and then smoothed with the aid of a burnisher or
an agate to allow better movement of the pen. Under the Persians and the Ottomans there
developed a taste for brightly coloured paper and for the use of gold-dusted sheets (cat. no. 66),
marbled paper (cat. no. 54) decoupage (cat. no. 67) or illuminated margins in precious
manuscripts. It was the scribe who decided the layout of the page and the distribution of full and
empty spaces, based on the needs of the text. The definition provided by a ruling-board
determined the number of lines and the width of the margins. It also delineated the spaces
allotted to the text, calculated probably by the length of the latter and the space reserved for
comments or, in the case of decorated manuscripts, illuminations or paintings. The mistara
(ruler), widely employed in the Islamic world, consisted of a piece of cardboard or wood on
which were drawn tight the threads that correspond to the lines of justification and to the line
ruling. The transcriber slipped it under the sheet, and gently rubbing the threads with his fingers,
highlighted a slight relief on the paper. Less commonly, the margin could also be the object of a
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 61

ruling-board; the lines were then placed vertically or diagonally (cat. no. 71). After preparing his
black or coloured ink from a base of different ingredients (recorded in numerous recipes) and
placing it in an inkwell of ceramic or metal, the scribe sharpened with knives his reed pens, the
choice of which complied with particular orders of script. For each style of writing there
corresponded a reed of a size adapted to the thickness of the letters. The ink was not poured
directly into the inkwell, but onto a lock of wool or cotton from which the pen did not withdraw
more than the amount of ink necessary. The position of the body also played a very important
role that calligraphers of today continue to emphasise. One sees in certain miniatures (cat. no.
65) the scribe, sitting on the floor and resting the sheet on which he is writing on his right thigh.
He used a blotter of soft leather that permitted high mobility of the hand and rested on his knee.
In other portrayals dating back to Ottoman times the scribe was shown writing on a low piece of
furniture with his different instruments arrayed in front of him. The reed pens were carefully
arranged in inkstands of inlaid and carved metal (cat. no. 56) or of lacquered papier-mâché (cat.
no. 59). The instruments could be grouped in boxes (cat. no. 51) of wood or metal. There were
also scissors for cutting paper.
The art of the calligrapher relied on these widely described practices. Legend attributes the
codification of perfectly proportioned writing to vizier Ibn Muqla (885/6–940). He established in
his treatise on calligraphy (“Epistle on writing and the reed pen”) a system of rules whose
primary base was the line of an alif around which one constructs a circle to serve as a standard.
Each letter was then developed from this circle. He was also credited with the reduction of the
growing number of cursive scripts to six predominant styles.
His works were, according to tradition, greatly enriched by Ibn al-Baww$b, who died in
Baghdad in 1022. There is a single Qur’an by Ibn al-Baww$b, with illuminations as harmonious
as the calligraphy, preserved at the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin. He instituted the practice of
point-measure, obtained by light tracing at an angle that leaves the reed on the paper and from
which one measures each letter. He perfected and embellished the different scripts, especially
naskh› and muhaqqaq. The last great calligrapher of the Abbasid court, Y$qüt al-Musta‘sim›, who
died in 1298, was credited with the ultimate perfection of the art of writing and the final
theorization of the “six styles”.
Each style possessed very specific differentiations defined by tradition. The first of these
was the length of the letter alif defined by a system of point-measurement that determined the
size of the other letters. Next came criteria such as the form of the letters: isolated or connected,
thickness of line, and elongations. The composition, in relation to the line and how to place the
various diacritical marks, also played an important role. Naskh›, one of the first cursive scripts to
develop, was characterized by its respect for proportions, its legibility and balance. This is the
script used today in Arab countries. Muhaqqaq appeared later and enjoyed great favour with
copyists of the Qur’an, especially under the Mamluks and Ilkhanids. The letters, large in size,
were open on the ends and very legible, with no variation in thickness. The curvature in the lines
was light, slender and elongated with virtually no embellishment (cat. no. 30). Rayh$n› (or
rayh$n) was very similar to muhaqqaq but the individual letters were smaller units, and very
delicate. It was used for smaller Qu’rans. Thuluth, a larger and more elaborate version of naskh›,
62 Calligraphy and Scripts in the Islamic World

had rounded forms, and a supple and rhythmic movement that was particularly suitable for
titles. There is one example of a Qur’an copied in thuluth in gold letters. Lastly tawq›‘(or taw$q›)
and riq$‘, similar to thuluth, were the writings of administrative documents; these scripts are
poorly represented in manuscripts. Ghub$r (or ghub$r›) was a derivative form. This tiny script
was first used for short messages sent by carrier pigeon and it was reserved for Qu’rans in rolls
or in very small sizes for talismanic use (cat. no. 48).
After the fall of Baghdad in 1258, the Persians under the Ilkhanids and then the Timurids
brilliantly cultivated calligraphy and came to rival the Mamluks (cat. nos 28, 76), the last bastion
in Egypt and Syria of Arab cultural continuity, in calligraphic virtuosity. The Ottomans, in power
since the sixteenth century, also placed writing at the centre of their artistic creation (cat. no. 78).
The Persians and Turks gave a new impetus to the six styles, each developed according to their
own tastes but also according to the particularities of their languages, stemming from very
different linguistic families. New scripts more suited to these characteristics were then created.
The first, ta‘l›q, which literally means “suspended”, was mainly used for official correspondence
because the words and the detached letters could be linked. It gave birth in the Ottoman world
to d›v$n›, which was reserved for the imperial council. This majestic script left no space between
the letters and the words did not note vowels: it could not be forged, and was reserved for
important documents and decrees. The combination of naskh› with ta‘l›q, originating in mid-
fourteenth century Iran, led to a new script called nasta‘l›q that quickly became important for
copying books (poetry, literature, history; cat. no. 67) in the Iranian and Ottoman worlds but also
in India and Afghanistan. It is this script that is currently used for Persian and Urdu. Extremely
graceful and light, it gave rise to exercises of calligraphic virtuosity (cat. no. 46) that made
numerous Persian masters famous. In nasta‘l›q, the elongations were abnormally long, the half-
circles important, and letters and words had very precise dimensions that did not follow the
horizontal of the line. In the seventeenth century, shikasta (“broken”; cat. no. 45) was reserved
for poetry and albums. Other scripts were related to particular regions of the Muslim world, such
as bihar› script in India, which was reserved for Qur’ans and came into being from the sixteenth
century (cat. no. 31), or the script which was particular to China and aptly named s›n› (“China”).
In Turkey and Iran, calligraphy began to escape the strict framework of book reproduction
and spread into albums (muraqqa‘; cat. no. 68). Very widespread in Turkey, Iran and India, such
albums gathered together selected works signed by different masters or individual pieces created
specially for the album context: calligraphy exercises, Qur’anic verses, Had›th or panegyrics.
Pieces of calligraphy were specially designed for this purpose: these were usually displayed in the
form of a rectangle, the text copied on only one side. This paper was generally glued to the
centre of a cardboard support with four decorated margins. The precious papers and documents
were joined together and bound in accordion fashion.
Calligraphy became the subject of instruction, obeying very precise rules as well as
historical precedent. The constant reference to near-legendary masters of calligraphy in the
Arab, Persian and Turkish worlds followed from the need to be connected with a line of
authoritative figures, functioning (as in other sciences) to bestow legitimacy. The training of a
calligrapher required long years of apprenticeship. Under the guidance of a master, the student
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 63

recopied the models endlessly until achieving perfect mastery of each style of writing. Once
obtained, the master freed his disciple, giving him the authorization (ij$za) that allowed him to
practice his art and to sign his works. He was obliged throughout his career to continue to
exercise his hand to retain suppleness, and the many writing exercises in which he engaged
could be mounted in albums.
Apart from the copying of texts, writing constituted an ornament in itself, developing
concurrently with a prohibition of figurative images. Magnified in the arts of architecture (cat.
no. 37) and of stone but also metal (cat. no. 34), ceramics (cat. nos 8–10), textiles (cat. no. 23)
and glass, calligraphy and inscriptions became a dominating part of Islamic decoration and, as
such, magnificently illustrated the manuscripts. Script, whether of gold or silver, black ink or
colour, was integral to many compositions, becoming, like geometric interlace or the arabesque,
a decorative component in its own right. Yet, escaping the strict confines of the academic page,
as occurred within the Persian and the Ottoman traditions, it blossomed into mural
compositions and embraced the most varied forms: animals (cat. no. 69) and geometric
constructions in Kufic characters took the art-form to the limits of legibility.
Writing, finally, was endowed with a singular power. A privileged instrument of the divine
word, the art of calligraphy was also a purveyor of magic. It became customary in the fourteenth
century to copy in a miniscule script complete or partial Qur’ans in the form of rolls or tiny
volumes, which were carried on the body for protection from misfortune. Certain Suras or single
verses became known for their prophylactic virtues (cat. no. 14). Talismanic shirts covered with
protective verses were sometimes worn under armour in battle.
Mediation between man and God or mere instrument of knowledge, handwriting
remained central in Islamic lands until the advent of printing in the late nineteenth century. It
persists today in the living art of calligraphy. It remains important that it either strictly obeys the
traditional rules of the old masters, or that it renews them through both the texts chosen and the
freedom of form and colour.
64

Fahmida Suleman

Epigraphy and Inscriptions on Objects

The act of inscribing or writing on objects pre-dates Islam by several centuries and may be
considered a fundamental human impulse. Take for example the famous Rosetta Stone, a large slab
of granite made during the time of Ptolemy V, the teenage sovereign of a dynasty that ruled Egypt
after the death of Alexander the Great. The Rosetta Stone was inscribed in 196 BCE with a royal
decree in not just one, but three languages: hieroglyphic (an ancient Egyptian script read only by
priests at this time), demotic (the native Egyptian script used for daily purposes), and ancient Greek
(the language of the governing administration). The historical importance of this antiquity was
immediately recognised by Napoleon’s soldiers who dug it up in 1799 in the town of al-Rash›d (i.e.
Rosetta) in the Nile Delta. A few years later a French scholar, Jean-François Champollion, used the
Greek portion of the text to crack the code on how to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphs. Significantly, a
fourth inscription had been added to the Rosetta Stone, by then in English: “CAPTURED BY THE
BRITISH ARMY IN 1801; PRESENTED BY KING GEORGE III”. Thereafter, the Rosetta Stone was
brought to the British Museum in London where it has been on display ever since.
The story of the Rosetta Stone elucidates a number of themes that also pertain to objects
from the Islamic world and will be explored in this essay. The themes to be covered include: the
power of the written word on objects from political, religious and amuletic contexts; the political
motivations behind some inscriptions depending on who commissioned the writing and who
was meant to read it; and lastly, the use of languages and scripts – both familiar and unfamiliar
to the intended audience. Throughout this essay, I will refer to the objects on show in the
exhibition Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum – Arts of the Book and Calligraphy in the Islamic
World, citing their catalogue numbers in order to illustrate my points.

Islam and the Transformation of the Arabic Language

A discussion on inscriptions from the Islamic world necessitates a brief explanation of the
importance of Arabic and the transformation of the written word with the coming of Islam in the
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 65

seventh century. Before the advent of Islam, Arabic was mainly a spoken language used by
various tribal kingdoms established in central Arabia, southern Iraq, Jordan and Syria. Although
these kingdoms developed sophisticated traditions of poetry, the verses were unwritten and
passed down orally from generation to generation. The oldest known inscriptions written in a
form of “proto-Arabic” were discovered in Syria. These inscriptions, sometimes bilingual (Greek-
Arabic), seem to point to a Syriac ancestry of the Arabic characters, although some scholars
disagree and argue for an Aramaic derivation of the characters.1
Despite scholarly disagreement on the origins of the Arabic script, it is clear that the
coming of Islam and the Qur’anic revelation radically changed the importance of the language
and its day-to-day usage. Allah’s first revelation to the Prophet Muhammad transmitted through
the Archangel Gabriel in the year 610 was:

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful.

Read in the name of your Lord Who created.
He created man from a clot.
Read and your Lord is Most Honourable,
Who taught (to write) with the pen (al-qalam),
Taught man what he knew not.
(Qur’an 96:1–5)

Indeed, the Qur’anic revelation was the initial catalyst for the systematization and
proliferation of the Arabic language in written form. During the lifetime of the Prophet, several of
his companions are said to have prepared their own written copies of selected revelations. To be
sure, the Holy Book itself refers to writing materials (e.g. the pen, ink and parchment) and to
written books, thus implying the practice of physically recording the text in addition to
memorizing it.2 The death of the Prophet in 632 marked the closure of the revelatory process. At
that point, there was a growing concern among the elected leadership regarding the existence of
different versions of the revelation and the added distress that many Qur’an reciters were losing
their lives in battle. Hence, under the reign of the third caliph ‘Uthm$n, a standardized recension
of the Qur’an was established and all variant readings were decreed unlawful and ordered to be
destroyed.3
It appears that from this point forward the written word was accorded a privileged place in
Islam and the evidence of early Qur’an manuscripts and Arabic inscriptions on milestones,
tombstones, coinage and architecture attest to the rapid diffusion of writing in the Umayyad
period. The most significant development of the Arabic script during the ‘Abbasid period was the
codification of the main cursive scripts by Ibn Muqla (d. 940) based on strict orthographic rules
that were later refined by Ibn al-Baww$b (d. 1022) under the Buyids. The history of these codified
scripts, the so-called “Six Pens”, is covered elsewhere in this volume; however, it must be
reemphasized here that this development not only transformed the arts of the book, but also
impacted upon the application of inscriptions on architecture and objects. For example, ‘Al› Riz$
‘Abb$s›, the favourite calligrapher of the Safavid ruler Sh$h ‘Abb$s, produced exquisite
66 Epigraphy and Inscriptions on Objects

calligraphic works on paper in nasta‘l›q script. However, he was also commissioned to design the
most important architectural inscriptions of the time. These include the majestic thuluth
inscriptions in Isfahan at the Mosque of Shaykh Lutfall$h and the Masjid-i Sh$h, as well as the
splendid gold plaques fitted on the dome, minaret and tomb cover at the holy shrine of Imam
Reza at Mashhad.4

Factual Inscriptions
As Sheila Blair rightly remarks, “inscriptions, like geometric designs and arabesques, are some of
the most distinctive and persistent motifs used to decorate works of art and architecture made
in the Islamic lands”.5 Epigraphy is defined as the “study or science of inscriptions”. By studying
inscriptions on objects or architecture, we are better able to understand the function of the
artefact or building, the date of production, the identity and concerns of the patron or artist, and
sometimes aspects of the social and cultural history of a specific time.
There are a number of reasons why people chose to adorn objects and architecture with
inscriptions in the Muslim world. Some inscriptions are purely factual such as the Persian
inscription on a pair of superbly carved wooden doors (cat. no. 84) which states: “The work of
Ust$d ibn H$jj› Najj$r with the…of Darv›sh ‘Al$’udd›n, work [completed] in the year 892”. From
this reading we can deduce that Ust$d ibn H$jj› Najj$r was the master woodcarver (“najj$r”
literally means woodcarver or carpenter) and that he was assisted by Darv›sh ‘Al$’uddin, who
was perhaps the calligrapher who designed the inscriptions. The inscription also furnishes the
exact year of completion, 892 H, which corresponds to 1487 CE.
The choice of inscriptions also helped to contextualise or even sacralise a building or
object. The architectural decoration and furnishings in mosques, madrasas and mausoleums
were often inscribed with verses from the Holy Qur’an combined with non-figural designs such
as geometric and vegetal patterns, like those on the large lustre-painted wall tile (cat. no. 37).
The bold, raised inscription from Sürat al-Jum‘a (Qur’an 62:8) in the centre is picked out in
cobalt blue and surrounded by a background of golden lustre and white vine-leaves painted in
reserve. The tile’s decoration is further enhanced on the top and bottom with borders of
Qur’anic inscriptions executed in fully vocalised naskh› script. Moreover, specific Qur’anic
inscriptions were chosen for certain types of religious objects. For example, the Ayat al-Nür
(Qur’an 24:35) or “The Verse of Light” was appropriately inscribed on mosque lamps, whereas
the following verse from Sürat al-Baqara (Qur’an 2:144), was inscribed on the precious textiles
that covered the interior of the Holy Ka‘ba at Mecca:

We see the turning of your face (for guidance) to the heavens: now shall we turn you to a
qibla that will please you. Turn your face in the direction of the sacred mosque (al-Masjid al-
Haram, i.e. the Ka‘ba). Wherever you are, turn your faces in that direction. The People of the
Book know well that that is the truth from their Lord. Nor is God unmindful of what they do.6

The use of figural decoration was reserved for secular settings, such as palaces and for the
home. Yet inscriptions, both secular and religious, also proved popular in palatial and domestic
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 67

architecture, as exemplified by a wooden beam in the AKM collection (cat. no. 24). The unusual
inscription on this ceiling beam from twelfth-century Morocco is derived from a pre-Islamic
Arabic qas›da (ode) and celebrates courageousness and heroism in the face of adversity:

None of us has died in his bed

And no one was killed without being avenged.
Our lives are run on the steel of our swords
On nothing but our blades do they meet their end.7

In contrast, some palaces and domestic settings also included religious inscriptions, such
as prayers, the Beautiful Names of Allah (al-Asm$’ al-Husn$) and verses from the Qur’an, which
are positioned by windows, doors and gateways for talismanic purposes. A popular source for
architectural inscriptions in Ottoman Turkey and in the Malay Peninsula is the Qas›dat al-Burda,
a thirteenth-century praise poem dedicated to the Prophet Muhammad. Composed by Im$m
Sharaf al-D›n Muhammad al-Büs›r› (d. c. 1294), the verses of the Burda are widely believed to
have protective powers.8

Inscriptions as Decoration
At the other end of the spectrum are inscriptions that are purely decorative and sometimes
undecipherable. An artefact in the AKM collection illustrates the point (cat. no. 18). This
earthenware bowl, made in the tenth or eleventh century in Eastern Iran (i.e. Khurasan) or
Transoxiana, belongs to a tradition of slip-painted wares that are elegantly inscribed with pithy
words of wisdom or blessings to the owner (e.g. cat. no. 10). Here, the potter painted a
symmetrical pattern of elongated black palmettes and applied red slip to highlight the design on
a stark white background. As a further embellishment, four sections of pseudo-calligraphy, that
is, decorative elements that look like writing but make no sense, were painted on the bowl’s rim.
Why did the potter add a nonsensical epigraphic element to the bowl? Was s/he illiterate? Was
the customer purchasing the bowl illiterate? Perhaps the answer lies in the context in which the
bowl was produced in Khurasan or Transoxiana during the time of the Samanid dynasty.
The texts on these types of ceramics are usually Arabic aphorisms, such as “Generosity is
a quality of the people of Paradise” (cat. no. 9), an essential quality of a good host who most
likely used this dish to serve food. However, it is assumed that the majority of the vessels were
produced and consumed by Persian speakers. During the mid-ninth century, the Persian
language itself underwent serious modification, with the development of a new literary language,
so-called “New Persian”, which was deeply affected by the absorption of a large proportion of
Arabic vocabulary and, most significantly, the adoption of the Arabic script.9 Hence, the literary
and cultural context in which these Samanid epigraphic wares were produced is highly
significant. Artists and consumers already recognised the importance of Arabic as the language
of the Qur’an and administration, but now they had to accustom themselves to the changing
script of their own native language. This may have inspired an artistic impulse to experiment
with the Arabic script and cultivated a consumer demand for pottery in the “new style”, thus
68 Epigraphy and Inscriptions on Objects

resulting in the proliferation of this type of Samanid pottery. Therefore, the Persian potter who
made the bowl in question may not have understood Arabic or mastered the script like some of
his contemporary artists but s/he, nevertheless, was still keen to adopt the epigraphic trend by
using Arabic characters as design elements on the bowl.

Inscriptions and the Body

The belief in the inherent potency of inscribed words when worn close to the body – be they
verses from the Holy Qur’an, the Beautiful Names of Allah or pious phrases – has a long
history in Islamic cultures around the world that persists to the present day. The collection has
several artefacts that illustrate the medieval practice of wearing inscribed amulets for protection
from misfortune and illness. In addition, they confirm the pervasiveness of the practice
regardless of social background. For example, one amulet dated to eleventh-century Fatimid
Egypt comprises a small tarsh text, or block-printed page inscribed with several verses from the
Holy Qur’an (cat. no. 14). The tarsh text was folded up and enclosed within a tiny lead case
measuring just over one centimetre tall and under three centimetres wide. It could have been
worn around the neck or fastened to the upper arm and even tucked inside a man’s turban. In
contrast, another amulet case from roughly the same period is made from gold, indicating that
it once belonged to an affluent female member of Fatimid society (cat. no. 15). Although the
original Qur’an page once sealed inside the amulet case is missing, the pendant’s potency is
not completely lost as it is inscribed on the front with the Qur’anic invocation, al-mulk li’ll$h
(“Sovereignty belongs to God”).
A third example of an inscribed piece of jewellery demonstrates how medieval Muslims
increased the effectiveness of amulets by combining pious inscriptions with natural materials
ascribed with magical properties. The collection includes a unique necklace made of faceted
rock crystal beads inscribed in Kufic script with the Arabic phrases: “I put my trust in God”,
“Sovereignty belongs to God”, “Might to God”, and “Praise be to God” (cat. no. 16). Rock
crystal (billawr), the purest kind of quartz, has been highly prized throughout the centuries by
many different cultures. However, medieval Muslims not only admired rock crystal for its
intrinsic beauty, they also revered it for its curative properties such as healing kidney disease
and toothache and providing protection against haemorrhaging and thirst when worn as an
amulet.10
In complete contrast, political motivations played a key role in the choice of inscriptions
applied to textiles for the body, namely tir$z textiles. These woven textiles were produced in
state-run factories during the ‘Abbasid and Fatimid periods and were fashioned mainly as
turbans, shawls and robes of honour for the caliph, his family and courtiers. A beige linen tir$z
fragment in the collection (cat. no. 22) is inscribed in tapestry-woven red silk as follows: “In the
name of God the Beneficent, the Merciful; may God’s blessing be upon Muhammad, Seal of the
Prophets, and his family…from God…for the servant of God and His believer, Ma‘$d Abü Tam›m,
the Im$m al-Mu‘izz”. The Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mu‘izz (d. 975) and his successors showcased
tir$z textiles on public occasions by not only wearing them, but also presenting them to their
loyal members of staff. Additionally, tir$z fabrics played a key role in Fatimid ceremonial
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 69

processions that were designed to create awe-inspiring spectacles for the public. The sources
describe in detail how the caliphs road on horseback in full regalia accompanied by exotic
beasts, such as elephants and giraffes, followed by hundreds of royal troops wearing heavy silk
brocade uniforms, undoubtedly inscribed with tir$z bands, and carrying silk banners inscribed
with Qur’anic slogans.
According to the eleventh-century Book of Gifts and Rarities, the origin of inscribing tir$z textiles
with the name of a ruler can be traced back to the Umayyad Caliph Hish$m ibn ‘Abd al-Malik:

He [i.e. Caliph Hisham] had drapes, clothing and textiles with the inscription of his name
embroidered (tir$z) on them, something that no one before him had had. He was the first
to adopt the tir$z…Hisham adopted the tir$z in the year 108 [727 CE], and he wrote to all
parts of the world to make for him something in the same manner with regard to every
type of textile, furniture, vessel, and equipment.11

By the time the Fatimid caliphs adopted the long-standing tradition of tir$z, the impact of
these prestigious textiles was felt way beyond the court. Material and documentary evidence also
confirms the production of imitation tir$z textiles aimed at the middle-class urban bourgeoisie of
Fatimid society (cat. no. 23).

Inscriptions on Ritual Objects

An important function of inscriptions on Islamic objects, and the last to be discussed in this
essay, is best illustrated by examining two very different Chinese porcelain dishes in the AKM
collection. The first is a large blue-and-white dish produced during the Ming Dynasty in the first
quarter of the sixteenth century (cat. no. 42). At first glance it displays a typically Chinese
decorative aesthetic, with a restrained pattern of blue-painted cloud-scrolls and lotus flowers on
a plain white background. However, the centre of the dish is inscribed in a style of Chinese-
Arabic calligraphy with the word Tah$rat, meaning purity. It is further inscribed on the rim with
the pious phrase (possibly a Prophetic Had›th), “Blessed is he who purifies his hand from
wrongdoing”. Additionally, the exterior of the dish is also inscribed with a saying, “Ablution upon
ablution is light upon light”, a Had›th traced back to both the Prophet Muhammad and the Sh›‘›
Im$m Ja‘far al-S$diq. Here, the presence of inscriptions confers ritual significance upon an
object, transforming it from a serving dish to one reserved only for ritual ablutions, performed by
Muslims as part of the preparation for the obligatory prayer (sal$t).
The second porcelain dish (cat. no. 41) is replete with religious inscriptions, allowing it to
function as a vehicle for another type of rite: a healing ritual. Dated to the seventeenth century,
this dish was manufactured in China but its ultimate destination may have been Safavid Iran or
Sumatra (another Sh›‘› stronghold governed by the sultans of Aceh). The Sh›‘› connection to this
bowl is apparent from the inscription on the cavetto surrounding the central circle, which is the
Nad-e ‘Ali prayer, an invocation to Im$m ‘Al› for his assistance and protection from harm. Other
inscriptions on the bowl include the Ayat al-Kurs› (Qur’an 2:255) or “Throne Verse”, as well as
Sürat al-Ikhl$s (Sura 112) and Sürat al-N$s (Sura 114), three very popular verses often inscribed on
70 Epigraphy and Inscriptions on Objects

amulets, seals and architecture. A Twelver Sh›‘› treatise on Prophetic medicine, Tibb al-a’imma,
composed during the ninth century, provides a key to how this bowl might have been used:

The Tibb al-a’immah refers several times to Qur’anic verses being written in ink on paper
and then washed in the water that was to be subsequently consumed. It also mentions
the practice of reciting a certain Qur’anic verse 30 times over a bowl of water that is then
to be drunk.12

The practice of using magic-medicinal bowls in this way seems to have developed
further with inscriptions engraved directly on the bowls as evidenced by the recommendation
from a fourteenth-century treatise on Prophetic medicine, “…protection against delusions and
melancholia (wasw$s) could be gained by drinking, before breakfast for three days, a liquid
from a bowl on which Qur’anic verses and a particular magic square had been written.” 13
Hence, the power of God’s Word is transferred directly from the bowl to the liquid and into
the body of the believer.
Inscriptions, therefore, fulfil a variety of purposes in Islamic material culture. By studying
them in their historical contexts we open a gateway to a better understanding of the plurality of
Muslim aesthetic tastes, political ambitions and religious beliefs and practices across centuries
and vast territories.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 71

1 Alain George, The Rise of Islamic Calligraphy (London 2010),

21–34.
2 Venetia Porter and Heba Nayel Barakat, Mightier than the Sword –
Arabic Script: Beauty and Meaning (Malaysia 2004), 21.
3 John Burton, ‘The Collection of the Qur’an’, Encyclopaedia of the
Qur’an, Vol. 1, 351.
4 Sheila Canby, Shah ‘Abbas: The Remaking of Iran (London, 2009),
42–44, 193–194. Sheila S. Blair, Islamic Calligraphy (Edinburgh,
2008), 421–423.
5 Sheila S. Blair, Islamic Inscriptions (Edinburgh, 1998), 3.

6 Hulya Tezcan, ‘Ka‘ba covers from the Topkapi Palace collection

and their inscriptions’, in Fahmida Suleman (ed.), Word of God, Art
of Man: The Qur’an and its Creative Expressions (Oxford 2007),
227–238; this ref. 231.
7 See the catalogue entry for details of the full poem.
8 Huism Tan, ‘Qur’anic inscriptions on woodcarvings from the
Malay Peninsula’, in Fahmida Suleman (ed.), Word of God, Art of
Man, 205–216, this ref. 210.
9 Éva M. Jeremiás, ‘Iran/Languages/New Persian’, in Encyclopaedia
of Islam, 2nd ed., vol. 12, 425.
10 Anna Contadini, Fatimid Art at the Victoria and Albert Museum
(London 1998), 17.
11 Ghada al-Hijjawi al-Qaddumi (trans.), The Book of Gifts and
Rarities: Kitab al-Hadaya wa al-Tuhaf (Cambridge MA 1996),
204–205.
12 Emilie Savage-Smith, Science, Tools and Magic, Part 1 (Oxford
1997), 72.
13 Ibid.
Later Calligraphic Scripts

Catalogue Entr›es 27 — 49
From the mid tenth century, Arabic calligraphy was subject to government reforms
intended to perfect the script as a vehicle for a clear and unambiguous text of the
Qur’an. Around the same time, six specific canonical cursive scripts were defined,
appropriate for different contexts. Cursive scripts could be written more quickly than
the more rigid Kufic scripts of the early Islamic period, and some varieties were also
prized for their clarity and legibility. Others developed as secretarial scripts of the
chancellery, used primarily for official documents and records in the various
administrative centres of the Islamic world. In keeping with these developments, the
Qur’an began to be copied in the newly-determined cursive naskh script (as opposed
to earlier angular Kufic scripts). Qur’an manuscripts also began to be produced on
paper instead of vellum, as paper technology had markedly improved in the Middle
East by the year 1000 CE.
The new range of scripts introduced a clearer professionalism to the calligrapher’s
art, and written texts began to exploit the expressive powers of several available scripts
by combining them for different effects and contrasts on the same page (cat. nos 28,
29, 31, 32). A clearer identification of canonical scripts also precipitated more precise
analysis of the calligrapher’s skill, and the growth of connoisseurial appreciation and
specimen-collecting in muraqqa‘ or albums (cat. no. 45). Such skill and appreciation are
exhibited to great advantage in large-scale Qur’an manuscripts written in majestic and
dramatic muhaqqaq or thuluth scripts, produced throughout the fourteenth century for
various competing dynasties, and culminating in a gigantic Qur’an associated with the
Central Asian conqueror Timur (cat. no. 30).
As with other art forms, mastering calligraphy required training from an expert.
This training did not primarily recommend originality or innovation, but faithful
conservatism to the styles of one’s teacher. Only once the student could replicate his
master’s calligraphic hand would the master finally issue the diploma, or ij$za. In
this manner, calligraphic scripts have been preserved over many generations of
teachers and students, and the ancestry of one’s training is remembered and
respected. The renowned calligrapher Y$qüt al-Musta‘sim› (d. 1298) is traditionally
recorded as having trained six students, known as al-Sitta ("the Six") – and for a
later calligrapher to be able to claim artistic ‘descent’ from any of the Six was long
regarded as the benchmark of his professional status.
74 Later Calligraphic Scripts

27 Qur’an folio from al-Andalus

Granada, Spain, c. 1200 After the dominance of angular Kufic scripts in the calligraphy of the early Islamic period, the late eleventh to
Ink and gold on vellum thirteenth centuries saw the development of a wide array of round scripts. The enormous size of the Islamic
Page: 26.4 x 17.9 cm;
world by the medieval period made it inevitable that distinct regional styles would evolve in the various urban
text: 20 x 14.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00224 cultural centres at Baghdad, Cairo and so forth, as copyists sought ways to turn their regular writing into elegant
Publ.: Welch 1972b, p. 13; Raeuber forms of script suitable for large manuscripts. The style employed in this folio is known as maghribi and was
1979, fig. 19; Welch–Welch 1982, pp. practised in the western Islamic world (the Maghrib), in several regional variations: this example is from a
22–24 (no. 2); Falk 1985, (no. 6). Qur’an manuscript made at al-Andulus under the Almohads or Nasrids. The text is from Surat al-Isra’ (17: 71-79).
The most obvious visual characteristic of maghribi script is the use of rounded, cupping swoops on the letters
that descend below the baseline. Here the descending swoops overlap each other and sometimes also overlap
the taller letters on the line below, but the scribe has maintained order by applying the black outlining of each
gold letter in such a way that the crossing strokes are depicted as overlaying each other, rather than fusing into a
mass. Another notable aspect of maghribi script, shown clearly in this example, is the relatively uniform thickness
of the strokes, with the differences between thick and thin far less obvious than in highly stylized scripts such as
the so-called “eastern Kufic” (cat. no. 12).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 75

Qur’an folio from Mamluk Cairo 28

The combination of angular Kufic headings and a body text written in a cursive script is not uncommon in Cairo, Mamluk Egypt, c. 1300
Qur’an manuscripts of this period. The script employed for the main part of this manuscript, known as Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper
muhaqqaq, came to be regarded as the best form of script for copying the text of the Qur’an in Mamluk Egypt
Page: 45 x 33.3 cm; text: 35 x 24.5 cm
and was particularly widely used in luxurious Qur’ans made during the second half of the fourteenth century. Inv.: AKM00225
Muhaqqaq was the first and most highly regarded of the so-called rectilinear scripts, and its name literally means Publ.: Welch 1972b, p. 15.
“exact” or “perfectly executed” (Blair 2008, p. 319). This and related styles are known as the rectilinear scripts
because although cursive they were characterised by straight and regular uprights, and fairly flat and stiff
sublinear strokes. This creates a strong and regular rhythm on the page but is also highly legible, unlike the very
formalised Kufic script reserved for the Sura heading. The tight angularity of the white line of Kufic in the header
panel causes it to appear rather etiolated next to the more dynamic muhaqqaq, but also serves as a reminder of
the continuing significance of Kufic script as a medium for religious texts. Throughout the muhaqqaq text gold
rosettes are used to mark individual verses, and an illuminated medallion extends into the margin from the Sura
heading. Such motifs were used to provide visual punctuation in the dense text, as well as enabling quick
location of verses and Suras. The text comprises Surat al-Hashr (59: 22–24) and Surat al-Mumtahana (60: 1).
76 Later Calligraphic Scripts

29 Illuminated folio from a Qur’an

Possibly Yemen, c. 1300–1350 There are varying suggestions as to the original area of production of this Qur’an. Although an origin in Ilkhanid
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold Persia or Mamluk Egypt cannot be discounted, the folio has certain features that suggest a possible alternative
on paper
place of manufacture, possibly Yemen, during the period of Rasulid rule (1229–1454). The text, Sura Yunus (10:
38.9 x 64 cm
Inv.: AKM00814 109) and Sura Hud (11: 1–15) is copied in a combination of three scripts: the first and last lines are in muhaqqaq,
Publ.: AKTC 2010a, p. 41 (no. 9). the middle line is in gold thuluth, and the remainder of the text is written in black naskh. It is rare, although not
unheard of, to find Mamluk Qur’ans copied in different types of script, and none are yet known that present three
styles on the same page (James 1992, p. 160). Although all three script types are cursive, naskh is a smaller script
related to muhaqqaq and traditionally used for copying, although increasing in popularity for expensive Qur’an
manuscripts in the fourteenth century; thuluth, meanwhile, had developed as a chancery script and is typified by a
faint slant to the left visible in the alifs of this example. Another unusual feature of this piece is the decoration of
the chapter heading: in this case, that of Sura Hud. The text is in white Kufic and this is set within a gold panel
with latticework decoration at either end, terminating in a teardrop-shaped medallion in the outer margin; squares
of interlace, although seldom found on Mamluk Qur’ans, are known in Ilkhanid manuscripts. The verses on this
bifolium are separated by eight-petalled gold rosettes, with each fifth verse identified by a gold teardrop-shaped
device with a long finial in the margin; the tenth verse is marked by a gold roundel with a blue border.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 77

Two lines from a monumental Qur’an manuscript 30

Exalting calligraphy over illumination, the two lines of this fragment (Sura Saba’ [34: 44–45]) demonstrate why Central Asia, c. 1400
muhaqqaq was a preferred script for large-scale Qur’ans in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, in the central Ink on paper
47.3 x 98.5 cm
Islamic lands as well as Mamluk Egypt. In its original arrangement each page of this elephantine manuscript
Inv.: AKM00491
would have contained seven lines of text and measured 175 x 100 cm (Blair 2008, p. 267). Although the Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 39 (no. 6);
manuscript has in the past been associated with the Timurid prince Baysunghur, recent studies suggest it should AKTC 2007b, p. 35 (no. 6);
be attributed to the patronage of his grandfather Timur (r. 1370–1405). The original manuscript would have fit Makariou 2007, pp. 122–23 (no. 41);
with Qadi Ahmad’s description of a Qur’an prepared for Timur by ‘Umar ‘Aqta‘ which was so large and heavy it AKTC 2008a, pp. 50–51 (no. 5);
AKTC 2008b.
had to be transported by wheelbarrow (Blair 2008, p. 265). Another of Timur’s grandsons, Ulugh Beg,
commissioned a huge stone Qur’an stand in the courtyard of the Bibi Khanum mosque in Samarqand, which
may well have been intended to hold this colossal manuscript. In keeping with the manuscript’s majestic scale,
the individual strokes of the letters are more than a centimetre wide, and it is the strong and confident verticals
that pin the composition together. Between the tall verticals and the rather compressed lower bodies and
sublinear parts of the letters, there is actually a great deal of empty space on the page, and this enhances the
sense of extravagant expansiveness in this massive manuscript. Inscribed in lower right corner are the words,
“For… the reviver of religion… Sultan… Husayn ibn Sultan… in the year… 23”. It is thought that the original
manuscript was dispersed as early as the sixteenth century, and pages from it are now in the library of the Shrine
of the Imam Reza at Mashhad as well as various museums and private collections.
78 Later Calligraphic Scripts

31 Qur’an folio from Sultanate India

Delhi, India, c. 1400 This folio comes from one of only a handful of Qur’an manuscripts to have survived from the period between
Ink and gold on paper Timur’s invasion of northern India in 1398–99 and the advent of the Mughal dynasty in 1526. It has been a
Page: 36.9 x 28 cm; text: 30.3 x challenge to understand the general development of the arts of the book in this region during the fifteenth century
18.8 cm
due to the diversity of artistic styles practiced at the various cultural centres of the independent Muslim sultanates.
Inv.: AKM00242
Manuscript production in Sultanate India seems to have largely followed the Timurid tradition in Iran and Central
Publ.: AKTC 2008a, pp. 54–55 (no. 7).
Asia, but the main script shown here, known as bihari, is an exception to this. A strange mutation of naskh script
with obscure origins, bihari script only appears in manuscripts predating the Mughals (James 1992b, p. 102). It is
characterised by large spaces between words and by an exaggeration of the sublinear letter forms through a
thickening of the letter’s curves and the sharpening of its end points, producing a distinctive wedge-shape that
can, as can be seen here, become quite scythe-like. On this page thirteen lines of Surat al-Isra’ (17: 29-34) have
been calligraphed in gold, black and milky blue, with Persian translations appearing in red nasta‘liq between each
line. Interlinear translation of this type was one solution to the problem posed by non-Arab Muslims who might
not understand the Arabic text of the Qur’an, whilst simultaneously retaining the sanctity of the original Arabic
words of the revelation.
80 Later Calligraphic Scripts

32 Miniature manuscript of Juz’ Four of the Qur’an

Timurid Iran, fifteenth century The unusually well preserved binding of this miniature Juz’ volume provides a rare insight into the rich
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold appearance of Timurid leather bindings, few of which have survived in good condition. The outer panels employ
on paper, with contemporary gilt gilt and stamped designs in cartouches with foliate decoration picked out with tiny pieces of lapis lazuli inlay,
brown and red morocco binding
while the doublures (the inner face of the binding) have been decorated with cut filigree in cherry-red morocco
and lapis lazuli inlay
6.6 x 4.7 cm laid over gold and green grounds, pointing the way towards the elaborate gilt filigree creations of the sixteenth
Inv.: AKM00826 century (see cat. no. 73). Inside, the manuscript itself has been rendered in a relatively simple manner, with the
Unpublished text written in a black script of naskh type – remarkably neat and sharp in spite of its tiny scale – set into panels
outlined in blue and gold, with large clear margins and small gold medallions as verse markers. Beyond the
opening illuminated headpiece, which is a representative example of fine Timurid illumination, there is little in
the way of decoration: the text of Juz’ four falls almost entirely within the third Sura of the Qur’an and so
provides little scope for embellishment in the way of verse headings. This volume would originally have been part
of a thirty-volume set, probably stored together in a leather box: Blair has published a slightly earlier and smaller
miniature thirty-volume set, complete with its case, which is now in the Islamic Museum in Tehran.
82 Later Calligraphic Scripts

33 Tray stand

Mamluk Egypt or Syria, first half of A number of Mamluk tray stands made in both beaten and cast brass survive, and it is not possible at present to
the fourteenth century say whether they were produced in Cairo or Damascus or both. Ceramic imitations of the form from Mamluk
Brass inlaid with silver and gold
Egypt have been found, showing that the popularity of this type of stand was such that it was also imitated in
Height: 19.5 cm; diameter: 18.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00726 less expensive forms of production, and there is even a small blue-and-white Chinese ceramic tray stand of the
Unpublished same type, dating from the fifteenth century. The Chinese version, now held in the British Museum (1966, 1215.1),
carries a debased Arabic inscription – the work of a Chinese painter who could not read the Arabic model he was
copying – and is a reminder of the vigorous sea trade that went on between the Middle and Far East during the
late medieval period. The brass stand would have been used to support a large tray when serving food, and the
level of craftsmanship involved makes it clear that this piece was intended for use in an elite household. The
inscriptions correspond closely with those seen on other objects of this type (see Allan 1982, pp. 96–7, and cat. no.
34) in both their eulogising content and the use of a strong, elegant thuluth script with exaggerated thickly drawn
verticals. The absolute dominance of the inscription over all other forms of decoration employed on the stand
(the floral roundel with six-petalled flower at centre and the twining vegetal background decoration) is utterly
characteristic of Mamluk arts.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 83

Bowl with calligraphic decoration 34

The inlaid silver inscription on this bowl reads “For the High Excellency, the Lordly, the Great Emir, the Learned, Mamluk Egypt or Syria, first half of
the Just, the Valiant, the Supporter, the Succour, the Sparkling, the Help, the Orderly, the Responsible, the the fourteenth century
Brass inlaid with silver
[officer] of al-Malik al-Nasir”. This highly formulaic eulogising inscription is typical of the arts of the elite from the
Diameter: 18 cm
Mamluk period in Egypt and Syria, and similar inscriptions can be found on many metalwork objects of the Inv.: AKM00610
period (see cat. no. 33) as well as in other media, such as the famous enamelled glass hanging lamps produced Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 182 (no. 158);
in great numbers under the Mamluks. The pruning back of figural imagery that took place on much Mamluk art AKTC 2007b, p. 185 (no. 158);
was counterweighted by the dominant position given to inscriptions. Both as carriers of messages that conferred Makariou 2007, pp. 188–189
(no. 68); AKTC 2008a, pp. 292–293
status and rank, and as key aesthetic components in the ornamentation of objects, inscriptions took centre stage
(no. 117); AKTC 2009a, p. 128 (no.
on the non-religious decorative arts as never before. Although not quite as pronounced as some examples, the 87); AKTC 2009b, p. 128 (no. 87);
shafts of the letters in this thuluth-type script nonetheless conform to the Mamluk predilection for inscriptions AKTC 2010a, p. 128 (no. 89).
ordered by ranks of strong, spear-like verticals. The entire text is set against a dynamic ground of scrolling
vegetal decoration with half palmettes.
84 Later Calligraphic Scripts

35 Beam with Qur’anic inscription

Syria, late twelfth or early thirteenth This carved wooden beam may originally have belonged to the small side of a cenotaph. The inscription is a
century fragment of the famous “Throne Verse” (verse 255) from the second and longest Sura of the Qur’an, Surat al-
Carved wood
Baqara (“The Cow”): “[His is what is in the heavens and what is in] the earth! Who is it that intercedes with Him
11.2 x 122 cm
Inv.: AKM00632 save by His permission?” It can be assumed that the piece originally formed part of a larger arrangement of
Publ.: Makariou 2007, pp. 118–119 similarly carved beams, together making up the entire Throne Verse. This is one of the passages of the Qur’an
(no. 39); AKTC 2008a, p. 73 most often used in a funerary context, although it has a much wider architectural application as well: it appears
(no. 17); AKTC 2009a, pp. 110–111 in the first Muslim monument, the Dome of the Rock, and is frequently used in inscriptions found on the
(no. 62); AKTC 2009b, pp. 110–111
mihrab, the arch-shaped niche marking the direction of prayer in a mosque. Between the two smooth ends of the
(no. 62); AKTC 2010a, pp. 112–113
(no. 63). beam, the raised, rounded inscription is contained within a long cartouche and set against a finely sculpted
background of plant foliage punctuated by small whorls and palmettes with long, curved tips, fairly typical of the
Syrian repertoire. The script itself is highly representative of the naskh-type script favoured during the Ayyubid
period, a form of cursive marked by its elegant simplicity and compact, dynamic nature which makes it well
suited for use in a relatively narrow space such as this. A fragment of an epigraphic frieze preserved in the
Museum of Islamic Art, Cairo, (David-Weill 1931, pp. 34–35, no. 2118, pl. 21) which was discovered in the
mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi‘i and certainly comes from a cenotaph, is very similar to this piece.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 85

Monumental jar 36

This jar is one of a small group of known examples of monumental size from thirteenth-century Iran, with Iran, thirteenth century
comparable pieces held in various major public museums. The moulded decoration of the body, created in Fritware with turquoise glaze
Height: 71 cm
independent banded designs rather than an overall scheme, and the bright monochrome turquoise glaze are
Inv.: AKM00566
both characteristic of wares of this period produced in Iran and the surrounding areas. The moulded band of Publ.: AKTC 2007a, pp. 78–79
standardized Arabic benedictory phrases in a pleasing cursive script are of a type seen on other domestic objects (no. 48); AKTC 2007b, pp. 76–77
and are thought to confer blessings on the owner of the jar, or its contents, or both. The appearance of a frieze (no. 48); AKTC 2008a, pp. 114–115
including stylized sphinxes – mythical creatures with the head of a human, body of a lion and wings of an eagle – (no. 37); AKTC 2009a, p. 178 (no.
133); AKTC 2009b, p. 178 (no. 133);
on the shoulders of the jar also suggests an apotropaic aspect to the overall design that may be linked to ancient
AKTC 2010a, p. 178 (no. 135).
folk practices, protecting the contents of the jar from contamination or interference. The fish-scale design on the
bottom of the jar is less common, but it also appears on similar pieces in the Metropolitan Museum in New
York and the Museum für Islamische Kunst in Berlin.
86 Later Calligraphic Scripts

37 Lustre tile with Qur’anic inscription

Iran, possibly Kashan, early This tile originally formed part of a long calligraphic frieze of Qur’anic inscriptions. Very similar tiles are held in
fourteenth century several other collections, including the Victoria and Albert Museum in London, and are believed to have come
Fritware with lustre decoration and from the shrine of the Sufi master ‘Abd al-Samad at Natanz in Iran. Medieval texts refer to Kashan as one of the
blue, brown and turquoise upon an
major centres of ceramic production in Iran and lustre ware is particularly associated with this city. The main
opaque white glaze
18.6 x 43 cm body of the tile boasts a striking cobalt blue thuluth inscription which manages to hold its own against the busy
Inv.: AKM00565 background of tiny plant designs in white and lustre, and scrolling turquoise vegetal sprays. The smaller, densely
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 51 (no. 21); and quickly executed naskh inscriptions that have been painted in golden lustre along the top and bottom panels
AKTC 2007b, p. 45 (no. 21); are of a type frequently met with on architectural tiles from Ilkhanid Iran. At the top is written Surat al-Rahman
Makariou 2007, p. 120 (no. 40);
(55: 32–35) in the centre, Surat al-Jum‘a (62: 8) and at the bottom Sura Saba’ (34: 7–9). The overall effect is a
AKTC 2009a, p. 50 (no. 20); AKTC
2009b, p. 50 (no. 20); AKTC 2010a, visual polyphony of sacred texts, and yet it remains harmoniously dominated by the elegant cobalt thuluth of the
p. 52 (no. 21). main inscription. It has been conjectured that the lustre tilework so popular in Mongol Iran would have gained
an extra dimension when viewed in lamp or candlelight, which would have caused the surface to glitter: flickering
light would at the same time have created a play of light and shade upon the raised central inscription.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 87

Iznik tile frieze §38

The growth of the ceramic industry in Iznik, western Turkey, played a significant role in the codification of a Ottoman, Iznik, mid-sixteenth
distinctly Ottoman ceramic technique and style, which in turn became a major aspect of the Ottoman court century
Fritware, polychrome underglaze
aesthetic. Associations between ceramics and Ottoman imperial patronage were most clearly realized in the
painted
production of coloured architectural tiles for mosques, palaces, bathhouses and so forth, often decorated with 15.5 x 75 x 1 cm
elaborate and fantastic floral motifs and making much use of brilliant blue, turquoise, and a highly distinctive Inv.: AKM00698
tomato-red that stands slightly proud of the surface of the tile. This frieze, although brightly coloured, is more Publ.: AKTC 2008a, p. 72 (no. 16);
sober in execution than some other Ottoman tile panels, as befits its sacred message, and is without adornment AKTC 2009a, p. 53 (no. 23); AKTC
2009b, p. 53 (no. 23); AKTC 2010a,
beyond the red outline and lobed turquoise spandrels of the inscription panel. The bright white of the inscription
p. 55 (no. 24).
stands out vividly against the rich cobalt blue of the background. It may well have formed part of the decoration
of a mosque or other religious institution, such as a madrasa, and quite possibly was part of a larger series of
inscriptive friezes. The inscription, written in Arabic in a graceful cursive script of naskh type, is fully glossed and
reads “God is the best guardian and He is the most merciful of the merciful” (Sura Yusuf, [12: 64]). This piece is
exhibited with the kind permission of Princess Catherine Aga Khan.
88 Later Calligraphic Scripts

39 Moulded bowl

Eastern Iranian world, twelfth or This bowl is one of a group of ceramics known as “Bamiyan” wares, after their presumed site of manufacture.
thirteenth century The ceramic make-up of the group is characterised by a particularly fragile frit fabric that results in several cracks
Fritware with moulded decoration,
appearing during firing, and their decoration tends to include moulded linear designs and inscriptions in low
blue and purple under a transparent
glaze relief under a transparent coloured or colourless glaze. Here splashes of cobalt blue and manganese have been
Diameter: 25 cm applied at regular intervals around the rim of the bowl to provide accents to the moulded white background. The
Inv.: AKM00553 interlacing, radiating star motif seen on this bowl is entirely typical of the Bamiyan fritwares (see Watson 2004,
Publ.: AKTC 2009a, p. 176 (no. 130); p. 326). Less common amongst the group is the band of ornately cursive script, also part of the mould, which
AKTC 2009b, p. 176 (no. 130); AKTC
fills the walls of this piece. The script has clearly borrowed much from calligraphy, with exaggerated sublinear
2010a, p. 176 (no. 132).
loops and marked differences between thick and thin sections of individual letters, but is rather hard to
distinguish from the swirling moulded arabesque patterns that fill the background. The text has proved
impossible to read, but may comprise poetic inscriptions in Persian. The three interior spur marks seen on the
plain band around the star motif in the centre are a common feature of Bamiyan wares, evidence of their having
been stacked in the kiln using tripods during firing. Numerous intact Bamiyan wares have appeared on the
international art market in recent years and a large collection may also be found in the Nasser D. Khalili
Collection, London.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 89

Moulded ceramic bottle with horsemen 40

This round-bellied bottle, with a narrow, elongated neck ending in a dome shape, presents an extraordinary Iran, twelfth century
moulded design. The fine, white siliceous body, which appeared in Iran at the turn of the eleventh and twelfth Moulded and glazed fritware
Height: 35.5 cm
centuries, has been covered with transparent glaze and cobalt blue and turquoise running glaze. On the belly is a
Inv.: AKM00552
dense decoration in relief depicting a hunt scene: several horsemen form a frieze, while footmen struggle with Publ.: Tokyo 1980, no. 221; AKTC
wild animals, and the design is completed with birds and plant motifs scattered among the various groups. 2007a, p. 149 (no. 117); AKTC
Interactions between the figures, coupled with the relatively high relief of the decoration, create an impression 2007b, p. 152 (no. 117); Makariou
akin to a complex interlace design. The theme of the hunt is often related to the so-called “princely cycle”, a 2007, pp. 64–65 (no. 18); AKTC
2008a, pp. 234-235 (no. 91); AKTC
repertoire of imagery with its roots in pre-Islamic Persia, and concerned with the depiction of activities related to
2009a, p. 177 (no. 132); AKTC
pleasure and imperial prerogative, such as drinking, enthronements, polo and of course hunting. Related hunt 2009b, p. 177 (no. 132); AKTC
imagery is to be found on a cup recently acquired by the Louvre Museum, and on another similar piece housed 2010a, p. 177 (no. 134).
in the Reza ‘Abbasi museum in Tehran (Makariou 2007, p. 87, notes 9–10). The lively vigour of the decoration
makes this vase a remarkable milestone in pre-Mongolian ceramics, although the narrative content of this
hunting episode is unknown to us today.
90 Later Calligraphic Scripts

41 Chinese “Swatow” dish

China, seventeenth century Coarsely potted and covered with a thick, crackled glaze, this dish belongs to a distinct group of porcelain, the
Porcelain painted in overglaze so-called “Swatow wares”. Swatow is a Dutch mistranslation of Shantou, the port from which such ceramics
green and black on opaque white were supposedly exported, but recent archaeological research by Chinese scholars has established that Swatow
glaze
wares were actually produced in Zhangzhou prefecture between the mid sixteenth and mid seventeenth centuries
Diameter: 35.1 cm
Inv.: AKM00591 for export to Europe, Japan and South East Asia. Dishes similar to this one have been found in Indonesia, and
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 46–47 are believed to have been commissioned by the powerful seventeenth-century Shi‘i sultans of Aceh in northwest
(no. 16); AKTC 2007b, p. 42 (no. Sumatra, including Sultan Iskander Muda (1607–1636) (Canepa 2006, no. 40). Muslims had traded in Indonesia
16); AKTC 2008a, p. 62–63 (no. 11); and China for many centuries, and by the end of the thirteenth century Muslim communities had taken hold in
AKTC 2009a, p. 51 (no. 21); AKTC
northern Sumatra, which was extremely well situated for trading routes between China, India and the Middle
2009b, p. 51 (no. 21); AKTC 2010a,
p. 53 (no. 22). East. The inscriptions on this dish include invocations to Allah, verses from the Qur’an, including Sura 2 (al-
Baqara), Sura 112 (al-Ikhlas), Sura 114 (al-Nas), as well as the Nad-e ‘Ali prayer and the word “Allah” which is
repeated along the cavetto of the dish. The inscriptions are talismanic, seeking protection and assistance for the
owner, and possibly also conferring protection on whatever was to be contained within the bowl (see cat. no. 14).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 91

Ablutions dish 42

The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) marked the greatest physical expansion of China, and this huge empire, which Jingdezhen (north-eastern Jiangxi
dominated the Far East, enjoyed rich and fruitful contacts with the other great empires of the period, both in Europe Province), China
Mark of Emperor Zhengde
and in the Muslim world. There were close commercial ties especially between the Ming Empire of China and
(1506–1521)
Mughal India, Safavid Iran, and Ottoman Turkey, and one of the most active items of export from China to the Porcelain with blue and white glaze
empires of the west was pottery. China’s porcelain had long enjoyed a stellar reputation in the Islamic world, and its Diameter 41.8 cm; height 7.5 cm
blue-and-white ware, produced by thousands of kilns around Jingdezhen, was eagerly sought by Muslim and Inv.: AKM00722
European merchants. It is quite possible that this piece was designed specifically for export, probably to Iran, where Publ.: Welch 1978a, pp. 211–212;
AKTC 2008b, no. 27; AKTC 2009a,
the taste for Chinese blue-and-white porcelain in this period seems to have been most pronounced. However, a
p. 64 (no. 31); AKTC 2009b, p. 64
related piece dating from the same period, albeit with red decoration on white and longer Arabic inscriptions, has (no. 31); AKTC 2010a, p. 66 (no. 32).
been surmised by Watson as a commission for a highly-placed Chinese Muslim at the Ming court rather than a
product of the export market, on the basis of its superlative quality, and it is possible that the present piece was also
intended for Chinese consumption (Watson 2004, pp. 490–491). The Arabic word Taharat (“Purity”) is inscribed
within the central medallion; the phrase Tuba li-ma tahara yadahu min ilha’ (“Blessed is he who purifies his hand
from wrongdoing”) appears within the four panels on rim, and al-wudu’ ‘ala l-wudu’ dau’ ‘ala dau’ (“Ablution upon
ablution is light upon light”) within the exterior panels. Judging from the implications of the textual message, it
seems that the porcelain would have been used as a basin for ablutions at home before prayer. This piece is
exhibited with the kind permission of Princess Catherine Aga Khan.
92 Later Calligraphic Scripts

43 Boat-shaped kashkül (beggar’s bowl)

Iran, second half of the sixteenth Inscriptions: Side 1:

century The prince of the two worlds, the seal of messengers
Engraved brass
He became the pride of the very first
Length: 61 cm
Inv.: AKM00612 He made his ascent to the throne and the seat, not to the sky,
Publ.: Melikian-Chirvani 1991, pp. The prophets and friends of God were in need of him
35–37, 97–98, figs. 60–63; AKTC His existence was spent in guarding the two worlds
2007a, p. 63 (no. 32); AKTC 2007b, The whole surface of the earth became his mosque
p. 60 (no. 32); AKTC 2008a, pp.
The lord of the two worlds, the leader of mankind:
88–89 (no. 24); AKTC 2009a, p. 81
(no. 42); AKTC 2009b, p. 81 (no. The moon was split by the tip of his finger.
42); AKTC 2010a, p. 83 (no. 43).
Side 2 (in a different metre):
The one had for him the friend of the Beloved
While the other was the leader of the Pious bands
(The servant of the Shah of Najaf, Shams al-Din)
. . . For this reason did they become friends of God
The one was a fount of moral gentleness and spiritual modesty in the world
While the other was “The Gate of the City of Knowledge”
That envoy of Truth/God that was the best among humans
His immaculate uncle was Hamza son of ‘Abbas.
(Melikian-Chirvani 1991, pp. 35–36)

Melikian-Chirvani, who read and translated the nasta‘liq inscriptions that decorate the upper band of this kashkul,
believes that the piece once belonged to the head of a khanaqah or Sufi hospice. A kashkul of this quality would
hardly have been used by dervishes collecting alms, instead must have been amongst the treasured items of a
revered Sufi. This kashkul is one of a group of five important Safavid examples from the late sixteenth century
discussed in depth by Melikian-Chirvani. In his article he illustrated the means by which the form of these
objects developed from the pre-Islamic concept of the royal wine-boat, their shape merging the idea of the
crescent moon “out of which wine, seen as liquid sunlight, is poured” with the ritual function of wine-drinking at
pre-Islamic festivals, and the heavily symbolic form of the dervish’s begging bowl. The mystical nature of the
inscribed verses reflects the layered symbolism of the object itself, with its snarling dragons’ heads and its role
as an emblem of dervish practice. The nasta‘liq of the inscription is dense and elegant, and is contained within
cartouches of a type also seen in other media, such as bookbindings (cat. no. 73), lacquerwork (cat. no. 59) and
tilework (cat. no. 38).
94 Later Calligraphic Scripts

44 Inlaid box

Ottoman Istanbul, first half of the Iranian craftsmen working at the Ottoman court in Istanbul are thought to have been responsible for the creation
sixteenth century of this extremely fine box inlaid with ivory, precious metals and stones. The victory of the Ottoman Selim I over
Wood, ivory, gold, niello, turquoise, the Safavid Shah Isma‘il at the battle of Chaldiran in 1514 led to the Ottoman occupation of Tabriz in
precious stones
northwestern Iran; objects and craftsmen alike were plundered from Tabriz and taken to Istanbul by the
17.3 x 8.8 x 3.2 cm
Inv.: AKM00819 conquerors. The skill of Safavid metalworkers and inlayers was certainly well-known amongst the Ottomans both
Unpublished before and after the victory at Chaldiran, as Iranian goldsmiths had been active in Istanbul as early as 1480
(Rogers in Levenson 1991, p. 205) and a payroll document of 1526 records that both the damasceners’ and
goldsmiths’ guilds were headed by Tabrizi craftsmen (Allan in Thompson–Canby 2003, p. 214). The inscription
cartouches on this box, although exquisitely executed, are kept rather in the background of the overall decorative
scheme, their closely packed gold cursive script on black providing a subtle echo of the panels of tightly wound
gold vegetal interlace designs on black that recur throughout the geometric design of the top panel. The
inscription in Persian reads “There is no touchstone (?) like these scales in the world / To measure stones light
and yet precious / One tray is like the moon, the other the sun, / The conjunction of the sun and moon has
fallen in its balance”. It has been conjectured from the inscription that the original contents of the box were a set
of scales for weighing precious stones.
96 Later Calligraphic Scripts

45 Album of shikasta calligraphy

Ink on paper with Morocco binding This concertina-type album of 48 pages contains examples of a cursive hanging script known as shikasta. The
Qajar Iran, first half of the name means “broken” and is a shortening of the script’s full title, shikasta-yi nasta‘liq (“broken nasta‘liq”). Born
nineteenth century
out of a bureaucratic need to write faster, shikasta had become a major script for bureaucratic documents by the
29.2 x 19 cm
Inv.: AKM00360 seventeenth century (Blair 2008, p. 441). Like nasta‘liq (see cat. no. 46), shikasta is a so-called “hanging script”
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 125 (no. 92); used for writing Persian, with a downward diagonal slant to individual elements and an exaggeration of certain
AKTC 2007b, p. 128 (no. 92). long ligatures. The principal difference between this script and nasta‘liq is that in shikasta the scribe is permitted
to make more unauthorised connections between letters and can join the letters alif, dal, dhal, ra’, za‘, zha’ and
waw to the next letter. This means that alone of all the scripts, each word can be written in shikasta with one
stroke of the pen, rather than the scribe having to stop, lift his pen and start a new stroke within the same word
as he would normally have to do for non-connecting letters. Words were even joined together sometimes, and
vertical letters were shrunk, creating an extremely dense and rapidly written script, and scribes took pleasure in
writing in different directions on the same page to create complex patterns. By the nineteenth century scribes
had stylized shikasta to such a degree that legibility came second to aesthetic effect, and it ultimately remained
the script of official documents and decrees, while nasta‘liq continued to be the main calligraphic style.
98 Later Calligraphic Scripts

46 Double album page

Iran, early nineteenth century This double-page opening features a portrait of the Qajar ruler Fath ‘Ali Shah (r. 1798–1834) and a calligraphic
Opaque watercolour and gold on exercise signed by him. Even in miniature, this stylised formal portrait of Fath ‘Ali Shah with his full beard and
paper
imperial regalia manages to convey some of the monumentality and power that is evident in his full-size imperial
33.3 x 20.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00531 enthronement portraits (for comparison see the Hermitage portrait, vr-1107; Diba 1998, p. 183). It is known that
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, pp. 106–107 he practiced calligraphy, but signed examples in his own hand are rare. These pages may well have belonged to a
(no. 74); AKTC 2007b, pp. 106–107 larger album similar to cat. no. 143, containing samples of various types of fine script. The calligraphy shown
(no. 74); AKTC 2008a, pp. 160–161 here is a form of nasta‘liq: the name of this script is a contraction of the Persian naskh-i ta‘liq, meaning a hanging
(no. 58).
or suspended form of naskh (Blair 2008, p. 274). However, where the letters in nasta‘liq are typically sloped, this
inscription retains a fairly flat baseline. The fluidity of late nasta‘liq is present, though, as are the marked
differentiations between thick and thin within a single stroke of the pen, and the strong emphatic square dots.
Nasta‘liq and the related hanging script ta‘liq are particularly suitable for writing Persian and were developed in
response to the different requirements of written Persian compared with Arabic. Although they use the same
alphabet and share some words, Persian is linguistically entirely distinct from Arabic and does not have the
direct article “al”; this means that on the page it lacks the repetitive uprights that characterise Arabic calligraphy.
Persian also has a different proportion of curved and straight letters from Arabic, and therefore requires a script
that can comfortably and legibly accommodates these features.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 99

Qur’an scroll 47

This scroll is the work of the calligrapher Zayn al-‘Abidin, a Qajar calligraphic master and private scribe to Fath ‘Ali Copied by Zayn al-‘Abid›n
Shah (r. 1797–1834). It is unusually well preserved, and has an extremely finely illuminated headpiece in rich colours Qajar Iran, 1847
and gold: as such it must have been made for a wealthy patron. The illumination of the headpiece, with its central Ink, opaque watercolour and gold
on paper
medallion, ground of foliate arabesques and colour scheme of red, gold and blue with green highlights, connects
575 x 12.5 cm
the piece closely with Qajar Qur’an manuscript illumination, as well as bookbindings and medallion carpets. Much Inv.: AKM00492
of the text has been written in the tiny ghubari (literally “dust”) script, which is said to have begun its life as the Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 42 (no. 11);
script used for sending messages by pigeon post, later coming to be used for feats of the calligrapher’s art such as AKTC 2007b, p. 39 (no. 11);
this or the complete Qur’an on two pages (cat. no. 48), as well as being used for writing amulets, talismans and Makariou 2007, p. 126 (no. 43).
other texts that fit the maximum number of words into a small space (Blair 2008, pp. 259–60). In this scroll the text
has been laid out to form patterns of alternating geometric and floral cartouches with selected verses of the Qur’an,
including an extract from Sura 61 (al-Saff ) and part of the famous “Light Verse” from Surat al-Nur (24:35), created
in thuluth script in reserve. Close observation of the reserve panels in particular reveals this work as a tour-de-force of
the master calligrapher. The scroll may have played a talismanic role, possibly designed for use while travelling.
100 Later Calligraphic Scripts

48 Manuscript of the Qur’an on two pages

Qajar Iran, 1866–67 In this manuscript the entire text of the Qur’an is copied on two pages in minute ghubari script. With letters
Ink, colours and gold on paper, with measuring between 1.3 and 3 mm the script is so tiny that it is not always legible to the naked eye. The entire text
morocco binding
has been arranged into thirty sections, each of which corresponds to a Juz’, one of the most commonly used
48.6 x 69 cm
Inv.: AKM00494 divisions of the Qur’an. In manuscripts executed in standard scripts each Juz’ would normally be contained in a
Publ.: Makariou 2007, pp. 128–129 separate volume (see cat. no. 12); or, in the case of other Iranian and Indian Qur’ans in miniature script, each
(no. 44); AKTC 2008a, pp. 56–57 Juz’ might be written on the recto and verso of one sheet. This manuscript’s presentation of the sacred script is
(no. 8). by no means common; indeed this may be the only known example of its type on paper, one of its closest
equivalents being a complete Qur’an on a sheet of linen, even smaller in size (54 cm x 33.8 cm) and divided into
sixty compartments each containing thirty-one lines of text, produced in Turkey in the seventeenth century. The
calligrapher of the present work, Sayyid ‘Ali Tabatabai, has signed and dated this display of his skill at the bottom
of the left page. The name of the commissioning patron, Sultan al-‘Ulama’, is displayed in the colophon and on
the binding. Very probably this refers to ‘Allamah Sayyid Muhammad ibn Sayyid Dildar ‘Ali (d. 1867), who,
following in the footsteps of his father Sayyid Dildar ‘Ali al-Nasirabadi (1752–1819), was a prominent Shi‘i author
of the time.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 101

Calligraphic painting by Ism$‘›l Jal$yir 49

Seeming to emerge from a strange landscape bathed in ethereal light, the text is an invocation to ‘Ali ibn al- Iran, c. 1860–1870
Husayn, better known as Zayn al-‘Abidin, the fourth Shi‘i Imam. The calligrapher and artist Isma‘il Jalayir trained at Ink and opaque watercolours on
paper
the Dar al-Fonun in Tehran, the first modern institution of higher education in Iran, under the calligraphic master
35 x 53 cm
Mirza Ghulam Riza, and was active at a time when the fledgling art of photography was being taught alongside the Inv.: AKM00534
classical art of calligraphy. The mixture of old and new is visible in Jalayir’s work through the skilful mix of Publ.: Falk 1985 (no. 177); Makariou
calligraphy – the archetypal traditional Islamic art – and precise miniature painting, the latter executed in such a 2007, pp. 156–157 (no. 56); Blair
way that its rather hazy appearance resembles early photographs developed on albumin paper. The nasta‘liq text of 2008, pp. 454–455; AKTC 2009a, p.
226 (no. 171); AKTC 2009b, p. 226
the inscription dominates the composition: the ha and the sin of ‘Ali ibn al-Husayn’s father’s name, Husayn, the
(no. 171); AKTC 2010a, pp. 242–243
second Shi‘i Imam, who was martyred in Karbala in 680, divide the page in two with their long diagonal. At the top (no. 188).
of the page is an architectural fantasy, which transmutes the models of classical Western architecture: columns,
domes and porticos could conjure up an ideal city or an earthly or heavenly palace. Below, cupped in the ya of
“‘Ali” are ‘Ali and his two sons, Hasan and Husayn, the second and third Shi‘i Imams. This “spiritual investiture”
scene certainly throws light on other imagery depicted: the two Sufis to the right of the word “‘Ali”, as well as the
hunting scenes, are replete with pious symbolism. In the enigmatic landscape, a sun rises directly above the letter
lam of ‘Ali. The letters appear to be basking in the glow of that light.
3 The Arts of the Book
104

Francis Richard

The Kit$bkh$na: An Institution in the Service of

Culture and the Art of the Book

The book and writing have, as is well known, a privileged status in Islam. Due to the sacred
nature of the Qur’an, its text revealed to mankind by God himself, it is important to remember
that writing and calligraphy are the subject of genuine reverence. If copying the sacred text of the
Qur’an is, like its recitation, a pious act that attributes its merits to those who accomplish it,
then all that relates to the book, from its conservation to its decoration, has likewise acquired a
growing prestige.
Arab, Persian and Turkish literatures contain a large number of treatises or poems on the
art of the book or calligraphy. Some of these volumes have a technical or historical nature, but
above all these works are intended to testify to the exceptional worth of the book and writing.
Thus, among the arts of Islam calligraphy (khatt) occupies one of the premier places in the
hierarchy of artistic expression. The Arabic letter is an object of contemplation, meditation, or
speculation. In comparing Islamic calligraphy with Chinese calligraphy, which was sometimes
used as a model, there exists one essential difference between them. Although both were
brought to perfection by a class of scribes in the service of the administration of the empire,
among Muslims this practice acquired a sacred nature due to the revealed text of the Qur’an.
Surrounding writing itself there rapidly developed very sophisticated decoration. Gilded
titles, especially those of the Suras of the Qur’an, received decorations of geometric patterns,
stylized flowers or arabesques. Marks made in the margins, or the punctuation, also allowed the
illuminators to develop new styles, which first appeared in the Qur’an and later multiplied in
secular books. A distinct taste for the luxurious book, an object of respect, but also a collector’s
item, led to the successive appearance and development of diverse forms of decoration. The title
page was adorned with strips of calligraphy, illuminated rosettes or mandorlas bearing the name
of the sponsor. The opening that followed enclosed the beginning of the text in a setting of
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 105

illuminated banners or reserves with floral motifs: as though the writing was placed in the heart
of a garden of extreme refinement. Occasionally there were openings composed of only one
decoration, a carpet of very sophisticated illumination that preceded the copied text. Titles were
readily written in calligraphy in the centre of banners decorated with flowers or arabesques;
illuminated strips or triangles were placed on almost every page of certain manuscripts,
combined with frames of fillets of diverse colours. The margin became, in turn, the object of
attention: in the sixteenth century it was gilded or made of marbled or coloured paper. The use
of coloured paper from China, known by the Soghdians since the early Middle Ages, became very
popular in fifteenth-century Iran and among the Ottomans. All of these decorations gave the
illuminator (mudhahhib) a very important role, almost as important as that of the calligrapher.
He shared with the binder (mujallid, sahh$f) and the painter (naqq$sh) the privilege of
participating in the realization of manuscripts for the princes and great figures of the medieval
and modern Muslim world, up to the nineteenth century.
Painting also found its place very early in the Islamic book. Its role was less important
than that of illumination and binding. It was certainly absent from religious texts, but there
existed nevertheless an iconographic tradition concerning holy places, in relation to treatises on
pilgrimages. The first known illustrated books are copies of the Suwar al-Kaw$kib, an
astronomical treatise in Arabic, apparently from the tenth century. Illustration concerned above
all books destined for princely libraries. Scientific volumes as well as certain great literary or
historical works were also readily illustrated. The lives of the Prophets accompanied by cycles of
illustrations were a great success in Iran and the Ottoman world from the world history of
Rash›d al-D›n (early thirteenth century) to the Ottoman Siyar al-Nabi (sixteenth century), which
evoked the life of Muhammad and the exploits of the Muslims. The regions where illustrated
manuscripts were most numerous were the Iranian world, Egypt, Mesopotamia and Syria, the
Ottoman world and Muslim India.
All of these achievements necessitated over the course of centuries the permanence of a
brilliant tradition in the art of papermaking. Coming from China, it quickly replaced parchment,
which it readily imitated in appearance and colour. The art of leather intended for bookbinding
and the preparation of inks, those of gold and colours, were also domains where the
transmission of trade secrets did not prevent invention and innovation.

Princely Workshops
In the Iranian world the kit$bkh$na or kutubkh$na (“house of the book” or “of the books”) was
both a library and a workshop for the copying of manuscripts. This institution differed in its
organization from medieval European scriptoria, which were religious institutions. The
kit$bkh$na was secular and existed in the courts of most of the sultans or grand governors. The
book was indeed associated with power. Owning a library rich in antique books, with the major
scientific and philosophical volumes and literary and historical works was the prerogative of the
cultivated and enlightened sovereign. The prince protected savants and poets. He himself
composed verses. Thus, alongside the volumes he gathered in his library, he reproduced new
copies of these texts and the works composed under his patronage, and he received works
106 The Kit$bkh$na: An Institution in the Service of Culture and the Art of the Book

dedicated to him by authors seeking his protection. Princes exchanged books and seized the
libraries of their enemies in war, in order to increase their collections and promote the work of
savants who composed new pieces rivalling those of the past.
To list the major libraries of the Muslim world would be a difficult task, as they were
numerous. Yet one must mentioned those of Qayrawan, Cordoba, and Fez in the Maghrib. The
library of the caliphs of Baghdad, of course, was very famous and until the thirteenth century it
was a centre for the translation of ancient Graeco-Roman works, and the composition of volumes
on history, religious or secular sciences and Arabic literature. Those of the Samanid sovereigns,
and then the Seljuqs and Ghaznavids, certainly enriched Arabic works, but also witnessed the
emergence of modern Persian literature. These workshop-libraries contributed to the
dissemination of new designs and styles in the art of the book at the same time that they
permitted the distribution of many works, copied or composed through the generosity of princes.
One could certainly include those of many other medieval sovereigns who were both collectors
and patrons. Often these collections, because of the fragility of bindings and paper and the many
conflicts that ravaged the Near East, no longer exist except through the testimony of chroniclers
or the rare precious volumes that have survived and bear the mark of their history. Thus certain
pages of ancient Kufic Qur’ans may sometimes be found from one or another of these libraries.
Occasionally, it was not the sovereigns themselves, but their viziers who were collectors and
patrons. The emblematic example is that of Rash›d al-D›n Fadl All$h Hamad$ni, who, like Niz$m al-
Mulk before him, assembled a rich library for students and scholars in early fourteenth century
Tabriz. In his kit$bkh$na, Rash›d al-D›n ordered the reproduction of manuscripts in a specific large
format, sometimes quite sumptuously illuminated, to disseminate theological, historical and
scientific knowledge, in order to gain certain glory in this world and to win favour in the next. He
also left his name to a widely illustrated world history of which there exist several copies.
Mongol Iran of the Ilkhanids, from the capture of Baghdad in 1258 to 1330, inherited the
legacy of the Mamluks of Syria and Egypt, major sponsors and patrons, with their viziers, of
illuminated manuscripts. It also inherited a certain legacy from China brought by the Mongols,
at the same time as the ancient Iranian traditions in the domain of the book and the love of
books. Shiraz remained relatively independent under Ilkhanid power and was governed by the
Juvayn› viziers until the end of the thirteenth century. Its governors were protectors of a
particularly fertile kit$bkh$na and the considerable activity that took place in Shiraz in the
production of illuminated and illustrated manuscripts continued without interruption until
1620. Though the styles changed, the city remained the centre of major production in the
Iranian world, with a kit$bkh$na and a host of workshops surrounding it, for a wealthy clientele,
lovers of beautiful books.

The Kit$bkh$na and its Operation

There are scarcely any texts that describe the precise organization of the workshop-library,
except perhaps from Mughal India at the end of the sixteenth century and the seventeenth
century. Evidence like that of Akbar-n$ma (composed at the end of the sixteenth century)
demonstrated that the workshop was a true district of the city, near the palace, where a host of
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 107

calligraphers, bookbinders, illuminators, painters and book dealers were found. From them the
sovereign ordered copies, sometimes several copies of the same text, for his own library – or
his libraries – or for the purpose of making gifts to his debtors or his hosts. The library and its
artists and craftsmen were under the direction of a “librarian” (kit$bd$r), appointed by the
sovereign, who was actually a kind of “provost” (kal$ntar). This kit$bd$r divided the royal
commissions and oversaw their execution, as seen in certain manuscripts from Bukhara from
the mid-sixteenth century where a colophon dated around 1540 records a kit$bd$r, M›rak, next
to the name of the calligrapher. Painters and illuminators occasionally signed their work. M›rak
appeared as the master or architect, without doubt responsible for the layout and choice of
decorations.
A few names of the kit$bd$r are known from the Iranian world, especially during the
Timurid period. Among the names that have unfortunately been lost are that of the kit$bd$r of
Timur, who assembled together artists from diverse countries in Samarqand; those working
under Sh$hrukh, who possessed a rich library endowed with a specific stamp marking each
manuscript and in which the historian H$fiz-i Abrü was very involved; those working for Sult$n
Iskandar, who developed a very brilliant library-workshop up until 1415 at Isfahan; and that of the
kit$bd$r of Ulugh Beg of Samarqand. It is well known, on the other hand, that the extraordinary
library of Prince B$ysunghur in Herat was led in 1427 by Ja‘far Tabr›z›, a calligrapher of great
talent, who left records showing that he reported to B$ysunghur on the progress of the various
leading artists of the workshop. It is also known that in Shiraz, at the same time, the direction of
the kit$bkh$na of Sult$n Ibr$h›m (d. 1435), sovereign of Fars and himself a talented calligrapher,
was entrusted to an illuminator, Nasr (or N$sir) al-D›n Mudhahhib. At the end of the Timurid
period, the workshop-library of Herat was famous, under the dual patronage of Sult$n Husayn
M›rz$ Bayqara (d. 1506) and his vizier the poet M›r ‘Al› Sh›r Nav$’›. One of the most famous
artists employed there was the painter Kam$l al-D›n Bihz$d. He later, with the accession of the
Safavids, received the title of kal$ntar, head of the kit$bkh$na of Sh$h Tahm$sp.
The role of these “librarians” on the hunt for the tastes expressed by their patron in
calligraphy, illumination, decorative paper, binding and painting, was certainly very important. In
the case of Sh$h Tahm$sp, we know he ordered around 1530–1540 some manuscripts of
exceptional quality, notably an edition of the Shahnama of Firdaws› (see cat. nos 120–124) for
which he employed many painters whose names are known in part, such as Muzaffar ‘Al›. These
artists worked under the supervision of the kit$bd$r, according to a given programme, in the
illustration of different pages. Sometimes several artists worked on the same image or
collaborated with the illuminators. Their work was done in harmony with that of the calligraphers
and bookbinders.
The principal calligraphers who worked in the royal kit$bkh$na could add to their names
the sultan’s epithet, which clearly indicated their role as “calligrapher to the king”. A certain
number of the great Iranian or Ottoman calligraphers have held this title during a period of their
lives, as did M›r ‘Al› Sult$n in the sixteenth century.
The head of the Safavid royal workshop, when Sh$h ‘Abb$s came to the throne at the end
of the sixteenth century, was S$diq› Beg (cat. no. 127). A painter who signed a number of works,
108 The Kit$bkh$na: An Institution in the Service of Culture and the Art of the Book

he was also a theoretician who left behind treatises on aesthetics and painting. His successor
who was chosen by Sh$h ‘Abb$s was also a painter, the famous Reza ‘Abb$s›. Very active until
1630 in Isfahan, he was the creator of an original style which left its powerful mark on
seventeenth century Iranian production.
Other librarians, such as Muq›m under ‘Abb$s II in the mid-seventeenth century,
apparently played a less prominent role. But it is difficult to say whether the function of the
kit$bd$r did not remain essential in Iran until the rise of the Qajars. The kit$bd$r were in fact the
true masters of royal policy in the domain of the art of the book.
In the Mughal Empire of India, the kit$bd$r also played a role of primary importance as
guardians of the imperial library, which Hum$yün began setting up in Kabul; they inventoried
manuscripts, for lending or copying. As guardians of these treasures and as masters of cultural and
artistic policy, their responsibility was enormous. It was again the continuation of a medieval
tradition that emphasized the well-established link between the book and power. On the other hand,
we know that Akbar, himself fond of painting, and then Jah$ng›r, ordered a large number of
illustrated manuscripts, employing for each a host of artists (one thinks of the Hamza-n$ma, and
then the B$bur-n$ma and many other books illustrated by dozens of artists), but it is not known
whether their work was performed under the direct supervision of the emperor or that of his kit$bd$r.
The Indian kit$bkh$na combined a heritage from the Sultans of Bukhara and a Safavid Iranian legacy
with a strong Indian tradition, and the head of the workshop was to be a man of great competence.

The Ottoman Empire and the Imperial Naqq$shkh$na

Even though the Ottomans developed their own system of patronage after the capture of Amasya
by Bayezid I at the end of the fourteenth century, influenced by the Seljuk heritage and the
Mamluk style, this patronage still remains a poorly studied area of the history of the book. The
Ottoman dynasty then specifically encouraged in its capitals Bursa and Edirne the development of
the art of the book in the workshops serving the sultans. But it was the capture of Constantinople
by Mehmed II in 1453 that truly marked the beginning of a new era in this field.
Mehmed II, who died in 1481, was a bibliophile and a lover of books. He had composed
scientific volumes, of medicine and astronomy in particular, and wrote historical works. He
created in Istanbul a true imperial scriptorium that replaced the workshops of the Byzantine
scribes. Anxious to emulate the European sovereigns of the Renaissance, his curiosity for
European discoveries was undeniable. Nevertheless, the scriptorium that he created in his new
capital was profoundly influenced by the Persian and Mamluk legacies. A certain creativity
emerged in the field of calligraphy and the imperial scribes seemed to have had at heart the
creation or development of new specific styles, notably the imperial Ottoman script div$n›. The
style of manuscripts was sometimes marked by one of these models, sometimes by another,
before emerging, especially beginning with the reign of his successor, Bayezid II (1481–1512), as
a true “Ottoman style” in the domain of the book. It was also under his reign that the
calligrapher Shaykh Hamd Allah developed his famous skills.
Bayezid had an extremely rich library, from which the inventory has been conserved.
Contemporary of the last Timurids, he was able to collect many rare texts or of rare copies
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 109

coming from the principal medieval Muslim courts. In terms of the organization of the
workshop-library, the Iranian model seems to have been widely followed. The numerous scribes,
illuminators, painters and bookbinders coming from Iran, collaborated with the Ottoman and
Near Eastern artists.
The accession of the Safavids in Iran and the Ottoman victory of Ch$ldir$n in 1514, where
the armies of Sultan Selim prevailed over those of Sh$h Ism$‘›l, had a great importance in the
domain of the book. Numerous manuscripts from the treasury of the Shahs of Persia were
brought from Tabriz to Istanbul; painters also took the path to the Ottoman capital. The cultural
impact of this event was considerable. Istanbul was considered at the time to be the heir to the
civilization of the Timurids of Herat. In the literary domain the Ottoman Turks made a true
development, influenced by the model of Turkish chaghatay formerly cultivated by the vizier M›r
‘Al› Sh›r Nav$’› and his sultan. There followed a very significant movement of translation into
Turkish of all the Persian and Arabic classics, which made the imperial workshop extremely
active. Similarly, in 1517 the Syrian and Egyptian Mamluks were integrated into the Ottoman
Empire and numerous princely manuscripts arrived in Istanbul and furnished models of a
completely different style for the artists of the workshop-library. The Mamluks had also begun to
favour the emergence of a literature in the Turkish language.
During the reign of Süleyman the Magnificent (1520–1566), imperial patronage focused on
the execution of very luxurious bindings and illuminations of great richness. The illustrations
done in the naqq$shkh$na (or naqqaflhane, literally “the house of the painters”) for manuscripts
commissioned by the sultan were innovative in style and realism was not absent. Poetry was
favoured, but history and geography occupied a very important place in the imperial
commissions. It was under Murad III (1574–1595) that the naqq$shkh$na of the imperial palace
experienced its most fruitful periods of activity, with painters who, like Osman or Lütf› ‘Abd
Allah, represented scenes that were religious, historical or borrowed from daily life to illustrate
the major manuscripts commissioned by the sultan. Moreover, from the outset the artists of the
naqq$shkh$na, alongside this work of illustration, participated in other enterprises making
decorations for objects or buildings.
A great lover of books, bibliophile and patron, Ahmed III (1703–1730) was the last of the
sultans to have ordered important illustrated manuscripts, intended in particular for the painter
Levner Edirne. Through his patronage he also encouraged the activity of authors and the
distribution of books and reading. But it was also Ahmed III who, moved by the same concern,
created the first imperial workshop of typography, entrusting to the care of Hungarian Ibrahim
Müteferriqa, the printing of Arabic and Turkish volumes. They were in both appearance and
decor still very close to the Ottoman manuscripts made by the scriptorium.
Thus, on the eve of the introduction of modern printing technology, in Turkey as in Iran,
Central Asia or India, the institution of the kit$bkh$na remained lively enough to provide models
known and admired by all, men of letters as well as politics. The publication of important texts,
the composition of new texts, the production of the book itself with its decoration, calligraphy
and binding were all marked by the model of the workshop-library: an institution essential to the
ancient Muslim world.
110 The Kit$bkh$na: An Institution in the Service of Culture and the Art of the Book

In the Service of the Kit$bkh$na: Artists Faithful to Tradition yet Willingly Innovative
The image that best illustrates the activity of the kit$bkh$na in the Akhl$q-i N$sir› of N$sir al-D›n
al-Tüs› shows a workshop in Mughal India from around 1600 (cat. no. 65). It is a perfect
representation of the principal actors of a workshop-library, placed in the garden of a palace,
each character working independently. A book would be assigned to one or another of these
artists to be copied, illustrated or bound. The artist would work alone or in the company of
students. No visible hierarchy was apparent, though each had a definite role and had to prove
himself to have the honour to work for the court.
The key person in the chain of production of the manuscript was the scribe, most often a
calligrapher. Calligraphers received instruction from a master and were often situated in a
lineage that recalls the transmission that takes place within mystical brotherhoods.
Each workshop-library used a group of calligraphers, often distinct from the calligraphers
of the chancellery who were generally trained in the drafting of documents. One knows of
calligraphers that travelled or changed masters repeatedly. Certain calligraphers were also known
as poets, in the Turkish world and especially in Iran. All calligraphers attached a great
importance to the quality of the paper and inks that were made available to them. They copied
on a tablet or a felt stand in the traditional position of the scribe, squatting. They could copy a
manuscript, writing from memory or under dictation. In some cases the scribes were specialized
in a particular type of text, and more often in one of the “six styles” of writing. The speed of
copying was highly variable, as well as the order of copying. The scribe, after having finished his
work, conducted a careful reading and added the titles of chapters, most often in red ink; he
occasionally made a few small corrections. Certain great calligraphers were not necessarily the
most faithful scribes and occasionally they changed and even added to the verses. A luxury
manuscript, superbly illuminated and illustrated, was not necessarily a manuscript whose
accuracy was indisputable.
An author could also ask a kit$bkh$na scribe to make a luxurious copy of his work as a gift
to his master. The sovereign would also have manuscripts prepared by his kit$bkh$na to offer as
presents to his visitors or for sending as gifts, reflecting the glow of his patronage and his
enlightened taste.
For the scribe it was essential to have high-quality inks, and countless recipes – usually
kept secret – remain as a reminder. Black smoke from lamps of the mosque, oak-galls and other
ingredients were used to obtain inks suitable for the different types of reed pens. Coloured inks,
red, green, yellow or blue, were used from a very early time. In the kit$bkh$na everything was
arranged so the calligraphers, like the painters, could have the best materials, sometimes
imported from afar.
Parchment was scarcely found apart from copies of the first Qur’ans and from the eighth
century paper became more and more common for copying books. The appearance of paper,
translucent but reminiscent of parchment in its colour and thickness, was very important,
especially in the large kit$bkh$na. Thus paper was prepared, primed and smoothed with care; its
price was high. Apparently it was often produced near the workshop-library. The quality of the
water used, like that of the pulp, played a large role. Coloured paper was used from an early date,
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 111

but especially from the fifteenth century, as in China and Japan. The Iranian and Timurid
kit$bkh$na also used for the first time at the end of the fifteenth century papers sanded or
flecked with gold. Marbled paper appeared around 1540 in Iran and India – in the kit$bkh$na of
the Deccan – then in the Ottoman Empire (cat. no. 55). European paper from the late fifteenth
century appeared in the Ottoman imperial workshop, but it was prepared in the same traditional
way before being used. Moreover, for copying books, the scribe first had to cut the double sheets
that made up the sections of the book. He carried out his work of copying before sewing the
workbooks. For the rest, certain kit$bkh$nas developed particular practices, but the differences
between the workshops were quite minimal.
Many princely manuscripts contained illuminations and decorations – most often
geometric – made of gold and coloured paint, using a fine brush, at the beginning or on certain
pages of the volume. While always following the strict rules of layout, each reign and each capital
created its own style. The Mamluks, Ilkhanids, Injus, Muzaffarids, Jalayirids, Timurids, and
others all executed very specific forms of decoration that allow easy dating and location of the
manuscripts. The use of gold, in leaf, or more often in the form of powder put in place with a
binder, brought acclaim to the art of illumination (tadhh›b). He who painted these fine
decorations in gold was the master of a very delicate technique (mudhahhib); an important figure
in the kit$bkh$na. Besides, it was necessary that the goldsmiths skilled in the costly preparation
of crushed gold (zarrküb›) were installed in proximity to the workshop. Certain other colours,
particularly minerals, also required delicate preparation; the raw materials were often very scarce.
So much so that the application of these colours and their smoothing was reserved for artists
who were heirs to this ancient tradition. Over the ages, and especially from the sixteenth century,
illuminated decorations have proliferated, including gilded drawings in the margins.
The title page occasionally bore a dedication reading bi-rasm-i kit$bkh$na (“for the library
of”) and then the name of the sovereign or the important person sponsoring the copy. These
were generally very fine examples and were in any case a testament to the importance of creating
new illuminated books in the functioning of the institution of the kit$bkh$na. There could then
be double pages entirely covered with illuminated decorations, ornamental triangles or frames
where chapter titles were inscribed.
The painter (naqq$sh) was usually distinct from the illuminator, even though the
illuminators may have taken part in the realization of a painted page. He was one of the artists
of the kit$bkh$na. Certain painters were attracted to the great wealth of a sultan’s court and
several changed workshops frequently. The painter was often represented working on a table, at
times on a simple stand. He mastered the techniques for the preparation of the colours. These
were secrets, delivered from master to disciple, which the technical treatises preserved only
rarely reveal. Sometimes there were preparatory drawings outlined in red, occasionally also, to
make replicas of other images, drawings were prepared with a compass; at other times the
kit$bd$r or the calligrapher had written in full what the painter must represent on the page that
was left white for him.
He usually worked after the scribe had done his job. It was not uncommon for the
intended location for the images to remain empty, perhaps because of changes in the
112 The Kit$bkh$na: An Institution in the Service of Culture and the Art of the Book

kit$bkh$na, or for reasons of cost. Many paintings were retouched; this was perhaps, as in the
case of a manuscript that passed through the kit$bkh$na of Jah$ng›r, to give the characters a
more Indian appearance and the king the appearance of the Mughal emperor himself. Moreover,
it was often the tradition in the royal kit$bkh$na to give the kings represented in the paintings
the features of the sultan whose workshop produced the manuscript. This form of tribute was
found again and again, particularly in well-kept copies.
The close relationship between painting, calligraphy and illumination is noteworthy. In
the organization of the kit$bkh$na all of the artists had to work together very closely. Besides,
the illuminator and painter were also often calligraphers themselves. The desire for unity in the
book dictated the choice of layout; harmony was essential between the binding and the rest of
the book. No doubt the numerous successes that one sees in this domain can be accredited to
the kit$bd$r.
The art of binding, which required morocco leather in a wide variety of colours, is
traditionally regarded as highly developed in the world of Islam. A number of binders signed
their works. The delicacy and variety of irons characterized the quality of the grand medieval
kit$bkh$na. Notably, it was in the Mamluk court that many complex decorations were invented in
conjunction with illuminations, especially for Qur’ans. In the fifteenth century, grand plates
began to be used, as well as decorations of perforated leather in the Timurid or Ottoman
kit$bkh$na. The inventiveness of those who designed the motifs of the bindings, and the variety
of decorations that were also found on ceramics, wood or stucco, clearly show the prominent
place given to the art of bookbinding within the kit$bkh$na.
Focusing attention onto the importance of the kit$bkh$na in the Near and Middle Eastern
worlds without doubt furthers a better understanding of how literary and scientific sponsorship
has developed. The role of the sovereign is essential in the process of the diffusion and
glorification of knowledge. Culture, nobility and wealth are associated in the transmission of
heritage and innovation in the intellectual and artistic domains. An instrument in the service of
power, the kit$bkh$na was also a convivial place because it forged the meeting of a group of
carefully chosen artists and craftsmen. Object of ceremony, the book was also a working
instrument for the savants and scholars who surrounded the sovereign.
Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 113
114

Eloïse Brac de la Perrière, Frantz Chaigne, Mathilde Cruvelier1

The Qur’an of Gwalior, Kaleidoscope of the Arts of the Book

The Arts of the Book in Sultanate India

After the brief excitement they aroused in the middle of the twentieth century, the arts of the
book of pre-Mughal India seemed to have so baffled art historians and codicologists that the
subject again fell into obscurity, or nearly so, for several decades. The recent upsurge of
historical, literary and archaeological studies on Islamic India during the period of the Sultanates
has cast a new light on the material culture of the Indian subcontinent under Muslim rule up to
the sixteenth century, and has contributed to a renewed interest in this complex and
misunderstood domain of Islamic art.
The production of painted manuscripts in Sultanate India poses several serious issues.
Its early vestiges are extremely limited when one considers the duration of the period: more than
three centuries, if the time limits are defined by the establishment of the Sultanate of Delhi in
1206, and the victory of the Mughal Emperor B$bur over the Sultan of Delhi, Ibr$h›m Lod›, in
1526. In addition, the majority of the surviving material has suffered the ravages of time: having
been cut, fragmented and dispersed, the manuscripts have subsequently become more difficult
to study. Finally, no painted manuscript with a colophon bearing information on the methods
and context of production is known before the late fourteenth century; thus, two hundred years
of the book illumination, illustration and decoration of Muslim India have escaped us. The
absence of colophons makes dating highly difficult, and localisations on the vast territory of the
Indian subcontinent in the medieval period even more so. We navigate, when looking at works
made prior to the fifteenth century, in grey areas where we must advance with prudence. It is
essentially the appearance of the works, the “true” artistic impression, followed by the detailed
analysis of the manuscripts in their stylistic and iconographic dimensions, which permits the
formation of new hypotheses.
The paintings that adorn the pre-Mughal manuscripts, in both miniatures and illuminations,
appear to have derived their inspiration largely from the arts of the book of other Muslim countries,
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 115

particularly the Near East and Iran, at the same time that they were striving to distinguish
themselves profoundly in style. The observer is often confused by these systems of ornamentation
and the patchwork of figures skilfully gathered side by side, loans from pictorial schools located far
apart from one another. Despite this, and contrary to an opinion that has been widespread for too
long, the art of the book of the Sultanates was in no way merely a pale reflection of its Persian and
Arabic contemporaries. It was just as original and inventive, but our own ignorance of the subject
has often obscured this. The study of the Qur’ans executed in India during this period reveals these
qualities; these manuscripts present a dual interest for specialists through being relatively
numerous and also forming a homogeneous whole that is amenable to analysis.
Among these Qur’ans is a manuscript from the Aga Khan collection presented in this
exhibition, which forms the principal subject of this essay (cat. no. 77).2 A masterpiece of the
arts of the book during the period of the Sultanates, this volume is not only dated by a colophon
text to the year 801 H / 1399 CE, but its completion is also documented as taking place in the
fortress of Gwalior, a city located about 300 kilometres south of Delhi and at that time in the
hands of a Rajput clan, the Tonwars.3 This date and place of execution are of great interest for
several reasons: in September 1398, or a few months earlier, the armies of Timur swept through
northern India ending two centuries of the hegemony of the Sultanate of Delhi. Therefore, one
can imagine the people of Gwalior closed within the walls of their fortress and awaiting stories of
the massacres and looting that occurred in the former Sultanate of the Tughluqids, reported by
refugees who fled to Gujarat or the Deccan. It was at Gwalior, in that non-Muslim city during
those chaotic months, that one of the jewels of the pre-Mughal arts of the book was made, the
manuscript known as the “Gwalior Qur’an” which is today preserved in the Aga Khan collection.

The Qur’an of Gwalior, a Masterpiece of pre-Mughal India

Besides the date of completion (7 Dhu’l-qa‘da 801 / 21 July 1399) and the place in which the
manuscript was copied, the colophon also indicates the name of the scribe: Mahmüd Sha‘b$n.
This manuscript of beautiful dimensions (29 x 22 cm) includes 550 folios. It is copied on ivory-
coloured paper of very good quality; glossy, even and smooth. An elegant polychrome framework
(jadval) composed of several fillets and a gold ribbon, carefully traced with the aid of a ruling
pen, defines the space in which the Qur’anic text is inscribed. A final blue fillet, far from the
jadval, defines a field of transition with the margins. The Qur’anic text, obviously copied in
Arabic, has been translated into Persian between the lines of the Arabic. The use of such
interlinear translations, helpful in Persian-speaking communities, is attested to in Iran since the
tenth century. The text is divided into thirty Juz’, a canonical division that permits spreading out
the reading of the Holy Book over a month. Each Juz’ begins with a double page which mentions
its Juz’ number, and gives a very richly illuminated central field bearing five lines of text on each
page (fig. 4). The other pages, though more restrained in their ornamentation, systematically
bear thirteen lines of Arabic writing each, which attests to the particularly scrupulous care given
to the creation of the copy (fig. 5).
Like the majority of Indian Qur’ans produced at the time, the body of the text of the
Gwalior Qur’an is transcribed in bih$r›, a style of cursive script of Sultanate India whose origin
116 The Qur’an of Gwalior, Kaleidoscope of the Arts of the Book

Fig 1 Fig 2

Figure 1. The Gwalior Qur’an, remains controversial.4 Although it could be considered quite inelegant in comparison with
ff. 40b–41a. conventional writing styles, bih$r› was reserved for copying religious works. The lines of text have
Figure 2. The Gwalior Qur’an,
been alternately copied in gold, red ink and blue ink, a solution that appears to not only beautify
ff. 274b–275a.
the manuscript but also to facilitate reading. The mastery of the calligrapher was such that the
manuscript has only one error regarding the repetition of this model of colouring. By way of
comparison, we note that this elaborate combination is unknown in Mamluk and Persian
productions where only gold and black are used, alone or in turn. The chrysography – writing in
gold – which had already been seen in Ilkhanid manuscripts of prestige is common in Qur’ans
copied in bih$r›, unlike the more unusual use of blue and red inks. Gold is applied in solution by
the usual process of chrysography, also shared with the Mamluk and Ilkhanid manuscript
productions. The interlinear Persian translation of the Gwalior Qur’an has been copied in a
naskh› script of small size. This variety of cursive script is seen very frequently in Islamic
manuscript production. Its Indo-Persian variant is characterised as naskh›-d›v$n› and derives
from a script of the chancellery.5 It is interesting to note that the calligrapher was careful to
utilise two different inks for the Arabic text and its Persian translation, which, combined with
differences in the size of the scripts, helps to differentiate the two and maintain the supremacy
of the Arabic text (fig. 6).
Certain Juz’ markers are copied in foliated Kufic (fig. 7), a script whose usage was not
common in the Indian context. Its use in this context is probably symptomatic of exchanges
between Sultanate India and other regions of the Islamic world, since one finds many examples
of this type of script in Syro-Egyptian productions from the 1340s under the Mamluk sultans
(1250–1517), as well as in Iran and the surrounding area under the Mongol dynasty of the
Ilkhanids (1258–1350).
However, most of the Juz’ markers are written in muhaqqaq (fig. 8), while the titles of
Suras are written in thuluth (fig. 6), in gold or black ink, in bands bearing more or less
illumination. Thuluth and muhaqqaq are two types of cursive script, grander and more elegant
than naskh› and bih$r›. They were very frequently employed in copying Mamluk and Ilkhanid
Qur’ans of large format and high prestige. Their presence in this manuscript, like that of foliated
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 117

Fig 3 Fig 4

Kufic, consequently reflects the circulation of motifs and of a certain aesthetic throughout the Figure 3. The Gwalior Qur’an,
Muslim world. ff. 448b–449a.
Fig 4: The Gwalior Qur’an,
ff. 394b–395a.
An Ornamental Puzzle
The particularly remarkable care brought to the text of the Gwalior Qur’an, evident in the variety
of scripts, the richness of their colouring, and the mastery of their execution, called for an
ornamental vocabulary that was both sumptuous and diversified. Once again, the artists to
whom we owe this manuscript rose to the challenge brilliantly while respecting the constraints
related to the divisions of the Qur’anic text. The Qur’an is always intrinsically split into 114 Suras,
but other divisions may also come to punctuate a manuscript of the Qur’an. There are Qur’ans
in two, four or seven parts, but also and especially in thirty Juz’. In the latter case, two solutions
are conceivable: either the Qur’an is copied into a single volume, generally opening with a
frontispiece, with the markers indicating each new Juz’ appearing in the margins throughout the
text, or the Qur’an is copied into thirty volumes, each beginning with its own frontispiece. The
latter solution was used, for example, for the monumental Qur’ans copied for the Ilkhanid
sovereigns Gh$z$n and Öljaytu and destined for their mausoleums.6 For its part, the Gwalior
Qur’an has the distinction of opening with a double frontispiece (cat. no. 77), and has another
double-page illumination for almost every one of its Juz’ (figs 1 and 3). However, this model
sustains some variety as well: in fact, the double-page illumination of Juz’ 13 is missing and the
opening of Juz’ 30 is devoid of any illuminated decoration; its title is simply written in the
margin. On the other hand, Suras 2 (al-Baqara), 7 (al-A‘r$f), 19 (Maryam; fig. 2) and 38 (S$d) are
each designated with a double-page illumination. This decorative design, resulting from the
combination in a single volume of an inaugural frontispiece and of a double-page illumination
for each Juz’, does not seem to be found in the Persian world. On the other hand, a Coptic-
Arabic Pentateuch copied in Mamluk Egypt in 1353 (BnF, Arabe 12) employs a similar design to
the Gwalior Qur’an, combining an initial frontispiece with five others initiating each book.7 As for
canonical divisions of the text, these are clearly marked in the Gwalior Qur’an: thus, the titles of
the Suras are inscribed within decorative bands, verses are separated by circles or rosettes and
118 The Qur’an of Gwalior, Kaleidoscope of the Arts of the Book

the markers of five or ten verses appear in the margins. While the
canonical divisions are well respected within this manuscript, the design
of the double frontispiece imparts a remarkable character that is
matched by the splendour and abundance of the overall decoration
(figs 3 and 9).
The only recurring characteristic shared across the double-page
illuminations of this manuscript resides in the tripartite division of the
principal field through the presence of two horizontal bands placed
above and below the central field. On the other hand, examination of
the manuscript reveals a true inventiveness with regards to the
numerous methods of construction of the double-page illuminations.
Some even show a definite asymmetry, induced either by their
decorative schema or by the differing dimensions of the two
illuminated fields face to face. Many other factors also contribute to the
uniqueness of each double-page illumination. Thus, the principal field
of each page of the illumination may be accompanied, or not, by a
border, which sometimes acts to combine the two halves of the double-
page illumination, and sometimes to separate them. The elements
Fig 5 employed within this border range from a simple fillet to a thick, richly
illuminated band. Marginal vignettes also play their part in the richness
of the decoration, as much by their variety as by their arrangement:
they may take circular, semi-circular, triangular, mandorla or pyriform
shapes, to name only some examples (fig. 10). Their relationship vis-à-
vis the border ranges from full autonomy, to the sharing of a side, or a
single point of contact. The division and ornamentation of the bands
that carry the Juz’ markers also contributes to the variations in
decorative appearance. These could remain undivided, or alternatively
could accommodate a cartouche containing the text, or subdivision
into other decorative fields. Far from being uniform, the cartouches
display a multitude of contours: for example, quadrilateral forms with
Fig 6
arched domes, mandorlas, hexagons, or elaborate silhouettes. An
example of a more elaborate outline is the cartouche on f. 98b, gilded
Figure 5. Page of text with title against a red background, which possesses extremities consisting of three arches braced at
banner (‘unw$n), f. 48a.
right angles to each other (fig. 11).
Figure 6. Example of ‘unw$n,
f. 48a.
Faced with this profusion of surfaces to decorate, the illuminator had to be able to deploy
an unceasing creativity, working in both vegetal and geometric repertoires of ornamentation. The
geometric mode was made to perform diverse functions: it could tile backgrounds with a red
square pattern (or more unusually with a paving of circular arcs), develop linear framing devices
such as the interlace dividing the main fields into three (fig. 12) or stripes fragmenting into
polygons as in the frontispiece, or introduce filler elements such as medallions, small crosses or
three-pointed forms.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 119

Figure 7. Foliated Kufic script,

f. 21b.
Figure 8. Muhaqqaq script,
f. 395a.

Fig 7

Fig 8

In addition to many geometric elements, the ornament of the Gwalior Qur’an also called
for an astoundingly diversified array of vegetal motifs. It is not surprising to find many
arabesques throughout the manuscript (this term designates an abstract decorative form
inspired by a vegetal prototype, with the possibility of infinite development in which leaves and
stems are perpetually transformed from one into the other). The arabesque can provide a
suitable background for text panels or central fields when it assumes the form of spiral foliage
(fig. 9); in the same form it may also be used to fill certain bands or central fields; when Fig 9
comprised of a succession of demi-palmette medallions set in opposition to each other, it can
be used to create strongly rhythmic borders. The borders may also be elaborated by an ornament
of lotus petals arranged around a central circle. In this regard, it is interesting to note that
arabesque and lotus petals are also found in the decorative borders of both Persian and Mamluk
arts of the book. Many other constructions and motifs have also been employed throughout the
Gwalior Qur’an to botanize this extraordinary garden: long sprays of leaves and flowers (fig. 13),
rosettes, cotton blossoms (fig. 14) and lotus flowers (fig. 15) all appear. In the case of the latter,
the illuminator again chose to express all his art in the variety of designs: some have only a few Fig 10

petals joining in the centre, others receive a large number of petals layered around the heart, and
Figure 9. Detail of a central field,
finally a third variety, with longer petals that are more slender in profile, closely follows Indian f. 448b.
conventions. The vegetal repertoire of the manuscript also incorporates elements unknown in Figure 10. Marginal vignette,
other regions of Islamic art (fig. 11); certain of these may come from Hindu or Jain decorative f. 98b.
120 The Qur’an of Gwalior, Kaleidoscope of the Arts of the Book

Figure 11: Cartouche, f. 98b.

Figure 12. Two-strand interlace
with filler elements, f. 290a.

Fig 11

Fig 12

traditions. This is true of some of the fine flowers with long petals, and also of the “tufts of
grass” consisting of vertical stems with potbellied tips symmetrically arranged in a triangle.

A New Light on the Illuminated Book in the Pre-Mughal Period

The abundant decoration which graces the pages of the Gwalior Qur’an is for the most part so
singular that it remains impossible to determine direct sources of inspiration. Exhibiting a skilful
blend of ornamental elements borrowed from Iran and the Near East during a period that is
difficult to define accurately, but which in all probability must lie between the last quarter of the
thirteenth century and the end of the following century, the illumination of the Gwalior
manuscript bears the imprint of the Indian context, itself intensely complex and never neutral.
This meeting of legacies, this recourse to distinct styles within a single work, is obviously not
unique to the art of the pre-Mughal book: it exists elsewhere and in other artistic domains. Here,
however, it is particularly marked, and the results never fail to surprise. In the combinations of
motifs decorating the manuscript there figure some earlier elements, such as the borders of
polychromatic petals, a form of “chinoiserie” that one finds in the ornamentation of Qur’an
manuscripts executed in Baghdad more than a hundred years before the conception of our
subject. It is obviously via other routes and intermediate landmarks that the manuscript has
inherited the archaisms it displays. Everything suggests that the regional centres of Mongol and
post-Mongol Iran maintained a close relationship with Sultanate India: the Indo-Islamic
miniature painting of the first half of the fifteenth century, perhaps even a few decades earlier (in
this context dates should always be advanced very cautiously), has close similarities with the
production of secondary Iranian centres, such as Isfahan, which probably experienced intense
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 121

Fig 13 Fig 14

Fig 15b

Figure 13. Example of a floral

spray, f. 40b.
Figure 14. Cotton Blossom, f. 41a.
Figure 15a-b. Lotus flowers,
f. 404b.
Fig 15a
122 The Qur’an of Gwalior, Kaleidoscope of the Arts of the Book

artistic activity at this time. It is from these same trends that pre-Mughal illumination, of which
in truth we know very little, appears to have evolved, at least partially. To this may also be added
other factors, like the arts of Egypt and Syria under Mamluk rule, both equally perceptible in
miniature painting.
These diverse stylistic components that make up the grand puzzle of the painting of the
pre-Mughal manuscript are for the most part recognisable, but it is much more difficult to
decide on their exact origins. For example, the decoration of the Gwalior Qur’an contains motifs
from the Mamluk repertoire alongside elements that are much older but which can also be
found in Mamluk illumination; therefore, it is conceivable that the Indian manuscript inherited
the oldest motifs through the intervention of Mamluk works. However, nothing can be claimed
for certain, or at least the hypothesis cannot be extended to the whole of the decorative scheme,
because the manuscript also includes different motifs and compositions entirely foreign to
Mamluk art but widespread in Mongol Iran. Thus the manuscript is an ornamental puzzle, built
from pieces assembled for the first time into an extraordinary painting.
In the richness of its decorations, the Gwalior Qur’an is an exceptional, brilliant
masterpiece. The remarkable array of ornamentation that it contains offers an avenue for
understanding several possible developments within Indo-Islamic illumination, and provides a
fairly comprehensive range of what were most probably the sources of inspiration for the artists
of pre-Mughal India. This is a rare piece, and an original one, but also very representative of the
painting of this period.
It remains difficult to situate this work chronologically. If one imagines it at first as an
avant-garde work, a forerunner of other pre-Mughal Qur’ans which would later be endowed with
decorative schema of a similar type although less rich and inventive, then this hypothesis would
merit further verification. The singular assembly of styles obviously raises many questions about
the circumstances of production: who were the artists behind these paintings? Should we only
see in their profoundly original character the mark of local artists encountering unfamiliar foreign
models, perhaps gleaned from libraries? Or could it be a mature work, in which various heritages
have been assimilated, a reinterpretation of more distant Indo-Islamic works, relatively confusing
to an unaccustomed eye? And why would local artists decorate in a completely innovative, even
avant-garde manner, a religious work, what is more, the Holy Book, in a Hindu fortress at the
end of this deeply troubled century? Analysis of the Gwalior Qur’an always returns us to the
riddle of its origins: the information provided by the colophon which ought to enlighten us,
opens in reality an inquiry with vertiginous perspectives, to which only further research into the
corpus of pre-Mughal Qur’ans can respond.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 123

1 This contribution is the result of collaborative research conducted

under the framework of a programme directed by Éloïse Brac de la
Perriére in the Laboratoire Islam médiéval – UMR 8167 (Paris,
CNRS).
2 For a long time, the only bibliographic references relevant to this
manuscript were found in exhibition catalogues. In recent years
books and articles have emerged, illuminating our understanding of
this Qur’an: Arts Council of Great Britain, The Arts of Islam (London
1976), no. 635; Sheila Blair, Islamic Calligraphy (Edinburgh 2008),
386; Eloïse Brac de la Perrière, “Bihârî et naskhî-dîwânî: remarques
sur deux calligraphies de l’Inde des sultanats”, Studia Islamica 96
(2003), 81–93; eadem, L’art du livre dans l’Inde des sultanats (Paris
2008); eadem, “Du Caire à Mandu: transmission et circulation des
modèles dans l’Inde des sultanats”, in Francis Richard and Maria
Szuppe (eds), Ecrits et culture en Asie centrale et dans le monde turco-
iranien, Xe-XIXe siècles (Paris 2008), 333–358; eadem, “Les tuniques
talismaniques indiennes d’époque pré-moghole et moghole à la
lumière d’un groupe de corans en écriture bih$r›”, Journal Asiatique
297/1 (2009), 57–81; Sheila Canby, Princes, Poets and Paladins:
Islamic and Indian Paintings from the Collection of Prince and Princess
Sadruddin Aga Khan (London 1999), no. 76; Saryu Doshi, Pageant of
Indian Art: Festival of India in Great Britain (Bombay 1983), pl. 1;
Toby Falk, Treasures of Islam (London 1985), no. 114; Jeremiah Losty,
The Art of the Book in India (London 1982), no. 18; Sotheby’s, 10
December 1974, lot 473; Anthony Welch, Calligraphy in the Arts of
the Muslim World (Folkstone 1979), no. 75; Anthony Welch and
Stuart Cary Welch, Arts of the Islamic Book: The Collection of Prince
Sadruddin Aga Khan (Ithaca – London 1982), no. 47.
3 The Tonwars were a Rajput clan of Chandravanshi Kshatriya
lineage. Past Governors of Delhi, a branch of the clan settled in the
region of Gwalior. During the reign of ‘Al$’ al-D›n Khalj›
(1296–1316), ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, the Rajput Bir Singh Deva
declared his independence and founded the Tonwar kingdom of
Gwalior, which remained rich and powerful until it was seized by
the Sultan of Delhi, Ibr$h›m Lod› in 1519.
4 Brac de la Perrière, “Bihârî et naskhî-dîwânî”, 81–93.
5 Ibid.
6 David James, Qur’ans of the Mamluks (London 1988).
7 Marie-Geneviève Guesdon and Annie Vernay-Nouri, L’Art du Livre
arabe, du Manuscrit au Livre d’Artiste (Paris 2001), 205, no. 73;
Mathilde Cruvelier, “Le Pentateuque de la Bibliothèque nationale de
France, un manuscrit copte-arabe du VIIIème/XIVème siècle”,
Annales Islamologiques (forthcoming).
The Arts of the Book

Catalogue Entr›es 50 — 75
We know from historical accounts that great libraries multiplied throughout the
Islamic Middle East from early times, under the dynastic patronage of the ‘Abbasids in
eighth- and ninth-century Baghdad, the Buyids in tenth-century Shiraz, Rayy and other
cities, the Fatimids in eleventh-century Cairo and the Spanish Umayyads in tenth-
century Cordoba (among others), as well as the sponsorship of aspiring private
citizens. These institutions harboured a wealth of literature on the sciences and
humanities, and their widespread existence represents a consistent interest in the
production, exchange and collection of fine books. Of course, collectors placed
important value on the content of their books, seeking out the best possible edition or
translation of an important text, with autograph copies (those written in the author’s
own handwriting) accorded a very high premium. Bibliophile collectors also rated the
material and craft qualities of the book itself: fine script by a renowned calligrapher,
elegant binding, and the use of gold in illumination all added to value.
From the early fourteenth century, the production of luxury manuscripts was
the collective endeavour of many technical and creative skills, and became the
exclusive domain of a co-ordinated atelier, normally affordable only to a royal patron
(cat. no. 65). The great courts of Iran, Ottoman Turkey and Mughal India hosted
ateliers of painters and calligraphers, engaged in making books, and perhaps also
disseminating designs to craftsmen working in other media. Paper-making, the
production of pigments and inks, gold-sprinkling of folio margins, border ruling, and
leather openwork binding all required the best technicians, while the calligraphers,
illumination designers and figural painters were career specialists (cat. nos 50, 62).
In the enclosed “hothouse” context of the royal kit$bkh$na (“book-house”, or
atelier), luxury books of poetry, history or science were sponsored by princes who
also possessed extensive library collections: court artists may well have been
permitted access to these holdings for inspiration and direction. Certainly, the
tradition of Persian painting which runs from the fourteenth to the seventeenth
century (at least) was consistently determined by a sense of its own lineage.
From at least the late fourteenth century, typical princes were also poets, painters
and calligraphers in their own right, trained as part of their childhood education.
The reputation of a royal bibliophile therefore projects the image of a patron of great
discernment, for whom artists of all media would need to stretch their skills in order
to impress and succeed. To this context of competitive excellence belong virtuoso
techniques, such as decoupé calligraphy (cat. no. 66), calligrams (cat. no. 69),
and exquisite openwork bookbindings (cat. no. 73) as well as novelty visual effects,
such as paper-marbling (cat. nos 54, 55).
126 The Arts of the Book

50 Scribal implements

Ottoman, eighteenth – nineteenth The primary tool of Islamic calligraphy, the qalam or reed pen, is also the name of one of the Suras of the Qur’an
centuries (no. 68, Surat al-Qalam). This Sura begins “Nun. By the Pen, and what they write”, underscoring the absolute
Thirteen pieces in various materials
primacy of writing in Islam. The reed pen is not a durable tool – it loses its point quickly and is discarded, hence
Maximum length: 28.8 cm
Inv.: AKM00622 the lack of surviving early examples – and each calligrapher would have had many reed pens at any one time,
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 121 (no. 86); with different sizes and differently cut nibs used for different scripts (Blair 2008, p. 58). Although the chief
AKTC 2007b, p. 123 (no. 86); criteria for a calligrapher’s tools are quality and usefulness, it was sometimes felt that tools that were also
Makariou 2007, pp. 170–171 beautiful objects contributing to the creation of beautiful writing. Throughout the centuries Islamic craftsmen
(no. 61); AKTC 2008a, pp. 182–183
have produced scribal implements in durable or even precious materials that are themselves works of art,
(no. 66).
including lavish wooden scribe’s boxes (cat. nos. 64 and 51), inkwells and pen boxes in inlaid metal (cat. nos. 56,
57 and 58), and the well-known lacquer pen boxes of Safavid Iran (cat. nos. 64 and 75). This group of Ottoman
scribal tools contains three pairs of steel scissors and a steel rule all inlaid with gold; a silver and gilt combined
pen box and inkwell; two pen rests, one in ivory and the other in gold inlaid steel; a gold inlaid steel pen; a
cylindrical pen holder painted with floral designs; two further inkwells, one in brass and the other in silver with a
turquoise stud; and a lobed silver-gilt pot. The handles of one pair of scissors have been formed in an openwork
inscription that reads as an invocation to God, “Oh Opener!”
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 127

Scribe’s cabinet 51

This wooden scribe’s cabinet is a remarkable example of luxury woodwork production from late medieval Spain. Probably Mudéjar Spain, late
The cabinet contains a lidded interior compartment that probably contained smaller writing implements. This fifteenth or sixteenth century
piece has previously been attributed to the Nasrid era (1232–1492), but Rosser-Owen has recently argued that a Walnut wood inlaid with bone,
similar chest in the Victoria and Albert Museum should be attributed to Mudéjar production (the name Mudéjar metal, wood and mother-of-pearl
22 x 49 x 33 cm
was given to Muslim communities remaining in Spain after the Christian conquest of Granada in 1492), on the
Inv.: AKM00634
basis of the characteristically Mudéjar “petalled star” motif that also figures prominently on this casket (Rosser- Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 125 (no. 93);
Owen 2010, pp. 87–88). She also suggests that the marked use of silver inlay on these caskets is characteristic of AKTC 2007b, pp. 128–129 (no. 93);
Spanish woodwork from the late fifteenth century onwards, as New World silver became available from Spain’s AKTC 2009a, p. 94 (no. 46); AKTC
colonies. As well as the “petalled star”, the decorative programme of this piece is dominated by large eight- 2009b, p. 94 (no. 46); AKTC 2010a,
p. 96 (no. 47).
pointed stars formed from interlocking squares; related motifs appear not only on other examples of Nasrid and
Mudéjar woodwork, such as the smaller eight-pointed stars seen on another inlaid scribe’s box recently acquired
by the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, but also on earlier textiles from Islamic Spain (see Hillenbrand 1999, p. 190)
and ceramics of the Nasrid era, such as the so-called “Alhambra vases” (Kenesson 1992, figs 4 and 20). Similar
designs even appear on eighteenth- and nineteenth-century ceramics from Morocco (Hakenjos 1988, figs 42 and 62),
demonstrating the very long lifespan of this particular decorative motif in the Maghrib (Islamic West).
128 The Arts of the Book

52 Bronze lamp holder

Umayyad Spain, tenth century This rare lamp stand, which blends architectural and animal forms with engraved vegetal and inscriptive
Cast bronze with openwork, decoration, has a remarkably similar counterpart in the David Collection (11/1987; see von Folsach 2001, p. 296).
engraved and punched decoration
Both pieces are thought to have been produced during the reign of the Spanish Umayyads (756–1031), a dynasty
Height: 52.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00593 that began after the ‘Abbasids overthrew the reigning Umayyads in Damascus in 749–50. The only surviving
Publ.: AKTC 2008b; AKTC 2009a, p. prince of the deposed ruling house fled to the Iberian Peninsula, there to found a new branch of the Umayyad
95 (no. 47); AKTC 2009b, p. 95 (no. dynasty. The Byzantine culture that preceded Umayyad rule in Syria had already proved highly significant in the
47); AKTC 2010a, p. 97 (no. 48). shaping of Umayyad arts, and the subsequent blending of Umayyad forms with the artistic practices of Spain as
well as with later developments from elsewhere in the Islamic world makes the arts of Muslim Spain a
fascinating area of study. Although thought to date from the tenth century, and thus the product of a Spanish
Islamic culture that was well entrenched, this lamp holder still bears reference in its forms to Byzantine or
possibly even Coptic liturgical metalwork (see for example Bénazeth 1988, fig. 11). On the other hand, the
inscription on the base of the piece, which is a repetition of the Arabic word baraka (“blessing”) in a thickly
drawn Kufic script, is a potent reminder of the Arab rule of medieval Spain.
130 The Arts of the Book

53 Manuscript of the kit$b al-jughr$fiyya (Book Geography) of al-Zuhr› and the Mi’a layla wa layla
(One Hundred and One Nights)
Copied by ‘Abdall$h ibn ‘Abd al-
Mawl$ al-Nujüm
This manuscript contains the earliest extant copy of the Book of Geography by al-Zuhri (active in the mid-twelfth
Spain, dated 632 H / 1235 CE
Ink and opaque watercolour on century), followed by an early version of the famous stories of the ‘Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, known in the
paper West as the Thousand and One Nights and thought to have been adapted from a Persian source. Al-Zuhri was
19 x 26.5 cm active in the mid-twelfth century, and the Book of Geography was written as a companion for a map of the world
Inv.: AKM00513 commissioned by the ‘Abbasid caliph al-Ma‘mun. It provides a description of the known world at the time,
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 153 (no. 122);
including important new information about trade routes and commodities traded in the western Islamic world
AKTC 2007b, p. 156 (no. 122); AKTC
2009a, p. 94 (no. 45); AKTC 2009b, and sub-Saharan Africa, as well as giving information about the expansion of Islam. The second oldest copy of
p. 94 (no. 45); AKTC 2010a, p. 96 The Book of Geography is housed in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris, and is dated to 1410. As regards the
(no. 46). other text contained in the present volume, this early version of the Hundred and One Nights is incomplete – it
ends at night 85 – but clearly establishes its antiquity within the larger tradition of the Thousand and One Nights
tales. The manuscript is written in a form of the maghribi script used in Islamic Spain and North Africa from the
late tenth century into the fourteenth century (Blair 2008, pp. 223–228; see cat. no. 27): note the prominent
curving sublinear swoops so characteristic of this script. See the companion essay on this piece, written by
Ulrich Marzolph.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 131

Verses written by Sh$h Mahmüd N›sh$pür› 54

Extant album collections and dispersed album folios from the Safavid period reveal an overwhelming interest in Safavid Mashhad, Iran, c. 1540
collecting single-page drawings and paintings, designs and calligraphic samples. This example of Persian poetry was Ink, opaque watercolour and gold
written and probably composed by Shah Mahmud Nishapuri (d. 1564/5), a well-known and respected scribe and on paper pasted on an album folio
poet. He was considered to be one of the three greatest Safavid calligraphers by the historian Qadi Ahmad, along of marbled paper
26.7 x 16.7 cm
with Sultan ‘Ali Mashhadi and Mir ‘Ali Shir Nava’i. Shah Tahmasp (r. 1524–76) recognised Nishapuri’s gift by
Inv.: AKM00254
bestowing upon him the laqab, or honorific title, of Zarin Qalam or “Golden Pen”. The poet has signed his name in Publ.: Ackerman 1940, gallery 6, ms
the left corner of this writing sample surrounded by vegetal ornament: Mashqahu al-‘abd al-khafir Shah Mahmud al- 9; Welch–Welch 1982, pp. 76–78
Nishapuri (“the poor servant of the protector, Shah Mahmud al-Nishapuri, wrote it”). (no. 24); Falk 1985, no. 68; AKTC
The text is as follows: 2008a, pp. 186–7 (no. 68).

Oh my heart, overwhelmed by [its] yearning for you

May your face never be absent from the eye
My soul’s eye becomes brightened upon [seeing] your face
When should my heart not wish to be joined to you?
Joyful would be that moment, if fortune becomes my friend, and I see,
For a moment, myself as a companion of your compassion!

The beautifully scripted letters are executed in black ink in an elegant and extremely clear nasta‘liq that stands in
contrast to the plain surface on which they appear; peonies and other flowers painted in ink and gold add a
subtle embellishment. The poem was probably designed as a single page and may have been intended for a
muraqqa or album of calligraphy. The blue- and gold-flecked album folio is decorated in the marbled technique
described in cat. no. 55.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 133

A Portuguese doctor 55

The technique of marbling was a seventeenth-century Bijapur speciality, most commonly used to decorate the Deccan Sultanate, Bijapur, India, c.
borders of album pages or the paper doublures of bindings, but it was also sometimes used as here, to form part 1630
of an image. In this instance the enveloping robe of the doctor and the surrounding plants are made from areas of Opaque watercolour, marbling and
brightly coloured marbling, while the image has been articulated by the painting in of the doctor’s face, feet, hands gold on paper
Page: 26.6 x 17.3 cm; image:
and wide-brimmed European hat. To make marbled paper, pigments and ox gall are first set floating in a bath of
10.2 x 6.7 cm
water mixed with viscous size. The colours are swirled into a pattern as they lie upon the thick liquid, using a Inv.: AKM00196
stylus or (as here) a toothed comb or raking implement. The paper is prepared by treating it with mordant Unpublished
(a substance used to set dye), to make the pigments stick better, and any areas of the page that the artist intends
to leave blank are covered with a resistant gum. The paper is placed flat onto the oily surface and then lifted off to
dry, with the marbled or feathered pattern printed onto it. Each marbled piece is a unique monotype and the
technical skill required to create a miniature painting of this type is considerable. Beyond Bijapur, marbling was
also widely used for creating whole sheets of patterned paper in Iran, Turkey and Mughal India.
134 The Arts of the Book

56 Pen box

Northwest Iran or Anatolia, c. 1300 Elaborately decorated metalwork pen boxes and inkwells (see cat. nos. 57 and 58) are among the finest objects
Brass inlaid with silver and gold associated with writing in the medieval Islamic world. Pen boxes held both practical and symbolic functions at
19.4 x 4.5 cm
Islamic courts: they served as compact and often beautifully decorated containers for scribes’ tools, but they
Inv.: AKM00609
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 124 (no. 90); could simultaneously represent a specific court office or the power of the state more generally (Melikian-Chirvani
AKTC 2007b, p. 127 (no. 90); 1986, pp. 83–92). The Mamluk historian Qalqashandi (1355–1418), writing about his contemporaries in Mamluk
Makariou 2007, pp. 166–167 (no. Egypt, noted that “[g]overnment scribes use long [pen cases] with round ends, elegantly shaped” (Allan 1982, p. 90),
59); AKTC 2008a, p. 188 (no. 69); and this example may well be the pen case of a government official. Profusely decorated with gold and silver
AKTC 2009a, p. 179 (no. 134); AKTC
inlay and engraved geometric, floral and vegetal designs, this luxury pen box is a very high-status object. This
2009b, p. 179 (no. 134); AKTC
2010a, p. 179 (no. 136). form of pen case normally has one or more small inkwells set into a compartment at the right hand end of the
interior and a long pen box taking up the rest of the interior space: Allan has suggested that the origins of the
form are to be found in early wooden examples, very few of which have survived because of the perishable nature
of the medium (Allan 1982, p. 90).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 135

Inkwell 57

Along with the reed pen, the inkwell, called dawat (Baer 1981, pp. 203-4) or sometimes mihbara, is the Khurasan, Iran, second half of the
quintessential attribute of the scribe and calligrapher. There is a Hadith that tells that the first thing Allah created twelfth century
was the pen, while the second thing was the nun, or inkwell (Taragan 2005, p. 32). In this inkwell, decorative Moulded copper alloy, chased
form and function are in harmony with each other, as writing (khatt) is also the main ornament of this object. decoration inlaid with silver
Height: 8.5 cm; diameter 10.4 cm
On the edge of the lid can be read, twice, al-yumn wa al-baraka (“good fortune and blessings”), and on the upper
Inv.: AKM00604
surface the inscription in Arabic, in Kufic script, reads al-‘izz wa al-iqbal wa al-dawla wa al-sa’ada wa al-salama wa Publ.: Makariou 2007, pp. 162–3
al-‘inaya (“glory and prosperity and good fortune and happiness and salvation and divine grace”). Very similar (no. 57); AKTC 2008a, pp. 188–9
phrases are arranged on the body of the inkwell over two levels in a cursive script with letters picked out in silver (no. 70); AKTC 2009a, p. 179; AKTC
wire inlay. In this case, the Arabic inscriptions on the body repeat the formula beginning with al-‘izz twice. The 2009b, p. 179 (no. 135); AKTC
2010a, p. 179 (no. 137).
inscription bands of the body are arranged above and below a central frieze of figures whose silver inlaid bodies
with wire arms echo the forms of the letters that surround them.
136 The Arts of the Book

58 Inkwell

Khurasan, Iran, c. 1200 Like cat. no. 57, this inkwell bears several inlaid inscriptions giving repeated benedictory phrases in Arabic. On
Brass inlaid with copper and silver the lid and upper body the inscriptions are in a cursive script, while that on the lower body is in Kufic script.
Diameter: 10.2 cm
The Kufic inscription reads b’l-yumn wa al-baraka wa al-surura wa al-dawla wa al-sa‘ada wa al-salama wa al-‘safiya
Inv.: AKM00605
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 124 (no. 91); wa al-kirama wa al-baqa lisahibihi, “with good fortune and blessing and joy and wealth and happiness and well-
AKTC 2007b, p. 127 (no. 91); being and health and generosity and long life to its owner”, and the cursive inscriptions are very similar in
Makariou 2007, p. 164 (no. 58). content. The body inscriptions have been inlaid with silver wire of a uniform thickness that matches that of the
interlace design on the central panel, and subsequently the inscriptions appear almost as extensions of the
complex knotted designs in silver and copper that lie between them. The inscription panels are interrupted by
small roundels containing astrological symbols. Within the central panel of the body decoration, set into arch-
shaped niches formed in reserve against the silver and copper interlace, are pairs of adorsed birds. The reserve
niches alternate around the body with complex arch-shaped panels of the same proportions formed from
interlace. There is some debate as to whether the form of this type of inkwell, with its cylindrical body and lobed
domical lid, owes anything to architecture and architectural decoration: Melikian-Chirvani believes that these
pieces with should be classed as “tower-shaped inkwells” and are designed to resemble a miniature domed
monument (Melikian-Chirvani 1986, p. 73), but other authors have refrained from following this reading (for
example Taragan 2005).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 137

Pen box 59

Unlike the later pen box of the same medium, cat. no. 75, this extremely fine Safavid lacquer pen box with Safavid Iran, c. 1694
sliding tray bears no figural imagery at all, and decoration is restricted to calligraphic inscriptions in nasta‘liq Papier-mâché with paint and
and naskh contained within cartouches and set on a scrolling ground of flowers and leaves. The inscriptions are varnish
believed to name the artist and calligrapher Muhammad Ibrahim al-Katib al-Sultani (titles that mean he was Length: 24.8 cm
Inv.: AKM00639
scribe to the sultan) who worked at the court of Shah Suleyman. Another pen box held in the Hermitage
Unpublished
Museum, St Petersburg, is signed “Muhammad Ibrahim Qummi” and dated 1092 H / 1681–2 CE: this is
believed to be the work of the same man, but without the titles he added later in his career (Ivanov 1979, p.
69). As well the artist’s name, the inscription cartouches contain the Nad-e ‘Ali prayer – a supplication to ‘Ali
(see cat. no. 69) – and other inscriptions praising ‘Ali and the Prophet. Covering pasteboard or papier-mâché
with varnish and painting to create lacquerwork had already been developed in Iran as a technique for making
bookbindings under the Timurids (c. 1370–1507; see Blair–Bloom 1995, p. 66) and became increasingly popular
during the Safavid period. Both high-quality bookbindings (cat. no. 131) and small decorative objects such as
pen boxes were made during this period; the precise miniature painting style required for such a medium
greatly suited the prevailing Safavid taste.
138 The Arts of the Book

60 Young man reading a book; attributed to M›rz$ ‘Al›

Iran, c. 1570–1574 In addition to this little painting, Mirza ‘Ali (active 1520s – mid 1570s) is also thought to have been the painter of
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold one of the pages from the Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp displayed here, cat. no. 123. While that manuscript
on paper illustration was made relatively early in his career as a court painter, the present album miniature is thought to
14.3 x 8.1 cm
date from his last years, although the image of the elegant court dandy is one that he returned to again and
Inv.: M191
Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982, pp. again throughout his life. The elongation of limbs and torso that has taken place on many of Mirza ‘Ali’s later
84–88 (no. 27A). figures lends this rather foppish young man the appearance of a long-stemmed flower, an effect that is probably
intentionally underscored by the poppy in his turban that droops under the weight of its own beautiful bloom.
Thought by Welch to have been produced at the court of the exiled prince Sultan Ibrahim at Sabzivar, this
painting has been interpreted by that author as a possible reminder of the comforts of reading poetry during the
lonely period of exile, as well as providing a reassuring projection of glamour, wealth and the fashionable life
(Welch–Welch 1982, p. 87). This piece is exhibited with the kind permission of Princess Catherine Aga Khan.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 139

Portrait of the Naw$b M›rz$ Muhammad B$qir and his young son M›rz$ Husayn 61

The figure on the right in this painting is Mirza Muhammad Baqir, who holds a rosary in one hand and gestures
Safavid Isfahan, Iran, dated 1674
to his son with the other. On the left sits the young Mirza Husayn, also gesturing, as if in conversation. On the Opaque watercolour and gold on
ground in between them lie three books, a pen case with attached inkpot and a bulbous pot with flaring neck paper
that may be an inkwell, although these objects are sometimes referred to by scholars as sand sprinklers or even Page: 28.9 x 42.2 cm ; image: 13.4 x
spittoons. The scene is presumably one of instruction: the father may be teaching his son about the genteel arts 24.1 cm
Inv.: AKM00081
of calligraphy. The painting is signed Mu‘in Musavvir in the bottom centre and dated 1674, although there is
Publ.: Welch 1972a, p. 225; Canby
some debate amongst scholars as to whether the whole piece can be ascribed to Mu‘in Musavvir, with Kühnel 1998, pp. 86–87 (no. 59); AKTC
(1942) suggesting that a drawing by this artist was retouched in India. Mu‘in Musavvir is one of the key figures in 2007a, p. 187 (no. 160); AKTC
the history of painting in seventeenth-century Iran (see also cat. no. 130); he was a student of the great court 2007b, p. 183 (no. 160).
painter Reza ‘Abbasi, and worked in the traditional mode of idealised portraits on single pages, as well as
manuscript illustration. The international heritage of Safavid painting is evident in this painting: the finely-drawn
cloud scrolls in the background of the image are a borrowing from Chinese art that first appeared in Iranian
painting in the Mongol period, while the printed textiles depicted in Mirza Muhammad Baqir’s robe and the
cushions may well be imports from India (Canby 1998, p. 87).
140 The Arts of the Book

62 Artist seated with his drawing board beneath a tree

Safavid Isfahan, Iran, c. 1600 Although this man is not holding a pen or a paintbrush, his attentive pose resembles a well-known portrait
Opaque watercolour and gold on painted in 1673 by Mu‘in Musavvir (see also cat. nos. 61 and 130) of the artist Reza ‘Abbasi working at a portrait
paper
painting, now held in Princeton University Library (Farhad 1990, fig. 8). The current painting is characteristic of
Page: 35.8 x 23.4 cm;
image: 22.1 x 11.6 cm; the refined style of calligraphic line drawing that gathered momentum in the second half of the sixteenth century,
Inv.: AKM00192 and was markedly different from the opaque bright colours of earlier manuscript illustrations. Single-page
Unpublished paintings and tinted drawings of one or two figures also came increasingly into vogue as completed works for
collection in albums. The genre often took as its subject matter handsome court dandies, old dervishes or
courtly figures apparently inspired by the artist’s surroundings. This drawing of a fellow artist (or perhaps a
calligrapher?) reminds us that the “recording observers” were also part of the court community. Genre portraits
of this type were already known earlier in the sixteenth century, but this form of portrait presents a virtuoso
opportunity for the artist, and the genre continued to develop through the seventeenth century with increasingly
mannered and self-conscious results. As the fashion took off, high-ranking court artists were able to sell
individual drawings to members of the public.
142 The Arts of the Book

63 An Ottoman official

Istanbul, Turkey, c. 1650 This full-length portrait of a large, grey-bearded gentleman wearing a bulbous lilac Ottoman turban and fur-lined
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold robe and carrying a manuscript bound in blue tooled and gilded leather probably represents an Ottoman court
on paper
official. As well as the book he carries as a symbol of learning or possibly of office, his free hand, held up in a
Page: 29 x 17.9 cm;
image: 22.3 x 13 cm gesture suggesting he may be about to speak, and his stern expression and grand appearance all bespeak high
Inv.: AKM00217 rank. The setting of the image recalls earlier portraits of Ottoman sultans seated against a tiled background with
Publ.: Welch 1978a, p. 19; a broken arch overhead framing the space. This portrait was once mounted in an album – the verso carries
Welch–Welch 1982, pp. 36–8 (no. fourteen lines of text, including lines from the Gulistan of Sa‘di – and may date to the reign of the Ottoman
8); Falk 1985, no. 112; AKTC 2009a,
sultan Mehmed IV (r. 1648–1687). Copies of portraits of a similar type and composition were also adopted as
p. 139 (no. 97); AKTC 2009b,
p. 139 (no. 97); AKTC 2010a, p. 141 illustrations for reports and memoirs of the Ottoman court published by Europeans in the seventeenth century,
(no. 99). appearing amongst detailed descriptions of the Ottoman administration.
144 The Arts of the Book

65 The Kit$bh$na
Folio (195r) from the Akhl$q-i Nas›r› (Ethics of Nasir) by Nas›r al-D›n Tüs›
Mughal Lahore, India, c. 1595
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold This painting comes from an illustrated manuscript of a text that enjoyed particular popularity at the court of the
on paper
Mughal Emperor Akbar, the Akhlaq-i Nasiri or “Ethics of Nasir” (O’Hanlon 1999, p. 58). The text is a
23.9 x 14.2 cm
Inv.: AKM00288
philosophical treatise on ethics, social justice and politics by the thirteenth-century Persian philosopher and
Publ.: (Including other folios from scientist, Nasir al-Din Tusi (1201–1274), and was originally composed around 1235. This folio, which has been
the same manuscript) inscribed at the bottom with a name that may tentatively be read as Sanju, illustrates a court atelier in which
Welch–Welch 1982, (no. 58); scribes, artists and craftsmen are at work. The figure kneeling in the garden is engaged in papermaking, while
Brand–Lowry 1985, p. 59; Canby
inside the pavilion or open-fronted hall a young painter on the left hand side bends over his drawing of a horse, a
1998, (nos 92–3); Joseph M. Dye in
Ziad 2002, pp. x, 146; AKTC 2007a,
scribe dips his qalam in the inkpot while conversing with an illuminator or painter who sits across from him on
pp. 122 and 168 (nos 87, 88 and the dais, and seated above them is a young man in a patterned golden robe and an older man. These last figures
141); AKTC 2007b, pp. 124 and 167 have been described as a scribe taking dictation (Brand–Lowry 1985, p. 58), but his costume and the pose of the
(nos 87, 88 and 141); AKTC 2008a, servant behind him suggest that the young man may in fact be a prince taking instruction in calligraphy from an
pp. 184–185 (no. 67).
older master. Although the young man’s page is already filled with slanted lines of calligraphy his pen seems to
have returned to the first line, possibly illustrating the moment of creation of a header line in a more elaborate
script. This image is a rare and valuable record of the Mughal kitabkhana, a library-workshop tradition from Iran
that was adopted by the Mughal rulers. In the kitabkhana scribes, illuminators, artists, bookbinders and
papermakers worked alongside each other to produce illustrated manuscripts for their imperial patron, and this
rich and tranquil image reflects the social status of the artisans of the kitabkhana (Brand–Lowry 1985, p. 58).
See the essay by Francis Richard in this catalogue.
146 The Arts of the Book

66 Decoupé calligraphy

Folio from a dispersed D›w$n of The beautiful nasta‘liq script of this folio is not written onto the page but pasted to it using the virtuoso
Sultan Husayn Bayqara technique of cut-work calligraphy, or qit‘a. The letters have been individually cut from white and gold paper and
Timurid Herat, Afghanistan
glued to the indigo page, creating a dramatic and arresting composition with the light-coloured letters standing
c. 1475–1490
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold out like stars on a night sky, an effect which is echoed by the gold speckling of the surrounding dark blue leaf.
on paper Decoupé calligraphy such as this, and the related but rarer technique whereby a sheet of contrasting colour is
page: 23.7 x 15.2 cm; mounted behind one from which letters have been cut out, became popular at the Timurid courts. This page
text: 12.8 x 7 cm comes from a dispersed manuscript of the poems of the Timurid Sultan Husayn written in Sultan Husayn’s
Inv.: AKM00227
native Turkic tongue, Chaghatai. Further folios from the same manuscript are held in the Los Angeles County
Publ.: Welch 1972b, p. 17; Falk 1985,
(no. 35). Museum of Art (73.5.599a–f), the Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts in Istanbul and other museums and
private collections. Although this folio is unsigned, Timurid cut-work is often associated with Shaykh ‘Abdallah of
Herat, who was named in contemporary sources as a master of the craft (Blair 2008, p. 56), and his name
appears within one of the Istanbul fragments of the manuscript (Schmitz 1993, n.p).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 147

Page of calligraphy with decoupé borders 67

Like cat. no. 66, this piece demonstrates the artistic possibilities of the cutwork technique. In this case the script Safavid Iran, c. 1550-1620
itself has been executed in an orthodox neat nasta‘liq script in black ink on cream paper, but the surrounding Ink, opaque watercolours and gold
borders have been taken over by a complex decoupé pattern of flowers and cypress tree, amongst which a lion, on paper
bird, fox and crane are poised. The cream-coloured decoupé paper has been glued onto a blue ground, again Page: 26 x 17.1 cm;
text: 12.6 x 7.5 cm
utilising the striking colour contrast between dark and light that was so justly beloved of workers in cut paper.
Inv.: AKM00330
Although by no means as fine as the cut letters of cat. no. 66, this example of the technique demonstrates its Unpublished
effective use as an all-over design, and the artist of this piece has created a pleasing border composition. The lion
and bird have both been articulated by the use of tiny hatched cuts to indicate feathers on the bird’s breast, and
fur on the lion’s neck, chest and foreleg. The technique of cut-work is sometimes suggested to derive from panels
of filigree on bookbindings, with minutely cut paper patterns coming to replace leather for web-like filigree work
(Schmitz 1993, n.p.): an excellent example of filigree bookbinding decoration can be seen on the Safavid binding
shown in cat. no. 73.
148 The Arts of the Book

68 Page of calligraphy

Safavid Iran, c. 1600 The juxtaposition of large and small scripts was a popular device not only in Qur’an manuscripts (see cat. no.
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold 29) but also in calligraphic specimens such as this, designed to show off the calligrapher’s proficiency and
on paper
simultaneously to create new and dynamic compositions through the interaction between the scripts. The top
Page: 14.7 x 21.9 cm;
text: 12.1 x 19.2 cm and bottom boxes of this leaf contain inscriptions written in thuluth, while the smaller inscription in the middle
Inv.: AKM00247 compartment has been executed in naskh. This arrangement exemplifies the calligraphic principle whereby
Unpublished certain pairings of cursive script were considered appropriate companions for each other: thuluth and naskh, but
also muhaqqaq and rayhan, and tawqi and rayhan. Here, the larger thuluth inscriptions stand out strongly against
their backgrounds of finely-executed saz leaf scroll illumination – the upper panel executed purely in gold while
the lower has been picked out in gold, orange, blue, green and lilac – while the central line of naskh has been set
into a cloud-like reserve field of plain paper which keeps it from being subsumed by the heavier decoration of
orange, pink and blue flowers on a gold ground which surrounds it.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 149

Calligram of a lion 69

The technique of creating zoomorphic images using calligraphic forms was practised from at least the fifteenth Mughal India, seventeenth century
century in Iran (Blair 2008, p. 449). Designed as a sort of visual and mental challenge to show off the skills of Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
the scribe and test the skills of the reader, such pieces were normally intended for inclusion in an album. on paper
Calligrams of this type rely on well-known phrases and sacred names in order to be readable: deciphering the 12 x 19.2 cm
Inv.: AKM00526
text is often aided by shape of the image, which may act as a prompt. Here the text reads as follows: Nadi
Publ.: Makariou 2007, p. 146
‘aliyyan muzhir al-‘aja’ib. Tajidahu ‘awnan laka f› al-nawa’ib. Kullu hamm wa ghamm sayanjal› bi-wilayatika, Ya (no. 51).
‘Ali, ya ‘Ali, ya ‘Ali. Qata‘ahu ‘Ali katib [?]. (“Call upon ‘Ali, the revealer of miracles! You will surely find him a
helper to you in crisis. Every care and sorrow will pass through your companionship, Oh ‘Ali, oh ‘Ali, oh ‘Ali.
‘Ali the scribe cut it out [?]”). Here the Nad-e ‘Ali, a famous invocation to the fourth caliph and first Imam ‘Ali,
has been rendered into the shape of a lion, which is itself one of the symbols of ‘Ali, “the Lion of God”. This
design closely follows a very famous example of the Nad-e ‘Ali prayer written in the form of a lion by Mir ‘Ali
Haravi in the mid-sixteenth century, mounted in the Shah Mahmud Nishapuri album (Blair 2008, pp. 449–450).
That Safavid example, in which the lion form has been cut out and mounted on a separate sheet of paper, also
includes the punning signature qata‘ahu ‘Ali katib (“‘Ali the scribe cut it out”). The same signature appears to have
been repeated in this version (an alternative reading is given in Makariou 2007, no. 51), although the piece has not
been cut out, and the signature has presumably been transposed from the celebrated earlier model. Although the
piece has strong Shi‘i resonances in both text and imagery there are also Sunni versions of this composition,
including a Turkish version dated 1913 now in the Khalili Collection, London (Rogers 2002, pp. 278–279).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 151

Dish with lion 70

Before the 1550s, the Ottoman court had relied on an eclectic court culture that drew from both the Iranians to
Ottoman, Iznik, c. 1560
the east and the Europeans to the west. By the mid-sixteenth century, however, these foreign artistic models were Fritware with polychrome
synthesized into a classical Ottoman style, which coincided with the replacement of Persian with Ottoman decoration under a transparent
Turkish as the language of the court. This new artistic vocabulary was immediately recognisable in the medium glaze
of ceramics, where a selection of floral, vegetal, geometric and Chinese-inspired elements (arriving via the Diameter: 36.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00811
Timurids in fifteenth-century Iran) were painted under a transparent glaze onto a hard white frit body. While the
Publ.: AKTC 2010a, p. 144 (no. 102).
floral designs on this dish are fairly typical of this distinctive new genre, the depiction of a lion with black-
bordered blue and thick red painting is much more unusual. The dating of this dish is based on sources that
attest to a move of ceramic production from Istanbul to Iznik, where potteries thrived from their close proximity
to wood and other materials needed for kilns and ceramic production.
152 The Arts of the Book

71 Colophon from a dispersed Shahnama manuscript

Signed by the scribe Murshid ibn al- This colophon comes from a dispersed Shahnama manuscript dated 1482; the Aga Khan Museum also holds five
D›n Wazz$n illustrated folios from the same manuscript (see cat. nos. 116 and 117 in this catalogue; and AKM00045, 00046
Iran, probably Shiraz, dated
and 00049). Two further leaves from the same manuscript are held in the Metropolitan Museum in New York
Shaww$l 887 H / October 1482 CE
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold (McAllister 1943). The colophon information is contained within the inverted triangle of text on the left hand
on paper page and gives the name of the scribe Murshid ibn al-Din Wazzan along with the date Shawwal 887 H. A
Page: 32.5 x 21.5 cm; colophon is a section of text normally included at the end of a manuscript that may give a statement about the
text: 22.2 x 15.7 cm author, scribe or painter, the date and place of completion, the name of the patron, and so forth: colophons are
Inv.: AKM00050
vital to the reconstruction of the history of the arts of the book. Beyond the colophon, the placement of the other
Unpublished
text of these two pages within a network of horizontal and diagonal panels creates a trellis-like effect,
emphasized by the delicate floral motifs that decorate the triangles between text panels. In some cases the
device of the angled text panel, also seen in other pages from the same manuscript (cat. no. 116), may have been
used as a means of moderating the pace of the story, enabling the scribe to have certain points in the text fall
where he wanted them to upon the page. This was presumably necessary when the relevant text was threatening
to run away from a pre-ordained space for a related image, or to create a more pleasing aesthetic effect at the
end of the text run.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 153

Bookbinding 72

This piece shows the typical form of a traditional Islamic bookbinding: the pointed flap, which is an extension of Safavid Iran, c. 1750–1830
the back cover (the left hand side of an open book), is tucked under the front cover when the book is closed to Leather, gilded and painted, varnish
protect and preserve the pages, and can also have a secondary use as a bookmark. While the interior side of this 19.7 x 12.4 cm
binding bears gilt filigree ornament over a polychrome painted ground similar to that of cat. no. 73, the external Inv.: AKM00392
Unpublished
side has gilded and painted decoration depicting a fantastic landscape of trees, birds, deer, foxes and monkeys.
The composition is very similar on each of the two rectangular panels, indicating that the artist was probably
working from a template of some sort. It is clear from the animal imagery that the binding was not originally part
of a religious manuscript, but it may well have enclosed a poetic text: a sumptuous, much earlier copy of the
Mathnawi of Jalal al-Din Rumi created in 1482 for Sultan Husayn (also the patron of cat. no. 66) is decorated on
the doublures with similar scenes of monkeys, deer, birds and foxes amongst trees and flowers, although in the
earlier building these are executed in leather cut-outs rather than the lacquer that has been employed here.
154 The Arts of the Book

73 Large bookbinding

Safavid Iran, c. 1540–1580 This Safavid binding is an unusually large and very luxurious example of the type. Safavid leather binding
Morocco leather with gilded, production reached a high point in the sixteenth century, partly as a response to the demand for deluxe royal and
painted, stamped and filigree
commercial manuscripts and bindings. Here, the extraordinarily fine gilded filigree ornament of the inner face
designs
50.5 x 36.7 cm that lies over a polychrome painted ground of red, white, blue and black scalloped lozenges and diamonds
Inv.: AKM00386 recalls the gilt settings of jewels and lends a rather lapidary appearance, as of inlaid precious stones, to the
Publ.: AKTC 2007b, p. 40 (no. 12). painted surface underneath. The borders continue with the same filigree designs, presenting cartouches of gold
filigree over blue and green in the outer border and black over gold and red in the inner: the overall impression is
one of richness and precious materials. Characteristic of Safavid covers from the mid sixteenth century onward,
the roots of this style belong with the fifteenth-century Timurid and Turkmen bookbinders of Shiraz (Tan›nd› in
Thompson–Canby 2003, ch. 6). The outer side of this binding bears eleven cartouches inscribed in thuluth script
with two Hadith of the Prophet that discuss the importance of reading the Qur’an, leaving little doubt that this
impressive binding was originally used for a large manuscript of the Qur’an.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 157

Manuscript of the Qur’an 74

This manuscript of the Qur’an, written in Arabic with interlinear Persian translation, was commissioned by Sadr
Qajar Iran, 1853
A‘zam Mirza Aga Khan. The calligraphy and illumination are both noteworthy, but one of the most striking Ink, gold and opaque watercolour
aspects of this volume is the very fine lacquer binding, with delicately executed images of a rose bush and iris on on paper; lacquer binding and
gold ground. Lacquerwork was, as has already been discussed in relation to cat. no. 75, an extremely popular and doublures
highly regarded decorative medium under the Qajars, and there was a strong taste for pictorial art at the time as 30.8 x 19.4 cm
Inv.: AKM00493
is evinced in these images of flowers. The style of painting shown here is meticulously observational, and yet still
Unpublished
occupies the realms of botanical fantasy in the perfect composition and flawless blooms of each plant, to say
nothing of the huge, carefully poised butterfly that perches on the rose. Although links are often made between
Qajar art and the influence of European oil paintings, the style of such images also appears to owe a
considerable debt to earlier Mughal botanical paintings, such as cat. no. 157, themselves thought to derive in
part from European botanical illustrations.
158 The Arts of the Book

75 Pen box

Signed “Ism$‘›l” The visual arts flourished under Qajar patronage in the nineteenth century, and lacquer painting, which had
Qajar Iran, dated 1282 H / 1865 CE already found popularity in Safavid Iran (see cat. no. 59), became in turn a celebrated medium of the Qajar
Papier-mâché, painted and period. The scribe’s pen box, which had since the medieval period been a vehicle for decoration of the highest
lacquered
quality (cat. no. 56), continued to be a privileged site for ornament and large numbers of highly decorated
Length: 26.8 cm
Inv.: AKM00643 lacquer pen boxes have survived, although few are as elaborate and finely painted as this example. Unlike the
Publ.: Robinson 1989, figs 1 and 10; medieval versions, this pen box is opened by sliding out the central section from one end like a drawer. In a
Karimzadeh Tabrizi 1990, vol. 1, p. central cartouche on the top of the outer body there is an image of the Qajar ruler Nasir al-Din Shah (r. 1848–1896)
457; AKTC 2007a, p. 111 (no. 78); holding court; elsewhere there are images of legendary kings from the Shahnama, scenes from the poems of
AKTC 2007b, p. 112 (no. 78);
Sa’di and Nizami, and portraits of famous Sufis. This pen box was painted by the Qajar naqqash bashi (chief
AKTC 2008a, pp. 166–7 (no. 61);
AKTC 2009a, p. 224 (no. 169); painter) Muhammad Isma‘il, who was active in the mid-nineteenth century and is well known for his meticulous,
AKTC 2009b, p. 224 (no. 169); minutely painted lacquerwork. On the inside of the drawer the penbox contains a miniature self-portrait of the
AKTC 2010a, p. 240 (no. 186). artist wearing an astrakhan hat and holding a paintbrush, while a couplet above and below the image identifies
the artist as Isma‘il.
The Illuminated Text

Catalogue Entr›es 76 — 93
The visual embellishment of a written text may take two forms: firstly, calligraphy –
that is, by writing out the text in an imposing and elegant style, suitable for the tone of
the given textual content. A second means of embellishing text is to decorate it with
illumination: written words can be encased within a designed panel, or surrounded by
a decorative rubric, both of which use colour and pattern to indicate or celebrate the
importance of the text. Used selectively, illumination therefore serves for visual impact
in book design, guiding the reader’s eye towards significant or useful sections of text –
such as chapter-headings (cat. no. 81), image-captions, the start of an official letter
(cat. no. 91), or the opening and closing pages of a volume. This navigational aspect is
beautifully expressed in Qur’an illumination, which highlights Sura-headings, Juz’
openings (cat. no. 76), verse-markers, points of prostration, and the beginning of the
Qur’an itself. Typically, the first two Suras are arranged as a spectacular double-page
illumination, with the short text of Sürat al-F$tiha on one side, and the start of the
longer Sürat al-Baqara on the other (cat. no 78).
The style and quality of illuminated designs are important indicators of a
manuscript’s provenance and level of patronage, and significantly add to the value of
a book as a treasured art object. A full page of illumination, containing little or no
text, allowed the mudhahhib or illuminator to showcase the extent of his repertoire
and training (cat. no 77). Sometimes known as a “carpet page”, a page of
illuminated pattern also demonstrates the classic interrelationship between different
media in Islamic art, where the same or similar designs may recur in wooden door-
panels (cat. nos 84, 85), leather bookbinding, and indeed carpets, produced in the
same cultural milieu.
A wide range of designs was available to artists, including spiralling plant
scrollwork, Chinese motifs such as curling clouds and lotus-flowers, knotwork, and
radiating geometric shapes forming star-polygons (cat. no. 77), interlocking circles or
other complex formations. Animal subjects could also enter the repertoire of (non-
Qur’anic) manuscript illumination, such as the waqwaq design – a scrolling plant
sprouting with animal heads. These elements were usually contained and organised
within an overall framework, such as oblong cartouches, interlocking geometric units
or a central medallion format. Medallion designs, based around a central ellipse within
a vertical rectangular frame, became more standard in Iranian book design (cat. no.
79), and consequently also Ottoman Turkey and Mughal India.
176 The Illuminated Text

76 Juz’ Fifteen of a Mamluk Qur’an

Mamluk Egypt, c. 1350, with late The division of the Qur’an into thirty nearly equal parts or Juz’ has a spiritual function – the complete Qur’an can
nineteenth-century leather binding be read by reading one Juz’ each day over the course of a month, a practice associated with the holy month of
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold
Ramadan – but it also has a practical role. With folios of this size, and with so little text per page, a single
on paper
38.3 x 29 x 1.6 cm complete volume would be impossibly large to make or use, and individual Juz’ volumes are an elegant solution
Inv.: AKM00279 to the question of creating a suitably elevated form for the sacred text. This Mamluk Juz’ containing Sura 17 (al-
Publ.: Welch 1978b, pp. 146–149 Isra’) and Sura 18 (al-Kahf), verses 1–74, is written in deep black ink upon a very pale cream folio: throughout
(fols 1v–2r, 7v). much of the manuscript the illumination is kept to a minimum, allowing the dramatic contrast between the black
muhaqqaq script of the main text and the empty space surrounding it to come to the fore. Mamluk muhaqqaq,
the script of choice for large luxury Qur’ans produced under the Mamluks from the 1320s, is a rather elongated
script: according to Mamluk chroniclers, it should be written with a straight alif that should measure nine or ten
rhombic dots (the smallest square that can be created with the point of the reed pen) high, making it taller than
classical Iranian muhaqqaq (Blair 2008, p. 319). The illuminated frontispiece of this Juz’ (fol. 1v–2r) employs a
complex gold frame, gold header texts reserved on blue and margin medallions as well as green and blue
palmette designs within the framed text, and yet the overall effect remains tranquil, due in part to the large
amount of breathing space left around the illuminated area.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 177

Tughluq Qur’an manuscript 77

Work on this magnificent manuscript was most likely started in the Tughluqid capital at Delhi and interrupted by Completed by Mahmüd Sha‘b$n
the invasion of Timur in 1398–1399: the Tughluq court then fled to Gwalior Fort, south of Agra, where the India, Gwalior Fort, dated 7 Dhu’l-
manuscript’s colophon was completed. The Tughluqs ruled a vast stretch of India during the fourteenth century Qa‘da 801 H/ 21 July 1399 CE
and have been described as “the strongest and most creative state in the history of the Delhi Sultanate” Ink, opaque watercolour and gold
on paper with twentieth-century
(Welch–Crane 1983, p. 123), particularly in light of their architectural achievements, although they are often
leather binding
overlooked because of the longstanding dominance of the Mughals in art histories of Islamic India. Like cat. no. 29.8 x 23.5 x 6.6 cm
31, this manuscript has been written in bihari script, a script form unique to pre-Mughal India, and bears Inv.: AKM00281
interlinear translations in Persian as an aid to non-Arab Muslims who could not read the original Arabic text. This Publ.: London 1976, no. 635 (fols
extremely rich and colourful manuscript contains not only a large number of double-page illuminated Juz’ markers 40v–41r); Welch 1979a, no. 75 (fols
40v–41r); Welch–Welch 1982, no.
and Sura headings, but also a spectacular double frontispiece of interlace strapwork designs decorated with jewel-
47 (fols 1v–2r); Blair and Bloom
like colours and gold, and text boxes with white Kufic inscriptions on a blue ground. It is a rare and important 1995, p. 161 (fols 1v–2r); Canby
example of Tughluq luxury manuscript production, and is one of the first documented manuscripts to use bihari 1998, no. 76 (fols 189v–190r).
script (Blair–Bloom 1995, p. 161). See the essay written by Eloise Brac de la Perrière, Frantz Chaigne and Mathilde
Cruvelier in this catalogue.
178 The Illuminated Text

78 Manuscript of an Ottoman Qur’an

Copied by Shaykh Hamdall$h ibn This manuscript, one of the greatest of the early Ottoman Qur’ans, bears a colophon in Ottoman Turkish on
Mustaf$ folio 278r that identifies the scribe as Shaykh Hamdallah ibn Mustafah (see facing page). Shaykh Hamdallah
Ottoman, c. 1500 (c. 1436–1520), a native of Amasya, was a calligraphy tutor to the future Ottoman sultan Bayezid II (r. 1481–1512),
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
accompanying the new sultan to Istanbul upon his accession. Although the patron of this manuscript is not
on paper
39.2. x 26.5 cm named, it is entirely possible that a work of this quality was produced for Bayezid II himself. A renowned
Inv.: AKM00263 calligrapher, Shaykh Hamdallah revised the six canonical scripts of Yaqut (naskh, rayhan, muhaqqaq, thuluth,
Publ.: Welch 1972b, p. 43; Lings and tawqi and riqa‘), and nearly fifty manuscripts of the Qur’an, numerous books of prayers and single sheets of
Safadi 1976, no. 129; Welch 1979a, religious texts are credited to his hand. This elaborate double frontispiece includes Surat al-Fatiha and Surat al-
pp. 92–93; Welch–Welch 1982, pp.
Baqara verses 1–4, written in naskh script, a speciality of Shaykh Hamdallah and a standard script for Ottoman
27–29 (no. 4); Falk 1985, p. 133 (no.
105); Geneva 1988, no. 37; AKTC Qur’ans. The decorated text panels and complex frame of this frontispiece are a spectacular demonstration of
2007a, p. 45 (no. 15); AKTC 2007b, Ottoman Qur’an illumination: in a palette dominated by gold and blue, twining vegetal motifs picked out in
p. 42 (no. 15); AKTC 2009a, p. 42 various colours, geometric patterns and cartouches are set against a highly elaborate outer frame of margin
(n. 11); AKTC 2009b, p. 42 (no. 11). medallions with pendentive palmettes and projecting linear decoration.
180 The Illuminated Text

79 Manuscript of a Safavid Qur’an

Copied by ‘Abdall$h Sh›r$z› As with many sixteenth-century Qur’ans we do not know the exact date of this copy, but the calligrapher, or
Safavid Iran, Qazvin or Mashhad, c. perhaps more likely the illuminator, ‘Abdallah Shirazi, has signed his name at the end of the last Sura. There are
1550–1565
two sixteenth-century miniaturists known to us with this name; one of these worked in the scriptorium of Shah
Ink, opaque watercolours and gold
on paper Tahmasp in Qazvin around 1550–1560, and the other in the scriptorium of Sultan Ibrahim Mirza (c. 1540–1577).
Pages: 37.4 x 24.4 cm; binding: 38 x The latter painter died at Mashhad, and it is entirely possible that this manuscript was copied and illustrated in
25 x 6.5 cm the royal workshops of either Qazvin or Mashhad. In addition to a large and ornate double-page illumination of
Inv.: AKM00485 the first Sura, al-Fatiha, this manuscript bears a smaller but perhaps even more striking pair of illuminated pages
Publ.: Makariou 2007, pp. 124–5
marking the first verses of the second Sura, al-Baqara (2: 1–17), shown here. Dominated by gold but also
(no. 42); AKTC 2009a, pp. 42–43
(no. 12); AKTC 2009b, p. 42 (no. exploiting the dramatic potential of white and gold on dark blue, the glittering richness of this illumination is
12); AKTC 2010a, pp. 44–45 (no. enhanced rather than overbalanced by the heading panel on the right hand page, with its four vertically
13). projecting cartouches shaped like fantastic arches. In the margins the word waqafa has been written twice in
black ink, signalling that the manuscript was eventually a charitable gift (waqf) given by the Ottoman sultan
Selim II (r. 1566–1574) to the mosque he founded in Edirne.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 181

Manuscript of a Sulawesi Qur’an 80

Although the spread of Islam reached the Indian Ocean and Southeast Asia as early as the thirteenth century, the Copied by Ism$‘›l ibn ‘Abdall$h of
earliest surviving manuscripts of the Qur’an from the region date to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Makassar
(Blair 2008, p. 559). The present example has been identified as one of only three core exemplars in a group of Indonesia, Sulawesi Island, Laiyaka
eighteen Qur’ans illuminated in the so-called “Sulawesi geometric style”. The extraordinary amount of artistic (probably Laikang), dated 25
Ramadan 1219 H / 28 December
variation among these manuscripts and the fact that they reflect far-flung provenances has led some scholars to
1804 CE
propose the existence of a diasporic artistic idiom rather than one restricted to south Sulawesi, a small part of Ink, opaque watercolour, and gold
the Indonesian island chain. Qur’ans of this group are characterized by double-pages of illumination with frames on European paper, with leather
formed from geometric shapes, which mark the beginning, end and middle of the text, as well as by a bold binding
colour palette dominated by red, black and yellow. The Aga Khan Museum’s Qur’an is one of the most 35.5 x 20 cm
Inv.: AKM00488
impressive of this group; it survives in its complete form and contains a full and illuminated colophon identifying
Publ.: AKTC 2007b, p. 38 (no. 10);
its scribe and attesting to a production in south Sulawesi. It was written in a script of thuluth type with AKTC 2008b; AKTC 2009a, p. 46
explicatory glosses added in naskh. In addition to three double-pages of illumination marking the beginning, (no. 15); AKTC 2009b, p. 46
middle and end of the Qur‘anic text, the volume contains a variety of verse markers, roundels and illuminated (no. 15); AKTC 2010a, pp. 48–49
frames marking various divisions of the text, making it particularly fine example of nineteenth-century Indonesian (no. 16).

manuscript production. On this double-page illumination, marking the start of Surat al-Kahf (18: 1–6), the Sura
heading appears in an oval cartouche painted in white on black, set amongst a larger, rather architectonic
framework of expertly illuminated panels. See Annabel Teh Gallop’s essay in this catalogue.
182 The Illuminated Text

81 Illustrated and illuminated manuscript of the Khamsa of Niz$m›

Qajar Iran, c. 1820–1860 Magnificent illumination was not restricted to religious texts. This manuscript of the Khamsa of Nizami, a
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold collection of five stories written in Persian in the twelfth-century by the poet Nizami, shows the high regard in
on paper
which this classical Persian text was still held in the Qajar period, and indeed is still held today. As well as
29.9 x 18.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00380 twenty-one miniature paintings illustrating such well-known episodes as Khusraw spying Shirin as she bathes in
Unpublished a stream, and Majnun seated with animals in the wilderness, the manuscript has been decorated with three
double-pages of illumination including this frontispiece. The header decoration of the frontispiece clearly harks
back to the highly formalized cartouche compositions of Safavid manuscript illumination, themselves related to
designs seen in both carpets and bookbindings. However, the irregularities and asymmetry seen in certain
elements of this late example (compare for example the respective shapes and positions of the two quatrefoil
medallions in the boxes projecting from the lower edge of the main illuminated panel) bespeak a tradition that is
losing ground, as well as a manuscript made for the open market rather than for a royal patron. The earlier
dominance of blue and gold has here started to give way to reds and pinks, the frequent use of pink in Qajar art
marking a departure from earlier Iranian palettes.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 183

Chinese Qur’an Anthology 82

The history of Islam in China begins in the early Islamic era, but the earliest surviving dated Qur’an manuscript China, late eighteenth or early
produced in China is considerably later, dating from 1401. The earliest Chinese Qur’ans can be shown, through nineteenth century
details of script type, layout and materials, to be closely related to and presumably derived from manuscripts Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
made in Iran and Iraq around the same time, and mistakes in the texts of these first manuscripts suggest that on paper
27.5 x 20 cm
the copyists were not entirely proficient at writing in Arabic (Blair 2008, p. 373). By the time the Qur’an
Inv.: AKM00824
anthology exhibited here was made, a form of Arabic script unique to China had been developed, known as Sini, Unpublished
which simply means “Chinese”. Although this word can be used to describe any distinctly Chinese forms of
Arabic script, Chinese calligraphers argue that it properly refers to a rounded, flowing script, often with great
variation between thick and thin strokes, which is ultimately descended from thuluth. As a script it is often used
for striking set pieces, such as the calligraphic phrase Subhan Allah (“Glorious is God”) seen on the right hand
page of this finispiece, rather than for long texts. The round Chinese good luck symbol embedded into the
middle of the star illumination on the opposite page is a further reminder of the long relationship between
China and Islam.
184 The Illuminated Text

83 Carved marble capital

Spain, Umayyad period, c. 950–970 This composite capital is similar to those made for the reception room of ‘Abd al-Rahman III in the royal palace at
Marble Madinat al-Zahra, six kilometres from Cordoba, which date from between 342 and 345 H (952–953 and 956–957
Diameter: 28 cm
CE). However, Makariou suggests that this example appears to have been carved from a cubic piece of marble, 28
Inv.: AKM00663
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 177 (no. 153); cm on each side, while the Madinat al-Zahra capitals are not quite cubic (Makariou 2007, pp. 90–91). The basic
AKTC 2007b, p. 177 (no. 153); form of the Corinthian capital, which can be found in numerous Roman ruins in Spain, still holds firm in this
Makariou 2007, pp. 90–91 (no. 28); capital, but the dissolution of the surface into a lacy network of deeply carved vegetal interlace shifts the aesthetic
AKTC 2009a, p. 93 (no. 44); AKTC into a new “Islamic” realm and demonstrates a new conception of the decorative potential of marble:
2009b, p. 93 (no. 44); AKTC 2010a,
monumentality has given way to a penetrable surface. During the events of 1010 and the plundering of Madinat al-
p. 95 (no. 45).
Zahra the same year, and later during the collapse of the caliphate of al-Andalus in 1031, objects were
disseminated. Even architectural elements were affected; for this reason, many Andalusian capitals were reused
elsewhere, even in Italy.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 185

Pair of carved doors with geometric and floral motifs 84

One of the finest examples of its kind, this pair of doors bears many of the characteristic features of Timurid Timurid Iran, possibly Mazandaran,
woodcarving: deep, intricately carved floral designs inherited from the preceding Ilkhanid period and strongly dated 892 H / 1487 CE
reminiscent of Chinese lacquer wares; geometric patterns formed by the tongue-and-groove technique; plaited Carved wood
borders; and panels inscribed with prayers and information about patrons, craftsmen, and dates of production. 189 x 106 cm
Inv.: AKM00707
The inscription (in Persian) reads ‘Amal-i Ustad ibn’ Hajji Najjar ba ... Darv›sh ‘Ala‘uddin, kar dar sana-yi 892 (“The
Publ.: AKTC 2008b, no. 16;
work of Ustad ibn Hajji Najjar with the ... of Darvish Ala‘uddin, work [completed] in the year 892”). This has been AKTC 2009a, p. 188 (no. 144);
written on the cross bars between the main panels in a deeply carved and well-measured cursive script of the AKTC 2009b, p. 188 (no. 144);
thuluth type, which was widely used for architectural inscriptions in the Timurid period. Mazandaran in northern AKTC 2010a, pp. 188–189 (no. 149).
Iran is known for its dense forests and sweetly scented khalanj wood, and several examples of fourteenth- and
fifteenth-century woodcarvings have been found in that region (Bronstein 1938, p. 2622). This pair of doors is
unusually well preserved, to the extent that traces of the original paint that would have decorated the carved
surface can still be seen in places.
186 The Illuminated Text

85 Polychrome doors with Sufi inscription

Safavid Iran, seventeenth or These well-preserved polychrome painted doors are carved with floral and foliate motifs in high relief, enclosed
eighteenth century within a strapwork design of oblong star-shaped frames and bordered by narrow and shallow-carved bands of
Carved and painted wood
vegetal scrolls and rosettes. Their floral ornamentation is typical of the dynamic vegetal designs of the Safavid
161 x 84.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00704 period and may have originated in manuscript illustration and bookbinding: the external cover of AKM00386
Publ.: AKTC 2008a, pp. 148–149 shows a different but related style of fine, tightly packed floral decoration. Two frames located above the star-
(no. 53); AKTC 2009a, p. 210 (no. shaped panels on each door include an inscription in Persian, carved against a background painted in green and
159); AKTC 2009b, p. 210 (no. 159); surrounded by a stylized vine scroll painted in red. The script is a complex and unusual cursive type with certain
AKTC 2010a, pp. 226–227 (no. 171).
letters intercalated into the elongated vertical shafts of others. The text, which speaks on behalf of the person
who would stand on the outer side of the doors, plays on the symbolic and ambiguous role of the doorway as
both pragmatic point of entry to a room and as the emblem of a more spiritual portal, endowing the doors with a
significance characteristic of the Sufi-inspired aspects of Safavid culture. The inscription in Persian reads Dar-i
shadi bi-sahib-i in bab / bighushay muffatih al-abwab, “Doorman, open the door of happiness for the owner of this
door.” While their original context remains unknown, these doors might have once opened into a Sufi hospice or
a palatial retreat.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 187

Yorgan yüzü (quilt cover) 86

The pattern on this yorgan yüzü (quilt cover) recalls typical seventeenth-century Ottoman designs on silk and Ottoman, late seventeenth century
velvet textiles. Whereas earlier patterns include lattice designs enclosing floral motifs, later ones such as this panel Embroidered linen
show wavy parallel stems or vines, some of which form ogival frames around grape clusters or tulips. The designs 209 x 137 cm
may also reflect Florentine tastes resulting from cultural exchanges with Italy. Unlike carpets, which traded almost Inv.: AKM 00706
Publ.: AKTC 2008b, no. 7; AKTC
exclusively from East to West, the commercial flow of textile goods appears to have taken place in both directions
2009a, pp. 144–145 (no. 104); AKTC
between Italy and the Islamic Middle East by the sixteenth century, with large quantities of both low-quality and 2009b, pp. 144–145 (no. 104); AKTC
fine cloth being exported from Italy, particularly Venice, to the Islamic world (Denny 2007, p. 183). The duration 2010a, p. 143 (no. 101).
and scale of the commercial exchange of textiles between the Ottoman world and the port city of Venice has led to
an interpenetration of motifs that makes it at times difficult to place textiles from this period, with Venetian luxury
fabrics executed to Ottoman taste, while Islamic silks were sold as luxuries in Europe.
188 The Illuminated Text

87 Pair of mother-of-pearl inlaid doors

Gujarat, possibly Ahmedabad, The combination of mother-of-pearl and wood, as well as the forms of the cusped arch with reverse-curved
eighteenth century shoulders and the reticulated fretwork, strongly suggest that this door was a product of Gujarat. The area was
Wood and mother-of-pearl
recognized as the centre of mother-of-pearl production from the early sixteenth century, with mother-of-pearl
187 x 49.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00705 products both small and large gaining international fame (see also cat. no. 88). Abu’l-Fazl’s Ain-i Akbari (c. 1595)
Publ.: AKTC 2009a, p. 246 (no. mentions the province of Ahmedabad (i.e. Gujarat) as a centre of production: “Designers, wood-inlayers and
182); AKTC 2009b, p. 246 (no. 182); countless other craftsmen so set mother-of-pearl that it appears a fine line, and make pen-boxes and coffers and
AKTC 2010a, p. 261 (no. 199). the like of these” (Jaffer 2002, p. 24). The doors may have once adorned a wealthy home or public structure,
such as a temple or tomb: mother-of-pearl decoration survives in other sacred architectural contexts, such as the
early-seventeenth century tomb canopy of Shah Alam at Rasulabad, near Ahmedabad. The chain suspended from
the top of the right door suggests the door would have been situated in an interior, attaching to a hook within
the doorframe to keep the door closed; a door with access to the exterior, on the other hand, would have
received a stronger lock for greater security.
190 The Illuminated Text

88 Shell with inscriptions

India or Iran, eighteenth century Using the natural shape of the shell and its lustrous mother-of-pearl lining, the artist has created a decorative
Mother-of-pearl with incised programme of eight concentric circles engraved with verses from the Qur’an. Very few other examples of this
decoration type of object exist, and it is hard to suggest an exact provenance: the delicate floral vinescrolls in the widest
Maximum width: 14.5 cm
circle recall Deccani painting as well as the cobalt blue decoration of early sixteenth-century Ottoman ceramics.
Inv.: AKM00665
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 47 (no. 17); The style of nasta‘liq, however, would suggest an Indian or Iranian hand, while Gujarat was a major centre for the
AKTC 2007b, p. 43 (no. 17); manufacture of mother-of-pearl objects. The structure of the decoration on the inside is intriguingly reminiscent
Makariou 2007, pp. 132–133 (no. of so-called magical vessels, with tiny Qur’anic inscriptions written in bands and medallions: among those which
46); AKTC 2008a, pp. 20 and 64–65 have been deciphered on this piece are Suras 109, 112, 113, 114, 17:81, 68:51–52 and the beginning of Sura 48, all
(no. 12); AKTC 2009a, p. 47 (no.
of which also appear on magical vessels created in more common media such as metalwork or ceramic. If this
16); AKTC 2009b, p. 47 (no. 16);
AKTC 2010a, pp. 48–49 (no. 17). shell were also intended for use as a magical vessel, liquid would be poured into the shell and thereby come into
contact with the protective inscriptions inside, after which the liquid could be drunk or applied to the body for
protection or healing.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 191

Ceramic bowl 89

Prior to the adoption of fully developed underglaze painting in twelfth- and thirteenth-century Iran, wares were Iran, early thirteenth century
decorated in a variety of techniques, including the slip-carving which was employed on the so-called “silhouette Fritware with white body and black
wares” of the twelfth century. Slip-carving involves painting the vessel body with a thick coating of dark slip painting under a transparent glaze
which is then carved out with a knife, removing the slip entirely from the background of the motifs and leaving Diameter: 16.3 cm
Inv.: AKM00564
them slightly raised in silhouette against a light ground: it produces a very clean line and dramatic effects but is
Unpublished
labour-intensive and tends to be rather rigid in appearance. In contrast, underglaze painting executed with a
brush, which was in full flower in Iran by the early years of the thirteenth century, allowed the artist far greater
freedom of movement, and permitted the easy creation of fluid and dynamic lines of varying thickness. Nowhere
is the sense of enjoyment taken by painters in this new painterly medium more obvious than in the so-called
“waterweed” dishes, of which this is an excellent example: the design is almost completely made up of curving
sinuous lines. These wares were produced for export as well as for the domestic market and rather similar
designs appear at the Raqqa potteries of Northern Syria.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 193

Album page of calligraphy by Prince D$r$ Shikoh 90

As part of their education, the young Mughal princes were taught calligraphy and painting by the masters of the
Mughal India, Burhanpur, dated
court atelier. Once proficient, the pupil would write out a number of showpiece calligraphy specimens, 1041 H / 1631–2 CE
demonstrating his newly acquired skill. The classical education of the Mughal princes prepared them for their Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
futures as lords of a highly cultured court world, and the training was probably also intended to improve their on paper
judgement as future patrons of art. The Persian verses on this page were written by the Mughal prince Muhammad Page: 42.3 x 28.8 cm;
text: 21.9 x 6.3 cm
Dara Shikoh (1615–1659), the son of Shah Jahan. The sample is dated 1041 H and was executed at Burhanpur in the
Inv.: AKM00249
Deccan, where Dara Shikoh lived with his mother Mumtaz Mahal during a Mughal campaign. A further page of Publ.: Falk 1985, p. 167 (no. 145);
calligraphy inscribed with the same date and place is thought, like this piece, to come from a dispersed manuscript AKTC 2007a, p. 124 (no. 89);
of calligraphy by Dara Shikoh: that piece is now held in the British Museum (inv. no. 1921-1011-0.4b). After the AKTC 2007b, p. 126 (no. 89);
dispersal of the manuscript the present calligraphic sample was mounted into an eighteenth-century album page AKTC 2009a, p. 250 (no. 185);
AKTC 2009b, p. 250 (no. 185);
decorated with flowering plants in the margins.
AKTC 2010a, pp. 264–265
(no. 204).
194 The Illuminated Text

91 Letter from crown prince ‘Abb$s M›rz$ to Napoleon I

Iran, dated 1808 Diplomatic relations between the Qajars and the West began to open up again during the reign of Fath ‘Ali Shah
Ink, opaque watercolour and gold (r. 1798–1834). The period between 1805, when Napoleon inaugurated exchange with the Qajars, and 1808 – the
on paper
date of this letter – saw intense diplomatic activity conducted between the Qajars and the French and British, as
120 x 58 cm
Inv.: AKM00251 loyalties shifted in the context of the Perso-Russian wars. Crown prince ‘Abbas Mirza (1789–1833), son and heir
Publ.: Falk 1985, pp. 193–194 (no. apparent of Fath ‘Ali Shah, was governor of Azerbaijan and based at Tabriz, where he organised military
182); Diba 1998, no. 3; AKTC 2007a, campaigns for the control of Georgia and Tabriz, supported by the latest French military technology and training.
p. 113 (no. 80); AKTC 2007b, p. 114 This letter, which arrived in Paris on 17 February 1809 according to an inscription on the reverse, was written by
(no. 80); AKTC 2009a, p. 222 (no.
the nineteen-year-old prince to Emperor Napoleon I. The prince remarks upon the emperor’s two-year silence,
167); AKTC 2009b, p. 222 (no. 167);
AKTC 2010a, p. 238 (no. 184). describes how the Russians have broken the terms of their treaty, and asks Napoleon what he plans to do about
this, as the prince’s own troops are ready for battle (Falk 1985). The huge, finely illuminated heading of the letter
makes the importance and royal status of this communication immediately apparent even to a non-Persian
speaker, which was presumably the intention.
196 The Illuminated Text

92 Firman of W$jid ‘Al› Sh$h of Awdh

Lucknow, India, dated 24 Ramadan The firman is a royal decree or mandate written on a long scroll-shaped sheet of paper with illuminated headings
1265 H/ 14 August 1849 and royal insignia. This firman is written in a measured nasta‘liq script and deals with the awarding of various
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
pieces of land to an individual named Khanazad Khan Bahadur Dilavar Jang, and bears various chancellery notes
on paper
86.6 x 66 cm and official stamps on the verso. Wajid ‘Ali Shah, whose official seal is impressed in red at the top between two
Inv.: AKM00822 boxes containing, on the right, verses from the Qur’an, and his tughra (a highly stylised way of writing the ruler’s
Unpublished name) on the left, was the last ruler of Awdh from 1847 until it was annexed by the British in 1856. The official
seal of Wajid ‘Ali Shah is surmounted by his personal emblem and decorated with scrolling leaves and flowers
and reads (in the middle circle): “Abu’l-Mansur Nasir al-Din, the one who has the grandeur of Alexander, the Just
King, the Caesar of the time, the Sultan of the World, Muhammad Wajid ‘Ali Shah, the King of Awdh. May God
make his kingdom eternal. 1263 [1846–7]”. The official stamps, seals and signatures that characterized
administrative documents of the early modern Islamic world typically employ a wealth of eulogizing titles of this
type. Pious verses run around the outer edge. The verso of the document has chancellery notes and is dated
there “on the 24th of the blessed month of Ramadan, the year 1265, corresponding to [regnal year] 3”, which
corresponds to 14th August 1849.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 197

Standard (‘alam) 93

Both form and inscriptive content of this steel standard are heavily symbolic and create a complex layering of Iran, late sixteenth century
allusions to ‘Ali, the son-in-law of the Prophet and first Imam of Shi‘i Islam. The pear-shaped form of the standard Pierced steel plate with moulded
ends in two divergent outgrowths alluding to the two tips of the Dhu’l-fiqar, the famous twin-pronged sword of iron adjuncts
‘Ali. The large openworked area presents a mirror inscription that can be read from different angles. The following Height: 81.5 cm; width 32.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00679
text can be read from top to bottom: “Ya Allah, ya Muhammad, ya ‘Ali” (“Oh God, Oh Muhammad, Oh Ali”).
Publ.: Thompson–Canby 2003, p.
The two invocations of ‘Ali meet on the axis to form a stylised face, perhaps of a lion, which is symbolic of the first 222; AKTC 2007a, pp. 178–179 (no.
Imam (see cat. no. 69). Here, the lam and the ya of ‘Ali outline the contours, the ‘ayns (the name of the letter, 154b); AKTC 2007b, pp. 180–181
which also means “eye” in Arabic) form the eyes and the two vocative particles ya are joined to form a muzzle. (no. 154b); Makariou 2007, pp.
The dragon’s head motif seen projecting at four points from the standard, which in this context is presumably 148–149 (no. 52); AKTC 2008a, pp.
282–283 (no. 112); AKTC 2009a, p.
apotropaic, was often used on metal objects in the Islamic world. During the Safavid period in Iran and in Mughal
192 (no. 145); AKTC 2009b, p. 192
India, it would decorate the stern and prow of boat-shaped bowls or kashkuls (see cat. no. 43). The practice of (no. 145); AKTC 2010a, pp. 192–193
taking out these standards during processions associated with Shi‘i religious calendar celebrations – a practice (no. 150).
which is still observed today – was confirmed by European travellers from the seventeenth century and later, but it
does not seem to have been represented in sixteenth-century manuscripts, where such standards are normally
depicted in battle scenes or else within sanctuaries (Makariou 2007, p. 159, n. 15).
5 Science and Learning
200

Djamil Aïssani

Scientific Manuscripts of the Islamic World

In the world today there are several million Islamic manuscripts, not all of which have yet been
analysed or made the subject of a bibliographic inventory. Among the available manuscripts, close
to five percent of them are considered “scientific manuscripts”, related to intellectual activities
conducted in the domain of the rational sciences. One must consider the ensuing developments
in terms of comparisons with the classical disciplines of the Greek tradition (mathematics,
physics, philosophy). This is the case for mathematics, algebra, trigonometry, combinatorial
analysis and the physical sciences, as it is for the life sciences of medicine and its different
branches – anatomy, pharmacology – as well as botany, chemistry, alchemy and zoology. In this
context Arabic, the sacred language of Islam, played an essential role as a tool and vehicle for
what was not merely the transmission of Greek thought, for it included many innovations.
The foundation and expansion of the Islamic world from the seventh through the fifteenth
centuries encompassed a geographical area ranging from India to Spain and including all of
North Africa and Sicily. It is clear that from the middle of the eighth century all of the favourable
conditions necessary for the development of scientific activity were coming together within this
milieu. In particular, the privileged geographical position of the Islamic empire, enabling direct
contact with the heirs of the ancient scientific traditions, was vital for the transmission of
knowledge in which Islamic cultures played a decisive role. One thinks of course of the Greek,
Persian, and Syriac scientific traditions but equally one should not forget Indian, Chinese and
other traditions, which are also extremely significant.
Some Muslim cities emerged as true scientific centres. This was the case first in the
caliphal capital of Damascus under the last Umayyads, and was especially true of Baghdad under
the early ‘Abbasids. The “House of Wisdom” (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad was one of the
principal cultural and scientific centres of the ninth century. Although there is very little surviving
textual evidence regarding this palace library, it has often been characterised as a type of
academy or university in which various scholarly activities, including the translation of pre-
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 201

Islamic texts into Arabic, took place. The Bayt al-Hikma seems to have developed particularly
under the ‘Abassid caliph al-Ma’mün (r. 812–833). In this library many Greek, Persian and Indian
works were collected, preserved and presumably translated. The high regard shown for these
texts from various pre-Islamic traditions may have helped to create a culture that was integrated
amongst the diverse populations under Arab rule, acting to legitimise the ‘Abbasid caliphate as
the successor to the Sasanians. That hugely influential pre-Islamic Persian dynasty had famously
built their own palace libraries known as ganj (“treasury”), a word equivalent to the Arabic
khiz$na, by which last term the Bayt al-Hikma was sometimes also known.
Important men of science and culture succeeded one another in the Bayt al-Hikma.
Arguably one of the most exceptional, “the father of algebra”, Al-Khw$razm› (c. 783–850), was a
mathematician, geographer, astronomer and astrologer. From this scholar we have derived the
modern English terms “algorithm” (the Latinization of his name being algoritmi) and “algebra”
(from the title of one of his works, Kit$b al-jabr wa-l-muq$bala). He is also credited with
spreading so-called “Arabic” numerals (originally derived from Indian traditions) throughout
Europe and the Middle East.

The Translations of De Materia Medica of Dioscorides

The development of scientific activities relied upon multiple translations. One of the oldest
scientific manuscripts translated from Greek into Arabic was the treatise De Materia Medica (cat.
nos 96 and 97) by the Greek physician Dioscorides. Born around 40 CE in Anazarbus in Cilicia
(now in Turkey), Dioscorides died some fifty years later. His work exerted a great influence
throughout the Middle Ages up to the sixteenth century. The book was first translated into Syriac
and the earliest Arabic translation was made in the mid-ninth century in Baghdad, under the
reign of the ‘Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861), by Istaf$n Ibn Bas›l and by Hunayn Ibn
Ish$q (c. 809–873). The latter was a physician and Arab scientist, and a Nestorian Christian,
known as the “master of translators”, who was active in the Bayt al-Hikma in the mid-ninth
century. In addition to his translations, he wrote several treatises on medicine and the diverse
subjects that relate to it, such as the Kit$b al-mas$’il fi’l-tibb (Book of Questions on Medicine),
an important reference book in the medical world of the Middle Ages.
In 948, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII offered as a gift a Greek copy of the text of
Dioscorides to the Umayyad caliph of Cordoba, ‘Abd al-Rahm$n III, leading to a revision of the
text. A famous copy made in the first quarter of the thirteenth century was widely recopied and
distributed and is now dispersed throughout many public and private collections. These pages
illustrate one of the most frequent modes of transmission of medical knowledge in the Muslim
world before the modern era. In the absence of teaching establishments, knowledge passed
most often from master to disciple, supported by reading and interpretation of the works of the
great authors.

The Diffusion of Scientific Knowledge

The testimony of the first Muslim historian of science, S$id al-Andalus› (al-Tulaytul›), active in
the eleventh century, demonstrates the importance of the Greek legacy:
202 Scientific Manuscripts of the Islamic World

When the caliphate passed to al-Ma’mun, and when driven by his own genius, this prince
wanted to learn philosophy, when the savants of his era became aware of the Almagest [a
fundamental work of Ptolemy], when they understood the mechanism of the instruments
of observation described in this book, al-Ma’mun was moved to assemble before him
from all points of his empire, the remarkable men of his time.1

Very rapidly, this knowledge was disseminated throughout the Muslim world. Thus, it was
at Qayrawan from the end of the eighth century that the beginning of scientific activities took
place in the Maghrib. For a long time, Kairouan attracted to Ifr›qiya (modern Tunisia) a great
number of scholars who brought with them the first copies of Euclid’s Elements, the Almagest of
Ptolemy and the first Muslim works of mathematics.
The earliest scientific works of the Islamic world containing original features emerged
from the beginning of the ninth century, even before the end of the period of translation. These
contributions were decisive in several domains, including mathematics, medicine, botany and
pharmacology, and in particular astronomy.

Astronomy
Astronomy is without doubt the oldest of the sciences and also one of those which has most
powerfully contributed to the evolution of human thought. Born from the needs of daily life (the
measurement of time, agriculture, navigation, and so forth), and the fears of primitive man when
confronted with the great natural phenomena, it remained closely associated with astrological
superstitions until the beginning of modern times.
In the Muslim world, astronomy primarily served a religious function: to fix dates (for
example the beginning of Ramadan, or the start of ‘›d) by the visibility of the crescent moon; to
determine times for prayer; to ascertain the direction of Mecca (and therefore the orientation of
places of worship) regardless of the location; and similar needs. To this end, many portable
observation instruments such as astrolabes and dials were fabricated, and treaties explaining
how to use these were drafted.
The astrolabe consisted of a bronze disc that could be held from the thumb by means of a
ring. This type of analogue calculator, already known in Greek antiquity, was perfected in the
Islamic world. It permitted not only the determination of time, but also solved problems of
spherical astronomy and geodesy (the science of the measurement and representation of the
earth). The astrolabe represented the sky on a flat surface, with the points of the rete – the top
disc of the astrolabe – indicating the position of the stars. But more than just an instrument of
observation and calculation, it was also intended to as a tool for training future astronomers.
The penetration of the astrolabe into Europe followed the conquest of Spain by the Muslims
around the year 711. As early as the tenth century al-H$kim II, Caliph of Cordoba, had established a
school of astronomy that became an important centre for the fabrication of instruments (see the
astrolabe in cat. no. 103). The production of astrolabes declined from the seventeenth century, but
experienced a revival in the Persian world under the Safavid and then the Qajar dynasties; this
reflects an revived interest in astrology and astronomical research (cat. no. 104).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 203

It seems that the Muslim astronomical corpus is one of the best-preserved components of
medieval scientific literature. Despite their bibliographical shortcomings, the texts studied to
date provide a fascinating picture of this scientific activity.
In this way, the treatise Suwar Kit$b al-Kaw$kib al-Th$bita (Description of the Fixed Stars)
provides an example. The text was written by ‘Abd al-Rahm$n ibn ‘Umar al-Süf› (903–986),
known in the West by the name of Azophus: this renowned astronomer officiated at the court of
Isfahan under the Buyid Sultan ‘Adud al-Dawla. The latter commanded the treatise on fixed stars,
which was a catalogue of one thousand and seventeen fixed stars mentioned by the famous
Greek astronomer Ptolemy in his Almagest in the second century, the text of which al-Süf›
significantly improved. Al-Süf› was the first to attempt to consolidate the traditional Arab and
Greek names of the stars and constellations that did not overlap. For each star observed, he
designed both the constellation as imagined from the exterior of the celestial globe, then the
same view from the interior of the celestial globe, as it would be observed from the surface of
the earth. In his book, al-Süf› described forty-eight constellations according to both the Greek
system and Arab tradition, specifying the exact coordinates of each star, their dimensions and
their positions in their respective constellations. There exist numerous copies of this text dating
from periods up to the eighteenth century (cat. no. 106). In addition, al-Süf› found many
innovative uses for the astrolabe.

Medicine and Anatomy

Baghdad in the ninth century attracted scholars from throughout the Muslim world, notably the
famous al-R$z› (c. 854–925; known in the West as Rhazes), regarded by chroniclers as “the Galen
of the Muslims”. Versed in chemistry, philosophy and the medical sciences, his work was
impressive: al-B›rün› in the eleventh century attributed 184 titles to him. An alchemist turned
doctor, he vigorously defended the scientific approach in diagnosis and therapy, and greatly
influenced the conception of hospital organization in connection with the training of future
physicians. Nevertheless, the teaching of medicine in European universities relied more on the
work of Ibn S›n$, preferred without doubt for his theoretical character.
Written between 1012 and 1024, successively in Gurg$n, Rayy and Hamad$n, the Q$nün
fi’l-Tibb (Canon of Medicine) was the most important medical work of Ibn S›n$ (known as
Avicenna in the West; 980–1037). In his preface, he stated that he wanted to write a book that
contained both general and specific rules of medical knowledge. Thus he wrote: “I say that
medicine is a science that permits the knowledge of the states of the human body in relation to
that which promotes health and that which drives its loss, with the purpose of preserving it in
full and restoring it when it is lost”.2
The Canon contains five books, treating successively the generalities of medicine, simple
medications, diseases affecting a specific part of the body, diseases affecting the entire body and
surgery, and lastly compound medicines, i.e. drugs and pharmacology (cat. no. 94). Regarding
anatomy and dissection, it has rarely been the subject of religious or legal condemnation in the
Muslim world. Anatomical knowledge was inspired by the work of the famous Greek physician of
the second century, Galen, translated into Arabic under the reign of the ‘Abbasid caliph al-
204 Scientific Manuscripts of the Islamic World

Ma’mün (813–833) and his successors. Ibn S›n$ emphasized the importance of direct
observation of human bodies because “it is necessary that they be approached through
observation (hiss) and dissection (tashr›h), while those things that must be conjectured and
demonstrated by reason are diseases and their particular causes and their symptoms and how
disease can be abated and health maintained”.3
His text became a great success, and ultimately eclipsed the earlier works of al-R$z›, ‘Al›
ibn al-‘Abb$s al-Majüs› (known in the West as Haly-Abbas), and Abu al-Q$sim al-Zahr$w›
(Latinized as Albucasis). Many times copied, commented on and translated, Ibn S›n$’s Canon
was for centuries the most important medical textbook in both the East and the West. In time it
was supplemented with certain works of al-R$z› and later the Kulliy$t, which represented the
medical art of Ibn Rushd (also known as Averroes; b. Cordoba, 1126 – d. Marrakesh, 1198),
philosopher, theologian, jurist, mathematician and Muslim Andalusian physician of the twelfth
century. Much of Ibn Rushd’s medical writing remained largely unknown in his lifetime because
his philosophical works were judged at one point to be heretical, but it was of considerable
significance for the later development of medicine.
The Tashr›h (Anatomy) of Mansür ibn Ily$s was the first text of the Muslim world that
showed the anatomy of the entire human body (cat. no. 98). A physician and scholar of the late
fourteenth century, Mansür ibn Ily$s was a native of Shiraz and came from a family of scholars
and physicians who practiced for several generations. His two principal works were an
encyclopaedia of general medicine and a study of anatomy. Dedicated to the Timurid prince of
Fars, P›r Muhammad Bah$dur Kh$n, his treatise on anatomy was one of the most widely
disseminated medical volumes written in Persian. It was most famous for the six illustrations
that appeared in the manuscripts. Five chapters – each illustrated by an anatomical chart –
respectively addressed the bones, nerves, veins, arteries and muscles. The last chapter (kh$tima)
was devoted to the complex organs like the heart and the brain, and to the development of the
foetus, usually illustrated by a diagram of a pregnant woman.

Cosmology and Zoology

The ‘Aj$’ib al-makhlüq$t wa ghar$’ib al-maujüd$t (Wonders of Creation and Oddities of
Existence) was the first systematic presentation of cosmography in Islamic literature. For its
composition, al-Qazw›n› largely relied upon the work of his predecessors. The polymath
Zakariy$’ ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud al-Qazw›n› (1203–1283) was born in Iran and worked in
several cities, particularly Damascus. He was Qadi in Iraq at the time of the capture of Baghdad
by the Mongols in 1258.
His cosmography is a type of encyclopaedia divided into two parts dedicated respectively
to the superterrestrial world – celestial phenomena, the inhabitants of the heavens, chronology
and so forth – and the terrestrial world: the four elements, meteors, winds, the seven climates,
the known rivers and seas, the mineral and plant kingdoms, and living creatures from man to
the animals, passing by the jinn. The popularity of the cosmography genre is evidenced by the
large number of copies of the Wonders of Creation that survive in Arabic and in the Persian and
Turkish translations. These are usually illustrated (cat. nos 99 and 105).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 205

In the same literary genre one finds the treatise Man$fi‘ al-hayaw$n (cat. no. 95)
composed by the doctor Abü Sa‘›d ‘Ubayd All$h Ibn Bakht›shü‘. He lived in Mayy$f$riq›n
(currently Silvan in Turkey) and died in 1058. A Persian translation was created in 1295/1300 by
‘Abd al-H$d› of Maragha, following a commission from the Ilkhanid ruler Mahmüd Gh$z$n
(r. 1295–1304). The work, usually widely illustrated, successively examines men, domestic
animals, wild animals, birds and fish, ending with insects. Along with physical and behavioural
descriptions the text describes the medicinal properties of the organs and secretions of the
animals in question.

Botany, Pharmacology and Alchemy

In medieval times, botany was closely bound to medicine and generally limited to a practical role
within the creation of medicines. If the “recipes” from the medieval epoch were essentially
borrowed from Greek works, or inherited from Indian medicine, they were enriched by the oral
traditions of many populations of the Islamic world and by the experiences of Arabic-speaking
doctors or pharmacists. The Khaw$ss al-Ashj$r (cat. nos 96 and 97), as we have already
mentioned above, is a translation of the De Materia Medica of Dioscorides. It is a treatise on the
fabrication of medicines from some five hundred plants that serve as the basis for pharmacology
in Islamic countries.
Alchemy was also an important scientific discipline in the Muslim world. This science was
linked to both the physical domain of matter and to the spiritual world as well. Indeed, there
existed a physical chemistry of scientists or practitioners concerned with the properties of
substances (including metals and their transmutation) and from another side, a spiritual
alchemy that examined the transformation of the soul (cat. no. 107). From the early centuries of
Islamic civilization, alchemy had its supporters and its detractors. However, it had the merit of
leading to the discovery of new chemicals through multiple experimental investigations in the
“laboratories” of the alchemists.

1 S$id al-Tulaytul›, Tabaq$t al-umam, French trans. R. Blachère: 3 Ibn S›n$, Q$nün fi’l-Tibb, cited in Emilie Savage-Smith, ‘Attitudes
Catégories des nations (Paris 1935); English trans. from French by Toward Dissection in Medieval Islam’, Journal of the History of
Shannon de Viviés. Medicine and Allied Sciences 50/1 (1995), 67–110, this quote pp.
2 Ibn S›n$, Q$nün fi’l-Tibb, cited in D. Jacquart and F. Micheau, A 92–93.
l’ombre d’Avicenne: Le médecine au temps des califes (Paris, 1996);
English trans. from French by Shannon de Viviés.
206

Ulrich Marzolph

The Hundred and One Nights:

A Recently Acquired Old Manuscript
The Book of the Stories of the Hundred and One Nights, in Arabic (Had›th) Mi’at layla wa-layla, is
a sibling to the Book of the Stories of the Thousand and One Nights, commonly referred to as Alf
layla wa-layla. The Thousand and One Nights, better known in English as the Arabian Nights, were
“discovered” and subsequently translated by the French scholar Antoine Galland at the
beginning of the eighteenth century.1 Since then, they have become part of world literature. In
fact, the monumental impact of the Thousand and One Nights on world culture can hardly be
overestimated. First, the work has decisively shaped French literature of the eighteenth century
and onwards, in particular the French genre of conte de fées and novels “in the Oriental mode”;
second, it has contributed to the Western perception of “the Orient” and related concepts, in
particular the notion of “Orientalism” as a preconceived and biased notion of the Muslim world;
and third, while originating from the “simple” effort of translation, Galland’s Mille et une Nuits
has introduced to world literature a collection of tales that in terms of its international
repercussion in imagination and creativity is second only to the Bible (which, notably, is also a
work of Near Eastern origin). Besides inspiring innumerable translations into dozens of world
languages as well as literary adaptations and imitations, the Thousand and One Nights have left
their imprint in painting, theatre, opera, ballet, film, and many other areas. Even while Galland’s
translation was still being published in France at the beginning of the eighteenth century, the
work’s fame had already spread to other European cultures, in particular England and Germany.
Since the nineteenth century, the Thousand and One Nights have become a truly international
phenomenon, branching out over all continents and linking to cultures as different as Japan and
East Africa.2
In contrast to its famous sibling, the text of the Hundred and One Nights remains little
known even today. In fact, besides Belgian bibliographer Victor Chauvin and a few other
scholars, predominantly nineteenth- and early twentieth-century French specialists of Arabic
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 207

literature and folklore,3 not many have ever taken notice of the Hundred and One Nights. And yet,
the book offers entertaining reading to the general public in its own right. At the same time,
from a scholarly perspective – that has been propagated above all by Aboubakr Chraïbi4 – it
suggests valuable insights into the history of the collection of stories of which both works, the
Hundred and One Nights and the Thousand and One Nights, are but two different versions.
Both works overlap in that they introduce a specific narrative frame that is germane to
these two collections only. The main trait of the narrative frame is defined by presenting a king
who, after the traumatic experience of witnessing his wife’s debauchery, decides to marry a virgin
every day, only to kill her right after the wedding night. The king is only cured from his cruel
habit by the vizier’s daughter Shahraz$d. The young woman manages to win the king’s attention
by telling stories whose sequel she promises for the following night – should the king permit her
to live on. In the end, after having told her stories for a certain length of time, Shahraz$d
manages to win the king’s affection, and the action dissolves in a happy ending. This frame
applies more or less to both collections, yet the individual versions of the frame also differ in a
number of points. These points concern details of the framing narrative as well as the number
and the nature of the embedded tales.
First and foremost, the Thousand and One Nights covers a much longer period, i.e. almost
three years, while the Hundred and One Nights lasts for a period of little more than three months.
In terms of practical consequences, Shahraz$d at the end of some versions of the Thousand and
One Nights has given birth to three children,5 while in the Hundred and One Nights her pregnancy
is just becoming obvious; in both versions the development serves to win her the king’s pardon,
since she is about to give birth to his own offspring. Another practical result of the varying length
of the two collections is the differing number of tales embedded within the narrative frame. The
Thousand and One Nights contains hundreds of narratives of various genres, such as tales of
magic and sorcery, long epics, and a large number of short fables, religious legends and
anecdotes alluding to the lives of historical or pseudo-historical characters.6 The Hundred and
One Nights, to the contrary, in most versions contains just less than a mere twenty tales.
Second, the nature of the tales contained in both collections differs. The original kernel of
the Thousand and One Nights consists of a fairly small number of narratives that appear to be
consciously designed so as to mirror the precarious condition of the storyteller herself.7 After all,
Shahraz$d tells stories in order to save her life (and, by extension, the lives of all females the
king would otherwise marry and eventually kill). The first narratives embedded in the frame of
the Thousand and One Nights – such as the stories of The Merchant and the Jinni, The Fisherman
and the ‘Ifr›t, The Porter and the Three Ladies, and several more – mirror the storyteller’s dilemma
in that the lives of their characters are also threatened and the stories are told to enable the
characters’ survival. The specific relation between the embedding frame narrative and the early
embedded tales suggests the conscious design of an author. It is abandoned in the later stories
of the Thousand and One Nights, notably those that were later added in the numerous
manuscripts of the Thousand and One Nights compiled in an attempt to produce a “complete”
version of the work in order to satisfy the growing demand for such a version after the
publication of Galland’s translation. A similar relation between the frame tale and the embedded
208 The Hundred and One Nights: A Recently Acquired Old Manuscript

narratives does not occur in the Hundred and One Nights, where Shahraz$d simply tells attractive
and instructive stories in order to entertain the king and arouse his curiosity so that she may live
on to the following night. In this manner, the frame of the Hundred and One Nights appears as
less intricately designed and more straightforward than that of the Thousand and One Nights.
This apparent simplicity may or may not bespeak an earlier stage of development in contrast to a
later stage as witnessed in the Thousand and One Nights. Several of the stories contained in the
Hundred and One Nights share a self-reflective, almost mystical tendency, in that they allude to
the inevitable end of human life by illustrating the admonition to consider one’s deeds in this
world in preparation for the consequences in the hereafter. This characteristic, best illustrated by
the literary trope known as ubi sunt qui ante nos in mundo fuere? (“Where are those who were
before us in this world?”), is particularly evident in the lengthy tale of The City of Brass, an
originally independent narrative that is included in several manuscripts of the Hundred and One
Nights and forms a standard constituent of the Thousand and One Nights.8
A third point of difference relates to the regional origin of the collections as well as to the
period in which they were compiled. The earliest known information about the existence of the
Thousand and One Nights is included in two Arabic works dating to the tenth century CE. Both
the historian al-Mas‘üd› (d. 956) and the Baghdad bookseller Ibn al-Nad›m (d. 995) testify to the
existence of a book of Persian origin whose frame tale more or less corresponds to that of the
work’s extant manuscripts.9 Virtually all of the manuscripts of the Thousand and One Nights
preserved today have been produced in the eastern heartlands of the Islamic world, i.e. in Syria
or Egypt. The oldest known manuscript of the Thousand and One Nights is a Syrian manuscript
dating from the second half of the fifteenth century. While less than a dozen manuscripts of the
Thousand and One Nights are known to date from the period before Galland’s translation,10
numerous manuscripts were produced in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, above
all in Egypt. Moreover, many of the tales presented in the Thousand and One Nights allude to
historical circumstances of the Eastern parts of the Islamic world, notably the ‘Abbasid period
with the eighth-century caliph H$rün al-Rash›d residing in the city of Baghdad, and the Mamluk
period (1250–1517) in Cairo. In contrast, the existing manuscripts of the Hundred and One Nights
without any exception were produced in the Maghrib or the western periphery of the Islamic
world, i.e. Muslim Spain and the western regions of North Africa.11 This fact is evident from the
particular style of calligraphy these manuscripts are written in, a style known as maghrib›. The
calligraphy alone serves as a justification to regard the Hundred and One Nights as the shorter
“western” sibling of the Thousand and One Nights. Moreover, several tales of the Hundred and
One Nights mention members of the Umayyad family such as Sulaym$n ibn ‘Abd al-Malik
(r. 715–717), Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marw$n, or ‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marw$n (r. 685–705),
a feature that in view of the reign of the Spanish Umayyads (756–1031) might serve as a further
indication of the work’s origin in the Muslim West.12
As for the period in which the shorter collection was supposedly compiled, research has
so far been at a loss to come up with any reasonably argued theses. While the Thousand and One
Nights have been mentioned in Arabic sources at various intervals even before the date of the
earliest extant manuscript, so far only a single mention of the Hundred and One Nights in an
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 209

Arabic source has been identified. This mention is found in the catalogue of books compiled by
seventeenth-century Turkish scholar H$jj› Khal›fa (d. 1657).13 H$jj› Khal›fa attributes the
compilation of the Hundred and One Nights to a certain “philosopher” (faylasüf) Fahr$s (or
Fahd$s) who incidentally is mentioned in the Tarshüna edition14 as the narrator of the Hundred
and One Nights, in a manner reminiscent of the ancient philosopher Bidpay who is said to have
narrated the tales of the famous collection of fables, Kal›la wa Dimna, to king Dabshal›m.15 H$jj›
Khal›fa either saw a different book from the one known today or only referred to the book
without actually having read it, since he says that the Hundred and One Nights contain a hundred
stories. However short and possibly even erroneous his mention of the book might be, it firmly
establishes the existence of the Hundred and One Nights more than a century before the oldest
dated manuscripts identified so far.
In comparison to the Thousand and One Nights, the number of manuscripts of the
Hundred and One Nights is considerably smaller than that of its eastern sibling. Until recently, a
mere eight manuscripts of the Hundred and One Nights were known to researchers.16 Two
manuscripts mentioned in earlier studies on the Hundred and One Nights as belonging to French
Orientalist scholars René Basset and M. Sainte Croix de Pajot are not available any more.17 Three
manuscripts are preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris (nos. 3660, 3661, 3662), two in
the Tunisian National Library (nos. 04576, 18260), and one in an Algerian private collection.
While the majority of these manuscripts do not bear a clear indication of period of origin, three
of them are dated. These are in chronological order: (1) the Paris manuscript 3662 dated
1190 H/1776 CE; this manuscript has been edited by Mahmüd Tarshüna in 1979; (2) the Algerian
manuscript compiled by a certain al-H$jj al-B$h› al-Bün› dated 1257 H/1841 CE; this manuscript
has been edited by Shuraybit Ahmad Shuraybit in 2005; (3) the Tunis manuscript 04576 dated
1268 H/1852 CE. The manuscript Paris 3660 served as the basis of the French translation
published by M. Gaudefroy Demombynes in 1911, while the translator’s learned notes refer to the
other two manuscripts preserved in Paris as well as to the one owned by Basset. Previous
research agrees that the original compilation of the Hundred and One Nights was probably
achieved much earlier than any one of the preserved manuscripts, and the Russian scholar
Ignatij Krachkovskij has even proposed to date the collection’s origin as early as the second half
of the fourteenth century.18
A final point linking the Hundred and One Nights to its eastern sibling, the Thousand and
One Nights, has so far only been mentioned in passing and needs to be discussed in some
more detail. This point will also shed light on the genesis of the frame tale of both works as
well as its reception in European literatures.19 In short, the frame tale ultimately derives from
ancient Indian literature. In the frame tale of both works the king of a certain country invites
another person living in a distant country to his court. The initial invitation produces the
dynamics that then accelerate dramatically. As the invited person sets out for travel, he returns
back home shortly after his departure since he has forgotten an item of some importance.
Coming home unexpectedly, he witnesses his wife’s infidelity, a fact that makes him
disillusioned and depressed. Notably, his psychological state of mind also shows in his physical
appearance. After several days in his host’s presence, he witnesses the even greater debauchery
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 211

of the king’s wife (who often acts in a sexual orgy involving a considerable group of people).
Only then do his good spirits return. Once the king notices this development, he requests to be
informed, and once informed, he eventually decides to adopt his murderous ways of marrying a
virgin every day and having her executed after the wedding night, so that no woman would ever
again be able to betray him. In the Thousand and One Nights, the other person is the king’s
brother whom the king invites to come to his court since they have not seen each other for
quite some time. In the Hundred and One Nights, however, the king follows a specific incentive
to invite the other person to his court. Here, the king considers himself to be the most
beautiful person on earth. Every year, he displays his beauty during a large festivity and, much
like the evil stepmother in the European fairy tale of Snow-white, admires his beauty in a mirror
challenging his followers to say whether there is any other person as beautiful as himself. This
goes on until one day somebody informs the king of the existence of another person in a
distant land who is supposed to be even more beautiful than the king. The king orders this
person to be brought to his presence, but when the person arrives, his beauty has vanished due
to the fact that when leaving he had witnessed his wife’s infidelity. Moreover, the husband’s
trauma in the Hundred and One Nights is further motivated by the fact that when requested to
visit the king, the husband had at first asked leave for a whole year so as not to leave his newly-
wed wife whom he loved dearly.
The element of the beauty contest and the related events as told in the frame tale of the
Hundred and One Nights are already encountered in the tale’s oldest version, dated to the year
251 CE, that is contained in the Tripitaka, a Chinese translation of Indian Buddhist tales.20 The
frame tale of the Hundred and One Nights thus mirrors a version older than the one in the
frame tale of the Thousand and One Nights. In the Thousand and One Nights, instead of the
strong motivation of the beauty contest we find the considerably weaker motivation of a family
reunion. Moreover, the frame tale of the Thousand and One Nights has apparently been
reworked and enlarged by integrating various other, originally independent tales, such as the
tale of the woman who has been abducted by a demon but that, even though the demon keeps
her in a basket, manages to seduce numerous men. The beauty contest also features in the
introduction to the tale of Astolfo in Italian Renaissance author Ludovico Ariosto’s Orlando
furioso, compiled in 1516–1532.21 While Ariosto’s tale has so far usually been taken as
constituting an early European analogue to the frame tale of the Thousand and One Nights, it
should in fact rather be considered as a close analogue to the frame tale of the Hundred and
One Nights. Consequently, Ariosto’s tale serves as an argument that the specific form of the
frame tale involving the beauty contest was already known in the (western?) Mediterranean in
the latter half of the fifteenth century. Arabic literature would suggest itself as the logical
intermediary between the ancient Buddhist tale and its more recent analogues in the West.
Even though previous research has not succeeded in documenting older written versions of the
element of the beauty contest, evidence from oral tradition has been added to substantiate the
claim for transmission. It is highly interesting to see the element of the beauty contest in (Facing page)
Colophon of the
nineteenth-century Hungarian folk-tales22 as well as in recent folk-tales from Belorussia23 and
Kit$b al-jughr$fiyya
Syria.24 Considering the very specific and highly detailed corresponding sequences of events in (cat. no. 53).
212 The Hundred and One Nights: A Recently Acquired Old Manuscript

these tales, it appears likely that the different attestations of the element of the beauty contest
are in some way related to each other.
Considering the above facts, the discovery of the manuscript now held by the Aga Khan
Museum (cat. no. 53, AKM 00513) does not fall short of being truly sensational.25 This recently
discovered manuscript of the Hundred and One Nights, acquired at a Sotheby’s auction in 2005,
is bound together with a copy of the Book of Geography (Kit$b al-Jughr$fiyya) compiled by
Muhammad ibn Ab› Bakr al-Zuhr›, an author who is known to have lived in the Spanish city of
Granada, then under Muslim domination, at the beginning of the twelfth century. The
calligrapher’s colophon dates the completion of his copy of the Book of Geography to the month
Rab›‘ II of the year 632, a month that commenced on December 24, 1234. The manuscript is
thus more than a century older than the book’s oldest copy known so far, a Paris manuscript
dated 1410. While the Book of Geography finishes on the verso side of the folio, the copy of the
Hundred and One Nights only begins after an inserted sheet on the verso side of the following
folio. Both books are written in a fairly similar clear maghrib› hand and might or might not have
been prepared by the very same calligrapher. Moreover, the paper of both books appears to be
the same.
There are, however, various indications that serve as a caveat not to rush to the tempting
conclusion that the dating of the first book would also be valid for the second one.
Unfortunately, the newly acquired manuscript of the Hundred and One Nights is fragmentary,
breaking off on the verso side of a folio numbered as 39; consequently, it does not have a
colophon that could unambiguously document its dating. Since the work begins on fol. 1v, the
text of this manuscript of the Hundred and One Nights comprises a total of 77 pages. Notably,
only the folios of the Hundred and One Nights bear numbers that have been added in a European
hand. Highly important is the fact that the pages holding the text of the Hundred and One Nights
– contrary to that of the Book of Geography whose pages remain in a fragile condition – have
been restored in the margins. Considering the modern techniques applied, the restoration has
been reliably dated to later than the year 1970.26 For restoration, the pages of the book obviously
had to be separated from the binding, which in the manuscript’s present state is a well
preserved and probably fairly recent red leather cover. The restored pages of the Hundred and
One Nights were bound together with the unrestored pages of the Book of Geography only after
restoration was completed. Whatever might have prompted the manuscript’s previous owner to
conduct such a procedure is not clear, yet it creates some doubt as to whether the authentic
dating of the first book can also be applied to the second book.
In terms of content, the Aga Khan manuscript (henceforth AKM) corresponds closely to
the ones edited by Tarshüna (henceforth T) and Shuraybit (henceforth SH), thus containing the
following tales:
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 213

No Title AKM Night T Night SH Night

1 The Merchant’s Son 3v/-1 1 92 1 195 2
2 Najm al-Diy$’ 7v/-3 7 107 6 205 7
3 The Camphor Island 9v/3 12 128 13 217 13
4 Z$fir ibn L$hiq 11v/7 17 137 17 223 17
5 The Vizier (and His Son) 14r/6 23 152 23 230 23
6 Sulaym$n ibn ‘Abd al-Malik 16r/10 28 164 28 236 28
7 Maslama ibn ‘Abd al-Malik 20r/-2 38 187 38 250 38
8 Ghar›bat al-Husn 21v/3 40 192 40 254 40
9 The Young Man and His Cousin 23r/-7 44 201 44 261 44
10 The King and His Three Sons 24v/8 47 208 47 264 47
11 The Bracelet 25v/-5 50 215 50 268 51
12 The Four Companions 27r/-6 53 223 53 271 54
13 The Seven Viziers 28v/15 56 231 56 274 57
14 The King and the Snake 36r/-4 75 277 75 299 80
15 The Ebony Horse 39r/1 83 293 82 310 88

AKM breaks off at fol. 39v just after the beginning of night 84. While the tale of The Ebony
Horse is the final one in SH, T (as well as two of the other manuscripts) has two more tales, the
tales of The King and the Gazelle (begins p. 320, Night 95) and The Vizier Ibn Ab› l-Qamar and
‘Abd al-Malik ibn Marw$n (begins p. 335, Nights 100). Since the distribution of the nights in AKM
is closer to T (and related manuscripts) than to SH, AKM might well have contained these two
tales as well.
Out of the tales the Hundred and One Nights have in common with the Thousand and
One Nights, the tale of the Seven Viziers deserves particular attention.27 This tale, better known
in western tradition as the Seven Sages (of Rome), is itself an originally independent frame tale
containing a varying number of embedded short tales that serve as arguments in the
discussion between the king’s favourite and his viziers. About half of the tales embedded in the
version of the Hundred and One Nights are also contained in the version of the Thousand and
One Nights (nos. 13.2–13.12, 13.15, 13.19). The other embedded tales derive from a variety of
sources. The first tale (no. 13.1) is only known from the early Persian version of the Seven
Viziers,28 and a total of four tales (nos. 13.13, 13.14, 13.16, 13.18) are documented from the Syrian
version of the Seven Viziers. A number of the embedded tales have over the centuries become
so popular that they were eventually recorded as folktales from oral tradition, such as The Drop
of Honey (no. 13.8), The Dog That Shed Tears (no. 13.12), The Snake and the Dog (no. 13.14), and
The Three Wishes (no. 13.19).29
Considering the above evaluation, the recently acquired manuscript offers fascinating new
insights into the history of the Hundred and One Nights as well as into the relation of the smaller
collection with the larger tradition of the Thousand and One Nights. Further scrutiny will have to
supply reliable data for the dating of the manuscript’s physical components, in particular the
paper and ink. Moreover, a close reading of the text should bring to light clues for dating the
manuscript in terms of language and wording. Whatever the results of any such future scrutiny
will prove to be, until then it appears fairly safe to regard the manuscript in the Aga Khan
214 The Hundred and One Nights: A Recently Acquired Old Manuscript

No Title AKM T SH AN30 Chauvin 831

13.1 The Trained Elephant 29r/4 233 276 – 35, no. 2
13.2 The Lion’s Trace 30r/6 239 279 x 35, no. 3
13.3 The Parrot 30r/-9 241 280 x 36, no. 4
13.4 The Fuller and His Son 30v/11 242 281 x 37, no. 5
13.5 The Miser and the Loaves of Bread 30v/16 243 282 x 38, no. 6
13.6 The Lady and Her Two Lovers 31r/5 244 282 x 38, no. 7
13.7 The King’s Son and the Ogress 31r/-4 246 284 x 39, no. 8
13.8 The Drop of Honey 31v/-5 249 285 x 41, no. 9
13.9 The Woman Who Made Her
Husband Sift Dust 32r/5 250 285 x 42, no. 10
13.10 The Enchanted Spring 32r/-7 251 286 x 43. no. 11
13.11 The King’s Son and the
Hammam-keeper’s Wife 32v/11 253 286 x 44, no. 12
13.12 The Dog That Shed Tears 32v/-7 255 288 x 45, no. 13
13.13 The Monkey and the Wild Boar 33r/-3 258 290 x 66, no. 30
13.14 The Snake and the Dog 33v/3 259 290 – 66, no. 31
13.15 The Burned Clothes 33v/16 260 291 x 57, no. 23
13.16 The Lion and the Thief 34r/-6 264 292 – 67, no. 32
13.17 The Fisherman and the King 34v/-13 266 294 – –32
13.18 The Elephant Statue 34v/-1 267 295 – 68, no. 33
13.19 The Three Wishes 35r/13 269 295 x 51, no. 19
13.20 The Man Who Wrote A Book
about the Wiles of Women 35/-5 270 296 – 69, no. 34

Museum as an early example, and probably even the oldest manuscript of the Hundred and One
Nights that has so far become known.

Editions
Mi’at layla wa-layla. Ed. by Mahmüd Tarshüna. Tunis: al-D$r al-‘arabiyya li-l-kit$b, 1984 (new
revised [in fact, shortened] edition Cologne: al-Jamal, 2005).

al-H$jj al-B$h› al-Bün›: Mi’at layla wa-layla ... wa-hik$y$t ukhr$. Ed. by Shuraybit Ahmad
Shuraybit. Algiers: al-Maktaba al-wataniyya al-jaz$’iriyya, 2005.

Translation
Gaudefroy-Demombynes, Maurice: Les Cent et Une Nuits. Présentées et traduites de l’arabe.
Paris: Guilmoto, 1911 (new edition Paris: Sindbad, 1982).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 215

1 For recent scholarly assessments of the Thousand and One Nights 21 Marzolph and Van Leeuwen, Encyclopedia, vol. 2, 483–484.
see Heinz and Sophia Grotzfeld, Die Erzählungen aus 22 Alexander Solymossy, ‘A szép ember meséje’ (The Tale of the
‘Tausendundeiner Nacht’ (Darmstadt 1984); Robert Irwin, The Beautiful Man), Ethnographia 27 (1916), 257–275; Linda Dégh,
Arabian Nights: A Companion (London 1994); Ulrich Marzolph and Märchen, Erzähler und Erzählgemeinschaft (Berlin 1962), 298–299,
Richard Van Leeuwen, The Arabian Nights Encyclopedia Vols 1–2 no. 66; Agnes Kovács, Ungarische Volksmärchen (Düsseldorf 1982),
(Santa Barbara 2004); Aboubakr Chraïbi, Les Mille et une nuits: 87–90, 337, no. 18.
Histoire du texte et classification des contes (Paris 2008). I would like
to thank Aboubakr Chraïbi for his diligent reading of a draft version 23 Lev G. Barag, Belorussische Volksmärchen (Berlin 1968), 392–297,
of the present essay as well as for a number of valuable suggestions. no. 62.

2 Hideaki Sugita, ‘The Arabian Nights in Modern Japan: A Brief 24 Grotzfeld, Erzählungen, 139–143.
Historical Sketch’, in Yuriko Yamanaka and Tetsuo Nishio (eds), 25 I would like to thank Mr. Benoît Junod, Director of the Aga Khan
The Arabian Nights and Orientalism: Perspectives from East and West Museum collection, for making the newly acquired manuscript
(London 2005), 116–153; Thomas Geider, ‘Alfu Lela Ulela: The available to me in a most cordial manner.
Thousand and One Nights in Swahili-speaking East Africa’, in Ulrich 26 See the detailed evaluation by the Atelier de Restauration
Marzolph (ed.), The Arabian Nights in Transnational Perspective Florence Dabre, prepared at the order of Mr. Benoît Junod, in
(Detroit 2007), 183–200. summer 2010.
3 Victor Chauvin, 1901–1903, Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou 27 For the following discussion see Marzolph and Van Leeuwen,
relatifs aux arabes, vol. 4 (Liège 1901–1903), 121–122, nos. 307–311; Encyclopedia, vol. 1, 160–161; vol. 2, 703–704; Chraïbi, Les Mille et
Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes, ‘Notes sur les “Mille et une une nuits, 170–191.
Nuits” (1)’, Revue des Traditions Populaires 22 (1907), 193–198;
28 Clouston 1884, pp. 17–21.
Emmanuel Cosquin, ‘Le Prologue cadre des Mille et une nuits, les
légendes perses et le livre d’Esther’, Revue Biblique 6 (1909), 7–49; 29 See Uther 2004, nos. 2036, 1515, 178 A, and 750 A.
Gabriel Ferrand, ‘Note sur le livre des 101 Nuits’, Journal asiatique 30 AN = Arabian Nights; see Marzolph and Van Leeuwen,
17 (1911), 309–318. Encyclopedia, vol. 1, 160–161, no. 181.
4 Chraïbi, Les Mille et une nuits, 90–92 and passim; Aboubakr 31 Chauvin 8 = Victor Chauvin, Bibliographie des ouvrages arabes ou
Chraïbi, ‘Des hommes dans le harem’, in Frédéric Bauden, relatifs aux arabes, vol. 8 (Liège 1904).
Aboubakr Chraïbi and Antonella Ghersetti (eds), Le Répertoire
32 Ulrich Marzolph, Arabia ridens: Die humoristische Kurzprosa der
narratif arabe médiéval: Transmission et ouverture (Genève 2008),
frühen adab-Literatur im internationalen Traditionsgeflecht (Frankfurt
37–46; see also Claude Bremond, ‘En deça et au-dela d’un conte: le
1992), vol. 2, 117–118, no. 468.
devenir des thèmes’, in Jamel Eddine Bencheikh, Claude Bremond
and André Miquel (eds), Mille et un contes de la nuit (Paris 1991),
79–258, esp. 112–123, 153–155.
5 Heinz Grotzfeld, ‘Neglected Conclusions of the Arabian Nights:
Gleanings in Forgotten and Overlooked Recensions’, Journal of
Arabic Literature 16 (1985), 73–87.
6 See the detailed classification in Chraïbi, Les Mille et une nuits.
7 Chraïbi, Les Mille et une nuits, 89–116.
8 David Pinault, Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights
(Leiden 1992), 152–157, 226–227.
9 Marzolph and Van Leeuwen, Encyclopedia, vol. 2, 597–580,
640–641.
10 Ibid., 635–637.
11 For previously known manuscripts of the Hundred and One
Nights see the French trans. by Maurice Gaudefroy-Demombynes,
Les Cent et Une Nuits (Paris 1911, new ed. Paris 1982), and the
Arabic editions of Mahmüd Tarshüna (ed.), Mi’at layla wa-layla
(Tunis 1984), 7–13, and Shuraybit Ahmad Shuraybit (ed.), al-H$jj al-
B$h› al-Bün›, Mi’at layla wa-layla ... wa-hik$y$t ukhr$ (Algiers 2005),
13–27.
12 Cf. Chraïbi, Les Mille et une nuits, 58.
13 H$jj› Khal›fa, Kashf al-zunün ‘an as$m› al-kutub wa-l-funün: Lexicon
bibliographicum et encyclopaedicum, ed. Gustav Flügel (Leipzig
1850), vol. 5, 356, no. 11289.
14 Tarshüna, Mi’at layla wa-layla, 67.
15 See François de Blois, Burzoy’s Voyage to India and the Origin of
the Book of Kal›lah wa Dimnah (London 1990).
16 See above, note 9.
17 Duncan B. MacDonald, ‘The Earlier History of the Arabian
Nights’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1924), 353–397, esp.
355–357.
18 Quoted in Tarshüna, Mi’at layla wa-layla, 19.
19 Bremond, ‘En deça et au-dela’.
20 Édouard Chavannes, Cinq cents contes et apologues du Tripitaka
chinois (Paris 1910), vol. 1, no. 107.
Science and Learning

Catalogue Entr›es 94 — 107

A key aspect of court life in the Islamic world was the princely patronage of
intellectual culture. Hosting outstanding poets and scholars enhanced a ruler’s royal
profile as much as military success, guaranteeing greatness and a place in history.
Fitness to rule was also defined by a prince’s own intellectual capacity and
knowledge: royal libraries could be extensive, and scholarly presence at court
provided excellent academic education for an interested patron. Courtiers and the
civilian elite followed suit. An early example of this engagement of court patronage
with learning was the so-called “translation movement”, which took place in
‘Abbasid Baghdad over the eighth to tenth centuries: Caliphs and senior civil
servants alike sponsored the systematic translation and analysis of ancient works of
science into Arabic, drawing polyglot scientists from across Western Asia to great
opportunities in Iraq. The political elite also founded great personal libraries
accessible to all scholars, and built important research institutions such as
observatories and hospitals, supporting science and learning almost as a matter of
personal socio-cultural prestige.
The result of this sustained patronage was a remarkable productivity in
scientific research and its resultant literature, in astronomy, medicine (cat. no. 98),
pharmacology and mathematics. Copies of important new works or classic old texts
were greatly sought after, and autograph manuscripts (or copies made within or close
to the author’s lifetime) were very valuable (cat. no. 94). Scientific instruments, such
as the celestial globe and the astrolabe (cat. nos 103, 104), were inherited from the
late classical world, and developed further by scientists in the Islamic period. Luxury
manuscripts of scientific treatises demonstrate that learning was pursued among the
wealthy elite, as well as within a specialist milieu of scholars. While the illustration of
manuscripts may often be associated with expensive luxury production, in a didactic
context the inclusion of diagrams, maps and paintings is indispensable to a reading
of the text. This may explain why so many of the earliest known, non-royal, illustrated
Islamic-world books are scientific works, but the quality of many of these early
illustrations suggests high status as well as didactic necessity. Luxury illustrated
copies of classic texts, such as al-Süf›’s Book of the Constellations (cat. no. 106),
Qazw›n›’s Wonders of Creation (cat. nos 99, 105), Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica
(cat. nos 96, 97), and the medical-zoological On the Uses of Animals (a compendium
of Aristotle and Ibn Bakht›shü‘, cat. no. 95), all demonstrate the value and respect
placed in the pursuit, support and preservation of scientific knowledge.
218 Science and Learning

94 Manuscript of the fifth book of the Q$nün f i’l-tibb (Canon of Medicine) of Ibn S›n$

Iran or Iraq, dated 444 H / 1052 CE The Qanun fi l-tibb (Canon of Medicine) of Ibn Sina, the author known in the West as Avicenna, is the most
Opaque watercolour and ink on important encyclopaedic corpus of medieval medical knowledge in the Islamic world. Born near Bukhara in 980 to
paper
a Samanid government official, Ibn Sina was, at eighteen, a talented physician who had mastered all the sciences,
21.2 x 16.4 cm
Inv.: AKM00510 and he went on to make a great number of medical discoveries and observations that remain relevant today. With
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 128 (no. 96); the transfer of knowledge to the Latin west in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Qanun became the most
AKTC 2007b, pp. 122 and 131 (no. used of all medieval references in the medical schools of Europe, almost until the beginning of modern times.
96); AKTC 2008a, pp. 194–195 (no. The Qanun is organised into five books: the present manuscript is a copy of the fifth book, on compound drugs
73); AKTC 2009a, p. 158 (no. 109);
and pharmacopoeia. Copied only fifteen years after the death of Ibn Sina, it is certainly one of the earliest copies of
AKTC 2009b, p. 158 (no. 109);
2010a, pp. 158–159 (no. 111). the text, if not the earliest manuscript of this work. The page shown here is the title page, which announces in
large thuluth script that the manuscript contains the fifth book of the Qanun. It is followed immediately by Ibn
Sina’s full name, al-Shaykh al-Ra‘is Abi ‘Ali ibn Sina, written in naskh. Names of previous owners of the codex
appear in naskh and nasta‘liq scripts around the page (translation provided by Abdullah Ghouchani).
220 Science and Learning

95 Folio from a dispersed copy of the Man$f i‘ al-hayaw$n (Usefulness of Animals) of Ibn Bakht›shü‘

Northwest Ilkhanid Iran, possibly Ibn Bakht›shü‘ (d. c. 1085) composed his bestiary, the Manafi‘ al-hayaw$n (Usefulness of Animals) around the
Maragha, c. 1300 middle of the eleventh century. In it he describes a range of species – from humans to insects – and their
Opaque watercolour and ink on
defining characteristics and medicinal or folkloric properties. The original Arabic text was then translated into
paper
40.1 x 32.2 cm Persian by ‘Abd al-Hadi ibn Muhammad ibn Mahmud ibn Ibrahim al-Maraghi by order of the Ilkhanid ruler
Inv.: AKM00083 Ghazan Khan (r. 1295–1304). This folio belongs to a Persian translation of the bestiary, although its headings are
Publ.: Welch 1978a, p. 34; Falk 1985, written in Arabic in an eastern form of Kufic script (see cat. no. 12). The illustration on this folio depicts the diver
no. 16; Makariou 2007, pp. 44–45 (ghawwas, a type of long-necked waterbird) in a rather stylised manner that owes much to the influence of
(no. 11); AKTC 2008a, pp. 192–193
Chinese painting in Ilkhanid Iran: note the Chinese manner of depicting waves, and the resemblance between the
(no. 72).
flying ghawwas and Chinese images of cranes. The text states that this bird is found in streams near Baghdad,
and tells the story of a ghawwas who was repeatedly attacked by a raven which would steal its newly-caught fish,
until eventually the ghawwas retaliated and killed the raven.
222 Science and Learning

96 The Fün›qas plant

Folio from a dispersed manuscript Between the eighth and the tenth centuries in ‘Abbasid Baghdad a wealth of classical scientific texts was
of Khaw$ss al-ashj$r (De Materia systematically translated and incorporated into the canon of Islamic astronomy, astrology, botany, medicine and
Medica) by Pedanius Dioscorides so forth. One of the earliest scientific texts to be translated in this way was Dioscorides’ De Materia Medica, as it
Iraq, c. 1200
is called in Latin. Pedanius Dioscorides, a Greek physician, wrote his treatise on the medicinal uses of plants in
Opaque watercolour and ink on
paper the first century CE. The manuscript was initially translated into Syriac before being translated again into Arabic
Page: 29.8 x 20.3 cm; in ninth-century Baghdad (Gueston–Vernay-Nouri 2001, p. 118). It became the foundation for Arabic
image: 10 x 12 cm pharmacology and was widely copied, most frequently with illustrations of each plant type to enable
Inv.: AKM00006 identification and extraction of the relevant parts. The text explains the various names given to this plant – dush,
Publ.: Welch 1972a, p. 27
kunufash or kubufash – and also states that a drink made with this plant can be used to treat diarrhoea and
excessive urine.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 223

The poppy (al-khashkh$sh) 97

This folio comes from the same dispersed manuscript of De Materia Medica as cat. no. 96. Both folios show Folio from a dispersed manuscript
plant illustrations that are in part imitative of Late Classical or Byzantine models: the emphasis lies on the of Khaw$ss al-ashj$r (De Materia
accurate depiction of all the working parts of the plant, from root system to blossom, so that all characteristic Medica) by Pedanius Dioscorides
features can be demonstrated in one image. Here, the thin serrated leaves of the poppy are just as important Iraq, c. 1200
Opaque watercolour and ink on
within the image as the orange and red four-petalled flowers shown at the top. This relatively technical approach
paper
to the illustration of a scientific text is not found in all thirteenth-century illustrated Arabic copies of De Materia Page: 29.8 x 20.5 cm;
Medica: in some other manuscripts the botanical illustrations develop more narrative images, coming to show image: 14 x 14 cm
physicians collecting herbs, preparing medicine and treating patients, as well as a broader representation of the Inv.: AKM00009
habitat where individual plants were to be collected. The text for this section describes how to cultivate the poppy Publ.: Welch 1972a, p. 28
Makariou 2007, p. 24 (no. 1).
and how to obtain opium from it, and also mentions that honey may be added to the opium.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 225

Manuscript of the Tashr›h of Mansür ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Yüsuf ibn Ily$s 98

“Mansur’s anatomy” (Tashrih-i Mansuri) is the name often used to refer to the fourteenth-century treatise on the Iran, mid seventeenth century
anatomy of the human body, Tashrih-i badan-i insane, written by Mansur ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Yusuf Opaque watercolour and ink on
ibn Ilyas, who came from a family of scholars and physicians in Shiraz. This treatise was probably completed by watermarked paper
the end of the fourteenth century for Pir Muhammad, ruler of Fars (1393–1409) and a grandson of Timur: the 28.8 x 19.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00525
earliest dated copy (894 H/1488 CE) known today is in the collection of the National Library of Medicine of the
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 127 (no. 95);
USA, Maryland (MS P 18). The text is organised into five chapters on the systems of the body – skeleton,
AKTC 2007b, p. 130 (no. 95).
nervous system, muscles, veins and arteries – with a full-page diagram of the human body illustrating each
chapter, and in some cases further supplementary illustrations. The source of the full-page illustrations is not
clear, but the form they take – the squatting posture, exaggerated head and so forth – remains very consistent
over much of the history of this text (Wujastyk 2007, pp. 237–239). The present manuscript lacks a colophon but
there is a note on the final page containing a date in the latter part of the seventeenth century.
226 Science and Learning

99 Manuscript of the ‘Aj$’ib al-makhlüq$t wa ghar$‘ib al-mawjüd$t (Wonders of Creation and

Oddities of Existence)
Author: Zakariy$’ ibn Muhammad
ibn Mahmüd al-Qazw›n›
Originally written in Arabic in Ilkhanid Iran, the title of the cosmography of al-Qazwini (c. 1203–1283) is
Safavid Iran, probably Shiraz, dated
on a replacement colophon to 899 commonly shortened to ‘Aja’ib al-makhluqat (Wonders of Creation). The first part of the text deals with “things
H / 1492 CE above”: the structure of the heavens, the constellations, heavenly beings and time. The second part describes
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold “things below”: the four elements, geological phenomena, and the inhabitants of the sea and earth, notably a
on paper number of fantastic creatures. In its original context the cosmography was in many senses a religious text, “with
26.8 x 16.6 cm
each wonder presented as a sign pointing to the greatness of its Creator” (Berlekamp 2006, p. 653), but later
Inv.: AKM00367
Publ.: Welch 1978b, p. 32 versions of the text shifted its character somewhat. As Badiee has noted, “Qazwini’s manuscript added little to
the field of Islamic science. Its popularity as a subject for book illustration, however, cannot be disputed” (Badiee
1984, p. 97). Large numbers of illustrated versions exist, with a large degree of variation in the quality of the
illustrations, suggesting that the text was popular at several levels of society. The obvious appeal of the text for
the artist, with its descriptions of awe-inspiring natural phenomena as well as fantastic species, is exemplified in
this group of images. The four pictures show unusual or fantastic creatures of the sea, each watched by human
onlookers who gawp from a safe distance.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 227

Albarello 100

This type of high, narrow cylindrical jar seems to have appeared in Iran in the eleventh or twelfth century, Syria, fifteenth century
subsequently spreading in popularity throughout the Near East. The elegant, rather hourglass-shaped profile was Fritware with underglaze decoration
adopted in Syria from the end of the twelfth century. It is generally thought that these albarelli were used to store in blue and black
pharmaceutical substances or perfumes and were often exported with their contents to Europe, especially Height: 31.7 cm; diameter 15.4 cm
Inv.: AKM00569
France. Various French, Spanish and Italian inventories of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries mention
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 133
ceramic items “from Damascus”, such as the albaregli damaschini recorded in the Medici archives in Florence. (no. 101c); AKTC 2007b, p. 136
The elegant black inscription of this albarello, with its exaggeratedly long downstrokes, is remarkably similar to (no. 101c); Makariou 2007, p. 190
a comparable inscription on a similar albarello in the Musée National de la Céramique de Sèvres (France). (no. 69); AKTC 2008a, pp. 204–205
The inscriptions on the Sèvres albarello have been read as referring to impotence, presumably meaning that the (no. 78); AKTC 2008b; AKTC 2009a,
pp. 134–135 (no. 95); AKTC 2009b,
pharmaceutical contents of the vessel had some role in the treatment of erectile dysfunction. It is entirely likely
pp. 134–135 (no. 95); AKTC 2010a,
that in the case of this albarello the inscription also refers to the original contents, but at present the nature of pp. 136–137 (no. 97).
the inscription and hence of the jar’s contents remains unknown.
228 Science and Learning

101 Albarello

Syria, fifteenth century Like cat. no. 100, this albarello and its pair cat. no. 102 may have been exported to Europe as containers of
Fritware with underglaze blue pharmaceutical products. This example and cat. no. 102 obviously come from the same workshop: they have the
decoration
same size and profile, with a horizontal shoulder and wide tronconical neck ending in a thick mouth, while their
Height: 30.7 cm
Inv.: AKM00567 painted decoration is also very similar. Painted in cobalt blue under a transparent glaze, both have registers of
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 133 foliage, although this example has large-petalled flowers in the central register where cat. no. 102 has cranes in
(no. 101); AKTC 2007b, p. 136 flight. Most striking of all however is the blazon that adorns the central register of both this example and cat. no. 102:
(no. 101); Makariou 2007, a shield shape bearing the heraldic device known as a fleur-de-lys, with the addition of two further outgrowths
pp. 26–27 (no. 2); AKTC 2009a,
ending in trefoil palmettes which occupy the upper corners of the shield. Two further albarelli bearing this design
pp. 134–135 (no. 93); AKTC 2009b,
pp. 134–135 (no. 93); AKTC 2010a, were recently sold in London, and another example housed in the Musée des Arts décoratifs in Paris bears a
pp. 136–137 (no. 95). similar coat of arms.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 229

Albarello 102

The heraldic motif of the fleur-de-lys within a shield that decorates both this albarello and cat. no. 101 poses Syria, fifteenth century
interesting possibilities: can it be linked to any particular city or personage? The fleur-de-lys of these albarelli, with Fritware with cobalt blue under a
its two flowery outgrowths in the upper corners, has been associated with the coat of arms of the city of transparent glaze
Florence. Italian merchants – and those from Florence, in particular – were present in Cairo, Damascus and Height: 30.7 cm
Inv.: AKM00568
Beirut and it is possible that one of them could have ordered these vases for a Florentine apothecary, or perhaps
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 133
even for medicinal use in his own home. On the other hand, the fleur de-lys also formed part of the Islamic (no. 101b); AKTC 2007b, p. 136
repertoire, notably as the blazon of several Mamluk sultans and emirs until the fifteenth century. However, the (no. 101b); Makariou 2007,
shield-like shape of the blazon is not frequently found among the coats of arms of the Mamluks, who used a pp. 26–27 (no. 2); AKTC 2009a,
medallion that was either circular or almond-shaped. The shield-shaped field can be seen, however, on Mamluk pp. 134–135 (no. 134); AKTC 2009b,
pp. 134–135 (no. 134); AKTC 2010a,
inlaid metal objects intended for the European market, where it was sometimes left blank in order for the
pp. 136–137 (no. 96).
purchaser to engrave his own coat of arms onto it. At this stage it is not possible to say for whom these albarelli
were made, but the possibilities are extremely intriguing.
230 Science and Learning

103 Planispheric astrolabe

Spain, probably Toledo, fourteenth The astrolabe is an early form of computational instrument, used widely in Europe and the Islamic world until
century the mid-seventeenth century. At its simplest, the astrolabe works by presenting an image of the sky drawn on the
Engraved copper alloy inlaid with circular face of the astrolabe, over which lie movable components that can be adjusted to show a specific date
silver
and time, and thus give an image of the sky at that point. Amongst other uses, it can be employed to find the
Diameter: 13.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00611 time of celestial events such as sunrise or sunset and to locate celestial bodies, and hence had a wide
Publ.: King 2005, pp. 831–914; application in astrology and astronomy in the pre-modern world. While many astrolabes made in Islamic Spain
Makariou 2007, pp. 28–29 (no. 3); during the eleventh through fifteenth centuries have been preserved, only five astrolabes from pre-fifteenth
AKTC 2008a, pp. 200–201 (no. 76); century Christian Spain are extant, four of which come from Catalonia. This one does not come from Catalonia,
AKTC 2008b; AKTC 2009a, p. 92
and furthermore is the only one with inscriptions in Arabic, Latin and Hebrew: the latter are in the form of
(no. 43); AKTC 2009b, p. 92 (no.
43); AKTC 2010 p. 94 (no. 44). scratches, rather than true engravings, on one of the tympani. On the circumference of the back are the signs of
the zodiac (to the outside) and the names of the solar months (to the inside), inscribed in Arabic within inlaid
silver cartouches that are unique on a western astrolabe.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 231

Astrolabe by H$jj› ‘Al› 104

Although the manufacture of astrolabes across Europe and the Islamic world had waned following the advent of Qajar Isfahan, dated 1212 H / 1797-
new technologies from the mid-seventeenth century onwards, a significant revival of the form took place in early 98 CE
Qajar Isfahan under the craftsman Hajji ‘Ali. Other than his signature we have little evidence about who Hajji ‘Ali Cast and engraved brass
was or the circumstances in which he worked, but a group of more than twenty diminutive astrolabes, all of them Diameter: 9 cm
Inv.: AKM00724
virtually identical to this example, are known to have been manufactured by him: examples are held in the
Unpublished
National Maritime Museum in London (AST 0544) as well as various private collections. On this example the
mater (the circular frame into which the plates are fitted) is engraved with a gazetteer giving longitude, latitude
and qibla values for thirty-four cities, mainly in Greater Iran, while the back bears a sine quadrant in the upper
left and a solar quadrant in the upper right, with curves for Shiraz, Baghdad, Isfahan and Tus.
232 Science and Learning

105 The constellations Leo, Cancer, Libra and Virgo

Leaf from a dispersed manuscript Like cat. no. 99, this leaf from al-Qazwini’s ‘Aja’ib al-makhluqat demonstrates the enjoyment artists took in
of the ‘Aj$’ib al-makhlüq$t wa illustrating this particular text. The illustrations of the astrological symbols Sunbulat (Virgo), al-Mizan (Libra),
ghar$‘ib al-mawjüd$t (Wonders of
al-Saratan (Cancer) and al-Asad (Leo) appear in the section of the text dealing with the arrangement of the
Creation and Oddities of Existence)
of Zakariy$’ ibn Muhammad ibn celestial sphere. Al-Qazwini’s thirteenth-century writings on the constellations constitute a direct quote from the
Mahmüd al-Qazw›n› earlier Book of the Fixed Stars by al-Sufi (see cat. no. 106); such recycling of earlier material was practised by
Probably Yemen, seventeenth artists as well as authors, and the style of the paintings in the present folio suggests that they may be based
century loosely on thirteenth- or fourteenth-century Arab book painting. The provincial manner of the paintings, as well
Opaque watercolour and ink on
as their rather anachronistic appearance, makes the suggestion that this is a Yemeni manuscript dating from the
watermarked paper
29 x 20.7 cm period of occupation by the Ottomans quite plausible. This provenance was originally based on an attribution
Inv.: AKM00397 written in English on another page from the same manuscript (Sotheby’s London, 20 November 1986, lot 195),
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 131 (no. 97); but is bolstered by the presence on the paper of the manuscript of a watermark made up of three crescents,
AKTC 2007b, p. 128 (no. 97). which was in use within the Ottoman Empire from the end of the sixteenth century.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 233

Manuscript of the Kit$b Suwar al-Kaw$kib al-Th$bita (Book of the Fixed Stars) by 106
‘Abd al-Rahm$n ibn ‘Umar al-Süf ›
Safavid Iran, c. 1650
Al-Sufi’s treatise on the constellations was composed in Buyid Shiraz for ‘Adud al-Dawla (d. 983). It is a Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
handbook outlining the basic layout of the constellations, with each chapter discussing the size, location and on paper
31.5 x 18.2 cm
associated folklore of one constellation, and giving two illustrations of each constellation shown in mirror image
Inv.: AKM00266
to each other. In each case one illustration shows the formation as it appears in the sky, while the other shows it Publ.: (Including other follios from
in reverse as it was laid out on a celestial globe, which offered a model of the celestial sphere seen from an this manuscript): Welch 1978a,
imagined external viewpoint. The artist has played a little within the confines of this layout, and has created in pp. 71–73 (fols 7v, 155v–156r:);
this mirror image of the constellation Auriga (“the Charioteer”) two slightly differing figures who watch each Falk 1985, no. 93 (fol. 156r);
Ritschard 2000, no. 229 (fol. 156r).
other, the left figure distinguished by greater height, red lacing on the chest and red shoes against the bare feet
of the right figure. Over fifty copies of al-Sufi’s treatise have survived, testifying to its great popularity, and
identified manuscripts were owned by renowned astronomers of the medieval period and later.
234 Science and Learning

107 Illustrated leaf from an unidentified manuscript

Possibly Central Asia, c. 1650–1800 This remarkable and troubling page is one of a group of six leaves from a dispersed manuscript that are held in
Opaque watercolour and ink on buff this collection, bearing twelve illustrations in all. The provenance and even the nature of this manuscript have
paper proved persistently enigmatic: Binney tentatively suggested an eleventh- or twelfth-century Egyptian origin (Pal
23 x 17.5 cm
1973, pp. 98–99), but this can certainly be discounted in view of (amongst many other things) an image of two
Inv.: AKM00400
Publ.: Pal 1973, pp. 98–99; men in Central Asian costume on another leaf (AKM00402, verso). Welch has proposed that the imagery may
Welch 1978a, p. 24. relate to seventeenth- and eighteenth-century Tibetan depictions of the tortures of hell, which might well explain
this image of a man, woman and child led in chains by a red-faced demon, as well as the other images found
within this group, including several illustrations of human figures bound in chains and attacked by serpents and
animal-headed demons (see detail opposite of another page from the same manuscript, AKM00404 recto) and
one depiction of a chained man apparently pierced by many pegs or possibly pegged to the ground (AKM00403
recto). It has also been suggested that the disturbing imagery of this group may relate to the mystical aspects of
alchemy, a possibility that needs to be further explored. This fascinating manuscript stands as an enigmatic
reminder of the vast spectrum of largely undocumented folk traditions from Central Asia that may have
continued to operate until relatively recently.
6 The Illustrated Text
238

Michael Barry

The Islamic Book and its Illustration

The Myth of Mani and Islamic Art

Illustrated manuscripts with pictures of living creatures, commissioned by royalty, stand out
among the glories of Islamic art – however allegedly such figuration may have been forbidden by
stricter theologians in the culture. Masterpieces abound with images of birds, horses, dragons,
or heroic princes that are often portraits of the living rulers. Generous princely patronage of the
figurative arts – in fresco, mosaic, metalware, stone or stucco – may easily be traced back to the
early caliphate of Damascus.
Yet in Islamic cultural perceptions, the illustration of manuscripts in particular, when filled
with pictures of sentient beings, stood perilously associated with what were thought to have
been the deceptive practices, and diabolic creed, of Mani, the arch-heretic or zind›q in the eyes of
Muslim authors. According to Muslim chroniclers writing even as late as the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, Mani had supposedly been a marvellous painter himself, superbly
illustrating his own lying scriptures to entice and delude converts.
The Mani or “Manes” of history preached his faith in third-century Sasanian
Mesopotamia, claiming to blend the universal messages of Zoroaster, Jesus and the Buddha in
teaching that this visible world of impure matter is ruled by an Evil God of Darkness, therein to
entrap our souls that are shining particles of the good God of Light. Souls may be set free
through mystical knowledge. Mani’s spiritual dualism split the universe between Good and Evil
as distinct, equally potent rival forces. Mani was executed in 277 by the imperial Sasanian
authorities, but his missionaries zealously spread their creed throughout both Persian and
Roman empires, despite harsh persecution by orthodox Zoroastrian and Christian clergies alike.
The Roman Church stamped out Western Europe’s last Manichaeans, the “Cathari” of southern
France, only in the thirteenth century.
Manichaeans suffered no less under Islamic rule. Medieval Arabic still used the old official
derogatory Zoroastrian word for a Manichaean, zind›q, “one who offers [unlawful] comment”, to
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 239

designate any follower of Mani or similar miscreant crossing impermissible religious bounds.
With the advent of more tolerant Islamic rule in the seventh century, Manichaeans in the Near
East briefly flourished. Then caliphal repression from the eighth to tenth centuries fell heavily
upon the sect’s partisans who, in the frightened eyes of the authorities, were seducing even high-
ranking members of society: famous poets, eminent ministers. For unlike the empire’s other
tributary religions – Jews, Christians, even Zoroastrians – Manichaeans worried the ‘Abbasid
caliphate with their enduring, dangerous missionary vitality and intellectually appealing
separation of the principles of Evil and Good, threatening the elite’s fundamental beliefs
regarding one Omnipotent God’s creation of the entire visible world.
So Mani’s name, in caliphal times, came to stand as an archetype for idolatry’s most
perilous decoy, the snare of false brilliance and lying beauty. By his deceptive paintings,
according to Muslim writers, Mani lured unwary souls away from worship of the one true God,
sole creator of the universe. Rivulets of gold and silver streamed from the bonfire of fourteen
sackfuls of illustrated Manichaean books condemned as heretical by caliph al-Muqtadir in
Baghdad in 923.1 Beauty alone could not save these precious volumes stacked before the
palace gate. Objects burnt to ashes included Mani’s portrait, once displayed on its altar, and
perhaps also copies of his Ardahang or Artang, the religion’s “Picture-Book” – now vanished.
The Iraqi librarian Ibn al-Nad›m noted that in his youth there had still been many Manichaeans
in Baghdad (hiding under Arabic-sounding names), but by the time of writing in the year 987
devotees of the sect had almost disappeared from Islam’s capital. Most had retreated deep
into Central Asia, where Uighur Turkish kings embraced their faith and protected them from
763 to 840.2

The Manichaean Illuminated Codex

Yet the sect was still famous and admired – even by Muslims – for magnificent illustrated
manuscripts coloured in lapis lazuli for blue, malachite for green, orpiment for yellow, cinnabar
for red. Exquisite fragments have survived in the Uighur oases, recovered by German
archaeologists at the turn of the twentieth century (now in Berlin’s Museum für Asiatische
Kunst). For Manichaean artists, human souls fallen from the higher world of the good god of
light might behold reflections of heavenly realities through visionary paintings bright with gold
and silver, mingling the pure light of the good god with the necessarily grosser minerals of the
evil god of matter,3 upon delicate pages illuminated with haloed angels, demons and musicians,
animals and plants, to adorn the sect’s scriptures now going up in flames. Manichaean artists
had set the highest possible aesthetic standard for books in the environment of tenth-century
Islamic civilization. Muslim artists were challenged to emulate, and surpass, what the hated
Mani had wrought.
Manichaeans in their missionary work had outstandingly exploited the revolution in
making books that occurred in the Roman and neighbouring Persian empires around 300 CE,
when the clumsy scroll or volumen was replaced by the compact, easily portable codex of folios
bound between twin hinged boards: the prototype of the modern book with its table of chapters
and separable pages, which Islam inherited and developed.
240 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

The codex has indeed been seen to coincide both with the rise of Manichaeism and the
historic triumph of Christianity, conferring worldwide sacred status upon the material book-
object itself with choice bindings, abstract marginal illuminations in pigments ground from
precious minerals, and bands or whole pages reserved for figurative illustration.4 Muslims as of
the seventh century naturally poured such care upon their own multiplied copies of the Qur’an in
codex form – purged of illustration, of course, but soon illuminated for royal patrons in gold leaf
and oil-rinsed powdered lapis lazuli, as most fitting twin pigments for holy writ.
What is certain is that the Manichaeans invested highly skilled craftsmanship and
wondrous pictures in their own beautiful codices – and that these books deeply impressed
Christians and then Muslims even though they consigned them to the flames. A surviving late
fourth- or early fifth-century Greek-language “Mani Codex” from Egypt displays an astounding
minuteness on parchment: “The height of the individual letters never exceeded 1 mm and the
text is hardly readable with the naked eye. A glass bottle filled with water was the most likely
enlarging tool used by the ancient scribes to execute such delicate calligraphy”.5 Later Muslim
illuminators working in similarly painstaking detail probably used water bottles too, in the days
before seventeenth-century Europe’s invention of magnifying lenses. Judging from the surviving
eighth- and ninth-century fragments found in the Uighur oases, the Manichaean illustrations that
burned in the Baghdad bonfire of 923 were probably already painted upon paper – the Chinese
invention first seen by the conquering Muslims in eighth-century Central Asia, and which they
spread to Spain.

Islam and Images

Muslim book-artists saw and appreciated other illustrations than Manichaean, of course. They
disapproved of the theology, but deeply respected the holy intent conveyed by the iconography of
Byzantine Christian Scriptures. Arabic translations of practical Byzantine Greek books on
medicinal plants, astronomy or automata were faithfully copied for the caliphs and their
indispensable pictures reproduced and stylized. Royal heraldry from Sasanian Persia was also
adapted in coinage, metalwork, ivory and manuscript frontispieces to depict the Muslim ruler
with the halo, magic cup, lion-throne, or winged crown topped by crescent and star of the
ancient shahs – the ultimate origin of the Ottoman standard.
Moreover, similar iconoclastic tensions, and ambivalent attitudes towards images
generally, pervaded religious thought in both Byzantine Christendom and the neighbouring
Umayyad caliphate. Eighth-century monarchs in both Constantinople and Damascus
fundamentally made the same choice which Islamic civilization, historically, retained: to ban
images from shrines, but preserve them in the service of the prince represented as world-ruler,
mighty hunter, all-conquering warrior, Solomon-like judge. Al-Bukh$r›’s ninth-century collection
of “Sayings” attributed to the Prophet parallel eighth-century Byzantine iconoclastic strictures
against artists similarly accused of incurring damnation for failing “to breathe the breath of life”
into their handiwork as blaspheming usurpers of God’s prerogative.
But the Neoplatonic trend in Byzantine thought – defended by Saint John of Damascus
(paradoxically living under Umayyad protection in Syria while the Iconoclast emperors held
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 241

power in Constantinople) – argued that man was God’s mirrored Image. The iconophiles
carried the day when images were restored to Byzantine churches in 786. Images certainly
never hung in mosques. But Islamic mysticism too, equally steeped in Neoplatonic thought,
has insisted that prototypical or perfect man – from Adam through Christ to Muhammad and
the Imams – visibly mirrors an invisible God. Later Islamic illuminators of Sufi allegorical
romances of mystical love (like Niz$m›’s Layl$ ü Majnün) bore in mind the spiritual idea of
tajall›, the Arabic equivalent of Greek theophánia or “God-made-manifest” through the heart
and upon the countenance of idealized human figures, male or female. Moreover the caliphs,
and then sultans, as reflections of Divine Majesty, manifested a visible “shadow of God on
earth” (Zillu-ll$hi ‘al$-l-ard), and so might be shown Solomonically enthroned. Nor did
theological reservations prevent rulers from enjoying spirited pictures of everyday life like the
thirteenth-century Iraqi illustrations to the rhetorical “sessions” or Maq$m$t of the early
twelfth-century prosodist al-Har›r›, filled with scenes of camels, ships, cavalcades, and
waterwheels.
But it was Mani’s iconographical challenge, his religiously unsettling claim to have pierced
the secret of Evil in an alternate vision to God’s universe, that lodged as a central metaphysical
worry to Muslim writers concerned with painting and book illustrations.

The Fable-Book and the Book of Kings

Yet two mid-eighth century eminent literary works, possibly tinged with Manichaean influence,
left the profoundest mark upon the arts of the Islamic book, in form and content, for centuries
to come. These were adaptations into splendid Arabic prose by caliph al-Mansür’s learned
Iranian minister Rozbih, surnamed Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ (“son of the maimed one”), from texts in
Middle Persian singled out as the two most important written legacies in the treasury of the
former Sasanian kings.
One of these was the originally Sanskrit collection of animal fables told by the twin jackals
Karataka and Damanaka to the Lion King of Beasts, tales regarded as fraught with so much
practical worldly wisdom for princes that they were rendered into Middle Persian by the sixth
century, then dressed as Kal›la wa Dimna by Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ in Arabic garb so elegant that they
have loomed as models of the language’s classical prose ever since, whence their prestige and
retranslation into Latin in twelfth-century Spain.
Ibn al-Muqaffa‘’s other great Arabic adaptation from Middle Persian, the “Book of
Kings”, an epic chronicle of ancient Iran’s mythic heroes and monarchs now proposed as role-
models for Islam’s caliphs, has not survived as such, but its matter was fully incorporated into
the ninth-century classical Arabic history by the learned al-Tabar› (also revered as the most
prestigious commentator of the Qur’an), then reset into majestic neo-Persian verse in the
Shahnama begun by Daq›q› in the late tenth century and amplified and magnificently
completed by Firdaws› in the early eleventh. The purport of the epic – to portray through
Muslim eyes the ancient Persian Empire as just and willed by God to prepare the world for the
Muhammadan message – arrestingly reflects earlier, very similar, retro-justifications of the
Roman Empire by Christian clerics. In Firdaws›’s literary wake, the late twelfth-century Persian
242 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

poet Niz$m› reworked three major themes from his predecessor’s Shahnama – the
intertwined fates of Alexander and Darius, and the feats of the Sasanian kings Bahr$m V and
Khusraw II – into stories charged with Islamic mystical symbolism, including far-reaching
meditations upon the diabolic meaning of Mani’s art in Niz$m›’s Iskandar-n$ma or “Book of
Alexander”.
Countless royal courts commissioned illuminated copies of one version or other of these
two major narrative cycles as necessary “mirrors for princes”. Yet Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ himself in 757
was atrociously executed – limbs hacked off, the rest of him thrown alive into quicklime – as an
unmasked Manichaean or zind›q. The charge may have been trumped up, but Manichaean ideas
do pervade his sombre preface to Kal›la wa Dimna, allegorically portraying this lower world as a
pit with the dragon of death coiled at the bottom, awaiting our human souls with open jaws.
Nevertheless, all the animal-book’s themes and stories, and those of the Epic of Kings, were fully
absorbed into classical Islamic traditions from high poetry to folklore – whatever their original
Arabic transmitter’s fate. “This world which you see all red and yellow is a lying enfolded carpet,
the world is a Dragon whose name is Belovéd: if in lust of it, no soul can rise lust-free” (jah$n-r$
kih b›n› chun›n surkh-o zard, / bis$te far›bandeh shud dar navard; / jah$n azhdah$’›-st ma‘shüq n$m,
/ az $n k$m ne j$n bar $yad zi k$m), the Persian poet Niz$m›’s “Plato” tells “Alexander” in his
literary elaboration of the Shahnama’s themes.
Most significant for our understanding of Islamic art, these twin narrative cycles appear
since ‘Abbasid times to have been always illustrated. The stories, regarded as practical and even
utilitarian wisdom-literature for young heirs to the throne, were deemed especially appropriate
for pictures destined for princely eyes. The earliest known surviving Arabic manuscripts of Kal›la
wa Dimna, from thirteenth- and fourteenth-century Syria and Egypt, are illustrated. Ibn al-
Muqaffa‘ himself seems to have presented his rendition complete with pictures to the ‘Abbasid
court in eighth-century Iraq:6 one advantage to his story-book (“although only philosophers
might grasp the deeper meaning”; wa dh$lika yakhussu l-faylasüfu kh$sat-an), lay in “the depiction
of animal scenes in a variety of colours and pigments, so that they delight the hearts of kings;
and their enjoyment is increased by the pleasure to be had from these illustrations [suwar]”.7
Whatever pictures Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ submitted to his caliph, as Julian Raby points out,
would have mirrored long-time favourite motifs in the storybook, like “the lion and the bull” or
“the monkey and the carpenter”, already found depicted on pottery or in frescoes in pre-Islamic
India and Central Asia. Subjects were retained for illustration and stubbornly transmitted down
the centuries despite shifts in style, written language, even religion. Seventh- and early eighth-
century pre-Islamic wall-paintings from Pianjikent in what is now Tajikistan suggest not only
what manuscript renditions of the Kal›la wa Dimna in Late Sasanian and hence Early Islamic
style might have resembled, but also already offer stirring scenes from the Epic of Kings with
dragon-slaying princely heroes. Whether or not Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ was Manichaean as accused, his
illuminators drew upon a rich tradition of illustrated book-craft bequeathed to nascent Islamic
civilization by a Late Antique Mesopotamian and Iranian world saturated with Manichaean,
Byzantine, Zoroastrian, and even Buddhist spiritual, cultural and aesthetic strains.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 243

Sixteenth-Century Culmination: Bihz$d’s Triumph over Mani

Bihz$d, H$tif› and Düst-Muhammad the Scribe

A tiny but lovely painting in this exhibition, orpiment-yellow on a lapis-lazuli background, helps
disclose the civilization’s worldview when Islamic book illustration reached its sixteenth-century
zenith (cat. no. 137; fig. 1).
It depicts the poet H$tif›, a member of the intellectual elite of Herat, a wealthy oasis (now
in western Afghanistan) which fifteenth-century caravan prosperity turned into the creative
hearth and idealized cultural model of the entire Eastern Islamic world from Istanbul to Delhi for
the finest architecture, subtlest erudition, loveliest poetry in Persian or Turkish and most
admired school of manuscript painting. Prince B$bur of Kabul wrote in 1506 in his memoirs that
whatever talented people in Herat set out to do, they carried to perfection.8
Herat’s kingdom collapsed in 1507, but the city retained cultural prestige as Sunni Uzbeks
and Shi‘i Safavids warred for its possession. The Safavids prevailed. When young Sh$h Ism$‘›l,
founder of Iran’s new Safavid dynasty in 1501, entered the oasis in triumph in 1510, city notables
donned the Shi‘i turban wrapped around a tall red skullcap in sign of allegiance. The painting
emphasizes such fealty by a nephew of the famous J$m› himself (1414–1492), once the most
eminent Sunni theologian and Persian poet of his day. Sh$h Ism$‘›l visited the younger poet in
the latter’s garden in the winter of 1511.
A telltale sign in the picture indicates how important this interview was regarded by the
Shah. The poet sports not only the “redhead” or q›z›lb$fl turban of Safavid allegiance, but also a
kerchief tucked into his belt: no frivolous detail, but an iconographic motif adopted in Islamic art
to mark a royal wearer, harking back to Roman and Byzantine imperial symbolism where the
mappa or cloth gripped by officials was brandished to signal the start of the games and to
display legitimate power – and thus is still seen clutched, or hanging from a sash, in pictures of
Ottoman and other princes. The painting, in effect, recognized H$tif› as heir to his uncle’s
literary and spiritual glory and so symbolically a “poet of kings and king of poets”9 – now in
Sh$h Ism$’›l’s service.
Ism$‘›l commissioned H$tif›, who had long tried his hand at emulating Niz$m›’s
narratives, to write an epic in Firdaws›’s vein in the shah’s own praise. H$tif›, who died in 1521,
never secured the same literary niche – “not so nice as reputed to be”, according to Prince
B$bur;10 “he did not successfully reach completion”, in the words of the Safavid chronicler
Khw$ndam›r.11 The painting of H$tif› is in a sense more important than the poet H$tif›.
For it is by Bihz$d, the most famous manuscript-illuminator of late fifteenth-century
Herat, who pledged homage to the Shah in 1510, and in 1522 was appointed guild-master of all
artists of the book throughout the Safavid empire. Bihz$d until his death in 1535 presided at least
hierarchically (for his eyesight may have been failing) over the skilled illuminators who worked
between 1522 and 1540 in the Safavid capital of Tabriz on the superb copy of Firdaws›’s
Shahnama, made first for Sh$h Ism$‘›l (who died in 1524), then for Sh$h Tahm$sp (r.
1524–1574), who ultimately presented the work as a diplomatic gift to his fellow-ruler, Ottoman
sultan Selim II, in 1568. Bihz$d’s portrait shows the psychological penetration of his art: his soft
244 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

shading that rounds a lifelike face and furrows a brow, possibly a distant but real reflection of
Venetian influences that seeped into Ottoman painting in the late 1470s and travelled farther
east. Indeed a sensitive copy, after a “Portrait of a Turkish Artist” drawn by Gentile Bellini in
Istanbul, came to be attributed to Bihz$d himself, and was even believed to be his self-portrait.12
The Persian inscription in gold “suspended cursive” or nasta‘l›q affirms attribution of the
H$tif› portrait to Bihz$d – “a portrait [sürat] of the Reverend [mawl$n$ = mevl$n$] ‘Abdull$h
H$tif›, a work by Master Bihz$d” – and was written by the scribe Düst-Muhammad of Herat, who
included this picture in an album of paintings and calligraphies compiled for the Safavid prince
Bahr$m M›rz$ in 1544. Düst-Muhammad’s preface to the album significantly focuses on the
disquieting achievement of Mani – in contrast to the legitimate painting of Christian Byzantines
and then of Muslim masters culminating in Bihz$d. The scribe himself never saw any authentic
Manichaean manuscript illuminations, but their distant splendour still glimmers in his writings
as a potent, even defining myth:

Mani began to pretend to prophesy and made this claim acceptable in the eyes of the
people by cloaking it in portraiture [lib$s-i süratgar›]. Since the people expected a miracle
of him, he took a span of silk, went into a cave and ordered the entrance closed. When
one year had passed from the time of his withdrawal, he emerged and showed the silk.
On it he had painted and portrayed the likenesses of humans, animals, trees, birds and
various shapes that occur only in the mirror of the mind through the eye of imagination
and that sit on the page of possibility in the visible world only with fantastic shapes.
The short-sighted ones whose turbid hearts could not reflect the light of Islam, duped
by his game, took his painted silk, which was known as the Artang› Tablet, as their
copybook for disbelief.13

Düst-Muhammad chose his words with symbolic care to portray Mani as humanity’s
supreme Anti-Prophet, to the point of diabolically caricaturing in advance Muhammad’s own
spiritual retreat into a cave, representing him as an arch-adversary because he was a genius skilled
in figurative art, the better to ensnare our souls. In a curious twist, Düst-Muhammad makes his
Mani play the role of the evil god of the Manichaean scriptures themselves. But in line with the
main tenets of his Neoplatonising Sufi thought, Düst-Muhammad posits a visible world which is
God’s own mirrored icon or image (sürat) – provided our purified human souls are capable of
recognizing the divine One underlying, and reflected in, the visible mirror of the Many.
The Devil, however, in his guise as Mani, distracts human souls from perceiving the One in
the multiplicity of mirrored images on earth. Hence Mani’s diabolic idolatry turns mirroring icons
(suwar) into opaque idols (asn$m). Such idols “mask” or “cloak” the One from duped human eyes
like the silken curtain or screen of Mani’s Artang. The “cloaking of portraiture” [lib$s-i süratgar›]
that Mani wove is the scribe’s direct allusion to the Devil’s very name in Arabic, Ibl›s: believed by
Muslim commentators since the tenth-century Sufi master al-Hall$j to derive from the Arabic root-
consonants l-b-s, implying the notion of “cloaking”, “clothing”, “veiling” (the name in fact is an
Arabization of Greek diabolos). Düst-Muhammad’s Mani stands for all idolatrous art.
Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 245

Fig.1 Portrait of the poet

H$tif›, with inscriptions
naming Bihz$d as the artist,
c. 1511 (cat. no. 137).
246 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

Christian icons, however, if correctly perceived as partial mirrors of the One, do enjoy holy
value even for Muslims. Düst-Muhammad is only one of many traditional Sufi writers to show
considerable appreciation for Christian art – believed by him to have originated with the visions
of the Biblical worthy Daniel – and its portraits of the prophets as visible mirrorings of divine
archetypes, an artistic tradition valid in its time until superseded by Islam:

From that time forward the continuity of portraiture [tasw›r] has continued beneath the
azure dome of the sky, and the likeness [of the prophets from Adam to Muhammad] that
was painted by the Prophet Daniel was meticulously preserved by the ruler of Byzantium
in his treasury until the death of the Best of Mankind [Muhammad]. Therefore, portraiture
is not without justification, and the portraitist’s conscience need not be pricked by the
thorn of despair.14

The challenge, for a Muslim artist, lay in learning to refract the divine archetypes upon the
shining mirror of his own spotless heart, so as always to direct the gaze of his viewers towards the
One lying beyond all images – and not away from the One, as Mani had. A Muslim painter needed
thus to surpass Mani not only in artistic skill, but also in an eternal triumph of mystical perception
of the underlying One, over the dazzling but illusory Manichaean idolatry of the “cloaking” Many.
Such triumph over Mani, according to the sixteenth-century Muslim chroniclers of the
arts, had finally been won by Bihz$d: as peerless artist of Islam, even as a spiritual archetype.
Writing in 1587 in Istanbul, the Turkish chronicler ‘Al› Efendi repeats a literary convention
already accepted by his entire civilization – from the Ottoman Empire through Safavid Persia to
Mughal India – in pairing the twinned names of Mani and Bihz$d as polar opposites of artistic
supremacy, one in blasphemy, the other for true faith: M$n› yarad›l›fll› ve Bihz$d qalemli bir
sanatç›d›r, “such-a-one’s art was like Mani’s creations and Bihz$d’s pen”.15 ‘Al› Efendi begins his
own list of named artists with Bihz$d, as if none before him were worthy of note – except his
Satanic counterpart, Mani. Ottoman, Safavid and Mughal chancery scribes alike busily collected
works of Bihz$d (or forgeries thereof) in albums for their royal patrons. In the words of Düst-
Muhammad introducing his own portfolio: “The most excellent of the moderns in depiction,
pride of the ancients in illumination and outlining, the rarity of the age, Master Kam$ludd›n
Bihz$d is beyond all description. In this album [his work] is much in evidence”.16
Düst-Muhammad’s preface retraces the type of Islamic book-painting appreciated in his
own age to the patronage of the converted Mongol emperors of the Near East (at the turn of the
fourteenth century), when new Chinese influences combined with earlier Byzantine and Sasanian
prototypes “and Master Ahmad Müs$ …lifted the veil from the face of depiction [tasw›r], and the
style of depiction that is now current was invented by him”.17 Individual Muslim artists’ names
in Düst-Muhammad’s chronicle thus interestingly emerge from anonymity much in the same
late medieval period, ca. 1300–1335, as the Italian painters in Vasari’s chronicle. But however
vigorously renewed their style, the two preferred illustrated books of the Persianized Mongol
rulers in Tabriz endured tenaciously the same, as Düst-Muhammad tells us: the Epic of Kings or
Shahnama, and the Kal›la wa Dimna.18
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 247

Yet Düst-Muhammad’s text remains perhaps less valuable for his stylistic critiques,
although the scribe had a sharp eye,19 than for his Sufi perceptions regarding his culture’s art
which he shares with his fellow Safavid chronicler, Khw$ndam›r.
Khw$ndam›r, like Düst-Muhammad a scion of the cultural elite of Herat, also prefaced a
royal album of Bihz$d’s pictures and composed the edict of 1522 by which Sh$h Ism$‘›l
appointed Bihz$d as guild-master of all book-artists in his realm. Khw$ndam›r’s language draws
heavily on mystical terminology influenced by the greatest of Herat’s theologians, J$m›, and
beyond, Ibn ‘Arab›.20 In virtue of the Qur’anic verse 40:64 (wa-sawwarakum fa-ahsana
suwarakum, “He wrought your figure and made your figures most beautiful”) stressing God’s
creation of the supremely beautiful human “figure” or “icon” [süra], Khw$ndam›r makes Bihz$d
conquer Mani in an archetypal mental tableau – like Christ vanquishing the Devil in a
Byzantine fresco (Eusebius of Caesarea too called “Manes” the Devil himself) – frozen in
glory for all eternity:

…Ust$d Kam$ludd›n Bihz$d-r$ kih az qalam-i chihreh-gush$-yash j$n-i M$n› khajal shudeh-o
az kilk-i sürat-$r$-yash Lawh-i Artang munfa‘il gashteh…
… Master Kam$ludd›n Bihz$d, through his portrait-painting stylus, put Mani’s soul to
shame, and by his icon-adorning brush, humiliated the Tablet of the Artang…. 21

Bihz$d yag$neh-yi zam$neh, M$n› ba-zam$n-i ü afs$neh!

Mü-yi qalam-ash, zi ust$d›, j$n d$deh ba-sürat-i jam$d›.

Bihz$d is one and alone in his day!

Mani? A fable in Bihz$d’s own day!
A hair from his brush, through sheer mastery,
Might quicken with soul
Even mineral form
In an icon!22

Mü-yi qalam-at, t$ ba-jah$n chihreh gush$d,

Bar chihreh-yi M$n› raqm-i naskh nih$d.

When a hair of your brush showed its face to the world,

Mani’s face did it cancel across with a stroke!23

Khw$ndam›r’s other charged mystical allusions – all traceable to J$m›’s references to art –
include deliberate use of the same words to designate a “brush” and a “pen”, implying full
equivalence between the sanctified stylus of calligraphers, and the tool used by a figurative
painter like Bihz$d. Bolder still is his evocation of Christ’s miracle told by the Qur’an (and in
Apocryphal traditions), whereby the child Jesus moulds a clay bird and blows life or “spirit” into
it “with My permission” (bi-idhn›) (Qur’an 5:113).
248 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

Khw$ndam›r’s allusion to the Qur’anic Christ recognisably paraphrases lines from J$m›’s
celebrated allegorical romance of mystical love dated 1483, Yüsuf-o Zulaykh$ (Joseph and
Potiphar’s wife), wherein the great poet of Herat had described a mysterious magician-artist
who wrought the Lady Zulaykh$’s castle:

Ba-sang ar sürat-i murghe kash›de,

Subuk! Sang-i gir$n az j$ par›de!

And if, upon a stone, a bird’s image he drew,

This heavy stone turned light, and whence it lay, took flight!

Bihz$d introduced quotations from this same poem of J$m› into his own wonderful
illustration of the story as told by the poet Sa‘d›, in the manuscript of the Büst$n dated 1488 (now
in the National Library in Cairo) – undoubtedly with J$m›’s permission. Did J$m› then imply Bihz$d
himself? Khw$ndam›r, certainly, took J$m›’s hint specifically to apply to Bihz$d. Yet another Safavid
scribe, M›r Sayyid Ahmad, offers a stylized variation of both J$m›’s and Khw$ndam›r’s verses, in still
another preface for a picture album dated 1564–1565 (now preserved in Istanbul): verses that
circulated so widely that they were repeated verbatim (without credit) by Q$z› Ahmad Qumm›, in
his own chronicle of the arts dated 1596, making the Christlike allusion to Bihz$d – as a Muslim
artist blessed by God as if a new child Jesus – both limpid and irrefutable:

Büd sürat-i murgh-i ü dil-paz›r,

Chü murgh-i Mas›h$ shudeh rüh-g›r!

The very bird he painted – an icon dear to hearts! –

Like to the very bird of Christ took soul!24

Their meaning in the cultural context is clear: Bihz$d’s art, in contrast to Mani’s, is
sanctified through God’s permission, both because it directs our eyes towards the Creator, and
because, like Christ, the artist receives from God that “spirit” which quickened the moulded bird
of inert matter. As guild-master of the book-craftsmen, Bihz$d corresponds to the Sufi shaykh of
a holy Order, who spiritually guides his disciples through his crystalline mental refraction of the
divine archetypes. In light of the Sufi language of these sixteenth-century scribes, it becomes
difficult to dismiss the great paintings of the age which illuminated the Shahnama and Kal›la wa
Dimna – and their many variants – as frivolous adornment of mere anecdotal import. Instead,
the paintings become allegorically translucent meditations upon the texts they accompany or –
if isolated in an album – to which they allude.

The Portrait of Sultan Sel›m II

Even a court portrait, like the Ottoman artist Ra’›s Haydar Nig$r›’s depiction of Sultan Selim II
made c. 1570, sparkles with the visual symbols of a devout and erudite civilization (cat. no. 134).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 249

The painting, for all the massive strength of its stout sultan packed in layers of gold, vermilion
and lapis-lazuli robes, may lack the subtlety of Bihz$d’s H$tif›, but the Ottoman world-ruler grips
the princely kerchief inherited from Byzantine emperors, and also the world-mirroring cup of
ancient Persian heraldry, assimilated in Eastern Islamic tradition with Solomon’s cup, held tight
against his heart because it symbolizes his own pure heart. The sultan’s caftan patterned like a
tiger-pelt recalls yet another mythic Persian hero: Rustam (Rüstem), the Iranian lion-, panther- or
tiger-clad Heracles, slayer of dragons and other embodiments of evil.25 The whole painting, in
fact, alludes to the Epic of Kings: turning the Ottoman sultan into a Shahnama hero himself.
Selim II was not only presented with Sh$h Tahm$sp’s great copy of the epic in 1568, but became
the subject of an illustrated Ottoman Persian-language epic of his own rule and conquests,
modelled directly on Firdaws›’s poem: the Sh$h-N$meh-yi Sel›m Kh$n, completed by the court
poet Luqm$n in 1581 (some seven years after the sultan’s death in 1574).

Sh$h Tahm$sp’s Book of Kings: the Sky-Hero and the Dragon

In Tabriz, capital of neighbouring Safavid Iran, Sh$h Tahm$sp’s gifted and highly literate artists,
at first under the spiritual directorship of Bihz$d, laboured through the 1520s to 1530s on the
world’s most celebrated copy of the Shahnama. Assisted by his disciple M›r Sayyid ‘Al›, Master
Sult$n-Muhammad probed the symbolism of the story of “Prince Far›dün chains the Dragon-
King Zahh$k in a cave” (cat. no. 121) through dizzy layers of meaning that plunge to the roots of
Iranian mythology.
No detail introduced by Sult$n-Muhammad in visual comment to the text is gratuitous.
Prince Far›dün wields the bull-headed mace that in Avestic lore symbolised the fertilising
thunderbolt with which the Celestial Hero Thraêtaona (the ancient form of the name), on
Spring’s “New Day” of 21 March, smote and tore asunder the Dragon-Cloud of Winter –
rendered visible by the artist in the contorted vapour above the cave, in clear allusion to the
Dragon-King chained below – and so bestowed life-giving rain.
But Firdaws›’s epic, written in Islamic times, subtly implied symbolic Islamic parallels to
cherished Iranian myths. In Avestic tradition, the Dragon-Cloud of winter had been a three-
headed monster called the Verethra (the “Withholder” of rain) and also the Azh›-Dah$ka (the
“Snakelike Man”), smitten and slain by the lightning-mace of the celestial hero Thraêtaona (the
Iranian counterpart to the sky-gods Thor, Zeus and Indra). Yet in the texts of Muslim authors
as early as Tabar›, and very much including Firdaws›, the Dragon-King’s name in pseudo-
Arabized form became derogatory D’ah’h’$k or Zahh$k, a pun on “buffoon” in Arabic script.
Firdaws›, like Tabar›, describes the monster as an evil three-headed human king with a man’s
face between two serpents sprouting on his shoulders (fed with human brains). But Firdaws›
keeps his “Zahh$k” alive after “Far›dün” smites him, so that, once vanquished, the Dragon-
King is chained inside a hollowed rock: both in the poem, and in Sult$n-Muhammad’s painting,
this imagery is used deliberately to suggest an analogy to the famous demon Sakhr (“the stone-
devil”) of Islamic lore – who once usurped Solomon’s throne, and then was incarcerated by
Solomon in a prison of rock. Sult$n-Muhammad’s mountainscape bristles with demon-faces
lurking in the rocks: a visual gloss, and recurrent convention, of fifteenth- and sixteenth-century
250 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

Islamic illustrations, to stress the eternal parallel triumphs of “Far›dün” and “Solomon” over
the demons.
In fact the successive heroes of the Shahnama symbolize the recurrent sky-force of divine
victorious light under many names – from Far›dün to Kay-Khusraw to Rustam to Bahr$m –
whose thunder-bolts and solar rays, depicted as mace, sword, lance or arrows, pierce and rend
the dragons of night, chaos and stormclouds. The eloquent illumination by M›rz$ ‘Al› (cat. no.
123), Sult$n-Muhammad’s gifted son and pupil, significantly links a sunburst over the horizon,
chü khursh›d bar zad sin$n az fir$z (“just as the sun shot down darts from on high”), with Prince
Gusht$sp’s archetypal victory over the Night-Dragon: transfixed with sun-arrows, then lacerated
by the solar hero’s blade.
Since the thirteenth-century Mongol conquests dragon designs in Islamic art had been
derived from Chinese silks and porcelains, but absorbed these models with vigorous
draftsmanship and bold pigments because of the abiding significance of the dragon in Near
Eastern thought. The creature also symbolizes the rain-giving stormcloud in Chinese culture, yet
it remains ambivalent, even beneficent in Chinese eyes – but was vividly associated with Evil in
the poetic mythologies of the Near East. The Arabic for “dragon”, tinn›n, simply means “snake”.
But the neo-Persian azhdah$ – whence Turkish ejderh$ – derives from ancient Azh›-Dah$ka, the
Dragon-King of the Epic.
In M›rz$ ‘Al›’s painting, Prince Gusht$sp’s triumph over the dragon of Mount Saq›l$
repeats his forebear Far›dün’s victories over Zahh$k, and also announces those of his dragon-
slaying descendant King Bahr$m: for Bahr$m itself is the late Persian form of Avestic
Verethragna, the “Slayer of the Verethra [Rain-Withholding Dragon]”, and name of so many
Sasanian rulers. Christendom’s Saint George of Cappadocia, too, absorbed elements of this
multi-faced Zoroastrian god Bahr$m or Verethragna, worshipped in Hellenized Anatolia as
Heracles Artagnes.

S$diq› Beg, from the Book of Kings to the Fable-Book

Sh$h Tahm$sp’s brief-reigned successor in the new Safavid capital Qazv›n, Sh$h Ism$‘›l II
(r. 1576–1577), commissioned his own illustrated copy of the Epic of Kings as an indispensable
emblem of his rule. Leading artists of the new generation for this Shahnama included S$diq›
Beg, himself trained by Muzaffar ‘Al›, Bihz$d’s great-nephew and replacement as the head of the
guild of book-artists.
A boldly temperamental master with an energetic calligraphic line, S$diq› Beg (Bey), though
not a direct descendant of Bihz$d, was appointed guild-master or Kit$bd$r, “Keeper of the Books”,
shortly after 1587, by Sh$h ‘Abb$s: for talent, unlike hereditary Grand Mastership in other Sufi
Orders, did not necessarily run in the bloodline. But S$diq› Beg emphasized his own duly received
transmission of the “Bihz$dian holy zeal”, himmat-i Bihz$d›, as in a Sufi-type succession, in his
Fig. 2 (facing page) valuable written manual for guild-members, the Q$nün al-Suwar or “Canon of Icons”.26
“The ducks carry the tortoise over S$diq› Beg’s other artistic testament was his personally owned manuscript, apparently copied
a village”. Fol. 89v of the Anw$r-i
Suhayl› manuscript of S$diq› Beg,
for him in 1593 by a hired scribe for the guild-master’s private enjoyment (or rather as a model for
1593 (cat. no. 127). his guild?), of the enduring fable-book of Ibn al-Muqaffa‘ in the lovely though highly elaborate
252 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

neo-Persian rendition entitled Anw$r-i Suhayl›, “The Lights of Canopus”, by still another of
Herat’s leading literati, V$‘iz-i K$shif› (d. 1504).27 S$diq› thought highly enough of the book to
illustrate the manuscript himself (cat. no. 127). His scribe Muhammad al-Husayn› of Tabriz
remarks in the colophon: “It is written as is ordered by the rare man of the time, the second
Mani and the Bihz$d of the age, S$diq›-i Musavvir [the painter]”.28 Thus the Safavid guild-
master, in his scribe’s highest possible praise, fulfilled his culture’s twin archetypes: skilled as a
new Mani, sanctified as a new Bihz$d.
Most subjects in the fable-book rendered by S$diq›, in his expressive style rich in
atmospheric and shaded effects through sensitively applied light washes of pigment, can be
traced back to the earliest known illustrations of the Kal›la wa Dimna tradition. The motif of “The
tale of the tortoise carried aloft by clamping on a stick borne by two ducks”, on his folio 89 verso
(fig. 2), has been found carved upon a stone pillar at Bodh-Gaya in India dating from the sixth
century.29 A tortoise begs her twin friends the ducks, when a drought dries their home pond and
forces them to migrate, not to abandon her; the birds contrive an ingenious conveyance, but
warn the turtle to observe silence whatever amazed people might say. However, when the trio fly
over an amazed and yelling crowd, the impatient tortoise cannot refrain from crying out,
according to Ibn al-Muqaffa‘: “May God blind your eyes!” Faq$’a All$hu a‘yunakum! (“may the
jealous become blind to the world!” H$sid ba-jah$n kür b$d!, in J$m›’s version, or “may those
who cannot see for themselves go blind!” T$ kür shavad har $n-kih natav$nad d›d! in K$shif›’s).
As soon as she opens her maw, the tortoise – mentally blind herself – falls to her doom.
Although the obvious moral of the fable is the simple message “silence is golden”, Ibn al-
Muqaffa‘ wrapped his tale within the darker frame-story of a dangerous ocean ruled by an evil
genie (originally a Hindu god) whose waves engulf any eggs left to hatch on its beach by unwary
nesting birds as foolish as the tortoise. Manichaean-type pessimism suffuses this fable-book
whose moral message, fully shared by classical Sufi thought, warns souls (pictured as birds and
beasts) not to fall through the mirrors of illusion and the traps of haste, lust, wrath, into this
lower world of spiritual death: “that you not plunge through the terrifying sphere from the skies
onto the earth” (t$ kih dar ›n d$yireh-yi holn$k / az sar-i afl$k nayuft› ba-kh$k), as J$m› phrases his
stern rendition of the “tortoise and the ducks”. K$shif›, on the tortoise’s fall, quotes the Qur’an
(24:54) to drive the grim point home: human souls must heed the Prophet’s message, if they fail
their doom is their own: wa l$ ‘al$ r-Rasüli ill$ l-bal$ghu l-mub›n! “What pertains unto the Prophet
is only the clear message!”
S$diq› the painter coaxes his own message from the story. He retains the idea of confining
birds and tortoise to the upper right, emphasizing rather the human spectators below like the
skilled illuminator of J$m›’s version of the tale in the 1556–1565 “Freer J$m›” from Mashhad.30
But the earlier rendition was bright with richly dressed courtiers gazing up from around a
splendid royal tent. Instead, S$diq› transports the scene to a humble village, and his watching
peasants belong, each one, to a different category of age, for the story should be pondered by all
humans: an elderly man bites a perplexed finger; a grizzled middle-aged man peeks between the
brick-domed houses signifying this lower earth, one of which emits smoke (a common Sufi
image opposing this lower world to the brighter heavenly one as in “Hermes’ discourse unto
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 253

Alexander”, ba-b$l$-yi düde chun›n holn$k / furüzandeh nür›-st s$f›-o p$k, “above this dreadful
smoke shines a clean pure light” and “Alexander’s last letter to his mother” in Niz$m›’s
Alexander romance: ba-zind$niy$n-i zam›n zer-i khisht, “unto the prisoners of this earth, under
brick”; or in ‘Att$r’s and Am›r Khusraw’s repeated comparisons of this lower world to a domed
brick bathhouse or garm$beh, as in Am›r Khusraw’s Tale of the Violet Pavilion); a spade-carrying
young adult and his wife point skywards at the marvel; an adolescent also points, for his
grandmother’s instruction; a small child gapes too. Some of the village’s animals ignore the
wonder and look downwards to feed their beastly natures, others look up: a rooster, hen and
chick (three soulbirds), and the dog (a probable allusion to the saved dog of the Companions of
the Cave in Sura 18 of the Qur’an, much represented in sixteenth-century Iranian painting).
Trees and bushes line the village’s horizon: one flourishes as a saved soul, the others
twist in sterile agony as withered growths that symbolize damned souls incapable of perceiving a
divine manifestation: an image familiar to Christianity and made famous in Sufism in Ibn
‘Arab›’s Shajarat al-Kawn or “Tree of Life”, often rendered in stark allegorical contrast between a
great living tree trembling in the verdant or multicoloured joy of its foliage and branches (wa-
htazzat tarab-an shajaratu l-akw$ni wa taharraka m$ f›h$ min al-alw$ni wa-l- ‘›d$n) and lovingly
inclined towards God’s revelation (fa-m$la ilayh$ muta‘attif-an), and an opposite rockscape of
dead despairing stumps (y$bis-an wa wajhu sa‘$datihi ‘$bis-an) – as in Bihz$d’s art.31
Allegory, in the traditional literary and pictorial arts of the Islamic and Christian worlds,
needed not turn its back on mordant depictions of the living world: to the contrary, it might
invite pungent, earthly realism in sixteenth-century Persian and Flemish painting alike, in S$diq›
or Breughel. S$diq›’s verve, sense of allegory, psychological penetration, and hints of shading
and modelling were appreciated in Mughal India where this very manuscript, as specified on its
own flyleaf, was presented as a gift in 1618 by the wealthy Persian-born officer M›r Jumla to the
emperor Jah$ng›r.

‘Abd al-Samad’s Prince and Hermit

Just how much Indian painting at the court of the Great Mughals, by the later sixteenth century,
owed to Timurid and Safavid Persian influences – combined with atmospheric effects learned
with increasing skill from European oils presented by the Portuguese Jesuit missions – is clearly
shown in this exhibition’s wonderful “Prince and Hermit”, finished between 1585 and 1590 in
India by the expatriate Iranian artist ‘Abd al-Samad (cat. no. 141). The painting summarizes the
aesthetic accomplishments of a century, and the symbolic language evolved by a civilization over
a millennium.
‘Abd al-Samad beautifully adapts a major symbolic composition created in Herat by
Bihz$d in 1494 to illustrate Niz$m›’s Iskandar-n$ma or “Alexander romance”, in a precious
manuscript which the Iranian-born artist saw in the Mughal collections (now in the British
Library, Or. 6810, f. 273r). With overlapping layers of pigment to raise up a modelled feel, ‘Abd
al-Samad softens his Herati master’s hard, jewel-like desert sparkle, with a hint of damp Indian
mist delicately shrouding distant palm-trees. The “Alexander” who kneels before this Sage is no
longer a portrait of Herat’s Sultan Husayn as in Bihz$d’s picture, but the young heir-apparent of
254 The Islamic Book and its Illustration

the Mughal throne, Prince Sal›m, the future Emperor Jah$ng›r. But much of the allegorical
language is still Bihz$d’s.
The theme of the Prince, richest man in his kingdom, dismounting to show reverence to a
cave-dwelling dervish, the poorest of men but spiritually free by voluntarily renouncing all worldly
wealth, is a central motif of royal Islamic illustrations. The fourteenth-century Indo-Persian poet
Am›r Khusraw, venerated as a holy patron by the Mughal dynasty much as Rüm› was by the
Ottomans in the West, drew upon both Firdaws›’s and Niz$m›’s epics to call his Prince
“Alexander” and the Sage “Plato”, standing for all royalty, for all wisdom – and this painting may
in fact illustrate Am›r Khusraw’s rendition of the romance.
The archetype goes back to the Hellenistic story of Alexander and Diogenes; this has been
blended with traditions of the Macedonian conqueror’s meeting with the naked Indian Brahmins,
and Islamicized not only in poetry and art, but also in court etiquette. As a new “Alexander”, the
Mughal ruler, once a week, visited a hermit, turning his back ostentatiously upon his nobles, and
knelt and listened to saintly advice. In a similar manner, his contemporary, the Ottoman sultan,
with due modesty received his sword of office, and legitimate investiture, from the hereditary
master of the Mevlev› Dervish Order, direct descendant of Rüm›.
The Tree of Life rising from the Spring of Life to bow over the saint is only one of many
profound symbolic motifs borrowed by ‘Abd al-Samad from Bihz$d and so ultimately from the
mystics, J$m› and Rüm›, Ibn ‘Arab› and even al-Hall$j. From one of the stones, moulded like a
blind demon-mask, juts up a dry stump, the mark of Satan – who sits to the far right, like an
anguished dervish, dressed in the blue of mourning like a despairing Mani, incapable of seeing
the face of the Perfect Man, who turns his back upon him to receive the properly submissive
Prince and the homage of the Tree. The archetypal triumph is, in a sense, Bihz$d’s, and beyond,
that of the rich, profoundly significant tradition of Islamic illustrative art.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 255

1 Ibn al-Jawz› (twelfth century), quoted in Adam Mez, Die 19 Martin Dickson and Stuart Cary Welch (The Houghton Shahnameh
Renaissance des Islams (Heidelberg 1922, Hildesheim 1968), 167; [Cambridge MA 1981], 118–128) consider Düst-Muhammad the
whence citation in Thomas Arnold, Painting in Islam (Oxford 1928, scribe and the Düst-Muhammad who contributed paintings to Sh$h
New York 1965), 61. Tahm$sp’s famous Shahnama before joining the Mughal court in
2 Ibn al-Nad›m (d. 995) on “al-M$nawiyya”, in al-Fihrist: Gustav Kabul in 1545 to be the same individual (see also Welch and Welch,
Flügel ed. (Leipzig 1871), 337, 21–26; R. Tajaddud ed. (Beirut 1971), Arts of the Islamic Book, 146–148); Chahryar Adle distinguishes them
400–401. (‘Les artistes nommés Dust-Mohammad au XVIe siècle’, Studia
Iranica 22 (1993), 219–296.
3 Ibn al-Nad›m’s account of the “mingling” of pure light and gross
matter in gold and silver according to the Manichaeans (Fihrist, 20 Khw$ndam›r, N$meh-yi N$m› (“Book of Renown”; 1522),
Flügel ed. 330, Tajaddud ed. 393). collection of texts preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale de France,
Paris, edict and album preface published in the original with French
4 See, inter alia, Carl Nordenfalk, Celtic and Anglo-Saxon Book- trans. by Mirza Muhammad Qazw›n› and L. Bouvat, ‘Deux
Painting (New York 1977), 7ff; and perceptive comments on documents inédits relatifs à Behz$d’, Revue du monde musulman 26
Manichaean missionaries and the spread of the codex in Peter (1914), 146–161; preface published anew with English trans. in
Brown, The Rise of Western Christendom (Oxford 2003), 82: Thackston, Album Prefaces, 41–42. J$m›’s influence on sixteenth-
Manichaeism, like Christianity, was very much a religion of the century perceptions of Bihz$d is a main theme of Michael Barry,
book. Manichaean manuscripts from as far apart as Middle Figurative Art in Medieval Islam and the Riddle of Bihz$d of Her$t
Egypt and the Turfan Oasis of western Sinkiang show the (1465-1535) (New York 2005).
unmistakable power of the codex as the bearer of a universal 21 Bouvat and Qazw›n›, ‘Deux documents’, Persian text, 160; French
religious law. A Manichaean Psalm book from Egypt even has a text, 153; translation mine.
five-page index of contents at the back; and a recent,
astonishing discovery, a Life of Mani, was exquisitely produced 22 Bouvat and Qazw›n›, ‘Deux documents’, Persian text, 157; French
in a miniature format, so as to fit, discreetly, into the robes of a text, 149; also Thackston, Album Prefaces, 42; translation mine.
traveller. 23 Bouvat and Qazw›n›, ‘Deux documents’, Persian text, 158; French
5 See Iain Gairdner and Samuel Lieu on the Mani Codex now in the text, 150; also Thackston, Album Prefaces, 42; translation mine.
University Library of Cologne, Manichaean Texts from the Roman 24 M›r Sayyid Ahmad Mashhad›, preface to the Am›r Ghayb Beg
Empire (Cambridge 2004), 40. Album (1564–1565), Istanbul, Topkap› Saray› Müzes› Kütuphanes›
6 Julian Raby, ‘The Earliest Illustrations to Kal›lah wa Dimnah’ in H.2161, folio 13 verso, Persian text Thackston, Album Prefaces, 27,
Grube (ed.), A Mirror for Princes From India (Bombay 1991), 16–31. translation mine; Q$z› Ahmad Qumm›, Gulist$n-i Hunar (“Rose
bower of the Arts”; 1596), A. S. Khw$ns$r› ed. (Tehran 1974), 134;
7 Raby’s translation (ibid., 18) renders from the Arabic of the Beirut English trans. V. Minorsky, Calligraphers and Painters (Washington
1905 and 1923 Cheikho eds. of the Kal›la wa Dimna (52), now D.C. 1959).
difficult to procure: … iz’h$ru khay$l$ti l-hayw$n$ti bi-sunüfi l-alw$ni
wa-l-asb$ghi li-yaküna uns-an li-qulübi l-mulüki wa yaküna hirsuhum 25 On the image of Heracles with club and lion-pelt in the
ashadd-un li-n-nuzhati f› tilka s-suwar. Hellenized Near East, and its formative influence on the myth and
depiction of Persian Rustam, see A. S. Melikian-Chirvani’s
8 B$burn$ma, W.H. Thackston ed. (Cambridge MA 1993), vol. II, fundamental ‘Rostam and Herakles, a Family Resemblance’, Bulletin
368–369 [177 b]: Sult$n-Husayn M›rz$ning zam$n› ‘ajab zam$n› edi. of the Asia Institute 12 (1998), 171–199.
Ahl-i fazl u benaz›r eldin Xur$s$n, bi-taxs›s Har› flahr›, mamlü edi. Har
kiflining kim bir iflkä mafl¤ülluq› bar edi, himmat› u ¤araz› ol edi kim ol 26 Persian text given by A. Y. Kaziev (Baku 1963); M. T. D$nesh-
iflni kam$l¤a yetkürgäy. Pazhüh in Hunar-o Mardom 90 (Tehran 1970); Persian text with
French trans. in Yves Porter, Peinture et arts du livre: Essai sur la
9 Sh$‘ir-i shah$n-o shah-i sh$‘ir$n: Persian chronicle by Khw$ndam›r Littérature Technique Indo-Persane (Paris – Tehran 1992); English
(sixteenth century), T$r›kh-i Hab›b-us-Siyar (Tehran ed. 1955), vol. IV, trans. in Welch and Dickson, The Houghton Shahnameh.
355.
27 Welch and Welch, Arts of the Islamic Book, 104; since E. G.
10 Thackston, B$burn$ma Vol II, 376–377: agarci lit$fat› fluhratica Browne hated this version (A Literary History of Persia [Cambridge
yoqtur. 1920], vol. III, 504), twentieth-century commentators have tended to
11 Khw$ndam›r, T$r›kh-i Hab›b-us-Siyar: amm$ tawf›q-i itm$m nay$ft. follow suit.
12 Latest research in Caroline Campbell and Alan Chong (eds), 28 Welch and Welch, Arts of the Islamic Book, 104.
Bellini and the East (New Haven – London 2006). 29 See Ernst J. Grube, ‘The Early Illustrated Manuscripts of Kal›lah
13 ‘Preface to the Bahr$m M›rz$ Album’ (Topkap› Saray› Müzes› wa Dimnah’, Eleanor Sims, ‘16th-Century Persian and Turkish
Kütuphanes› H. 2154), Persian text ed. with English trans. by Manuscripts of Animal Fables in Persia’, and Manijeh Bayani,
Wheeler M. Thackston, Album Prefaces and Other Documents on the ‘Kal›lah wa Dimnah Themes in Persian Literature’, all in Grube (ed.),
History of Calligraphers and Painters (Leiden 2000), 12 [Istanbul ms. Mirror for Princes; Bodh-Gaya illustration, 34, fig. 22, after A. Foucher,
14 recto]; Bihz$d’s portrait of H$tif› was most probably extracted ‘Les représentations de Jataka dans l’art bouddhique’, Mémoires
from this album, on which see especially Anthony Welch and Stuart concernant l’Asie orientale III (1919), 1–52.
Cary Welch, Arts of the Islamic Book (London 1982), 67–69. 30 See Sims ‘16th-Century Persian and Turkish Manuscripts’, 108.
14 Düst-Muhammad trans. Thackston, Album Prefaces. The “Freer J$m›” is the illuminated manuscript of J$m›’s collected
15 Mustaf$ ‘Al› Efendi, Men$q›b-› Hünerver$n (“Virtues of the Haft Awrang or “Seven Thrones”, copied for the Safavid prince
Artists”; 1587), Mahmüd Kem$l Bey ed. (Istanbul 1926); Müjgan Ibr$h›m M›rz$ in Mashhad in 1556–1565, Freer Gallery 46.12; the
Cunbur ed. in Latin characters Hattatlar›n ve Kitap Sanatç›lar›n›n “tortoise and ducks” illustrated story, folio 215v, attributed to the
Destanlar› (“Tales of Calligraphers and Artists of the Book”) (Ankara artist ‘Abd al-‘Az›z by the late Stuart Cary Welch (personal
1982), 118–125. ‘Ali Efendi too stresses Mani’s diabolic skill and communication), is in J$m›’s Tuhfat-ul-Ahr$r (“Gifts for the Pious”),
idolatrous influence from Iraq to China. chapter IX: “Silence is salvation’s treasure”; a beautiful reproduction
is found in Marianna Shreve Simpson, Persian Poetry, Painting and
16 Düst-Muhammad, trans. Thackston, Album Prefaces, 14–15. Patronage: Illustrations in a Sixteenth-Century Masterpiece (New
17 Ibid., 11–12. Haven – London 1998), 60–61.
18 Ibid. Düst-Muhammad refers to what are probably the “Demotte” 31 Ibn ‘Arab›, Shajarat al-Kawn (Cairo ed. 1941), 5; English trans. by
Shahnama pages (from the name of the early twentieth-century Paris Arthur Jeffery in ‘Ibn Al-Arab›’s Shajarat al-Kawn’, Studia Islamica 10
dealer who dismembered the manuscript), now in numerous (1959), 76. On its imagery reflected in Rüm›, Bihz$d, and sixteenth-
collections, and to a volume close to or actually identical with the century Islamic art, see Barry, Figurative Art, 331–338.
mid-fourteenth century Persian Kal›la wa Dimna now in Istanbul
University Library, Yildiz Album F. 1422.
256

Lâle Uluç

The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

Abu’l-Q$sim Firdaws› (c. 940–1020) completed his Shahnama a thousand years ago in the year
1010, and presented it to Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna (999–1020). The Shahnama is a long epic
poem consisting of anything between 40,000 and 60,000 verses and narrates the legendary
history of the ancient rulers of Iran. It ends with the fall of the Sasanian dynasty, before the Arab
invasion in the middle of the seventh century which marked the beginning of the Islamic period.
It is generally accepted that Firdaws› used both written and oral sources in compiling his
work. Stories about Shahnama heroes were recited orally from the earliest Islamic times.2 It is
1

known that Firdaws›’s patron, Sult$n Mahmüd of Ghazna, also had professional storytellers at his
court, who recounted him stories from the Shahnama.3 During the Safavid period (1502–1779)
storytelling in coffee- and tea-houses appears to have become very popular.4 This seems to have
continued, since as late as Qajar times (1796–1925) stories from the Shahnama were illustrated,
read and listened to, with their heroes constituting the principal role models for rulers.5
The exact version of the Shahnama as Firdaws› completed it in the year 1010 is not known.
The earliest known copy of Firdaws›’s text is an incomplete manuscript dated 614 H (1217),
which is more than two hundred years after the poet’s death.6 The innumerable later copies
show that the Shahnama became an immensely popular text and was copied constantly. Its later
copyists both interpolated and suppressed sections, altering the text over the centuries so much
that no two extant copies of the text are exactly the same.7
The earliest known illustrated copies of the Shahnama are dated to c. 1300, almost a
hundred years after the earliest known dated copy of 1217.8 When it began to be produced as an
illustrated text, painters also altered the narratives of the Shahnama episodes in the process of
illustrating them, injecting their own perceptions of the story.9 Even though earlier scenes often
served as models for individual compositions, no two illustrated copies of the text share a
common illustrative cycle, as well as carrying textual differences. As a result, each manuscript is
a unique creation.10
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 257

The earliest written sources about Firdaws› date from a century after his death.11 What is
known about the poet is gleaned through the Shahnama itself, in which Firdaws› has included
some autobiographical references.12 These indicate that he was born near Tüs in Khurasan,
probably around 935–40, and that he completed the Shahnama in 1010 and died around
1020–25.
Two often repeated legendary incidents concerning Firdaws› and the Shahnama were
illustrated in the front matter of later copies of his work, since they were both referred to in the
two prose prefaces composed for the Shahnama.13 A scholarly recension of the text with a new
preface was undertaken for the Timurid prince B$ysunghur ibn Sh$h Rukh ibn T›mür (d. 1433),14
to be used for the royal copy of the Shahnama dated 833 H (1430) produced for the prince at
Herat (Tehran, Gulistan Palace Library MS 61).15 The “B$ysunghur preface”, so named because
B$ysunghur himself was said to have been involved in its revision, replaced an earlier one, the so-
called “old preface” written for the ruler of Tüs, Abü Mansür Muhammad (d. 962) even before the
compilation of the Shahnama by Firdaws›. An extended version of this former preface was added
to manuscripts of the Shahnama before the composition of the B$ysunghur preface,16 but
Shahnama copies subsequent to B$ysunghur’s copy usually include the later Timurid preface.
The illustration of the first incident shows Firdaws› with the court poets of Ghazna. The
earliest known depiction of this episode is from a copy of the Shahnama dated 741 H (1341).17
Later copies also include this scene often enough.18 It refers to Firdaws›’s arrival at Ghazna,
where he met three of Sult$n Mahmüd’s court poets, and asked to join their conversation. They
informed Firdaws› that none but a poet could enter their company, and put him to test,
demanding that he should complete a quatrain with a rhyme that was almost impossible, by
improvising the last line. Firdaws› supplied the last line, surpassing each in poetic improvisation.
As a result, the poets recommended him to Sult$n Mahmüd (see fig. 1).19
The second incident is depicted only in a few Safavid Shiraz copies of the Shahnama from
the last quarter of the sixteenth century, and shows Firdaws›’s reception of the payment he
received from Sult$n Mahmüd of Ghazna for the completion of the Shahnama.20 According to
legend, Firdaws› was in a bathhouse when a court attendant brought him his remuneration,
which was in silver instead of gold. Firdaws› was furious and rejected the payment by giving it
away in equal amounts to a bathhouse attendant, a drink-seller who happened to be there, and
the court attendant who had brought him the money. The sultan sent him the right amount in
gold after some time, but the poet had died by then and his body was being carried out from one
of the city gates at the moment that the attendant who was sent with the just reward entered the
city from another gate.21 The illustration of the incident mostly appears in the preface of the
manuscripts, but in one example dated 982 H (1574) a double-page composition, showing
Firdaws› at the tepidarium of a bathhouse on one page and Sult$n Mahmüd of Ghazna sitting
on his throne on the facing page, was used for the finispiece (TSMK H.1497). Bags of money are
especially noticeable in both of the compositions.22
Firdaws›’s Shahnama was the first work of Persian literature to be enriched with
paintings.23 The earliest known illustrated copies are a group of four small manuscripts,
collectively known as the “Small Shahnamas”. None of them are dated, and all four were cut up
258 The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

and dispersed into collections in various parts of the world.24 It is not known where or for whom
they were made, although the accepted view is that they were produced in western Iran or
Baghdad during the Ilkhanid period (1256–1353), around 1300.25 The present exhibition has three
examples from this group (cat. nos 108, 109, and 110). Marianna Shreve Simpson, who studied
these manuscripts and exhaustively classified the illustrations of three Small Shahnamas, could
not find any material evidence of the same type of illustrated text prior to the Mongol period.26
This does not mean to say that Shahnama episodes were never illustrated prior to this period,
since scholars think that some scenes may have been represented in other media such as
metalwork and ceramics from the pre-Mongol era onwards.27
One of the most celebrated copies of the Ilkhanid Mongol period, and the arts of the
Persian book in general, is the so-called “Great Mongol Shahnama”: this is unanimously agreed
to be the most luxurious and monumental work of all Mongol painting. This sumptuous
manuscript was unfortunately also cut up and its folios were sold separately.28 It is thought to
have been produced in the 1330s, during the reign of the Mongol ruler Abü Sa‘›d (1305–1335),
and to have comprised about three hundred folios with around 190 illustrations. Fifty-eight of its
illustrations and some of its text pages are today preserved in several public and private
collections.29 A group of four dated illustrated Shahnama manuscripts follow: these are
attributed to Shiraz under the local Inju dynasty (1325–1357), governors under the Ilkhanid
sultans and after 1347 autonomous rulers of the area.30 Two more Shahnamas dated 791 H
(1370) and 796 H (1393) survive from fourteenth-century Shiraz under the Muzaffarid dynasty
(1357–1393), who ousted the Injuids from the city.31
Amazingly, a third of the illustrated manuscripts surviving from the decades between c.
1280 and the early 1350s are copies of the Shahnama.32 These comprise the so-called Small
Shahnamas, the Great Mongol Shahnama and the group of four Injuid Shahnamas from Shiraz.
These earlier manuscripts are all heavily illustrated,33 while the rate of illustration drops
dramatically with the Shahnamas of the Muzaffarid period.34
In the first half of the fifteenth century, the Timurids ruled in the area known as Greater
Iran (comprising present day Iran, Iraq, and parts of Afghanistan and Transoxiana) under Sh$h
Rukh ibn T›mür (d. 1447). Three royal copies of the Shahnama produced for three of Sh$h Rukh’s
sons – B$ysunghur (d. 1433),35 Ibr$h›m Sult$n (d. 1435)36 and Muhammad Jük› (d. 1444–45)37 –
stand apart from most of the other fifteenth-century copies of the epic. These Timurid princely
Shahnamas, completed at Herat for B$ysunghur in 1433 and Muhammad Jük› in 1444, and at
Shiraz for Ibr$h›m Sult$n around 1430–35, do not have large illustrative cycles either,38 but they
are richly produced and personalised royal copies of the epic. Scholars analysing these
manuscripts agree that they reflect the personal choices of their patrons, and that the images of
royal personages seen in some of their illustrations – especially those found in the front matter
of the manuscripts – are idealised portraits of the princes.39
The death of Sh$h Rukh in 1447 caused internecine fighting among the Timurid princes
Fig.1 (Facing page)
“Firdaws› encounters the court for succession rights, and the Timurids lost western Iran to the Qaraqoyunlu and Aqqoyunlu
poets of Ghazna”. Fol. 7r from Turkmans. During the Turkman period, the city of Shiraz in western Iran gradually became the
the Shahnama of Sh$h Tahm$sp
(AKM00156). most prolific centre of manuscript production. Between the Shahnama of Ibr$h›m Sult$n and the
260 The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

Aqqoyunlu Turkman takeover of the city in 1467, a considerable number of Shahnama

manuscripts were produced, presumably at Shiraz, illustrated in a style based on that of the
manuscripts associated with Ibr$h›m Sult$n’s patronage.40
A large number of illustrated Shahnamas survive from the Aqqoyunlu Turkman period,
many of which were produced at Shiraz. Most are often referred to as “commercial”
manuscripts.41 This designation is justified, since the absence of patrons’ names, combined with
their large numbers, implies that they were produced for sale on the open market. The present
exhibition has three examples from this group (cat. nos. 116, 117, and 118). Eleanor Sims lists
forty-seven extant illustrated fifteenth-century copies of the Shahnama from western Iran in her
preliminary list, “representing only the most accessible (or accessibly published) manuscripts”.42
Twenty-seven of those are from the second half of the century, and nine more can be added to
the list from the holdings of the Topkap› Palace Museum Library in Istanbul.43
Although there are no royal copies of the epic that carry the name of a Turkman ruler
(neither Qaraqoyunlu nor Aqqoyunlu), two outstanding copies survive from the Turkman period.
The first is presently among the holdings of the University of Michigan Museum of Art. Priscilla
Soucek, who has studied the manuscript, associates it with the patronage of the Qaraqoyunlu
prince P›r Budaq ibn Sh$h Jah$n (d. 1467) and dates it to the years of the prince’s residence in
Baghdad in the 1460s.44 The second is dated 899 H (1493–94) and is one of the most ambitious
Shahnama copies surviving from the Aqqoyunlu period, with more than three hundred paintings.
It is an exceptional two-volume manuscript with its volumes divided between two Istanbul
institutions (TIEM 1978 and IUK F.1406). It was produced for a Sult$n ‘Al› M›rz$, who is
probably identifiable with a local ruler of G›l$n, but whose patronage is otherwise unknown.45
In the second half of the fifteenth century, in addition to the total lack of a royal
Aqqoyunlu Shahnama from Tabriz,46 there is presently no known royal copy of the Shahnama
prepared at Herat under the rule of the last important Timurid sultan, Husayn Bayqara
(1470–1506).47 This has been interpreted to imply that the commissioning of illustrated copies
of Firdaws›’s epic lost its appeal for royal patrons in the late 1400s. However, in the early 1500s
the situation appears to have changed, and a much celebrated Shahnama of Firdaws› with a
dedicatory page bearing the name of, and extolations to, the second Safavid shah Tahm$sp ibn
Ism$‘›l (r. 1524–1576) was produced: this was one of the most magnificent royal copies of
Firdaws›’s epic ever made. Many artists in the Safavid royal kit$bkh$na had come from the
kit$bkh$nas of the two major dynasties that the Safavids had supplanted – namely the Timurid
atelier at Herat and the Aqqoyunlu at Tabriz – and must have worked on Shah Tahm$sp’s
Shahnama, also known as the Sh$hn$ma-i Sh$h›.48 It is generally agreed that it was
commissioned during the latter part of the reign of Shah Ism$‘›l I, and was finished sometime in
the mid 1530s.49 It is a large book (47 x 31.8 cm) with 258 illustrations,50 an illustrative cycle that
is much richer than any of the other manuscripts associated with the patronage of Sh$h
Tahm$sp or other royal patrons of the period.51 It is represented in the present exhibition by five
of its folios (cat. nos. 120–124).
Scholars attribute the remains of two fragmentary Shahnama manuscripts to the
patronage of the Safavid shahs Ism$‘›l II (1576–1577), who ruled for a short period after Shah
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 261

Tahm$sp, and Shah ‘Abb$s I (1587–1629). The first of these, yet another manuscript that was
dismembered and dispersed into various collections, is dated to c. 1576–77, the reign of Shah
Ism$‘›l II.52 The second, of which sixteen pages are preserved in Dublin (Chester Beatty Library,
ms. 277), is dated to c. 1587–97, the early years of the reign of Sh$h ‘Abb$s. They are assumed to
have been produced in the Safavid court studios: the c. 1576–77 Shahnama in Qazvin, and the c.
1587–97 manuscript in Isfahan, the successive capitals of these two Safavid reigns.53 The present
exhibition includes a page from the c. 1576–77 Shahnama (cat. no. 126).
Throughout the sixteenth century the main source of Shahnama manuscripts continued to
be the city of Shiraz. The Tahm$sp Shahnama became a model for the luxury copies of the work
produced at this provincial centre, where the production of illustrated manuscripts continued the
Aqqoyunlu-era tradition of commercial production into Safavid times. Luxury Shiraz manuscripts
were not, however, of indifferent quality, even though they were produced for sale to unknown
patrons. They are represented in the present exhibition by a single page from a Shiraz Shahnama
from the first half of the sixteenth century (cat. no. 119).
In the second half of the sixteenth century deluxe Shiraz manuscripts – especially copies
of the Shahnama – were deliberately made to resemble the royal manuscripts produced during
the reign of Sh$h Tahm$sp, and were intended for courtly consumption.54 These splendidly
produced Shahnama manuscripts occupy a key position within the prolific production of Shiraz,
since they were often the precursors for stylistic and physical developments in the arts of the
book of that city. When the overall ostentation of Shiraz manuscripts increased considerably –
from around 1565 onwards – copies of the Shahnama were the first to be produced in larger
sizes using increasingly rich materials.
When, from the second half of the sixteenth century onwards, and especially in the 1580s,
the illustrative cycles of Shiraz manuscripts were expanded to include newly created
compositions, this was naturally reflected in Shahnama manuscripts as well. Compositions
depicting aspects of contemporary life and the architectural environment, both reflecting the
urban setting and evoking the court milieu, began to appear in some copies of the Shahnama.
Several representations of sixteenth-century courtly pavilions from large Shiraz Shahnamas are
especially important, since these full-page architectural depictions represent the only
contemporary visual evidence of a type of structure of which the surviving examples date from
later periods.55
When the quality of luxury Shiraz manuscripts began to decline in the 1590s this was
manifested in a number of subtle changes, the most noticeable of which was a decrease in the
dimensions of the manuscripts. Although large luxury manuscripts continued to be produced in
these years, they appear to have been exclusively copies of the Shahnama, pointing once again to
the special status of this text. It is thus possible to trace the growth in the splendour of
sixteenth-century luxury Shiraz manuscripts, and its end, by studying only the copies of the
Shahnama, but impossible to understand this development if they are excluded from the study.
The production of large-scale and lavish-looking Shahnamas continued in Iran in the
seventeenth century. There were far fewer, but these were produced both in Shiraz and elsewhere
in what is commonly called the “Isfahan style”. The present exhibition includes a page extracted
262 The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

from such an example (cat. no. 130). These later Shahnamas appear to be a continuation of the
luxury Shiraz production, and were produced to satisfy the continuing demand for luxuriously
created Shahnamas, even though equally luxurious copies of other texts appear to not have been
in such demand.
As a result of the continuous popularity of illustrated Shahnamas, these volumes
invariably play a major role in any survey of illustrated Persian manuscripts. Firdaws›’s epic
appears to have been the highest ranking of all the Persian classics. It was the first work of
Persian literature to be illustrated, and the production of luxury copies continued almost up to
the present day. Its importance meant that it was constantly appropriated and manipulated,
especially by princely patrons. Being almost by definition a royal book, illustrated copies were
regularly produced for members of the Islamic dynasties that ruled Iran over the centuries.
Scholars have explored the ways in which these royal Shahnama manuscripts might have been
reflective of contemporary dynastic aspirations and the political realities of their patrons, in order
to serve a propagandistic function.56
The importance of the Shahnama is also implied by the relative size and richness of the
illustrated copies of the text, which are often the grandest and most ambitious of the
manuscripts produced within any given period. This is especially striking in the cases of the
Great Mongol Shahnama (the most magnificent manuscript of the fourteenth century),57 the
Tahm$sp Shahnama (of which the same could be said for the sixteenth century), the provincial
luxury Shahnamas of Shiraz from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (which comprised the
largest volumes produced in the city and had the longest production history), as well as the
seventeenth-century Shahnama copies in the so-called Isfahan style.
The celebrated Tahm$sp Shahnama, completed sometime in the mid-1530s, by itself
constitutes an excellent example through which to demonstrate the elevated status of Firdaws›’s
epic. No other book produced for the Safavid shahs had so much attention bestowed on it. Two
other manuscripts, which carry the name or titles of Shah Tahm$sp, survive today, as well as
several others which are accepted to have been produced either for him or his close relatives.58
None of these manuscripts appear to have been as magnificent as the Shahnama of the shah
himself – in other words the Sh$hn$ma-i Sh$h’ – even though they were also sumptuous court
productions of the highest order.
The preferred rank of the Shahnama is also implied in Ottoman sources and collections.
The Ottoman imperial treasury must have held a large collection of luxury copies of the
Shahnama of Firdaws› that had been illustrated in Greater Iran under various dynasties. Today,
more than fifty still remain at the Topkap› Palace Museum Library, while others from the
Imperial treasury have been deposited in the collections of two other institutions in Istanbul
founded after 1928 during the Turkish republican period, namely the Turkish and Islamic Arts
Museum and the Istanbul University Library.
The Shahnama of Firdaws› was found in multiple copies in some of the private Ottoman
libraries as well, although it was not the only Persian book that the Ottomans collected in
multiple copies. Just like the imperial treasury, which had many copies of all the Persian
classics that were produced in illustrated copies such as the Khamsas of Niz$m› and Dihlav› or
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 263

the works of Sa’d›, J$m› and Qazw›n›, private libraries also contained multiple versions of the
same work.
Although all the illustrated classics of Persian literature were collected in the Ottoman
lands, a difference exists between the Shahnama and the rest: Ottoman archival lists containing
book titles systematically list it before all other titles and mention it more than any other Persian
text. This is even more noticeable in Ottoman sources that mention diplomatic gifts sent by the
Safavids during the sixteenth century. Books were habitually used as diplomatic gifts, but specific
titles are rarely recorded in Ottoman sources even though gifts are often mentioned. If the
sources cite book names they are always at the top of a gift list, with the copies of the Qur’an
listed first, but the next title is invariably that of the Sh$hn$ma-i Firdaws›. When only a single title
was mentioned, this was almost always the Shahnama.
When Sh$h Tahm$sp sent his magnificent Shahnama as an accession gift to the Ottoman
Sultan Selim II in 1568, it was the only book mentioned by the Ottoman historian Ahmed Feridun
Pafla in his chronicle of the time.59 Although at first it might appear that this was due to the fact
that this particular copy of the Shahnama was a unique manuscript and an exceptionally
prestigious gift, the study of other Ottoman gift lists makes it clear that copies of the Shahnama
were consistently listed more frequently than any other titles in the Ottoman gift registers. For
example, the Ottoman chronicler Seyyid Lokman, in his record of the reception of the Safavid
ambassador Toqmaq Kh$n, who reached Istanbul in 1576 to celebrate the accession of Selim II’s
son Murad III, mentions a copy of the Shahnama of Firdaws› and then groups together more
than “sixty volumes of divans of Persian poets” as the rest of the books.
An earlier chronicle from c. 1525, which records the transfer of the Timurid prince Bad›‘ al-
Zam$n from Safavid to Ottoman territory after Selim I’s conquest of Tabriz in 1514, mentions
only one gift that the prince presented to the Sultan, which was a copy of the Shahnama of
Firdaws›.60
The Safavid prince Alq$s M›rz$, a brother of Shah Tahm$sp, defected to the Ottomans. He
then went back into Safavid territory with Ottoman support, conducted successful raids, and sent
some of the Safavid treasures he had accumulated to Sultan Süleyman. The Ottoman sources
mention books, but they only specify Qur’ans, and an illustrated Shahnama of Firdaws›. They also
mention a divan, a history and some other books, but without giving the name of their authors.61
In his account of the 1582 circumcision festival of fiehzade Mehmed, Ottoman historian
Mustafa ‘Ali records the presents sent by the shah, the crown prince, various princes, princesses,
and those presented by the Safavid ambassador Ibr$h›m Kh$n himself.62 He says that eighteen
books were sent by Sh$h Muhammad Khud$banda and the crown prince Hamza M›rz$, and
gives the titles of some of them, among which he also mentions that the Ottoman sultan Murad
III and his son were each presented with a copy of the Shahnama.63
The gifts presented by the Safavid delegation negotiating the second Ottoman-Safavid
peace treaty in 1590 are recorded by the Ottoman historian Ibrahim Çavufl, who gives the names
of eighteen books at the beginning of his list in his chronicle of Ferhad Pafla’s eastern
campaign.64 A copy of the Shahnama is listed directly after the Qur’an manuscripts, followed by
the titles of the rest of the books.
264 The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

Copies of the Shahnama of Firdaws› were also chosen as desirable gifts by Ottoman
officials, for presentation to their sultan. Mustafa ‘Ali devotes the third chapter (bab) of his
account of the circumcision festival of fiehzade Mehmed in 1582 to the imperial presents
received from the Ottoman and foreign dignitaries, mentioning that the third vizier, Siyavufl
Pafla, presented the sultan and the prince each with a copy of the Qur’an and an illustrated copy
of the Shahnama of Firdaws›.65
The Shahnama also contributed to Ottoman discourse.66 At first it was translated into
Turkish several times, and illustrated copies were produced in the Ottoman court studio
(nakkaflhane).67 Its second and more significant contribution was to the Ottoman dynastic
histories written by the sultan’s official court historiographer: this person was called the
flehnameci (shahnama writer) and the texts he wrote were also called flehnames after Firdaws›’s
great epic. The post of the court flehnameci was established by Sultan Süleyman I in the 1550s
and existed for the rest of the sixteenth century, until it was abolished in the early seventeenth
century. At least fifteen works are known to have been produced by the five consecutive holders
of the title flehnameci.68 The outputs of the earlier flehnamecis were in Persian verse, following
Firdaws›’s style and using the same metre as his Shahnama. This gradually changed and they
were later written either in verse or prose, but in Turkish. The fourth holder of the post,
Ta‘likizade (d. c. 1599–1600), all of whose known works are in Turkish, remarks that he “wrote in
Ottoman Turkish rather than in Persian, in compliance with the wishes of the sultan”.69
As Cemal Kafadar has explained: “A good Rumi (Ottoman) intellectual or artist may have
boasted that the Rumis had outdone the ‘Acems (Persians) and Arabs, but would never doubt the
need to be steeped in Arabic and Persian classics … which he or she would consider her own”.70
Indeed, in his Counsel for Sultans (Nushatü’s-selatin) completed in 1581, the Ottoman historian
Mustafa ‘Ali counts Firdaws›, Sa‘d›, H$f›z and J$m› among his host of spiritual teachers.71
Ottoman authors also frequently referred to the protagonists of the Shahnama for comparison
purposes. For example, the third Ottoman flehnameci, Seyyid Lokman, compared Sokollu
Mehmed Pafla to one of the rulers from the Shahnama, Khusraw, in his work Tatimme-i Ahval-i
Sultan Süleyman.72 When the Ottoman Sultan Selim I wrote a menacing letter to the Safavid
Sh$h Ism$‘›l I a few months before the battle of Ch$ldir$n in 1514, he compared himself to the
victorious Iranian kings Far›dün and Iskandar from the Shahnama, who won the crown of Iran
after a battle, and Ism$‘›l I to Zahh$k and D$r$, who lost the crown to Far›dün and Iskandar
respectively.73
Although the most common modern description of Firdaws›’s Shahnama terms it a
legendary Iranian epic, in the pre-modern period it was considered by both Persian- and Turkish-
speaking inhabitants to be part of the common Turko-Persian heritage of Western, Central and
Southern Asia, in an area that extended from the Balkans to India. Turkic rulers of the Iranian
cultural area were avid patrons and collectors of Persian and Persianate literature, and the
Shahnama was always one of the most favoured works. In Anatolia, Turkish-speaking polities
regarded the pre-modern geographic region of Greater Iran as a trilingual community of Arabic,
Persian, and Turkish speaking peoples. It was thus a Turko-Persian world of mixed ethnicities
with Iranian, Mongolian, Turkish, and Arabic populations, which was ruled from the tenth
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 265

century onwards by various Turko-Mongol dynasties originating in Central Asia.74

This Turko-Persian Islamicate culture was carried into the neighbouring lands of the
Mughal dynasty (1526–1707), whose founder B$bur was a grandson of T›mür himself. The
Mughal emperors also compared themselves to the heroes of the Shahnama,75 and collected
illustrated copies of the Persian classics, including the Shahnama of Firdaws›. In addition they
had Firdaws›’s epic produced in their own court studios as well.76
In conclusion, Firdaws›’s text can thus be considered an internationally celebrated
masterpiece in the pre-modern Islamic world, which never lost its appeal for the Persian-
speaking community. The celebrated status of the Shahnama is reflected in modern studies of
classical Persian literature and its illustrated texts as well, since it is the most studied narrative in
the group. Through the Cambridge-Edinburgh Shahnama Project
(http://shahnama.caret.cam.ac.uk), with its emphasis on individual manuscripts,77 an extensive
database of Shahnama images under development, and workshops and conferences being
organised under its auspices, there is no doubt that “another quantum leap forward”78 in
Shahnama studies is about to be achieved in the near future.
266 The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

APPENDIX Qaraqoyunlu prince P›r Budaq ibn Sh$h Jah$n (d.

1467), and Baghdad.
Chronological list of the Shahnama copies discussed
Aqqoyunlu Turkman period (1467–1510)
above:
17 – TIEM 1978, IUK F.1406 and dispersed, dated
899 (1493–94), made for a Sult$n ‘Al› Mirz$, who is
First dated copy of 1217:
probably identifiable with a local ruler of G›l$n.
1 – Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale MS
C1.III.24, dated 614 (1217), not illustrated and
Royal Shahnama of the Safavid period (1501–1722)
incomplete.
16 – The Tahm$sp Shahnama, Tehran Museum of
Contemporary Art, New York Metropolitan Museum
Ilkhanid Mongol Period (1256–1353)
of Art, and dispersed (nine folios are held in the Aga
2 – The first Small Shahnama, dispersed, no date, c.
Khan Museum Collection), c. 1530s, made for the
1300, west Iran or Baghdad
second Safavid shah Tahm$sp ibn Ism$‘›l (r.
3 – The second Small Shahnama, dispersed, no
1524–1576) at the Safavid capital of the period,
date, c. 1300, west Iran or Baghdad
Tabriz.
4 – The Freer Small Shahnama, dispersed, no date,
17 – The 1576–77 Shahnama, dispersed and
c. 1300, west Iran or Baghdad
undated, associated with the patronage of Sh$h
5 – The Metropolitan Museum of Art Small Shahnama,
Ism$‘›l II (1576–77) and the Safavid capital of the
dispersed, no date, c. 1300, west Iran or Baghdad.
period, Qazvin.
6 – The Great Mongol Shahnama, dispersed, no date,
18 – The 1587–97 Shahnama, Dublin Chester Beatty
c. 1330, associated with the patronage of the Mongol
Library, ms. 277 (sixteen pages) and dispersed,
ruler Abü Sa‘›d (1305–1335) and the city of Tabriz.
undated, associated with the patronage of Sh$h
‘Abb$s I (1587–1629) and the Safavid capital of the
Shiraz Injuid period (1325–1357)
period, Isfahan.
7 – TSMK H.1479, dated 731 H (1330), Shiraz.
8 – St. Petersburg, National Library of Russia Dorn
329, dated 733 H (1333), Shiraz
9 – Shahnama dated 741 H (1341), dispersed, Shiraz.
10 – Shahnama dated 752 H (1352–53) (sometimes
referred to as the Stephens Shahnama after its
owner at the time of the 1931 London exhibition),
dispersed, Shiraz.

Shiraz Muzaffarid period (1357–1393)

11 – TSMK H. 1511, dated 791 H (1370), Shiraz.
12 – Cairo, Dar al-Kutub Ms. Ta’rikh Farisi 73, dated
796 H (1393), Shiraz.

Princely Shahnamas of the Timurid period (1396–1510)

13 – Tehran, Gulistan Palace Library, MS 61, dated
833 H (1430), made for B$ysunghur (d. 1433) at the
Timurid capital Herat.
14 – Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Ouseley Add.
176, no date, c. 1430–35, made for Ibr$h›m Sult$n (d.
1435) at Shiraz.
15 – London, Royal Asiatic Society, Morley 239, no
date, c. 1440, made for Muhammad Jük› (d.
1444–45) at the Timurid capital Herat.

Qaraqoyunlu Turkman period (1447–1467)

16 – University of Michigan Museum of Art, no date,
c. 1460s, associated with the patronage of the
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 267

1 Basil Robinson, ‘Chapter One’, in Basil W. Robinson and Eleanor 15 M.A. Riyahi, ‘Metn-i Muqaddima-i Baisunghuri’, in Ser Cheshmehai
Sims, The Windsor Shahnama of 1648 (London 2007), 15. Firdausi Shenasi (Tehran, 1372), 398; Thomas Lentz and Glenn Lowry,
2 Mahmoud Omidsalar, ‘Storytellers in Classical Persian Texts’, Timur and the Princely Vision (Los Angeles 1989), 126.
Journal of American Folklore 97/384 (1984), 204–212; Kathryn 16 Vladimir Minorsky, ‘The Older Preface to the Shah-nama’, in
Babayan, Mystics, Monarchs, and Messiahs: Cultural Landscapes of Iranica: Publications of the University of Tehran 775 (1964), 260–273;
Early Modern Iran (Cambridge MA – London 2002), 185; Kumiko Abdullaeva and Melville, Persian Book of Kings, 126.
Yamamoto, The Oral Background of Persian Epics: Storytelling and 17 This is a dispersed manuscript, folios of which have been
Poetry (Leiden 2003), xix. According to Omidsalar (204), a maternal included both in exhibitions and in all studies of fourteenth century
cousin of the Prophet Muhammad used to tell stories about Rustam manuscripts. Simpson, ‘Reconstruction and Preliminary Account’,
and Isfandiy$r in the seventh century.
223–224, pl. 10.
3 Abu al-Fadl-i Bayhaqi, Tarikh-i Bayhaqi, cited in Omidsalar,
18 All three of the royal Timurid Shahnamas from the first half of the
‘Storytellers’, 205.
fifteenth century, as well as the celebrated Shahnama made for the
4 Omidsalar, ‘Storytellers’, 206, 210, n. 13; Yamamoto, Oral Safavid Sh$h Tahm$sp in the first half of the sixteenth century,
Background, 20–21. Iskandar Munshi mentions storytellers include this scene. See Basil Gray (ed.), The Arts of the Book in
(qissakhw$n) and Shahnama reciters (sh$hn$makhw$n): see Tarikh-i Central Asia (London 1979), 173, fig. 100; Sims ‘Illustrated
Alam-ara-yi ‘Abbasi (History of Shah Abbas the Great), trans. Roger Manuscripts of Firdausi’s Shahnama’, 49; Robert Hillenbrand,
Savory (Boulder CO 1979), vol. 1, 282. ‘Exploring a Neglected Masterpiece: The Gulistan Shahnama of
5 Abbas Amanat, ‘Divided Patrimony, Tree of Royal Power, and Fruit Baysunghur’, Iranian Studies 43/1 (2010), 105; Abdullaeva and
of Vengeance’, in Charles Melville (ed.), Shahnama Studies I Melville, Persian Book of Kings, 50; Stuart Cary Welch, A King’s Book
(Cambridge 2006), 49; Ulrich Marzolph, Narrative Illustration in of Kings: The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp (New York 1976), 80, 83;
Persian Lithographed Books (Leiden 2001), 261–262; idem., ‘The Last idem, Wonders of the Age: Masterpieces of Early Safavid Painting
Qajar Shahnama: The Shahnama-yi Bahaduri (1319–26/1901–8)’, in (Cambridge MA 1979), 80; Martin B. Dickson and Stuart Cary Welch,
Melville (ed.), Shahnama Studies I, 259–276. The Houghton Shahnameh (Cambridge MA 1979), vol. 1, colour pl. 1.
6 Florence, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale MS C1.III.24; see A. M. 19 Welch, King’s Book of Kings, 81; Dickson and Welch, Houghton
Piemontese, ‘Nuova luce su Firdawsî: Uno Sahnâma datato 614 Shahnameh, vol. 2, pl. 2; Robinson, ‘Chapter One’, 14.
H/1217 a Firenze’, Annali dell’Istituto Orientale di Napoli 40 (1980), 20 In this study the Istanbul institutions Topkap› Palace Museum
1–38, 189–242. Library, Istanbul University Library and The Turkish and Islamic Arts
7 Karin Rührdanz, ‘About a Group of Truncated Shahnamas: A Case Museum are respectively abbreviated as TSMK, IUK and TIEM. This
Study in the Commercial Production of Illustrated Manuscripts in episode is illustrated in IUK F.1405, fol. 11r; St. Petersburg, National
the Second Part of the Sixteenth Century’, Muqarnas 14 (1997), Library of Russia Dorn 334, fol. 11r; London, British Library Ethé
118–134; Jerome W. Clinton, ‘Ferdowsi and the Illustration of the 2992, fol. 10r; TSMK H.1476 dated 1000 H (1591–92), fol. 10v; TSMK
Shahnameh’, in Oleg Grabar and Cynthia Robinson (eds), Islamic Art H.1497 dated 982 H (1574), fols. 518v–519r. See Lâle Uluç, Turkman
and Literature (Princeton 2001), 58; Marianna Shreve Simpson, ‘A Governors, Shiraz Artisans and Ottoman Collectors: Arts of the Book in
Reconstruction and Preliminary Account of the 1341 Shahnama’, in 16th Century Shiraz (Istanbul 2006), figs 219–225.
Robert Hillenbrand (ed.), Persian Painting from the Mongols to the 21 The earliest surviving account of this incident is found in the
Qajars (London – New York 2000), 16; Firuza Abdullaeva and
Chah$r Maq$la of Niz$m› ‘Arüd› Samarqand›, who visited Firdaws›’s
Charles Melville, The Persian Book of Kings: Ibrahim Sultan’s
grave in 1116–17. Both Ritter and Browne, drawing from this version,
Shahnama (Oxford 2008), 32–34.
say that Firdaws› gave half the coins to a drink-seller and the other
8 Marianna Shreve Simpson, The Illustration of an Epic: The Earliest half to a bath attendant (H. Ritter, “Firdevsi,” s.v. ‹slam Ansiklopedisi;
“Shahnama” Manuscripts (New York – London 1979); Robinson, Edward G. Browne, A Literary History of Persia [Cambridge 1902–24],
‘Chapter One’, 15. 135). Another version says that Ay$z brought Firdaws› the money and
9 Clinton, ‘Ferdowsi and the Illustration’. that Firdaws› gave him back a third, handed another third to a bath
attendant, and the last third to a vendor to pay for a glass of sherbet
10 Simpson, Illustration of an Epic, 227–332; Adel T. Adamova, ‘The
(a fruit drink) (Necati Lugal, ‘Önsöz’ [‘foreword’], in Firdevsi,
St. Petersburg Illustrated Shahnama of 733 Hijra (1333 AD) and the
fiehname, trans. Necati Lugal [Istanbul 1992], vol. 1, 25).
Injuid School of Painting’, in Robert Hillenbrand (ed.), Shahnama:
The Visual Language of the Persian Book of Kings (Edinburgh 2004), 22 Uluç, Turkman Governors, figs 224–226.
53. Both authors argue that in a Shahnama manuscript some scenes 23 Clinton, ‘Ferdowsi and the Illustration’, 57; Oleg Grabar, ‘Why was
would always follow traditional/typological schemes, while others the Shahnama illustrated?’, Iranian Studies 43/1 (2010), 91.
would be original scenes that were never before illustrated, and that
24 These so-called Small Shahnamas are individually known as the
the whole cycle would always be unique.
first, the second, the Freer and the Metropolitan (formerly called the
11 The earliest is the Chah$r Maq$la of Niz$m› ‘Arüd› Samarqand›, Schulz or Gutman) Small Shahnamas. It is not possible to
who visited Firdaws›’s grave at N›sh$pür within a century of the understand the exact size of their folios, since they have been
poet’s death (see note 21 below). tampered with and altered, but the written surface is on average
12 Reviewed by Djalal Khaleghi-Motlagh, ‘Ferdowsi, Abu’l-Qasem, i. 15–16 x 12 cm: see Simpson, Illustration of an Epic, 2–3, 92–93;
Life’, Encyclopædia Iranica Online (15 December 1999), eadem, ‘Shahnama as Text and Shahnama as Image: A Brief
www.iranicaonline.org. Overview of Recent Studies, 1975–2000’, in Hillenbrand (ed.),
13 The sources of the legends about Firdaws› are most recently Shahnama: The Visual Language of the Persian Book of Kings, 11.
summarized in Abdullaeva and Melville, Persian Book of Kings, 13–18. 25 Simpson, Illustration of an Epic.
For the usage of the term “front matter”, see Marianna Shreve 26 Ibid., 5.
Simpson, ‘In the Beginning: Frontispieces and Front Matter in
Ilkhanid and Injuid Manuscripts’, in Linda Komaroff (ed.), Beyond 27 See, among others, Esin At›l, Ceramics from the World of Islam
the Legacy of Genghis Khan (Leiden 2006), 213–247. (Washington D.C. 1973), 100–101; Marianna Shreve Simpson, ‘The
Narrative Structure of a Medieval Iranian Beaker’, Ars Orientalis 12
14 For a review of literature on the B$ysunghur preface, see Eleanor (1981), 15–24; eadem, ‘Narrative Allusion and Metaphor in the
Sims, ‘Illustrated Manuscripts of Firdausi’s Shahnama
Decoration of Medieval Islamic Objects’, in Herbert Kessler and
commissioned by Princes of the House of Timur’, Ars Orientalis 22
Marianna Shreve Simpson (eds), Pictorial Narrative in Antiquity and
(1992), 59, n. 11.
the Middle Ages (Washington D.C. 1985), 131–149; eadem, ‘Shahnama
268 The Shahnama of Firdaws› as an Illustrated Text

as Text’, 11; Barbara Schmitz, ‘A Fragmentary Mina’i Bowl with Sultan’, in Hillenbrand (ed.), Persian Painting from the Mongols to the
Scenes from the Shahnama’, in Robert Hillenbrand (ed.), The Art of Qajars, 119–129; Abdullaeva and Melville, Persian Book of Kings.
the Saljuqs in Iran and Anatolia (Costa Mesa CA 1994), 156–164; 37 Basil W. Robinson, ‘The Shahnama of Muhammad Juki’, in Stuart
Assadullah Souren Melikian-Chirvani, ‘Le livre des rois, miroir du Simmonds and Simon Digby (eds), The Royal Asiatic Society: Its
destin: II – Takht-e Soleyman et la symbolique du Shah-name’, History and Treasures (Leiden 1979), 83–102; Lentz and Lowry, Timur
Studia Iranica 20/i (1991), 33–148; idem, Les frises du Shah Name and the Princely Vision, cat. no. 43.
dans l’Architecture Iranienne sous les IlKhans (Paris 1996); Robert
Hillenbrand, ‘The Relationship between Book Painting and Luxury 38 The copy made for B$ysunghur (Tehran, Gulistan Palace Library,
Ceramics in 13th-Century Iran’, in Hillenbrand (ed.), The Art of the MS 61) has twenty-one illustrations; that made for Ibr$h›m Sult$n
Saljuqs in Iran and Anatolia, 134–145. (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS. Ouseley Add. 176) has forty-seven;
and that made for Muhammad Jük› (London, Royal Asiatic Society,
28 The written surface of its pages measures 41 x 29 cm. Morley 239) has thirty-one.
29 Formerly referred to as the Demotte Shahnama, after the dealer 39 Lentz and Lowry, Timur and the Princely Vision, 90, 124, 132,
responsible for its dismemberment. See Oleg Grabar and Sheila 109–110, figs 33, 40, 42, and cat. no. 21; Abdullaeva and Melville,
Blair, Epic Images and Contemporary History (Chicago – London Persian Book of Kings, 20–21, 23, figs 7–9.
1980); Sheila Blair, ‘On the Track of the “Demotte” Shahnama
Manuscript’, in François Déroche (ed.), Les Manuscrits du Moyen- 40 Sims, ‘Illustrated Manuscripts of Firdausi’s Shahnama’, 54; Basil
Orient: Essais de Codicologie et de Paléographie (Istanbul – Paris W. Robinson, ‘The Vicissitudes of Rustam’, in Bernard O’Kane (ed.),
1989), 125–131; eadem, ‘Rewriting the History of the Great Mongol The Iconography of Islamic Art (Edinburgh 2005), 260; see also the
Shahnama’, in Hillenbrand (ed.), Shahnama: The Visual Language of preliminary list of Timurid Shahnamas prepared by Sims, ‘Illustrated
the Persian Book of Kings, 36–50; Linda Komaroff and Stefano Manuscripts of Firdausi’s Shahnama’, 67–68.
Carboni (eds), The Legacy of Genghis Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in 41 The term was first coined by Basil W. Robinson: see Persian
Western Asia, 1276–1353 (New Haven – London 2003), 155–167 and Miniature Painting from Collections in the British Isles (London 1967),
cat. nos. 36–61. 91. For the arts of the book during the Turkman period, see
30 TSMK H.1479 dated 731 H (1330): see Filiz Ça¤man and Zeren Robinson, ‘The Turkman School to 1503’, in Gray (ed.), The Arts of
Tan›nd›, The Topkap› Saray Museum: The Albums and Illustrated the Book in Central Asia, 215–247.
Manuscripts, trans. and ed. J. M. Rogers (London 1986), 51. St. 42 Sims, ‘Illustrated Manuscripts of Firdausi’s Shahnama’, 67–68.
Petersburg, National Library of Russia, Dorn 329, dated 733 H (1333): 43 TSMK H.1496 dated 868 H (1464); H.1515 dated 883 H (1478);
see Adel T. Adamova and Leon T. Giuzalian, Miniatiury rukopisi H. 1489 dated 887 H (1482–83); H.1506 dated 891 H (1486); R.1542
poemu “Shakhname,” 1333 goda (Leningrad 1985), and Adamova, dated 900 H (1495); H.1478 from c. 1490–95; H.1507 dated 900 H
‘The St. Petersburg Illustrated Shahnama’. The dispersed Shahnama (1494–95); H.1491 dated 900 H (1495); H.1508 dated 902 H
dated 741 H (1341): see Simpson, ‘Reconstruction and Preliminary (1496). Fehmi Edhem Karatay, Topkap› Saray› kütüphanesi Farsça
Account’. The Shahnama dated 752 H (1352–53) (sometimes referred Yazmalar Katalo¤u (Istanbul 1961), nos. 336, 334, 337, 338, 342, 343,
to as the Stephens Shahnama after its owner at the time of the 1931 344, 345, 347. I would like to express my thanks to Filiz Ça¤man
London exhibition): see Simpson, Illustration of an Epic, 12; eadem, and Zeren Tan›nd›, who kindly allowed me to use their
‘Shahnama as Text’, 11. For the details of all four see Eleanor Sims, unpublished catalogue of the illustrated manuscripts in the
‘Thoughts on a Shahnama Legacy of the Fourteenth Century: Four Topkap› Palace Museum Library.
Inju Manuscripts and the Great Mongol Shahnama’, in Komaroff
44 Priscilla Soucek, ‘The Ann Arbor Shahnama and its Importance’,
(ed.), Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan, 286. See also Elaine
in Hillenbrand (ed.), Persian Painting from the Mongols to the Qajars
Wright, ‘The Arts of the Book under the Injuids of Shiraz’, in
(London – New York 2000), 267–283.
Komaroff (ed.), Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan, 249–268, and
Simpson, ‘In the Beginning’, 213–247. 45 The first volume from TIEM has 202 paintings and the second
from IUK has 109. About forty other images were removed from the
31 TSMK H. 1511 and Cairo, Dar al-Kutub Ms. Ta’rikh Farisi 73. See
first volume and some are now in diverse museums throughout the
Gray, Arts of the Book, 132, figs 72–73; Ça¤man and Tan›nd›, Topkap›
world. A group of paintings in the manuscript show figures with big
Saray Museum, cat. no. 54; Bernard O’Kane, ‘The Iconography of the
heads, which is the reason scholars now commonly refer to it as the
Shahnama, MS. Ta’rikh Farisi 73, Dar al-Kutub, Cairo (796/1393-4)’,
“Big Head Shahnama”. See Kemal Ç›¤, Türk ve ‹slam Eserleri
in Melville (ed.), Shahnama Studies I, 171–189.
Müzesindeki Minyatürlü Kitaplar›n Katalo¤u (Catalogue of the
32 Simpson, ‘Shahnama as Text’, 11. Illustrated Manuscripts in [Istanbul’s] Turkish and Islamic Arts
33 Simpson thinks that in the Small Shahnamas miniatures were Museum) (Istanbul 1959), cat. no. 22; Fehmi Edhem and Ivan
distributed evenly throughout the manuscripts with an illustration Stchoukine, Les manuscrits orientaux illustrés de la bibliothèque de
on at least every second or third page: see Simpson, Illustration of an l’université de Stamboul (Paris 1933), 52–54; Basil Robinson et al., The
Epic, 1–16 and 105–109. Blair posits around 190 illustrations for the Keir Collection: Islamic Painting and the Arts of the Book (London
Great Mongol Shahnama: see Blair, ‘On the Track’. Of the four Inju 1976), 160–162; Gray (ed.), The Arts of the Book, figs LXVIII and
Shahnamas, the intact manuscripts in Istanbul, dated 1330 (TSMK LXIX; Robert Hillenbrand, ‘The Iconography of the Shahnama-yi
H.1479), and St. Petersburg, dated 1333 (National Library of Russia, Shahi’, in Charles Melville (ed.), Safavid Persia: The History and
Dorn 329), have ninety-three and forty-nine illustrations respectively. Politics of an Islamic Society (London – New York 1996), 56; Bloom,
The dispersed Shahnama of 1341 and the second dispersed ‘Epic Images Revisited’, 245.
Shahnama of 1352–53 are thought to have had around 140 and 110 46 Hillenbrand, ‘Shahnama-yi Shahi’, 59.
illustrations respectively: see Simpson, ‘Reconstruction and
47 Although some authors think that an illustrated copy of the
Preliminary Account’, 226; Jonathan M. Bloom, ‘Epic Images
Shahnama was not produced for Sult$n Husayn Bayqara, others
Revisited: An Ilkhanid Legacy in Early Safavid Painting’, in Andrew
maintain that “absence of evidence does not necessarily mean
Newman (ed.), Society and Culture in the Early Modern Middle East
evidence of absence”: Bloom, ‘Epic Images Revisited’, 245. See also
(Leiden 2003), 244, n. 24.
Hillenbrand, ‘Shahnama-yi Shahi’, 54–57; Robinson, ‘Vicissitudes of
34 The earlier Istanbul copy has twelve paintings while the Cairo Rustam’, 258; Sims, ‘Illustrated Manuscripts of Firdausi’s
copy, completed at the outset of the Timurid conquest of Shiraz, has Shahnama’, 43.
sixty-seven: see O’Kane, ‘Iconography of the Shahnama’, 172, 175.
48 Welch, King’s Book of Kings, 33; Dickson and Welch, Houghton
35 Hillenbrand, ‘Exploring a Neglected Masterpiece’. Shahnameh, vol. 1, 27–51; Hillenbrand, ‘Shahnama-yi Shahi’, 59. The
36 Eleanor Sims, ‘The Hundred and One Paintings of Ibrahim- manuscript was intact until 1970 when its owner, Arthur A.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 269

Houghton Jr, dismembered it. The book, which still retains 118 of its Méditerranée 87–88 (1999), fig. 6; eadem, ‘The Ottoman
illustrations, is today preserved at the Tehran Museum of Contribution to 16th-Century Shiraz Manuscript Production’, in Art
Contemporary Art. Seventy-eight of its illustrations are held in the Turc/Turkish Art: 10e Congrès international d’art Turc/10th
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the rest are International Congress of Turkish Art, (Geneva 1999), fig. 8; eadem,
dispersed. Turkman Governors, 491, fig. 364.
49 Dickson and Welch, Houghton Shahnameh, vol. 1, 3–8. 62 Peçevî Ibrahim Efendi, Peçevî Tarihi, ed. Bekir Baykal (Ankara
50 Ahmed Feridun Pafla in Nüzhetu’l-Ahbar der sefer-i Sigetvar, dated 1992), vol. 1, 199; ‹smail H. Daniflmend, ‹zahl› Osmanl› Tarihi
976 H (1568) (TSMK H.1339, fol. 246v), describes the Shahnama Kronolojisi (Istanbul 1947), vol. 2, 259; Fethullah Ali Çelebi (Arifî),
presented by the Safavid ambassador Shah Qul› Kh$n to Selim II at Süleymânnâme, dated 965 H (1558) (TSMK H.1517, fol. 498r).
Edirne in 1568 as containing Sh$h Tahm$sp’s name and 259 63 Mustafa ‘Ali, Cami‘u’l-buhur der Mecalis-i Sur, 994 H (1585–86)
illustrations. The Tahm$sp Shahnama presently has a gilt leather (TSMK B.203, fols. 24v–36v); the same text, edited by A. Öztekin
binding and 258 illustrations, but the binding was probably replaced (Ankara 1996), 23–36, 127–150; Orhan fiaik Gökyay, ‘Bir Saltanat
at a later date since Ahmed Feridun Pafla refers to it as a jewelled Dü¤ünü’, Topkap› Saray› Müzesi 1 (1986), 31–39. The gifts listed by
(murassa) cover and one of the illustrations may have been lost Mustafa ‘Ali are very close to the official register of gifts from the
later. It is impossible to determine exactly what murassa meant in same occasion, preserved in the Topkap› Palace Museum Archives
this context. (TSMA D.9614).
51 Stuart Cary Welch, Persian Painting: Five Royal Safavid Manuscripts 64 Gökyay, ‘Bir Saltanat Dü¤ünü’, 31–39.
of the Sixteenth Century (New York 1976); idem, Wonders of the Age. 65 ‹bahim Çavufl, Kitab-› Gencine-i Feth-i Gence (TSMK R.1296, fols
52 Basil W. Robinson, ‘Isma’il II’s Copy of the Shahnama’, Iran 14 46r, 48v, 53r); Daniflmend, ‹zahl› Osmanl› Tarihi Kronolojisi, vol. 3,
(1976), 1–8; P. & D. Colnaghi (eds), Persian and Mughal Art (London 100–102; B. Kütüko¤lu, Osmanl›-‹ran Siyasi Münasebetleri (Istanbul
1976), 11, 32–47; Anthony Welch, Artists for the Shah (New Haven – 1962), 187–195; Iskandar Munshi, Tarikh-i Alam-ara-yi ‘Abbasi
London 1976), 20, figs 58–66, colour pl. 1–2, 4–5; Asadullah Souren (History of Shah ‘Abbas the Great), trans. Roger Savory (Boulder CO
Melikian-Chirvani, Le Chant du monde: L’Art de l’Iran Safavide, 1979), vol. 1, 479–483; vol. 2, 587, 612; Uluç Turkman Governors,
1501–1736 (Paris 2007), cat. nos. 71–75. Fifty-two of the miniatures of 490–441, figs 361–363.
the manuscript, which was exhibited intact at the Paris Musée des 66 Gökyay, ‘Bir Saltanat Dü¤ünü’, 31–39.
Arts Décoratifs in 1912, are known. All are from the first half of the
book. 67 Lâle Uluç, ‘The Shahnama of Firdausi in the Lands of Rum’, in
Charles Melville (ed.), proceedings of the Shahnama symposium at
53 A. Welch, Artists for the Shah, 66, colour pl. 8–11; Sheila R. Canby, Pembroke College, Cambridge University (forthcoming).
The Rebellious Reformer: The Drawings and paintings of Riza-yi ‘Abbasi
of Isfahan (London 1996), 181, cat. nos 9–12. 68 Serpil Ba¤c›, ‘From Translated Word to Translated Image: The
Illustrated fiehname-i Turki Copies’, Muqarnas 17 (2000), 162–175;
54 Lâle Uluç, ‘Selling to the Court: Late Sixteenth Century Shiraz eadem, ‘Old Images for New Texts and Contexts: Wandering Images
Manuscripts’, Muqarnas 17 (2000), 73–97; Uluç, Turkman Governors. in Islamic Book Painting’, Muqarnas 21 (2004), 22–31; Serpil Ba¤c› et
55 Sussan Babaie utilises an illustration from a Shiraz copy of the al., Osmanl› Resim Sanat› (Ankara 2006), 94–97, 114–115.
Shahnama (TSMK R.1548, fol. 489r) in her discussion of sixteenth- 69 Christine Woodhead, ‘An Experiment in Official Historiography:
century Safavid architecture: see ‘Building on the Past: the Shaping The Post of fiehnameci in the Ottoman Empire, c. 1555–1605’, Wiener
of Safavid Architecture, 1501–76’, in Jon Thompson and Sheila R. Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes 75 (1983), 157–182; Ba¤c› et
Canby (eds), Hunt for Paradise: Court Arts of Safavid Iran 1501–1576 al., Osmanl› Resim Sanat›, 97–114, 119–129.
(Milan – New York), 26–27.
70 Talikizade, fiehname-i Hümayun (TIEM no. 1965, fol. 12v); cited
56 Grabar and Blair, Epic Images, 13–28; Hillenbrand, ‘Shahnama-yi and translated by Christine Woodhead, Ta‘lîkîzâde’s fiehnâme-i
Shahi’, 69. The most extreme case of the illustrations of a copy of Hümâyûn: A history of the Ottoman campaign into Hungary 1593–94
Firdaws›’s epic reflecting contemporary private and public events is (Berlin 1983), 19.
presented by Abolola Soudavar (‘The Saga of Abu Sa‘id Bahador
Khan: The Abu Sa‘idname’, in Julian Raby and Teresa Fitzherbert 71 Ibid., 15.
[eds], The Court of the Il-khans, 1290–1340 [Oxford 1996], 98–215), 72 Andreas Tietze, trans. and ed., Mustafâ ‘Âlî’s Counsel for Sultans of
who has hypothesized that the so-called Great Mongol Shahnama 1581 (Vienna 1979), 23; transliterated Turkish text, 98–99.
was the book of Abü Sa‘›d, the Abü Sa‘›dn$ma, made for the Mongol 73 Dublin, Chester Beatty Library Ms 413, fol. 92v, line 28, cited by
Sult$n Abü Sa’›d Bah$dur Kh$n (r. 1317–1335). That manuscript was István Nyitrai, ‘Rendering history topical: One aspect of a 16th-
mentioned in a sixteenth-century text, the preface to the Bahr$m century Persian historical epic in the Ottoman Empire’, Acta
Mirz$ Album, written by the album’s compiler, Düst Muhammad Orientalia 48 (1995), 115.
(TSMK H.2154). For various views on this proposal, see Simpson,
74 Melikian-Chirvani, Chant du monde, 37.
‘Shahnama as Text’, 13–14; Blair, ‘Rewriting the History’, 47; Sims,
‘Thoughts on a Shahnama Legacy’, 274–277. 75 Robert L. Canfield, ‘Introduction: The Turko-Persian Tradition’, in
Robert L. Canfield (ed.), Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective
57 Sims, ‘Thoughts on a Shahnama Legacy’, 274.
(Cambridge 1991), 1–35.
58 Welch, Five Royal Safavid Manuscripts. An additional Tahm$sp
76 Milo Cleveland Beach and Ebba Koch, King of the World: The
manuscript that was not studied by Welch is a copy of the Gulist$n
Padshahnama (London 1997), 188.
and Bust$n of Sa‘d› dated 961 H (1554), bearing the name and titles
of Sh$h Tahm$sp (TSMK H.673): see Uluç, Turkman Governors, 77 Colnaghi, Persian and Mughal Art, cat. no. 88.
68–79, figs 29–34, 36. 78 Charles Melville, ‘Introduction’, in Melville (ed.), Shahnama
59 Ahmed Feridun Pafla, Nüzhetü’l-Ahbâr der sefer-i Sigetvâr, dated Studies I, xxiv.
976 H (1569) (TSMK H.1339, fol. 246v). 79 Robert Hillenbrand, ‘New Perspectives in Shahnama
60 Seyyid Lokman, Zübdetü’t-Tevarih, dated 991 H (1583) (TIEM Iconography’, in Hillenbrand (ed.), Shahnama: The Visual Language
1973, fol. 91v). of the Persian Book of Kings, 7.
61 fiükrî, Selîmnâme of c. 1525 (TSMK H.1597-98, fol. 140r): see Lâle
Uluç, ‘Ottoman Book Collectors and Illustrated Sixteenth Century
Shiraz Manuscripts’, Revue des mondes musulmans et de la
The Illustrated Text

Catalogue Entr›es 108 — 133

Book illustration serves to explain or amplify the book’s text, and in so doing,
provides another important function – to give pleasure to the reader. The visual
impact fixes the reader’s experience more firmly in the memory, and also expands the
emotional and cultural value of literary works. To enjoy reading a book was and is
usually a private pleasure, and enjoyment of the arts of the book is similarly personal:
while absorbing the intellectual content of word and image, the reader rests the
“artwork” in his or her hands, turns the pages with the forefinger, and holds the book
within a comfortable reading distance. The delicacy of openwork designs on a leather
bookbinding gives pleasure not only to the eye, but also to the fingertips of the
privileged reader. The arts of the book are all responsive to this sensory context of
proximity and intimacy: fine script is admirable for minute perfection, the refined
details of complex illumination pattern always reward closer study, and manuscript
paintings deliver scenes on a scale which demands and delights ever closer
examination – sometimes to the point of astonishment. Similarly, the lustre and
minai ceramic tableware of the late twelfth and thirteenth centuries are inscribed and
illustrated on a miniature scale which implies the handheld proximity of the viewer
(cat. nos. 111 – 115). This is a different mode of art consumption to that practiced in
modern times, where groups of viewers admire art objects on high plinths or hanging
on gallery walls, and are told specifically “do not touch”.
The range of illustrated manuscripts in this exhibition show the long historical
tradition in the arts of the book in the Islamic Middle East, wherein works of science
and literature were accompanied by diagrams, drawings and paintings to expand on
the message of the text. The earliest examples surviving today date from the early
eleventh century, but older historical accounts remind us that books were known to
be illustrated long before this date. Like expensive illumination or fine bindings, the
addition of paintings was certainly a luxury not available to all bookbuyers: from the
fourteenth century onwards, the most refined traditions of painting have been
associated with court patronage and the driving passion of bibliophile princes in the
courts of Iran, Turkey and India. Persian painting at the Mongol court in Tabriz
(early fourteenth century) marks the commencement of a stylistic tradition which
endured in court circles for many centuries, in Jalayirid Iraq, Timurid, Turkman and
Safavid Iran, then extending to the ateliers of Ottoman Turkey (cat. no. 128) and
Mughal India (cat. no. 129), which both admired and followed Iranian culture.
Commercial workshops responded to this royal taste, producing illustrated
manuscripts in aspirational court styles, such as the sustained production in
fifteenth-century Shiraz (cat. nos. 116 – 118).
Court production of illustrated versions of Firdaws›’s epic Persian poem, the
Shahnama, also began in the early fourteenth century under Mongol rule, and
continued over the centuries – as this exhibition amply shows (cat. nos. 108 – 110,
116 – 118, 120 – 124, 126, 130). Firdaws›’s masterpiece is of monumental length,
covering as it does the reigns of fifty Iranian monarchs in approximately 50,000
verses: the text is packed with the adventures, intrigues and tragedies of generations
of ancient Iranian kings and heroes, including always the great Rustam, and his
trusty steed Rakhsh. The great variety of episodes available for illustration, and the
consistent elevation of the Shahnama as an illustrated book truly worthy of kings, are
both beautifully evidenced by the range of scenes which follows here.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 273

Bahr$m Gür at the house of Mahiyar the jeweller 108

Legends of the pre-Islamic kings of the Iranian plateau were retained in the Islamic period through oral traditions, Folio from the dispersed “Second
and in the medieval period these were written into the Iranian national epic, the Shahnama or Book of Kings, by Small Shahnama”
Abu’l-Qasim Firdawsi. This enormous rhyming poem, completed in the early eleventh century CE, was written in Ilkhanid western Iran or Baghdad,
c. 1300
New Persian and became a cornerstone of what has been described as a “renaissance” of Persian language and
Opaque watercolour, gold and ink
culture in the medieval period. Although the Iranian lands had been under Arab occupation since the early Islamic on paper
period, and the Arabic script had been universally adopted for writing New Persian, in both metre and vocabulary 24 x 19.2 cm
– to say nothing of subject matter – the text of the Shahnama owes little to Arabic. The subject of the poem is the Inv.: AKM00016
history of the Iranian world from creation to the downfall of the Sasanians prior to the coming of Islam, as shown Publ.: Pope 1945, pl. 121; Welch
1972a, p. 45; Simpson 1979, fig. 51;
through the personal histories and exploits of a sequence of rulers. In the episode illustrated here, the Sasanian
Welch–Welch 1982, no. 13; Falk
king Bahram Gur has arrived incognito at the house of Mahiyar the jeweller and sits on cushions, holding a wine- 1985, (no. 17).
cup and listening to Mahiyar’s beautiful daughter playing the harp. The horizontal format of the image, appearing
like a framed window set into the width of the text, is typical of early Ilkhanid manuscript illustration, as is the
frontal emphasis and the placement of the figures along a single baseline.
274 The Illustrated Text

109 The sons of Far›dün at the court of King Sarv of Yemen

Folio from a dispersed “Small The group of four so-called “Small Shahnama” manuscripts from which this painting and cat. nos 108 and 110
Shahnama” manuscript have been taken, are among the earliest known illustrated manuscripts of the Shahnama. The four manuscripts
Ilkhanid western Iran or Baghdad, are clearly very closely related and must have been produced in the same centre around the same time, although
c. 1300
scholars are not in full agreement about whether that centre was in Western Iran – possibly Tabriz – or in
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper Baghdad. Each page is laid out with six text columns of naskh script framed with red lines, and from the
26.7 x 19.2 cm reconstruction of the dispersed manuscripts undertaken by Simpson (1979) it has been shown that each of the
Inv.: AKM00019 Small Shahnama manuscripts probably had a painted illustration every two or three pages. The painted images
Publ.: Welch 1972a, p. 51; Canby are frequently either four or six columns wide, and strongly framed. The solidity of their formal placement within
1998, pp. 21–22 (no. 1).
the text is matched by the close integration of text and image within their narrative role: the images normally
illustrate the text located directly around the picture space. Although relying heavily on balanced, frontal
illustrations of figures with little spatial recession away from the picture frame, depth has been suggested in this
image by the overlapping of the three princes and their ambassador on the right, and by the partly perspectival
throne of the princesses on the left. In this scene, King Sarv of Yemen (the largest and most important figure, in
the centre) has asked Salm, Tur and Iraj, the sons of the Iranian king Faridun, to guess the order of his
daughters’ ages. They manage this correctly and are eventually rewarded with permission to marry the three
princesses. According to Simpson (1979, pp. 64–65) this episode is an addition to the original text.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 275

Kay Khusraw swears vengeance on Afr$siy$b 110

The lack of a well-established tradition of Shahnama manuscript illustration at the beginning of the fourteenth Folio from the dispersed Freer
century, coupled with the decision to create a dense illustrative cycle within each of the Small Shahnama “Small Shahnama” manuscript
Ilkhanid western Iran or Baghdad,
manuscripts, presented a considerable challenge to the painters of these manuscripts. Although a dependency
c. 1300
on rather hieratic interior scenes can be observed within the Small Shahnama group, the painters also appear to Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
have enjoyed creating more inventive compositions that nudged at the boundaries of the medium. In this on paper
painting, which appears to show the king Kay Kavus embracing the young Kay Khusraw, future king of Persia and 30.3 x 22 cm
great hero of the Shahnama, the space of the picture plane has been extended through two devices. First, a Inv.: AKM00022
Pub.:Welch 1972a, p. 57.
relatively vertical arrangement of figures permits the impression of steep recession into a space behind the page,
emphasised by the large throne – a very direct emblem of kingship – that fills the space behind the embracing
figures. Secondly, the action of the scene has started to spread beyond the margins of the picture space. In
addition to the bows, staff and throne finial that have broken through the upper picture frame, the feet of the two
main figures and the red-bearded man to their left have all stepped over the bottom of the frame and are
invading the space of the text. With one foot of each of these figures aligning with a break between text columns,
the device also anchors the composition squarely within the physical format of the text. This type of margin
invasion was greatly developed in later Persian miniature painting, and came to characterise the ambiguous and
sometimes playful spatial relationships with the text block so often found in this type of painting.
276 The Illustrated Text

111 Lustre-decorated jug

Iran, late twelfth century Like the technology of fritware, which produces a fine, strong white ceramic body enabling the production of
Fritware painted in lustre on an delicate vessels such as this cup, the technique of painting ceramics in lustre glaze is also thought to have been
opaque white glaze
fully developed in Egypt before travelling eastward to Syria, Anatolia and Iran during the decline of the Fatimid
Height: 10.3 cm
Inv.: AKM00555 caliphate in Egypt in the twelfth century. In the decades before the Mongol invasion lustre ceramics came to be
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 148 (no. 116); produced in Iran on an unprecedented scale, with the potters of Kashan gaining a particularly good reputation
AKTC 2007b, p. 151 (no. 116). (Watson 1973–5, pp. 3–4), although the current lack of evidence for lustre painting in other parts of Iran should
not necessarily be taken to mean that Kashan was the only centre of production. The rapidly painted motifs of
this jug are typical of the style classified by Watson as “miniature style”: diagnostic aspects of the design include
the chequerboard trees (see also cat. no. 112 and cat. no. 113) and plants with dotted stems.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 277

Lustre-decorated bowl with horseman and camels 112

Lustre decoration involves painting the surface of the vessel, which has already been glazed with white glaze and Iran, late twelfth century
fired once, with solutions of metal compounds and then firing it for a second time while reducing the oxygen Fritware painted in lustre on an
opaque white glaze
content of the kiln, resulting in a metallic veneer that adheres to the glaze surface. Although it is a relatively
Diameter: 17 cm
costly and difficult ceramic technique, it has often been postulated that this decorative technique was developed Inv.: AKM00557
to provide a ceramic (and therefore cheaper) alternative to precious metalwork, and possibly also a means of Publ.: AKTC 2008a, pp. 232–233
circumventing the Prophetic injunction against eating from vessels made from precious metals. However, the (no. 90); AKTC 2009a, p. 182 (no.
technique of lustre painting was in fact first used in the decoration of pre-Islamic glassware in Syria and Egypt, 137); AKTC 2009b, p. 182 (no. 137);
AKTC 2010a, p. 182 (no. 140).
and this glassware probably served as a direct inspiration for the development of lustre ceramics (Pancaro¤lu
2007, p. 18). On this impressive bowl the central figure of a mounted rider – a characteristic motif of Iranian
lusterware of the pre-Mongol era, and seen also on cat. no. 111 and cat. no. 113 – is surrounded by a very unusual
frieze of camels punctuated by chequerboard trees and one standing human figure; the whole frieze is
presumably intended to represent a caravan.
278 The Illustrated Text

113 Lustre-decorated bowl with horsemen

Iran, late twelfth century Like cat. no. 111 and cat. no. 112, this bowl is decorated in the style of lustre painting termed the “miniature style”
Fritware painted in lustre on an by Watson. The similarity between the image of the central horseman on this bowl and that of cat. no. 112 is very
opaque white glaze
striking: note the near-identical poses of the horses, with their white-banded forelegs and curved inner front legs,
Diameter: 17 cm
Inv.: AKM00558 a pose which is also repeated in the frieze of mounted horsemen on this example. Furthermore, within the
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 148 (no. 115); central roundels of the two bowls the panel of “scroll and dot” decoration on the horses’ saddles and the dotted
AKTC 2007b, p. 151 (no. 115); AKTC robe of the two central horsemen (with the elaboration of a tiraz band on this example) are very closely matched,
2010a, p. 182 (no. 141). while the dotted line motif to show scrolling vegetation and the chequerboard trees are similarly executed on this
example, cat. no. 111 and cat. no. 112. The art of pre-Mongol Iran saw an intense proliferation of figural art in
almost all media and particularly in the field of ceramics, with a burgeoning iconography of pleasant pursuits
that often resemble the stock figures and compositions of manuscript illustrations.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 279

Lustre-decorated dish with seated figure 114

Although this vessel is similar in dimensions to cat. no. 112 and cat. no. 113, the figures have here been painted on Iran, late twelfth or early thirteenth
a larger scale, allowing more details of face and costume to be shown. The very rounded, heavy faces of the figures century
painted on Iranian lustre and minai wares (see cat. no. 115) of this time, which also appear in manuscript painting, Fritware painted in lustre on an
opaque white glaze
have frequently been linked to a distinctly eastern ideal of beauty. The round moon-face (mahruy in Persian) with
Diameter: 17 cm
almond-shaped eyes, thin arched eyebrows, a slender nose and a tiny rosebud mouth appears as the standard of Inv.: AKM00559
beauty in both the visual and poetic arts of medieval Iran, and the term bot which is sometimes used in medieval Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 182 (no. 159);
Persian poetry to describe a person of outstanding looks has been suggested by Melikian-Chirvani to refer AKTC 2007b, p. 186 (no. 159);
specifically to the image of Buddha and Buddhist statuary as an ideal of beauty (Melikian-Chirvani 1971, p. 60). Makariou 2007, pp. 66–67 (no. 19);
AKTC 2008a, pp. 294–295 (no. 118);
The costume of the central seated figure on this dish is also interesting, as the robe appears to sport both tiraz
AKTC 2010a, pp. 182–183, no. 142.
bands on the upper arms (see cat. no. 22) and what seems to be a crossed opening at the front of the robe, to
some extent comparable with that seen on cat. no. 21. The scene depicted here, with a large central figure seated
behind a small body of water and holding something to his chest, while two smaller figures stand to either side,
can be linked to earlier, more hieratic images of the enthroned ruler with attendants current in Iranian art from
pre-Islamic times onwards.
280 The Illustrated Text

115 Minai bowl with steep sides

Iran, c. 1200 Minai is the name given by collectors to a type of enamelled ware made in pre-Mongol Iran: the earliest dated
Fritware (?) with opaque white glaze piece is from 579 H/ 1180 CE, and the latest from 616 H/ 1219 CE, so it would appear to have been a relatively
with blue and turquoise in-glaze
short-lived practice. As Watson has observed, minai wares appear to have been made by the same potters who
painting and lustre and minai
enamel overglaze decoration produced lustreware (see cat. no. 111 to cat. no. 114 in this catalogue), and sometimes both techniques are met
Height: 13.3 cm; diameter: 29.2 cm with on one piece. Like lustre, minai requires a second firing to fix the colours that are applied over the glaze: the
Inv.: AKM00773 dominant enamelled colours are black and red, with the latter being particularly difficult to work with (Watson
Publ.: Welch 1972b, p. 147. 2004, p. 363). The strong polychromy and fine drawing enabled by the minai technique allowed potters to create
detailed images on their wares, and the predilection for figural subjects that was current at this point in Iranian
art is amply demonstrated by the teeming surface of this bowl. While each figure sits in an individual roundel or
niche, some appear from their poses to be interacting with each other across the blue interlace that separates
them. Very little manuscript painting survives from this period, and the strongly illustrative tendencies evinced in
minai ceramic decoration remain an important source for understanding the development of illustrative
techniques in the pre-Mongol era. This piece is exhibited with the kind permission of Princess Catherine Aga
Khan.
282 The Illustrated Text

116 Gushtasp working as a smith in Rum

Folio from a dispersed Shahnama The Turkman style of manuscript illustration that can be observed in the manuscripts of western Iran during this
manuscript period (see cat. no. 117, from this manuscript, and cat. no. 118) is distinguished from contemporary Timurid
Signed by the scribe Murshid ibn al-
painting by its richer palette, dominated by yellows and dark greens rather than the pastels of Timurid painting.
D›n Wazz$n
Iran, probably Shiraz, dated Additionally, the figures of Turkman illustrations are generally shorter, with larger heads, than the very long and
Shaww$l 887 H/ October 1482 CE slim Timurid figures. In this scene Prince Gushtasp, wearing a turban and leather apron and standing in the
Opaque watercolour, gold, silver dead centre of the foreground above the central division between the text columns, is working incognito in Rum
and ink on paper (Byzantium) as a smith. He raises his hammer to strike the piece of metal being held on the anvil by another
Page: 32.5 x 21.3 cm;
apron-wearing man: in the next instant Gushtasp will bring down his first stroke, his mighty strength smashing
image: 8.5 x 15.8 cm
Inv.: AKM00048 the anvil to bits with one blow. While the two men engaged in working the bellows behind the forge and
Publ.: Falk 1985, (no. 14C). hammering out a sword behind Gushtasp can be regarded as part of the story, inasmuch as they belong to the
smithy, the additional inclusion of figures that observe the action without participating in the story is not an
uncommon feature of manuscript illustration of the fifteenth century and later. Here, one man to the left bites
his finger in astonishment, while three on the right discuss the scene amongst themselves. Through the
inclusion of such figures from “the watching world” an enhanced sense of theatricality is lent to the narrative
spectacle presented in these fantastic, jewel-like little paintings.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 283

Kay Khusraw and the Iranians crossing the sea in pursuit of Afr$siy$b 117

Like cat. no. 71 and cat. no. 116, this leaf comes from a dispersed manuscript of the Shahnama dated on the Folio from a dispersed Shahnama
colophon to 887 H/ 1482 CE. The refinement of miniature painting that took place in greater Iran during the manuscript
Signed by the scribe Murshid ibn al-
fifteenth century resulted in a spectacularly colourful, meticulous idiom distinguished by several different
D›n Wazz$n
schools. This manuscript is one of a sizeable body illustrated in the so-called “Turkman School” style developed Iran, probably Shiraz, dated
in western Iran and Iranian Iraq during the second half of the fifteenth century. In this image King Afrasiyab Shaww$l 887 H / October 1482 CE
occupies the left-hand boat: the crowned king, wearing blue, sits in the prow, while three men advise him. In the Opaque watercolour, gold, silver
horse-headed boat that pursues them sits Kay Khusraw dressed in green, also with three turbaned companions. and ink on paper
Page: 32.5 x 21.4 cm;
After defeating him in battle Kay Khusraw pursued the fleeing Afrasiyab across the sea for seven months to
image: 8.4 x 15.9 cm
avenge his father’s murder. The blackened surface of the sea is caused by the oxidisation of the silver that Inv.: AKM00047
originally provided a glittering surface. In this image the reduction of certain components of the illustration to Publ.: Canby 1998, (no. 14).
entirely decorative forms can be seen in the arrangement of the flowers along the bank, as formally set out as if
they were a pattern on a textile, and the rather implausible boats, which in both form and decoration look more
like kashküls (see cat. no. 43) than seafaring craft.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 285

Afr$siy$b flees across the sea 118

The forty-three illustrations of this manuscript are typical of Turkman Shiraz style (see also cat. no. 116 and cat. Folio 278r from a manuscript of the
no. 117). Both Turkman and Timurid styles were to have a profound influence on Safavid painting of the sixteenth Shahnama produced for
Sult$n Abü ‘l-Nasr Q$sim Kh$n,
century, as artists trained in the distinct styles of Turkman Tabriz and Bihzad’s Herat were brought together in
copied by Na‘›m al-D›n Sh›r$z› ibn
one atelier. The calligrapher of this manuscript, Na‘im al-Din Shirazi ibn Sadr al-Din Mudhahhib, is known to Sadr al D›n Mudhabbib.
have copied several other extant manuscripts, dating from the 1480s to the 1500s, so this Shahnama comes Shiraz, Iran, dated 898 H /
midway through a long career. The patron’s name, written in gold in a colophon at the end of the manuscript, is 1492–3 CE
Sultan Abu ‘l-Nasr Qasim Khan: he has not been identified further. In this image of Afrasiyab taking to the seas Opaque watercolour, ink, silver and
gold on paper
to escape Kay Khusraw – the same episode is illustrated in cat. no. 117 – Afrasiyab’s boat sails past a jumbled
Page: 29.2 x 18.3 cm,
group of sea-creatures worthy of al-Qazwini’s cosmography, including a narwhal, sea serpents, animal-headed image: 17.2 x 9.7 cm
fish and a mermaid. Although this painting is rather more complex in compositional terms than cat. no. 117, the Inv.: AKM00269
formal similarities between the horse-headed boat of this image, with its gold filigree decoration on black, and Publ.: (Including other folios from
the boats depicted in cat. no. 117, demonstrate the standardisation of motifs across Turkman book painting in this manuscript): Welch 1978b,
pp. 23–31 (fol. 218v); AKTC 2007a,
the late fifteenth century. A further image from the same manuscript is illustrated opposite: this shows Rustam
p. 156 (no. 125); AKTC 2007b,
rescuing Bizhan from the pit (fol. 218v). p. 158 (no. 125); AKTC 2010a,
p. 208 (no. 159; fol. 218v).
286 The Illustrated Text

119 Iskandar reaches the garden of Iram

Folio 382v from a manuscript of the The Khamsa (Quintet) is a posthumous collection of five long poems in Persian composed by Nizami of Ganja
Khamsa (Quintet) of Niz$m›, copied (in present-day Azerbaijan), who died in 1209. The poems of the Khamsa are the Makhzan al-Asrar or “Treasury
by P›r Husayn ibn P›r Hasan al- of Mysteries” (a compendium of moral discourses, each illustrated with an exemplary story); the romance
K$tib al-Sh›r$z›, illustrated by Ghiy$t
Khusraw u Shirin; the tragic love story of Layla u Majnun; the Haft Paykar or “Seven Beauties” (a romanticized
al-Mudhabbib
Shiraz, Iran, dated 20–30 Rab›‘ al- biography of the Sasanian king Bahram Gur); and the Iskandar-nama, the life and fantastic exploits of Alexander
Awwal 933 H/ 25 December 1526 – the Great, from which last poem comes this painting. In this illustrated version of the text, all twenty-seven
4 January 1527 CE miniatures appear to be by the same artist, Ghiyath al-Mudhahhib (“Ghiyath the gilder”), who has signed this,
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold the last miniature in the book: his name appears directly below the dome of the fortress. Although the colophon
on paper with contemporary gilt
names a scribe, Pir Husayn ibn Pir Hasan al-Katib al-Shirazi, it does not identify a patron. Anthony Welch has
leather binding
33.5 x 20.2 cm suggested that this book may have been produced for a wealthy individual of high standing or perhaps for the
Inv.: AKM00270 governor of Shiraz, as no Safavid prince lived in Shiraz during the period of production for the manuscript
Publ.: (Including other folios from (Welch–Welch 1982, p. 76). In the present image Iskandar and his companion have come upon the entrance to
same manuscript) Welch 1978b the mythical garden of Iram; they are observed from behind the hill by sinister watching figures.
(ms. 15); Welch–Welch 1982,
pp. 74–76 (no. 22); AKTC 2009a,
pp. 194–195 (no. 148); AKTC 2009b,
pp. 194–195 (no. 148); AKTC 2010a,
pp. 194–195 (no. 153).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 287

Folio 53v from the Shahnama of Sh$h Tahm$sp 120

Salm and Tür receive the reply of Far›dün and Manüchihr
Iran, Tabriz, c. 1520–1530
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
This is one of five illustrations from Shah Tahmasp’s extraordinary manuscript of the Shahnama displayed in this
on paper
exhibition (see also cat. no. 121, cat. no. 122, cat. no. 123 and cat. no. 124). The manuscript was initiated by Shah 47.1 x 32 cm
Isma‘il (r. 1501–1524) and completed by his son Shah Tahmasp (r. 1524–1576). Over a dozen painters, as well as Inv.: AKM00495
calligraphers, illuminators, bookbinders, and others expert in polishing, ruling and gold stippling, along with a Publ.: Makariou 2007,
whole team of assistants, worked for almost twenty years to create one of the most sumptuous manuscripts ever p. 76 (no. 23).

produced. In the twentieth century the manuscript lost its colophon and a large part of the research done by art
historians has focused on the identification of the workshop chiefs and painters. Before it was dismantled in the
1970s, the complete manuscript consisted of 759 folios, including 258 miniatures. In this painting the good king
Faridun and his grandson Manuchihr have sent a messenger with a warning of vengeance to Faridun’s treacherous
sons Salm and Tur, who killed their brother Iraj (Manuchihr’s father and Faridun’s most favoured son). Salm and
Tur, here depicted surrounded by courtiers and guards in a luxurious encampment, are visibly horrified: “The envoy
having further told the message/Of Faridun, those tyrants’ hearts grew sore/ Their faces blue as lapis lazuli”. The
painter of this image, which is attributed to ‘Abd al-‘Aziz, took advantage of the “twin” courts of Salm and Tur to
create a symmetrical image, with the two princes on double thrones, flanked by their retinue to right and left, and
echoed by the two hills in the background and the two tents shaded by two trees under the golden sky.
288 The Illustrated Text

121 Folio 37v from the Shahnama of Sh$h Tahm$sp

The death of Zahh$k
Iran, Tabriz, c. 1535
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
This painting concludes the cycle of King Zahhak, who had gained his throne by making a pact with the devil
on paper
47 x 31.8 cm Iblis. Early in Zahhak’s reign, Iblis arrives at the court disguised as a cook and contrives to kiss Zahhak’s
Inv.: AKM00155 shoulders. Two serpents sprout from the spots kissed by Iblis, and to maintain his life Zahhak is required daily to
Publ.: Welch 1976b, pp. 44–47; feed human brains to the serpents. A tyrannical rule ensues and the only hope for justice rests with the hero
Dickson–Welch 1981, col. pl. 6 and Faridun. Despite Zahhak’s efforts, Faridun eludes capture, rises up against the king, and overthrows him. “The
pl. 24; Falk 1985, no. 45; Canby
death of Zahhak” depicts the moment when Zahhak has been brought to Mount Damavand and is suspended in
1998, p. 50 (no. 26); AKTC 2010a,
pp. 216–217 (no. 164). a cave, as per the advice of the angel Surush, where he will suffer until death. Though one cannot fail to see the
primary content – a frail, white-haired Zahhak chained to the walls of the cave, a dark, terrifying hole – the
pictorial narrative is treated with a complexity equal to other paintings in Shah Tahmasp’s Shahnama. “The death
of Zahhak,” a story concerned with the execution of justice and the inauguration of Faridun’s enlightened reign,
has been expanded into a scene of al fresco courtly life, highlighting some of the Iranian ruler’s prerogatives.
Faridun and his courtiers have dismounted from their horses and explore the landscape, while the presence of a
musician emphasizes the courtly ambience. The tranquility of the lower half of the painting is contrasted with the
upper half, where one finds Zahhak imprisoned in the cave and swirling clouds, some assuming biomorphic
forms as dragons, encircling the bare and rocky mountain.
290 The Illustrated Text

122 Folio 84v from the Shahnama of Sh$h Tahm$sp

Sindukht brings gifts to the court of S$m
Iran, Tabriz, c. 1522–1535
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
The paintings of Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp, as well as showcasing several artists at the peak of their skills,
on paper
46.5 x 31.2 cm plunge us into Safavid court life. Indeed, although the Shahnama depicts the legendary and pre-Islamic history of
Inv.: AKM00496 Iran, the artists represented the characters in clothing from the period of Shah Tahmasp. In the story cycle to
Publ.: Makariou 2007, which this folio relates, Zal, the son of the great paladin Sam, and Rudaba, a blameless descendent of the evil
p. 76 (no. 24). king Zahhak (see cat. no. 121), have fallen in love with each other. Because of the historic rivalry between their
families, their love meets with near-universal disapproval: the only person favourably disposed towards Zal and
Rudaba is Sindukht, Rudaba’s mother, who succeeds firstly in calming the anger of Rudaba’s father and then in
persuading Sam, Zal’s father, to accept the union. The story has a happy ending: the union of Zal and Rudaba
results in the birth of a son, Rustam, who will become one of the greatest heroes of the Iranian world. To
succeed in her diplomatic mission and secure the great paladin’s agreement for the marriage of Rudaba and Zal,
Sindukht empties Kabul’s royal treasury and travels to Sam’s court, laden with magnificent gifts. Sindukht herself
is dressed in gold brocade and wears pearls and rubies in her hair. She pours forth 300,000 gold coins at Sam’s
feet, and offers him horses, camels and mules, all laden with gold, jewels, musk, camphor, rich fabrics and other
treasures in such abundance that her retinue stretches over nearly four kilometres from the gates of Sam’s
palace. In this painting part of her vast escort, including three elephants and their Indian mahouts, is visible on
the right-hand side, but the artist has decided to capture the moment when Sam receives the very remarkable
ambassador from Kabul in his chambers. Their discussion is private; gestures and looks eloquently express the
queen’s powers of persuasion.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 291

Folio 402r from the Shahnama of Sh$h Tahm$sp 123

Gushtasp slays the dragon on Mount Saq›l$
Iran, Tabriz, c. 1530–1535
This painting from the Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp shows Gushtasp, the son of Shah Luhrasp, who travelled to Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
the court of the Qaysar (Caesar) in Constantinople. Upon seeing him the eldest daughter of the Qaysar fell wildly on paper
47 x 31.8 cm
in love with him and would not consider betrothal to any other man, much to her father’s displeasure. The
Inv.: AKM00163
Qaysar then decreed that only suitors capable of accomplishing heroic feats would be accepted as suitable Publ.: Dickson–Welch 1981, col. pl.
matches for his younger daughters, leading the suitors of the other daughters (perhaps the men seen hiding 16, pl. 191; Falk 1985, (no. 56);
behind the hill) to ask Gushtasp to perform their heroic deeds for them: this painting shows Gushtasp’s second Canby 1998, p. 52 (no. 28);
test, defeating the dragon of Mount Saqila. Gushtasp shot the dragon with arrows, here shown gruesomely Makariou 2007, p. 84 (no. 27);
AKTC 2009a, p. 202 (no. 153);
sticking through the beast’s neck, before sticking his arm into its maw, stabbing it in the throat with a poisoned
AKTC 2009b, p. 202 (no. 153).
dagger and finally decapitating it. After dispatching the monster he returned to Constantinople, where the
Qaysar, recognising his heroism, restored to him and his fiancée the favours of the court of Rum. The painting is
attributable to Mirza ‘Ali, son of Sultan Muhammad, who was one of the artists of the younger generation who
worked on the Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp. The art of book illustration in Iran was one that prized copying and
refining as well as innovation: like all paintings in this tradition, individual elements in this image can be
connected to earlier miniature paintings. The pastel-coloured, coral-like rocks, the uniformly sprigged ground,
and the rather East Asian appearance of the dragon are all familiar tropes, but the delicacy of the painting and
dynamism of the composition, with its margin-invading landscape which also acts as a repoussoir, underscore the
important place of this painting in the history of the fantastic combat scene.
292 The Illustrated Text

124 Folio 341v from the Shahnama of Sh$h Tahm$sp

The joust of Far›burz and Kalb$d
Iran, Tabriz, c. 1540
Opaque watercolour, ink, gold and This is the only painting in the Shahnama of Shah Tahmasp that was produced by Shaykh Muhammad, one of
silver on paper the youngest artists to have contributed to this masterpiece of the illustrated book. It was around 1540 CE, in
47.2 x 32 cm
other words well after the completion of this Shahnama, that this painting and the work by Dust Muhammad
Inv.: AKM00497
Publ.: Makariou 2007, p. 82 (no. entitled “Haftvad and the worm” (AKM00164) were incorporated into the manuscript. This painting represents a
26); AKTC 2008b. famous episode in the unceasing wars between the Iranians and the Turanians. After a bloody combat, the
armies withdrew for the night and the opposing commanders, Guderz the Iranian and Piran the Turanian, met to
negotiate an honourable outcome that would decide the victory while at the same time avoiding the massacre of
thousands; the forces involved were tremendous but equal in terms of strength. They decided to have ten knights
from each army fight in single combat, with the two commanders themselves forming the eleventh pair of
combatants; all of this would take place in a secluded environment away from the troops. The first joust, shown
here, ended with prince Fariburz, son of Kay Kavus and the uncle of the Iranian Shah, killing Kalbad, the brother
of Piran. Unlike many other scenes from the Shahnama, which are teeming with characters in order to convey the
vast size of armies or the splendour of courtly magnificence, here the solitude and the responsibility weighing on
the two heroes fighting in single combat are poignantly expressed in the two figures on horseback, who occupy
most of the painting. Despite the painting’s martial subject, the birds, animals, landscape and stream are
depicted with a refinement that contrasts with the violence of the main action.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 293

Folio from a dispersed manuscript of the Khamsa of Niz$m› 125

This is one of four folios from the same manuscript held in the Aga Khan Museum collections (other folios are Safavid Shiraz, Iran, dated 984 AH /
AKM00066, 67 and 69). In its original state the manuscript is thought to have been produced for open sale 1576 CE
Opaque watercolour, gold, silver
(rather than being for commissioned by a patron) in late-sixteenth century Shiraz, where commercial artists
and ink on paper
imitated current styles of court painting for a market of wealthy members of the public who aspired to own Page: 26.5 x 30.2 cm;
luxury manuscripts. The long slender figures of this image are predominantly very young men, although some image: 10.2 x 17.7 cm
are bearded, with various skin tones possibly indicative of differing ethnic types; they have been painted in a Inv.: AKM00068
manner that seems to follow the late-sixteenth century court painting style of Qazvin and Mashhad. An Published: Welch 1972a, p. 164
interesting feature of this folio and others from this manuscript is the elaboration of the text block into a spatial
element that both impinges on and interacts with the space of the illustration. The figure in the top left of the
garden who is partially cropped by the central text block appears to be entering the garden from behind the
space of the text, an effect that is enhanced by the slanting edge of the text panel above him giving the upper text
block the appearance of an awning. The corresponding angled panel below, meanwhile, leads from the far left of
the page into the picture space like a path.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 295

Isfandiy$r fights two monstrous wolves 126

Four leaves from this dispersed Shahnama manuscript, bearing five illustrations in all, are held in the Aga Khan Ascribed to Naqd›
Museum collections (others are AKM00099, 101 and 103). Other folios are held in the Chester Beatty Library in Folio from a dispersed Shahnama
executed for Sh$h Ism$‘›l II
Dublin (Per256) and the Reza ‘Abbasi Museum in Tehran. Robinson (1976a) traced forty-nine illustrations from
Iran, Qazwin, c. 1576–1577
this manuscript, noting that all of them relate to the first half of the Shahnama: he has proposed that the Opaque watercolour, gold, silver
manuscript was never completed due to the premature death of its patron Shah Isma‘il II (r. 1576–1577), whose and ink on paper
reign lasted a mere eighteen months. Many of the illustrated folios bear attributions to individual artists written Page: 45.6 x 31.4 cm;
in a contemporary hand, proposed by Anthony Welch to be that of a librarian (Welch 1976a, pp. 78–79). The image 30.2 x 24.7 cm
Inv.: AKM00102
name on this painting, Naqdi, is associated with six other paintings in this manuscript, but no other works by
Publ.: Robinson 1976a, p. 5; Welch
this artist are known. In this image one of the heroes of the Shahnama, Isfandiyar the son of Shah Gushtasp, 1978a, pp. 90–91; Canby 1998, p. 62
encounters two monstrous wolves on his way to the Brazen Hold to rescue his sisters from the Turanians. The (no. 37).
wolves are a type of monstrous beast called karkadann, often depicted in Persian painting as looking something
like unicorns or rhinoceros (Canby 1998, p. 62): here they have been rendered rather more like lions in face and
form, but with pointed central horns and dark mottled coats. The vivid duck-egg blue of the ground and exquisite
flowering tree growing out of the left-hand side of the picture plane underscore the breathless fantasy of this
moment: in the next instant Isfandiyar will destroy the creatures and continue on his journey.
296 The Illustrated Text

127 Illustrated manuscript of the Anw$r-› Suhayl› (Lights of Canopus)

Author: Husayn ibn ‘Ali al-W$iz al- Uniquely, this manuscript appears to have been both illustrated and commissioned by the Safavid court painter
K$shif› Sadiqi Beg (d. 1612). The 107 paintings in this volume depict stories from the Anwar-i Suhayli (Lights of
Copied by Na‘›m Muhammad al-
Canopus) by Husayn ibn ‘Ali al-Waiz al-Kashifi (d. 1504). The text is a Persian recension of fables drawn from the
Husayn› al-Tabr›z› for S$diq› Beg
the painter; illustrations attributed tradition of Kalila wa Dimna (Kalila and Dimna): the origins of the story cycle are thought to lie in the oral
to S$diq› Beg traditions of India and to have been first recorded in writing around 300 CE as the Panchatantra, sometimes
Iran, Qazwin, dated 13 Safar 1002 H translated as “Five Occasions of Good Sense” (De Blois 1991, p. 10). The textual framework is provided by an
/ 8 November 1593 CE Indian king who consults his court philosopher about the proper conduct of rule in a variety of situations; the
Opaque watercolour and ink on
philosopher responds to each question with a fable featuring animal protagonists, each fable in turn framing
paper
30.1 x 20.3 cm other stories and sub-stories. In this remarkable and innovative image a mouse, who is ultimately to pay the
Inv.: AKM00289 price for his largesse, has his first sight of the unparalleled riches of which he will boast far and wide: a stream of
Publ.: London 1976, (no. 261); grain falls like a beam of light from the floor of a farmer’s barn into the space beneath. The frontal presentation
Welch 1976, pp. 125–144, figs. of flat external surfaces, including the closed and locked door, enables the artist to create a powerfully evocative
42–55 (fols 10r, 17r, 38r, 28v, 20v,
non-naturalistic illustration of a closed space, penetrated only by the mouse under the floorboards. Meanwhile,
52r, 309r, 55v, 85r, 227v, 40v, 313r,
83v, and 22r); Welch–Welch 1982, the focus of the picture lies in the strong colour contrast between the black background of the subterranean
pp. 100–105, (cat. no. 32) (fols 22r, space, the light grey mouse and the fine golden hail of the falling grain.
139v, and 198r); Falk 1985, (no. 80)
(fol. 22r); Canby 1998, pp. 70–72
(no. 43); (fols 89v, 148r, 201v);
AKTC 2007a, p. 136 (no. 103); AKTC
2007b, p. 138 (no. 103); Melikian-
Chirvani 2007, pp. 446–447 (fol.
22r); AKTC 2008a, pp. 208–209
(no. 79; fol. 63v); AKTC 2009a, p.
196 (no. 149); AKTC 2009b, p. 196
(no. 149); AKTC 2010a, pp. 196-197
(no. 154; fols 41v, 190v, 167r).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 297

A king prepares to mount his warhorse as the armies gather at night 128

The Tuhfet ul-Leta’if tells the story of the epic romance between Shah Ramin, son of the king of Ghazni, and Mah Folios 275v–276r of an illustrated
Parvin, daughter of the vizier Shahruz. Unlike the classic stories inherited by the Ottomans from Persian poetry, manuscript of the Tuhfet ul-Leta’if
by Ali ibn Naq›b Hamza
such as Layla u Majnun or Khusraw u Shirin, or the episodes from the Shahnama, this romance does not have a
Ottoman Istanbul, completed for
long history of illustration with a readymade cycle of stock compositions for the artist to follow. Instead, the Mur$d III in 1002 H / 1593–94 CE
Ottoman artists were obliged to invent new compositions to fit the new subject matter. The dynamic style of the Opaque watercolour, gold, silver
illustrations is typical of late-sixteenth century Ottoman painting, and a similar style can be seen in illustrated and ink on paper
chronicles of the sultans’ reigns, and the cycle of images of the Prophet Muhammad in the late-sixteenth century Manuscript: 35.3 x 22.5 x 4.8 cm;
folios: 35.1 x 21 cm
Siyar al-Nabi (a Turkish version of the life of Muhammad) now held in the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin (MS.
Inv.: AKM00280
T.419; see Rogers 2002, pp. 137–139). Although Ottoman painting inherited much from Persian models – it has Publ.: (Including other folios from
been conjectured that court painters were brought from Tabriz in the early years of Süleyman’s reign – it this manuscript) Welch–Welch
reformulated the pictorial conventions of Persian painting with a new interest in topography and the overt display 1982, pp. 38–42 (fols 177v,
of power, and a sometimes more direct approach to the relay of narrative details, creating an idiom that very 226v–227r, 252v–253r); Canby 1998,
(nos 70–71) (fols 296v–297r).
quickly became identifiable with the Ottoman state. In this painting we are left in little doubt that the point of the
illustration is not the lyrical expression of poetic allegory, but the depiction of a very large army assembled in one
place before the king. The distinctive palette of this manuscript consists of a striking combination of red, brown,
lilac, salmon pink and mint green.
300 The Illustrated Text

129 B$bur racing with Q$sim Beg and Qambar ‘Al›

Folio from a dispersed manuscript In the Babur-nama the first Mughal emperor of India, Babur (1483–1530), recorded in lively detail his
of the B$bur-n$ma (Memoirs of observations of the land he had conquered as well as descriptions of his military progress. In 1589 a senior
Babur)
courtier named ‘Abd al-Rahim Khan Khanam translated the Babur-nama from Chaghatai Turkish into Persian,
Mughal India, c. 1589
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold which was by then the language of the Mughal court. It was produced as a magnificent illustrated manuscript
on paper and presented to Babur’s grandson, the emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605); the present folio comes from that
Page: 26.7 x 15.8 cm; manuscript. This scene shows the moment before Babur fell from his horse, a minor incident that took place
image: 21.5 x 13.6 cm during a campaign in 1501. Babur had just ceded Samarqand to the Uzbeks, surrendering after a long siege. In
Inv.: AKM00130
the peace negotiations, Babur’s elder sister was married to Shaybani Khan, and remained in Samarqand. As they
Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982, pp.
151–153 (no. 51); Fischer–Goswamy traveled along, Babur raced ahead with two officers, Qasim Beg (d. 1522) and his son Qambar ‘Ali: “My horse
1987, no. 50; Canby 1998, pp. was leading when I, thinking to look at theirs behind, twisted myself around; the girth may have slackened, for
113–114 (no. 82). my saddle turned and I was thrown on my head to the ground. Although I at once got up and remounted, my
brain did not steady ‘til the evening; ‘til then this world and what went on appeared to me like things felt and
seen in a dream or fancy.” (Babur-nama, trans. A.S. Beveridge, 1990, p. 147).
302 The Illustrated Text

130 The marriage of Siy$vush and Farang›s

Folio 104r from the first volume of This codex is the first volume from a Shahnama manuscript, richly illustrated by Mu‘in Musavvir, a prolific artist
a Shahnama manuscript illustrated of seventeenth-century Isfahan. The second volume is dated to the month of Muharram in 1066 H (November
by Mu‘in Musavvir
1655 CE), and is in the collection of the Chester Beatty Library in Dublin. Mu‘in Musavvir produced artwork from
Safavid Isfahan, Iran, dated 29
Jum$d$ 1064 H/ 16 May 1654 CE the 1630s to the 1690s, all apparently in Isfahan, the capital of Safavid Iran. He was trained by the renowned
Opaque watercolour, ink, gold and painter Reza ‘Abbasi (d. 1635), who had completely dominated Safavid painting in the early seventeenth century.
silver on paper As the century progressed and other Indian and European vogues were becoming current in Safavid art, Mu‘in
Manuscript: 38.5 x 24 x 7 cm; unswervingly continued to work in Reza’s by then rather traditional style, evident in the highly formalized beauty
folios: 37.9 x 23.5 cm
of the figures depicted here. He had at least two Safavid courtiers as portrait-sitters but, rather surprisingly, there
Inv.: AKM00274
Publ.: Welch 1978b, pp. 92–97 is no evidence that he ever worked for the Safavid shahs, as he is not mentioned in the written sources. As if in
(fols 12v, 19v, 89r, 92v, 141r, 163v); compensation for this, many of his drawings are signed and dated: within this Shahnama Mu‘in’s signature is a
Welch–Welch 1982, no. 38 (fols 12v, near-constant feature set below each painting or within the composition. A tender romantic scene, this painting
19v); Falk 1985, no. 94 (fol. 92v); of the hero Siyavush and his Turanian bride Farangis provides a number of interesting details that may be
Canby 1998, (no. 55) (fol. 92v);
illustrative of Safavid palatial interiors, such as the blue-and-white painted wall behind the nuptial couple which
AKTC 2010a, p. 209
(no. 160; fol. 133r). in both its colours and its landscape motifs owes some debt to Chinese ceramics, and the chamfered pool and
channel in the middle of the floor.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 303

Manuscript of the Nig$rist$n by Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ghaff$r› (d. 1567) 131

At some point in its history this binding has been turned inside out to protect its beautiful and delicate external Safavid Shiraz, Iran, dated 980 H/
paintings from further damage, leaving the closing flap on the wrong side. However, as the gilt leather 1573 CE
Paint, gold and varnish on
doublures, which are now on the outside, are still in good condition, this change must have been made relatively
pasteboard
recently in the volume’s history. The Nigaristan itself is a compendium of historical anecdotes about key figures 42.3 x 26.8 x 8 cm
in earlier Islamic history, arranged in chronological order, and it is highly unlikely that the design of this binding Inv.: AKM00272
is intended to refer to any episodes in the text. The fantastic forest scene that emerges here in bright colours and Published: Welch 1978b, pp. 81–83.
gold from a black background shows a variety of richly dressed mounted hunters, attendants on foot, a standing
archer, figures who watch from the background and a rather unexpected strolling musician on the closing flap,
the last representing a not uncommon conflation of the standard imagery of the hunt with that of princely
entertainments. An earlier binding painted in the same technique, very finely executed but rather more dense and
static in appearance than the present example, shows an outdoor enthronement scene with musicians, dancers
and one attendant who holds a bow and arrow, a reminder of the interconnected nature of such scenes of courtly
pleasure within the so-called “princely cycle” (illusrated in Melikian-Chirvani 2007, p. 229). This manuscript and
its binding have recently been restored by the Centre de Conservation du Livre, Arles.
304 The Illustrated Text

132 Lacquer bow

Zand or Qajar Iran, late eighteenth Although Persian lacquer-work was normally executed on a base of papier-mâché, here it has been added to a
century structure that, for practical reasons, was made of wood. The bow has been decorated with fine paintings of
Wood, painted and varnished
mounted horsemen and animals in an infinitely extended rising ground with grassy tussocks growing sprigged
Length: 92 cm
Inv.: AKM00641 flowers, all of which has been covered with layers of a clear sandarac-based varnish that protects the painting
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, pp. 144–145 and imparts a mellow glossiness. Persian literary sources from the sixteenth to nineteenth centuries in fact refer
(no. 110); AKTC 2007b, pp. 25 and to this varnish as rawghan-i kaman, or “bow gloss”; this is quite a different substance from the gummy sap of the
148 (no. 110); AKTC 2008a, pp. 220, “lacquer tree” Rhus vernicifera used in Chinese and Japanese lacquers. The archer’s bow was a heavily symbolic
222–223 (no. 84); AKTC 2009a,
item in Islamic Iran, connected to images of kingship inherited from the pre-Islamic period, and given its high
p. 222 (no. 168); AKTC 2009b, p.
222 (no. 168); AKTC 2010a, p. 239 level of decoration we may assume that this object was not primarily intended for hunting. Intriguingly, the
(no. 185). hunting figures that decorate the bow do not, by and large, seem to hunt with bows themselves; instead they can
be seen stabbing their prey with long spears, hunting with dogs and even apparently lassoing deer. The lassos
are possibly in reference to the hunting exploits of Rustam in the Shahnama, where that hero is frequently
described as using a lasso. However, other examples of Iranian lacquer-decorated bows from this period, such as
an example in the Charles E. Grayson Collection (Grayson–French–O’Brien 2007, p. 66), are dominated by
images of archers and it is not clear why they should not figure more prominently on this example.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 305

“Hunting” carpet 133

This carpet, which is in fact one of a pair (its partner is in a private collection in North America), belongs to a Eastern Iran, Safavid period, late
group known as “hunting” carpets because they include depictions of animals in combat; sometimes – although sixteenth or early seventeenth
century
not in this case – they also show mounted figures of hunters. Here the figural elements are restricted to the
Silk warp and weft; z-spun wool
central panel of the rug, surrounding the central lobed medallion in arrangements that are symmetrical across knotting (asymmetric open to the
both axes, and they include lions bringing down bulls, further bulls possibly lying prone, and affronted pairs of left)
leopards and grey animals (wolves?). Less common in the context of a fine Persian hunting carpet is the inclusion Approx. 213 x 152 cm
of pairs of dragons that delineate the corner spandrels of the central panel, holding between them in their mouths Inv.: AKM00820
Unpublished
some form of animal mask. The rather large eyes and stumpy feet of the dragons are a world away from the
terrifying serpents borrowed from Chinese art (see cat. no. 123), possibly a result of the complications involved in
transposing an intricate design from painting to carpet weaving. The imagery of the hunt is an all-pervading
subject in imperial Iranian art, most often represented through the depiction of beautifully dressed mounted riders
evenly arranged through a fantastic field of plants, with at least one hunter depicted at the point of bringing down
his prey. Here the emphasis lies entirely on the animals themselves, but the image of the lion bringing down the
bull is itself a very ancient symbol of kingship in the Middle East (Hartner–Ettinghausen 1964, pp. 164–170).
7 Portraits and Albums
308

Laura E. Parodi

Portraits and Albums

Contrary to widespread assumptions, portraiture has accompanied Islamic art since its inception
and throughout its history: from the stylized yet recognizable sculptural images of the caliphs
that adorned the façades of Umayyad palaces, to the Timurs and Ismail Samanids that have
replaced the Lenins and Stalins in post-Soviet Central Asia. Before the twentieth century,
however, figural sculptures in Islamic societies did not perform public functions (religious or
secular) comparable to their counterparts in other cultures. The difference is especially striking
in comparison with ancient Rome, whose legacy weighs heavily upon much of the world’s visual
landscape to this day. By contrast, Islam’s condemnation of idolatry resulted in a controversial
status for figural representation and its confinement within an eminently secular and
overwhelmingly private domain – whether as palace decoration or in the form of objects for
secular use, such as the bird incense burner in this exhibition (cat. no. 155).1 This equally applied
to figural paintings, with consequences to their preservation, given that most palaces were
abandoned within a generation or two (the Alhambra and the Topkap› being notable exceptions).
We are therefore left to assess Islamic figural art in general, and portraiture in particular, almost
exclusively from paintings of relatively small size in manuscripts once meant for restricted use,
even though it must once have been available in other media and within more varied contexts.
Perhaps as a consequence of these limitations, popular Islamic imagery always regarded
other figural traditions as superior. Besides the historical figure of the prophet-painter Mani,
textual sources often refer to the painters of Rüm and Chin as paradigms of artistic merit. There
may be more historical truth to these claims than is commonly assumed: the Manichaean
contribution to Islamic painting is slowly being unveiled, while the role of Rüm and Chin has
long been acknowledged, though mostly episodically. Depending on time and context, Rüm may
stand for ancient Rome, Byzantium or Europe; Chin is, of course, China. It was often through the
infusion of fresh ideas from such “foreign” traditions that visual artists working in Islamic
milieus were able to challenge the constraints imposed upon them. Portraits and albums, two
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 309

distinct yet intimately connected aspects of the Islamic manuscript tradition, provide eloquent
examples.
Within the the manuscript tradition, portraiture is documented at the same time as the
earliest substantial corpus of illustrated manuscripts, which can be ascribed to Iraq in the early
thirteenth century, although it must have had a longer history – if not in now lost manuscripts,
at least in mural painting.2 Even at this early stage, images performed functions more
sophisticated than the mere illustration of texts, providing commentaries on them or introducing
additional themes, as in the case of frontispieces. In the cosmopolitan environment of late
‘Abbasid Iraq, artists experimented with a wide range of models (or were themselves recruited
from different milieus), resulting in great heterogeneity: from the imaginary likenesses of long-
deceased individuals found in the author portraits modelled upon Christian manuscripts, to the
more individualized frontispieces showing Badr al-Din D›n Lu’lu’ enthroned.3 The latter are also
based on centuries-old conventions – “enthronement” scenes of Buddhist or more probably
Manichaean ascendance; yet they reveal a precise intention to immortalize the patron through
physical as well as sartorial attributes. Evidence from the following three centuries or so is too
scant to reconstruct a coherent history, but the enthroned rulers in a copy of the Shahnama that
has been ascribed to the royal Ilkhanid atelier in of the 1330s are remarkably individualized and
include an accurately rendered Mongol Kh$n.4 Schematic yet recognizable likenesses of Timurid
rulers and princes are also seen in manuscripts produced from the 1430s onwards,
demonstrating a continuing interest in portraiture that seems to be especially characteristic of
the Turkic and Mongol milieu.5
Momentous developments were sometimes triggered by a single patron. This was
certainly the case with Mehmet II (r. 1432–1481) after his conquest of Constantinople in 1453.
A whole lineage of portraits may be traced back to those he commissioned from Italian
Renaissance artists in various media, from medals to oil painting, in the latter half of the
fifteenth century.6 These were followed up by painters working in more traditional Islamic media
such as opaque watercolour on paper, whose works circulated beyond the borders of the
Ottoman Empire and were copied or adapted in Iran, Central Asia and India. This long-lived
tradition is represented in the exhibition by an early example and a later one (cat. nos 134, 135).
The fresh infusion of ideas from Europe soon brought with it a higher status for the artists that
who were capable of such verisimilitude. The concept – which paralleled yet never fully matched
the rise in status of European visual artists during the Renaissance – seems to have found a
receptive milieu further east, in Timurid Khurasan and Central Asia, where an interest in the
depiction of contemporary figures had developed independently during the preceding decades.
By the turn of the sixteenth century, these suggestions were fully assimilated by Timurid artists,
resulting in such masterpieces as the tiny yet remarkably expressive portrait of the contemporary
poet H$tif› (cat. no. 137). A slightly later Safavid caption ascribes it with a high degree of
probability to the great master Bihz$d, himself an artist who attained legendary fame.
During the sixteenth and seventeenth century, patrons and artists in the Indian
subcontinent were directly exposed to European paintings and prints; this fresh wave of
inspiration quickly spread beyond the borders of the Mughal Empire and the boundaries of
310 Portraits and Albums

traditional ruler portraits, to produce accurate likenesses of people from other walks of life.
Portraits of holy men or ascetics such as cat. no. 139 – often commissioned by royal patrons –
testify to an increasing popularity of Sufism and other forms of mysticism, including syncretic
practices, from the sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries; cat. nos 141 and 142 are quality
examples of more articulate scenes depicting princely encounters with holy figures. Sketches
drawn from life became more and more widespread, first at the Mughal court and then
elsewhere: they were used as a basis for fully painted portraits assembled in albums,7 or for
more complex records of historical occurrences that included increasing numbers of
recognizable figures.8 Portraits also increasingly circulated as diplomatic or otherwise official
gifts alongside the more familiar illustrated manuscripts. Some were treasured: one such
instance is cat. no. 138, an exquisite Mughal work that bears an official inscription stating it was
gifted to Emperor Jah$ng›r. The inscription and numerous later seal impressions suggest it was
highly valued, and probably appreciated as much for its craftsmanship as for its accuracy in
depicting a now unidentified individual. A page from a dispersed imperial Mughal album
contains a slightly smaller version (probably a copy) of cat. no. 138; this is combined with a
portrait of Jah$ng›r,9 suggesting the Mughals regarded the sitter as someone equal in dignity,
even though the portrait does not resemble any known Ottoman sultan.
Compared to the Ottoman and Mughal Empires, Safavid Iran, even though a direct heir to
the Timurid atelier, was initially not very receptive towards a naturalistic approach. Cat. no. 137
was probably once part of the album assembled for the brother of Sh$h Tahm$sp (r. 1524–1576),
Bahr$m M›rz$;10 but despite the Shah’s own connoisseurship and the high esteem in which he
held Bihz$d, Tahm$sp’s own preference seems to have gone to more idealized representations.
There exist no realistic depictions of him or his close relations, although several idealized
portraits of princes and courtiers – some of them inscribed with names – are included in mid-
sixteenth century Safavid albums.11 This is further testified by the decision of the Mughal emperor
Jah$ng›r (r. 1605–1627) to send one of his finest portraitists, Bishn Das, on a mission to the
Safavid court in 1613 to secure an accurate likeness of his contemporary Sh$h Abb$s the Great (r.
1571–1629). The various “types” created by Bishn Das, where ‘Abb$s is portrayed in different
attitudes and combinations of headgear and dress, enjoyed durable popularity and gave rise to
endless variations (cat. no. 140 being an example).12 The Mughal painter’s passage also sparked
a new attitude towards portraiture in Safavid Iran: cat. no. 136 is a good example of this, a
portrait of the Russian ambassador – doubtlessly sketched from life – which the court master
Muhammad Zam$n produced at the behest of the Shah (Sult$n Husayn, r. 1694–1722) about a
century later. Alongside this greater interest in realistic portraiture, idealized depictions of
dynastic ancestors or sensuous youths, both female and male, continued to be popular. This
genre is exemplified by cat. no. 146, in a pure seventeenth-century Safavid manner, and cat. nos
148 and 145, both with Indian connections. The latter echoes a specific eighteenth-century Indian
fascination for female figures originating in Rajput painting, where – depending on context –
women may be mere courtesans or ideal beauties, but more often allude to musical modes or the
soul’s longing for union with the divine. Outside the subcontinent, these associations were often
lost in favour of more straightforward sensuous overtones.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 311

The impact of European conventions on the Safavid attitude to portraiture by the

eighteenth century, whether absorbed directly or through the intermediary of Mughal painting,
may be measured at a glimpse by comparing cat. no. 145 (where the choice of black and white
may itself be traced back to the popularity of European prints) with the highly stylized late
sixteenth-century maiden in cat. no. 147. Their approach to the subject could not be more
different, although paradoxically the earlier figure may well in its own time have been regarded as
the portrait of a specific individual, whereas the later one is more likely a generic “maiden.” Cat.
no. 148 stands somewhat in between and, perhaps not coincidentally, an attribution to the
Indian Subcontinent has alternatively been proposed – more specifically, to the Deccan (India’s
central plateau), whose courts entertained conspicuous relations with Safavid Iran until their
final capitulation to the Mughals in the 1680s. Women’s portraits were naturally a sensitive issue
in Islamic societies: although some were occasionally produced, they were seldom drawn from
life, due to the impossibility for male artists to access women of good birth. The few realistic
female portraits that do exist – most notably of Jah$ng›r’s chief queen, Nür Jah$n, and some
princely consorts – are seventeenth-century Mughal works. Jah$ng›r encouraged women to
practise painting, and it is likely that the portraits – even when signed by male artists – were
based on sketches drawn by female practitioners.13
Most of these individual sketches and paintings, whether conventional types or portraits,
found their way into albums alongside more detailed scenes (such as cat. nos. 141, 142),
calligraphy (cat. no. 143) and other materials. Not unlike portraits, albums provide fascinating
insight into the way artists working in an Islamic milieu were able to reinterpret suggestions
from Rüm and Chin. While the European contribution to Islamic portraiture is widely
acknowledged, the potential connections between Chinese and Islamic albums remain largely
conjectural and would deserve a fuller contextualization.14
Evidence for Islamic albums begins with some collections of calligraphy, images or a
combination thereof that were assembled in the Timurid milieu in the first half of the fifteenth
century. The rationale behind such albums has been plausibly traced back within the Islamic
tradition to collections of Had›th, anthologies and other compendia. These already had a long
history within Islam, but their popularity dramatically increased in the decades immediately
preceding the earliest surviving instances of Timurid albums.15 By the fifteenth century, however,
the practice of collecting paintings in albums was already well established in China; it had
developed under the influence of block printing under the late Northern Song (late eleventh –
early twelfth century).16 Chinese albums differ in format from their Islamic counterparts, which are
mostly in codex (book) format, consisting instead of individual leaves folded along the middle. Yet
the combination of several components arranged in this manner gave rise in China to the
“accordion” format. This was also adopted for Islamic albums (exemplified by cat. no. 143)
alongside the codex and the small, elongated and eminently portable saf›na (lit. “boat”) favoured
for poetry or calligraphic excerpts, of which a specimen is held by the maiden in cat. no. 147.
Further parallels are evident between the two traditions, and can hardly be deemed
coincidental. To begin with, in both cases, albums seem to have emerged as a response to a
changing attitude towards both literature and painting, which favoured more intricate
312 Portraits and Albums

relationships between texts and images than the mere illustration of narratives. In China, album
leaves enabled artists to create single, unified scenes or even concise sketches, without the
extensive demands of the hanging scroll and long handscroll.17 Early Islamic albums similarly
defied conventions by denying the traditional progression expected of a codex even while
adopting its format, and by presenting a novel theme with each opening. In China, the rise of
albums is connected with the emergence of a new literati class and a deprofessionalization of
painting, which could subsequently be practised independently of the court and sometimes in
open defiance of it. Even though early Islamic albums would seem to be the product of a courtly
environment, their popularity soon percolated to other levels of society. Moreover, their patrons
in the early stages were more frequently princes than rulers – B$ysunghur, Bahr$m M›rz$,18
Jah$ng›r himself as Sh$h Sal›m before his accession19 all being prominent examples. The same
princes were skilled practitioners of poetry, calligraphy, painting, music and so forth, testifying to
a similar deprofessionalization of the arts, and embodying an ideal of “educated gentleman” that
is very close to that of the Chinese literati. Finally, in both cases, this shift in attitude involved an
aesthetic preference for brief and personal poetic expressions, which in turn encouraged an
awareness of authorship. China seems to have been a precursor of both Islam and Europe in
this respect; the Mongols may have played a role in spreading some of these ideas, and possibly
contributed the foundations for the curricula later used in the education of Timurid princes.
Compared to European art, the Chinese tradition doubtlessly displayed greater kinship
with Islamic art in a shared use of the paper medium (itself an early Chinese contribution to
Islamic material culture) and the high status accorded to calligraphy. The latter was a prominent
feature of Islamic albums and often their only subject. This and a greater geographical proximity
encouraged exchanges in both directions that are seldom considered by scholarship, yet would
be worth exploring. Albums seem to have enjoyed special popularity under the Ming, with whom
the Timurids exchanged several embassies.20 Ming album leaves at the turn of the sixteenth
century are sometimes sprinkled with gold flecks that closely resemble those used in coeval
Islamic album or manuscript borders. Some few Ming albums even adopt the codex format,
while a group of Timurid manuscripts are penned on Chinese paper embellished with gold
designs that may have been specially commissioned.21
At variance with Chinese albums, though, borders became very important in Islamic
albums, even more so than in most illustrated manuscripts. Although Islamic albums borrowed
many of their features from books (see for example the illumination panels that serve as fillers in
cat. nos 149, 147), over time specific features were developed for them. They would seem to
stem as much from the desire to expedite the compilers’ work as from an intention to obtain
more consistent and visually compelling pages. Borders in particular – often multiple – became
a means to achieve a degree of uniformity despite the inclusion of materials that were disparate
in size, script, palette and so forth. Their design and palette gave each album a specific
character: cat. nos. 151, 153 and 156 exemplify a wide chronological range.
Sometimes contributions from Rüm and Chin intersected, as in the case of the bird or
flower paintings (cat. nos. 153, 157, 151, 156, 142) that enjoyed great popularity from the
seventeenth century onwards and, in India, eventually became a strand of nineteenth-century
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 313

“Company Painting”. An influence of European herbals has been conclusively demonstrated on

the naturalistic plants popular both in paintings and in album borders during the seventeenth
century. But Chinese bird paintings and copies thereof had been included in Islamic albums
much earlier;22 and in some flower paintings or borders, the inclusion of large-scale insects
signals a reliance on Chinese models (see for example cat. no. 156).
Albums seldom survive in pristine condition: individual leaves, when not individual
components, were often disassembled and refashioned by successive owners. Not only did this
occur historically, at the behest of such patrons as the naw$b of Oudh, Shuj$‘ al-Dawla (r.
1754–1775) or the Ottoman sultan Abdülhamid II (r. 1876–1909), but art dealers in the
nineteenth and twentieth centuries frequently chose to sell paintings individually to maximize
profit. Unlike Muslim patrons, who understood and valued the format, logic and facture of
albums, Western collectors until relatively recent times were usually more interested in certain
subjects than others, and generally valued paintings above calligraphy. Particularly when
mounted on separate pages – as in cat. no. 143 – calligraphy panels were often removed, thereby
depriving albums of a key component. Calligraphy specimens were collected in their own right
and should not be confused with text panels providing historical information (sometimes quite
ornate) or poetry excerpts intended as a commentary or counterpoint to an image: cat. nos. 137,
147 and 160 exemplify a range of possibilities.
Reconstructing the original appearance of dismembered albums requires painstaking
research.23 Even those albums that are relatively well preserved present us with such variety as
to defy categorization.24 We have only begun to explore their potential, but already it has become
apparent that there are lessons to be learnt from Islamic albums in a time when globalization
encourages the viewer to tolerate, rather than truly appreciate, difference.
314 Portraits and Albums

1 For further examples of figural sculpture from Iran and Anatolia,

see David J. Roxburgh (ed.), Turks: A Journey of a Thousand Years,
600–1600 (London 2005), nos. 39–41, 49, 58, 69, 87,
2 Early Islamic mural painting is poorly preserved, but a sense of the
prior tradition may be gained from the twelfth-century painted
muqarnas ceiling of the Cappella Palatina in Palermo (Sicily), which
includes portraits of the patron, the Norman king Roger II: see Ernst
Grube and Jeremy Johns, The Painted Ceilings of the Cappella
Palatina, Supplement I to Islamic Art (Genova – New York 2005), esp.
nos. A23.5, A23.6, A28.5.
3 See Roxburgh, Turks, no. 54.
4 See Linda Komaroff and Stefano Carboni (eds), The Legacy of
Genghis Khan: Courtly Art and Culture in Western Asia, 1256–1353
(New York – New Haven – London 2002), esp. no. 39.
5 Eleanor Sims, Peerless Images: Persian Painting and Its Sources (New
Haven – London 2002), no. 185; see also Thomas W. Lentz and
Glenn D. Lowry, Timur and the Princely Vision: Persian Art and Culture
in the Fifteenth Century (Los Angeles – Washington, D.C. 1989), nos.
21, 42 and fig. 33; Barbara Brend, Muhammad Juki’s Shahnamah of
Firdausi (London 2010), pl. 17.
6 See Roxburgh, Turks, nos. 224–26.
7 Numerous examples are illustrated in Elaine Wright (ed.),
Muraqqa‘: Imperial Mughal Albums from the Chester Beatty Library
(Alexandria VA 2008).
8 See for example Wright, Muraqqa‘, no. 25.
9 Ibid., no. 49.
10 Sims, Peerless Images, no. 188.
11 See David J. Roxburgh, The Persian Album 1400–1600: From
Dispersal to Collection (New Haven – London 2005), figs. 117, 124,
126, 132, 133, 135 and passim.
12 See also Sheila R. Canby, Shah ‘Abbas: The Remaking of Iran
(London 2009), nos. 19–21.
13 See for example the portrait of Nur Jahan illustrated in Jeremiah
P. Losty, ‘“Abu’l Hasan’,,” in Pratapaditya Pal (ed.), Master Artists of
the Imperial Mughal Court (Bombay 1991), 78.
14 I am indebted to Marco Guglielminotti Trivel for helping me
develop this suggestion, although he cannot be held responsible for
any of the views expressed in this essay.
15 Roxburgh, Persian Album, 29 and passim.
16 See Jerome Silbergeld, Chinese Painting Style: Media, Methods, and
Principles of Form (Seattle – London 1982), 13–14.
17 Ibid., 14.
18 Roxburgh, Persian Album, Chapters 2 and 6 respectively.
19 On the Salim Album, see Wright, Muraqqa‘, 54–67 and nos.
26–33 .
20 Two early sixteenth-century examples are illustrated in Shane
McCausland and Ling Lizhong, Telling Images of China: Narrative and
Figural Paintings, 15th - 20th Century, from the Shanghai Museum
(London 2010), no. 9, 36.
21 See Roxburgh, Persian Album, 162 and figs. 85, 86.
22 See Roxburgh, Persian Album, 286 and fig. 55.
23 For some examples see Wright, Muraqqa‘, appendices 1–5, and
Stuart Cary Welch et al., The Emperors’ Album: Images of Mughal
India (New York 1987).
24 Roxburgh, Persian Album, 309.
Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 315
Portraits and Albums

Catalogue Entr›es 134 — 157

Across ancient Western Asia, the power of the image of the king had long been
publicly acknowledged and expressed in different ways: on coinage circulated
throughout the realm and beyond, on majestic rock reliefs for all to behold, and on
the walls of royal audience-halls. In representing the king’s person, the royal image
promotes his power, and acquires powerful connotations of its own. Many of these
aspects of royal portraiture passed into the Islamic period, at different times and
contexts. From the thirteenth century onwards, the ruler-portrait became a staple
feature of royal manuscript illustration, particularly in frontispiece paintings – the all-
important first double-page opening of a book, typically reserved to celebrate the
book’s genesis, production and patronage. For an illustrated manuscript, be it a
work of science, history or literature, the full-page frontispiece paintings were not
generally part of the proceeding cycle of text-illustrations. For a royal biography or
dynastic history manuscript however, royal portraiture would be a natural inclusion,
referencing textual description of the ruler’s aspect and appearance, or illustrating
an impressive episode in the king’s life (cat. nos 141, 152).
Many of the royal portraits in this exhibition were intended for an album, or
muraqqa‘ (cat. nos 134, 135, 140). The album developed from connoisseurial
interest in collecting excellent examples of single artworks on paper (such as
calligraphy, illumination patterns, preparatory sketches and finished paintings, both
old and new, local and international), arranging and mounting them on individual
pages of the album, and presenting them in a context not unlike a miniature
museum – a sequence of different items ‘curated’ by a discerning collector (cat.
nos 143, 144, 147). Portraits were inherently suitable for this context, as single-page
records of important or transient figures whose image or whose work the album-
owner wished to preserve (cat. nos 136 – 138). Popular from Ottoman Turkey to
Timurid and Safavid Iran and Mughal India, the practice of album-making
guaranteed a market for single-page works, which allowed artists to flourish outside
of royal workshop projects of extensive manuscript production, and allowed
individual non-royal artists to pursue patronage. The vogue for muraqqa‘ albums
also bespeaks a sophisticated art world of owners, practitioners and commentators.
Sometimes, a patron would commission artists to decorate the page-margins with
new paintings, with subtle themes linked to the mounted image at the centre (cat.
nos 151, 154, 156). A completed album spoke eloquently of the taste, wealth and
discernment of its patron.
318 Portraits and Albums

134 Portrait of Sultan Selim II

Attributed to Haydar Re’›s, called This large album portrait of Sultan Selim II (r. 1566–1574) reveals much about his reign. It was Selim’s father,
Nigari Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent (r. 1520–1566), who solidified the geographical borders of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman, Istanbul, c. 1570
and refined the central administration of his government, allowing his son and successor to pursue more
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper sedentary pleasures such as literature, art, and architecture. The sultan was a great bibliophile and patron of
44.2 x 31.2 cm architecture, music, and the arts of the book. The artist of this piece has been identified as Haydar Re’is through a
Inv.: AKM00219 signature inscribed on a group-portrait that comes from the same dispersed album as this piece (Binney 1979,
Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982, (no. 6); no. 11); the two paintings are thought to have originally formed a double-page composition. Selim II has been
Falk 1985, (no. 106); Canby 1998,
depicted as larger than life; the robust sultan in his luxurious fur-lined and brocaded gold garment dwarfs both the
pp. 97–99 (no. 70); Carboni 2006,
pp. 142 and 297; Carboni 2007, pageboy and the interior in which he sits in cross-legged on a carpet. This composition was one of a number of
pp. 142 and 297; AKTC 2007a, conventions for Ottoman royal portraiture developed in 1570s and is similar to portraits in Loqman’s Kiyafetü’l-
pp. 98–99 (no. 68); AKTC 2007b, Insaniye fi Semailu’l-Osmaniye, a study formulated to record the physiognomy, and by inference the character, of
pp. 94 and 96 (no. 68); AKTC the Ottoman sultans from Osman Gazi to Murad III. There are two later inscriptions in the windowpanes: (right)
2008a, pp. 138, 140–141 (no. 50);
sultan; (left) [ya] kabikaj (an invocation against bookworms).
AKTC 2009a, p. 138 (no. 96);
AKTC 2009b, p. 138 (no. 96);
AKTC 2010a, p. 140 (no. 98).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 319

Portrait of Sultan Selim III 135

Royal portrait series bound into albums provided an important way for Ottoman sultans to record their lineage Ottoman, Istanbul, c. 1805
and create an imagery that reinforced their right to rule: the portraits of Selim II (cat. no. 134) and Selim III Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper
(r. 1789–1807) are both examples of this particular tradition of statecraft. However, this medallion portrait of Selim
54.1 x 40.5 cm
III represents a different format for Ottoman royal portraiture from that shown in cat. no. 134. The profound effect Inv.: AKM00220
of European, particularly French, painting on Ottoman art by the nineteenth century is evident in the attention that Publ.: Canby 1998, p. 103 (no. 75);
has been given to shading and in the grisaille, blue, and gold palette, as well as the painting’s presentation of an AKTC 2007a, p. 99 (no. 69);
oval portrait medallion above a smaller, heavily allegorical panorama, both framed as if in masonry set on a black AKTC 2007b, pp. 96–97 (no. 69);
AKTC 2008a, pp. 144–145 (no. 52);
ground highlighted with gold details. Regarding the lower “window”, Canby has suggested that the buildings in the
AKTC 2009a, pp. 140–141 (no. 98);
distance may be the new army barracks built by Selim III at Haydarpasha in Istanbul, or restorations of Mevlevi AKTC 2009b, pp. 140–141 (no. 98);
complexes (Canby 1998, p. 103). In either reading, this depiction reflects the Ottoman interest in topographical AKTC 2010a, p. 142 (no. 100).
representations and maps, particularly as a means of expressing Ottoman domination of the landscape through
ambitious programmes of building. The series to which this portrait belongs was copied in a group of engravings
eventually published in London in 1815 by John Young, titled A Series of Portraits of the Emperors of Turkey: Engraved
from Pictures Painted at Constantinople. European interest in Ottoman Turkey as a major political power and
fascinatingly “other” society on the doorstep of Europe remained very strong into the nineteenth century.
320 Portraits and Albums

136 Portrait of a Russian dignitary

Inscribed raqam-i Muhamm[ad This painting has been suggested to represent Artemii Petrovich Volynsky, a Russian diplomat known to have led a
Za]m$n f› sana 1129 (“painted by mission from Peter the Great to the last Safavid ruler, Shah Sultan Husayn (r. 1694–1722). Volynsky’s mission left
Muhamm[ad Za]m$n in the year St Petersburg in 1715, arrived in Isfahan in March 1717, negotiated a trade agreement and left on a return journey
1129”), but attributed to
that lasted from September 1717 to early 1719, giving a window of opportunity that would accord with the date
Muhammad ‘Al› ibn Muhammad
Zam$n inscribed on this painting. However, Volynsky was only twenty-eight years old when he left St Petersburg, and even
Iran, Safavid Isfahan, dated 1129 H allowing for the hardship of the journey this is clearly a likeness of a much older man (Savory 2007, p. 246). The
/ 1716–17 CE man shown here may perhaps be a member of Volynsky’s mission, although Canby notes his similarity to a figure
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold standing behind Shah Sultan Husayn in a painting of the Shah delivering New Year’s gifts in 1721, suggesting that
on paper
he may have been a more long-term presence at the Safavid court. A very close copy of this painting, dated to the
Page: 31.8 x 18.9 cm;
image: 16.4 x 8.7 cm same year and signed by ‘Ali Quli, is also held in the collection of the Aga Khan Museum (AKM00113); it may have
Inv.: AKM00114 been created to be placed opposite this image in an album. The present painting, inscribed raqam-i Muhamm[ad
Publ.: Welch 1978a, p. 171; Za]man fi sana 1129 (“painted by Muhamm[ad Za]man in the year 1129”), and produced on orders of the shah, is
Welch–Welch 1982, pp. 129–131 too late to be the work of Muhammad Zaman, a prominent artist of the seventeenth century and specialist in the
(no. 43B); Canby 1998, pp. 91–92
new Europeanizing style. Canby suggests that this portrait is the work of Muhammad ‘Ali, the son of Muhammad
(no. 65).
Zaman (Canby 1998, p. 91).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 321

Portrait of the poet H$tif › 137

Beyond the world of manuscript illustration, Persian painters also excelled in the art of the album portrait. The Inscription: Sürat-i Maul$n$ ‘Abd
poet Hatifi, wearing a Safavid turban with a red baton, is the subject of this small painting. Gold inscription All$h H$tif›, ‘amal-i ust$d Bihz$d
(“Portrait of Maul$n$ ‘Abd All$h
bands, possibly added when the painting was mounted in a album, identify Hatifi as the subject and the
H$tif›, the work of master B›hz$d”)
legendary Persian artist Bihzad as the painter. Roxburgh has proposed that this small portrait was once in Dust Herat, c. 1511
Muhammad’s 1544–1545 album created for Bahram Mirza, brother of Shah Tahmasp (Roxburgh 1998, pp. 34, Opaque watercolour and gold on
49). Hatifi (d. 1521) was a well-known poet for the Timurid ruler Sultan Husayn Bayqara (d. 1506) in Herat and paper
later for Shah Isma‘il (r. 1501–1524) after the Safavid conquest. Dickson and Welch suggest that this portrait is Page: 11.8 x 7.7 cm;
image: 7.1 x 6 cm
perhaps the one Shah Isma‘il commissioned from Bihzad to commemorate his meeting with the Shi‘i poet in
Inv.: AKM00160
1511 outside Herat (Dickson–Welch 1981, vol. I, pp. 34, 240, n. 12). Shortly thereafter, Hatifi began the Isma‘il- Publ.: Sakisian 1929, pl. 74;
nama, his poem celebrating the victorious reign of Shah Isma‘il. Stripped of the virtuoso details that made Welch–Welch 1982, pp. 67–69 (no.
Bihzad famous, the power of this portrait concentrates on the intense eyes of the poet: the plain blue 20); Falk 1985, no. 37; Bahari 1996,
background and Hatifi’s unadorned robe further draw the viewer’s eye toward the bearded poet’s gaze. fig. 108; Canby 1998, p. 42 (no. 21);
Canby 1999, pl. 22; Sims 2002,
pp. 271–272; Thompson–Canby
2003, pp. 76–77; AKTC 2007a,
p. 160 (no. 130); AKTC 2007b,
p. 160 (no. 130).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 323

Portrait of an Ottoman dignitary with a book 138

Like his father Akbar before him, the Mughal emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) showed an interest in portraiture, Mughal India, c. 1610
continuing his father’s portrait albums and encouraging court artists to capture the psychology of their subjects in Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper
their portraits (Welch 1985, p. 226). This portrait of an Ottoman dignitary holding a book – which he seems to be
15.5 x 20 cm
presenting rather than reading – demonstrates that the subjects of such portraits were not limited to Mughals and Inv.: AKM00733
Indians alone, but also included foreigners who were in frequent contact with the royal court. It was not unusual for Publ.: AKTC 2009a, p. 245 (no. 181);
court artists to record meetings between the Emperor and his visitors in painting (see, for example, a portrait study AKTC 2009b, p. 245 (no. 181);
of Shah ‘Abbas by Jahangir’s court artist Bishn Das, in the British Museum, in Canby 2009, p. 38). The verso of this AKTC 2010a, p. 260 (no. 198).
image carries a collection of Mughal seal impressions received from various scribes and superintendents of the
royal library, from the time of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1657) and Awrangzib (r. 1658–1707), as well as chancellery notes
in a variety of hands. These calligraphic notes attest that, as well as being given as a gift by a man called Baha’ al-
Din in 1610, the painting was inspected at various points in its history. Notes and seals of this type are often found
on the reverse of paintings and calligraphy housed in the royal collections; as well as often being works of art in
themselves, such stamped and handwritten inscriptions are of colossal value in reconstructing the histories of
individual pieces.
324 Portraits and Albums

139 An aged pilgrim

Inscription (on bag strap): ‘amal This delicate and luminous painting was executed by Abu’l-Hasan, one of the most important painters in the
N$dir al-Zam$n (“the work of N$dir service of the Mughal emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627). Abu’l-Hasan, honoured with the title Nadir al-Zaman
al-Zam$n”)
(“Rarity of the Age”) by Jahangir, was part of the younger generation of Jahangir’s artists, men who developed a
Mughal India, c. 1618–1620
Opaque watercolour and gold on new, naturalistic style of painting which incorporated European techniques of shading and rendering volume.
paper Jahangir was particularly proud of Abu’l-Hasan’s skill, as the painter had trained and come to artistic maturity
Page: 36.7 x 24.5 cm; under his patronage, and he wrote in his memoirs: “Without exaggeration, his work is perfect, and his depiction
image: 11.5 x 6.5 cm is a masterpiece of the age” (The Jahangir-nama, trans. Wheeler Thackston, Oxford, 1999, p. 267). The weary old
Inv.: AKM00152
pilgrim of this painting is a recurring theme in Abu’l-Hasan’s work: in his court scenes, the old and thin ascetic
Publ.: Brown 1924, pl. 17, fig. 1;
Anand 1958, fig. 4; Colnaghi 1976, may appear in a marginal role, acting as an allegorical reminder of the superiority of the spiritual path, while here
(no. 93); Robinson et al. 1976, no. the pilgrim fingers his rosary as he hobbles along, nothing but a beautiful flower sharing his picture plane. The
93; Beach 1978, p. 91; Welch – dark background of the scene emphasizes both the luminously volumetric form of the pilgrim, who seems to
Welch 1982, (no. 68); Falk 1985, emerge from the darkness, and the impression of a non-naturalistic spiritual space in which the ascetic operates.
(no. 140); Fischer – Goswamy 1987,
(no. 87); Canby 1998, pp. 140–141
(no. 104); AKTC 2007a, p. 68
(no. 36); AKTC 2007b, p. 62 (no.
36).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 325

Sh$h ‘Abb$s I attended by a page 140

This painting is thought to have been originally partnered by an image of two standing pages dressed in Iranian Folio from double frontispiece
style and carrying dishes and cups (AKM00144); thus, the complete double-page image would show Shah ‘Abbas composition with elaborate border
paintings
I of Iran (r. 1587–1629) attended by three pages. Being a Mughal depiction of the Safavid ruler, the painter seems
Inscription on bottom right margin
to have made a point of emphasising the small stature of Shah ‘Abbas by placing him in a kneeling position on a of border painting: ‘amal Padarath
rock, eye-to-eye with the splendidly dressed young page. A famous Mughal painting (now in the Freer Gallery) by (“the work of Padarath”)
Abu’l-Hasan presents the imaginary scene of a diminutive Shah ‘Abbas being almost smothered in the embrace Mughal Agra, India, probably
of the much larger Mughal emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627); thus, there was a known precedent within Mughal c. 1640
Opaque watercolour and gold on
painting for this type of subtle political undermining. Simplified copies of a painting by the Mughal artist Bishn
paper
Das, showing Shah ‘Abbas meeting the Mughal ambassador Khan ‘Alam, were created at the provincial courts of Page: 39.2 x 25.3 cm;
Mughal India for centuries after the event (Canby 2009, pp. 60–63), and the present painting may be related to image: 18.1 x 12.3 cm
that group. The borders of the page are decorated with sheep or goats of various colours and various poses, Inv.: AKM00139
which may also be part of a pointed attempt to present the Safavid state as supine and representing no threat to Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 101 (no. 70);
AKTC 2007b, p. 100 (no. 70).
the Mughals: this was more wishful thinking than political reality. The inscription in tiny letters on the bottom
right margin of the border paintings reads ‘amal Padarath (“the work of Padarath”); a painting of a mountain
sheep by this artist is mounted in the Minto Album in the Chester Beatty Library, Dublin.
326 Portraits and Albums

141 A prince visits a hermit

Attributed to ‘Abd al-Samad, also
known as Sh›r›nqalam, or This rocky landscape depicts a prince visiting a hermit at his cave. The prince is seated submissively before the
“Sweet Pen” hermit, his green robe toning with the tree above him, while his eight brightly dressed attendants wait below on
Mughal India, c. 1585–1590 both sides of a small creek. The dappled grey horse of the prince dominates the lower half of the painting and
Ink, opaque watercolour, gold and forms its initial focus, but the eye is subsequently pulled diagonally up the page with the stream, towards the
silver on paper
pale hermit who emerges from the darkness of his cave. As Anthony Welch has observed, the stallion was a
Page: 39.6 x 31.3 cm;
image 34.5 x 22.8 cm symbol of authority and splendour but also one of “worldly impermanence” (Welch–Welch 1982, p. 160), and its
Inv.: AKM00122 foregrounding here means that it functions first as a dazzling celebration of royalty’s privileges, only to be
Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982, pp. transformed into a reminder of the insipidity of earthly greatness compared with spiritual rewards. Welch has
160–162 (no. 55); Fischer–Goswamy attributed the work on stylistic grounds to the Persian painter ‘Abd al-Samad, an artist of the Safavid dynasty
1987, no. 14; Canby 1998, pp.
who left the court of Shah Tahmasp (r. 1524–1576) to work first for Akbar’s father, the Mughal emperor Humayun
111–113 (no. 81); Canby 1998b,
fig. 8; AKTC 2009a, pp. 78–79; (r. 1530–1539 and 1555–1556), and then for Akbar (Welch–Welch 1982, p. 160). Welch believes that the prince
AKTC 2009b, pp. 78–79; represented in this image could be Akbar’s son Salim, the future emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627). Canby,
AKTC 2010a, pp. 80–81 (no. 41). however, has suggested that the princely figure may represent Akbar himself: she links the scene to an event that
took place during a hunt in April-May 1578. According to Akbar’s historian Abu’l-Fazl (d. 1602), Akbar
experienced an epiphany that led him to end the hunt and free the captured animals. It was rumoured amongst
Akbar’s circle that he had met with an anchorite who inspired him to adopt a more ascetic lifestyle (Canby 1998,
pp. 111 and 113).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 327

Portrait of a young prince with mystics 142

The Mughal Prince Dara Shikoh (1615–1659) was the eldest and favourite son and heir apparent of the Mughal Mughal India, c. 1635
emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) and his adored wife Mumtaz Mahal. Dara Shikoh was scholarly, profoundly Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper
interested in mysticism, and preoccupied with the possibility of achieving mutual tolerance between Hinduism
42.7 x 82.2 cm
and Islam; contemporary accounts suggest that these interests were pursued to the exclusion of military Inv.: AKM00498
foresight or administrative capability. A noted patron of the arts, in 1641–42 the prince presented his wife Nadira Publ.: AKTC 2007a, pp. 66–67 (no.
Banu Begum with an album of paintings and calligraphy now known as the Dara Shikoh Album and held in the 35); AKTC 2007b, pp. 62–63 (no.
British Library (Add. Or. MS 3129). The style and composition of some of the paintings in that album relate 35); Makariou 2007, pp. 30–31 (no.
4); AKTC 2008a, pp. 94–95 (no.
extremely closely to the present image; particularly relevant are the album paintings by an artist identified by Falk
27).
and Archer only as “Artist B” (Falk–Archer 1981, pp. 73, 383). In both the Dara Shikoh Album and the present
image carefully graded washes have been used to tint the paper rather than cover it, thus muting the palette,
creating subtly shaded volumes, and enjoining a further air of tranquility and thoughtfulness onto what is in this
case already a very cerebral scene of learning and mysticism. It has been suggested that “Artist B” was
influenced by the work of Govardhan (active in the first decades of the seventeenth century), the celebrated
Mughal painter whose paintings of sages and ascetics are typified by a subdued palette and perspectival
rendering.
328 Portraits and Albums

143 Album (muraqqa‘) of portraits and calligraphy

Tehran, Iran, late eighteenth – early This album (muraqqa‘) opens concertina-style to reveal twelve Persian ruler-portraits and eighteen calligraphy
nineteenth century specimens mounted onto decorated pages. The calligraphy pages are written in shikasta, thuluth, naskh and
Sixteen hinged folios: opaque
nasta‘liq scripts, set within finely illuminated floral borders. As Welch has noted, the album is notable for
watercolour, ink and gold on paper
in a contemporary lacquer binding containing works by eighteenth- and nineteenth-century calligraphers rather than samples by the great masters of
29.2 x 19.5 cm the past; this is apparently a reflection of the personal taste of Fath ‘Ali Shah (Welch–Welch 1981, p. 134). The
Inv.: AKM00275 dominance of shikasta scripts (see cat. no. 45) within the album is symptomatic of this late date: the script was
Publ.: Welch 1978b, pp. 98–119; enormously aesthetically refined – and at times barely legible – by the nineteenth century, and was a popular
Welch and Welch 1982, pp. 132–134 “showpiece” script for professional scribes. The twelve portraits in the album include three of the major kings of
(no. 45); Diba 1998, pp. 176–178;
the Shahnama – Jamshid, Kay Khusraw, and Kay Kavus – as well as portraits of Genghis Khan, Timur, and rulers
AKTC 2007a, p. 110 (no. 76); AKTC
2007b, pp. 110–111 (no. 76); AKTC from the Safavid, Zand and Qajar dynasties. A painting of Fath ‘Ali Shah (r. 1798–1834) in opulent imperial finery
2008a, pp. 162–163 (no. 59); AKTC on the Sun Throne on fol. 3v contains a medallion inscribed with his name and the date 1234 H/ 1819 CE. The
2009a, p. 217 (no. 162); AKTC juxtaposition of Fath ‘Ali Shah with historic images of Iranian kingship amply conveys the Qajar message of
2009b, p. 217 (no. 162); AKTC imperial power and dynastic legitimacy. According to Robinson, the album is perhaps a “portable” version of the
2010a, p. 232 (no. 174).
large oil paintings commissioned by Fath ‘Ali Shah from the artist Mir ‘Ali for the ‘Imarat-i Naw palace in Isfahan
(Ekhtiar in Diba 1998, p. 176).
330 Portraits and Albums

144 Album page with four mounted paintings

Inscription, upper left image: Y$ A rather startling combination of different styles has been juxtaposed in this album page; sometimes an interest
s$hib al-Zam$n (“Oh Lord of Time”) in presenting different pictorial modes overtook aesthetic concerns within the production of such albums. The
Safavid Iran, c. 1650–1675, and
top two images and the painting at bottom right can all be attributed to Iran in the second half of the
Mughal India, c. 1610–1620
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold seventeenth century, while the depiction of an allegorical nude in the bottom-left corner appears to be somewhat
on paper earlier, and Indian in origin. The punning inscription on the top left painting of two lovers has caused it be to
Page: 46.7 x 30.5 cm; attributed to Muhammad Zaman, a leading painter in seventeenth-century Iran, while the top right image of a
image: 27.9 x 17.9 cm kneeling young man has been attributed to Shaykh ‘Abbasi (Canby 1998, p. 90). In both images the costumes
Inv.: AKM00159
and “props” of the figures are traditional Iranian types, but the atmospheric skies, wooded parklands in the
Publ.: Falk 1985, p. 128;
Canby 1998, pp. 90–91 (no. 63). background and firmly shaded modelling of bodies, faces and objects derive, possibly indirectly, from European
sources. The lower right drawing of a dervish, on the other hand, reflects a style of Iranian painting that goes
back to the late sixteenth century and the heyday of Reza ‘Abbasi (d. 1635). The very cursorily drawn landscape
behind the figure gives the little scene an ethereal appearance in comparison with the other Iranian paintings on
this album page. The tinted drawing of a partially draped nude with attendant in the bottom left can be grouped
with a large number of Mughal paintings and drawings that derive from European prototypes, in this case
probably an allegorical image, but the sprigged ground, the figure at the window and the man and child in the
foreground appear to be interpolations on the part of the Mughal artist.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 331

Young woman in Indian dress 145

Signed Shaykh ‘Abb$s›
This painting of that perennially popular subject, a pretty young woman, belongs to a group painted in Iran in Safavid Iran, c. 1683
Indian style. During the seventeenth century paintings and drawings from Mughal India were imported to Opaque watercolour and ink on
Isfahan, where the combination of techniques descended from Persian miniature painting with European paper
modelling and perspectival composition proved immensely popular with Iranian artists. It has recently been Page: 26.6 x 17.1 cm;
image: 11 x 6.1 cm
suggested that the changes seen in Iranian painting in the seventeenth century may not have been as dependent
Inv.: AKM00197
on direct exposure to European models as was previously believed, with the new Indian style providing much of Unpublished
the impetus for innovation to the Iranian artists (Schimitz 2004, n.p.). The young woman of this painting is
dressed in a fair approximation of Indian costume, holding a flower to her nose and a long narrow pipe known
as a chibouk in her other hand, and stands in front of a receding background with wooded hills and simple
buildings: the transposition of the conventions of Mughal art is almost complete. The painting bears the
inscription Hova baha gereft cho kardid Shaykh-i ‘Abbasi sana 1094 (“it achieved worth because he became Shaykh
‘Abbasi in the year 1094 H [1683]”). Shaykh ‘Abbasi, also thought to be the painter of one of the paintings in cat.
no. 144, was attached to the court of Shah ‘Abbas II (r. 1642–1666) and subsequently that of Shah Suleyman
(r. 1666–1694); Schmitz observes that in his work European influence is refracted through “an Indian veneer”
(ibid.). A comparable image of a young Indian woman holding a cup and a flower in a wooded landscape, signed
by Shaykh ‘Abbasi and dated 1682–1683, is held in the Hermitage Museum in St Petersburg. The rather flowery
formula of the inscription on the present painting, which can be translated to mean that Shaykh ‘Abbasi himself
(and presumably by extension his work) gained value because his imperial patron Shah ‘Abbas II granted him
use of the nisba “‘Abbasi”, was the painter’s standard signature and appears on many pieces by him.
332 Portraits and Albums

146 Youth in a red coat

Safavid Iran, c. 1630–1650 From the early sixteenth century onwards Safavid artists began to supplement their manuscript illustrations with
Opaque watercolour and gold on single-page paintings intended for inclusion in muraqqa‘s, or albums of paintings and calligraphy (Canby 1999,
paper
p. 54). As the genre developed, the most common subjects for illustration were elegant courtiers and dandies,
Page: 30.8 x 18.8 cm;
image: 18.3 x 8.3 cm often rather decadent in appearance, but portraits of Sufis and other notable personages were also made. Reza
Inv.: AKM00436 ‘Abbasi (d. 1635) is probably the best-known artist of this genre: he is often credited with developing a distinctive
Unpublished calligraphic line within his figure studies, and admired for his bold and experimental use of colour. The influence
exerted by his style on both manuscript illustration and album paintings produced throughout his long career
and after his death can be seen in the work of painters like Mu‘in Musavvir (cat. no. 130) – who was trained by
Reza ‘Abbasi – and also in the present painting. The thick eyebrows which meet in the middle, round white
cheeks and rosebud mouth of this figure are all characteristic of seventeenth-century painting of the Reza ‘Abbasi
school (ibid., p. 107), as is the background decoration of plants and fronds rendered in simple brushstrokes of
gold. Although Indian and European painting played a major part in shaping the directions taken by Iranian
painting later in the seventeenth century, it is important to remember that there was also an ongoing taste for
the highly idealized idiom perfected by Reza ‘Abbasi and his followers.
334 Portraits and Albums

147 Young woman standing by a vase of flowers, with calligraphic samples

Safavid Qazvin, Iran, c. 1600 A further development of the album format was the combination of paintings and calligraphic samples into complex
Opaque watercolour and gold on single- or double-page compositions. In this example the main panel on the right contains eight lines of nasta‘liq
paper
script set on a diagonal and signed “Shah Mahmud”, probably Shah Mahmud al-Nishapuri (active in Tabriz from
Page: 35.3 x 22.8 cm;
image: 13.9 x 6.6 cm late 1520s to late 1540s), a famous Safavid calligrapher and the creator of cat. no. 54. The lower left-hand panel
Inv.: AKM00416 shows a nasta‘liq script done in white with extremely fine black outlining and signed “Imad al-Hassani”. The latter
Unpublished calligrapher is more often known as Mir ‘Imad (d. 1615), one of the foremost practitioners of the art at the court of
Shah ‘Abbas (r. 1587–1629). His work was immensely popular and widely collected in his own lifetime and after his
death; once collected, even small calligraphic samples made by such masters would be mounted up into album
pages like this one. The figural painting that shares the page with these calligraphic samples, although damaged in
the face, is of an elegant type with an interesting and brightly painted costume. The white robe, which has been
lifted to reveal a striped and patterned underskirt and striped trousers, is tucked up in a similar fashion to the robes
of pageboys seen in a Khurasani painting from the 1560s now in the British Museum (British Museum OA 1920.9-
17.0302; Canby 1999, p. 74), but the image can perhaps be more immediately associated with the frank sensuality of
a female figure in an album painting of c. 1640 whose skirts are lifted above her waist, revealing her midriff and a
long pair of striped knickers (BM OA 1930.4–12.02; ibid. p. 137).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 335

Woman in a landscape 148

Like cat. no. 145, this painting presents a young woman in Indian-style dress standing very upright in a landscape Signed Bahr$m Sofrakesh
with trees and buildings, this time on a sprigged ground. The painting is so thoroughly in the Indian idiom that Safavid Iran, dated 1050 AH/
Welch has suggested that the painting must have been executed in the Deccan around 1670; however, Soudavar 1640–41 CE
Opaque watercolour and gold on
has identified another, related image that shows a very similar woman being embraced by an Iranian man, and is
paper, pasted onto card
signed by the same artist and also dated to 1050 H (Soudavar 1992, p. 366, no. 145). Canby has further argued Page: 35 x 22.3 cm;
that an inscription on an album painting in the British Museum, dated 1096 H/ 1685 CE and referring to an artist image: 12.1 x 5.8 cm
who is the son of “Master Bahram farangi saz at Isfahan”, is further evidence that Bahram Sofrakesh was an Inv.: AKM00150
Iranian artist, and that the date on the present painting is reliable and the piece should be attributed to Safavid Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982,
pp. 227–229; Canby 1998, pp. 81–82
Isfahan. The confusion raised by this image demonstrates how extremely close to Indian models were the
(no. 54).
imitations of the Indian style that were in circulation in seventeenth-century Isfahan.
336 Portraits and Albums

149 A resting lion

Attributed to Mu’in Musavvir During the winter and early spring of 1672 the weather in Isfahan was unseasonably cold, with snowstorms, and
Safavid Isfahan, Iran, dated 14 the artist Mu‘in Musavvir (to whom this painting is attributed; see also cat. no. 130) recorded on another
Shawwal 1082 H /
drawing made at that time that he stayed inside during this period because of the snow (Farhad 1992, p. 117).
13 February 1672 CE
Ink, watercolour and gold on paper That other drawing, which shows a young man being mauled by a tiger outside a doorway, bears a long text
Page: 14 x 22.5 cm; describing the event that it illustrates: a tiger and a rhinoceros were given as gifts to Shah Sulayman by the
image: 4.6 x 9.3 cm ambassador of Bukhara during the ‘Id al-Fitr celebrations, and the tiger suddenly attacked a young man, who
Inv.: AKM00111 later died from his injuries. Although Mu‘in Musavvir did not witness the event himself, descriptions of the big
Publ.: Welch 1978a, pp. 158–159;
cat seem to have made a powerful impression on him, and may have also prompted him to create this drawing
Canby 1998, p. 86 (no. 58).
and another, dated 4 Shawwal 1082, showing a monkey riding on a lion (Freer Gallery F1966.13). The economy of
line employed in this painting is well calculated to show off the artist’s skill as a draughtsman: strong black lines
elegantly fix the animal’s shoulder, back, lip and ear, while variegated softer lines are used to indicate both form
and the texture of fur and hair.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 337

Shepherd with sheep and goats in a rocky landscape 150

Although not of the same high quality as the album pieces by masters such as Mu‘in Musavvir (see cat. no. 149), Safavid Iran, c. 1620–1640
this simple painting, which seems to be unfinished, demonstrates the influence that the work of those masters Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper
had on other artists of the seventeenth century. Rejecting the volumetric modelling of the Europeanizing styles
Page: 27.3 x 19.9 cm;
that were becoming increasingly popular, the execution of this painting is a distant echo of the traditional image: 17.8 x 13.1 cm
Isfahan school of album painting. Several different methods of mark-making have been employed: a calligraphic Inv.: AKM00432
line of varying thickness is used to mark in the details of the figure, clothes and tree, while the figure’s beard and Publ.: Welch 1972a, p. 189.
the coats of the two standing ibex in the foreground have been built up out of many extremely fine black
brushstrokes. The volume of the rocks upon which the figure leans is indicated with a softer build-up of coloured
brush strokes. The sketchy appearance and roughly applied colouring of the two animals in the right of the
foreground suggests that they were also intended to be finished with a coat of fine brushstrokes at a later point.
The surrounding decorated paper of the border has been heavily trimmed and is made up of separate pieces cut
to fit around the painting rather than being painted specifically for this piece, another factor which distinguishes
this painting from some of the most highly regarded examples of the genre.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 339

Composite elephant and border painting of animals 151

Depictions of composite figures and animals appear elsewhere in Mughal art: such images provide a wonderful Mughal India, c. 1600; border c.
opportunity for the painter to demonstrate both his powers of invention and his skills as a draughtsman and 1640 and inscribed ‘amal Dawlat
colourist. In this image both the supernatural elephant and its rider are composed of dozens of brightly painted Kh$n (“the work of Dawlat Kh$n”)
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
smaller animals, birds and humans. The artist has cleverly compacted and fit together an extraordinary number
on paper
of individual creatures within the silhouettes of the elephant and rider, including even the bells of the elephant’s Page: 38.6 x 25 cm;
harness, which are made in the form of animal heads (possibly feline) with protruding tongues, and the belt of image: 13.3 x 20 cm
the rider, which is a snake. The rider wears a lavish plumed crown, with golden flames streaming behind, Inv.: AKM00143
suggesting he should be understood as a royal figure: in other variations on this theme, demons or winged Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982, pp.
184–188 (nos 62–3, recto and
houris ride on the magical elephants. In this instance, however, the plethora of different species contained within
verso); Falk 1985, no. 132;
the body of the elephant and rider may stand as a metaphor for the diverse worldly elements kept in balance by Fischer–Goswamy 1987, (no. 24);
the Solomon-like ruler. Within this metaphorical interpretation the white figure walking in front has also been Vaughan 1999, fig. 3; Ritschard
interpreted as a Sufi guide leading the way along the spiritual path (Welch–Welch 1982, p. 187). The border 2000, (no. 231); AKTC 2008a,
framing the painting is a noteworthy work of art in itself, and its images of varying types of animals are most pp. 116–117 (no. 38).
likely intended to echo those seen in the main painting. Margin painting frequently appeared in Mughal albums
and the prominence accorded to border paintings as a form of art is demonstrated by the fact that the painter of
the borders, Dawlat Khan, has signed his work on this folio.
340 Portraits and Albums

152 Sal›m and the captured cheetah

Inscription: “Aqa Riz$, the servant The technique known as nim qalam or “half pen” uses black ink, extremely fine brushes and light washes to
of Shah Sal›m” create an effect similar to the monochromatic European technique known as grisaille. Nim qalam emphasizes
Allahabad, Mughal India, c. 1602
modelling to convey volume and depth; in this painting, small areas of bright colour have been incorporated
Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper within the mainly muted palette to eye-catching effect, most notably the sash of bright blue tied around the waist
Page: 38.9 x 27.5 cm; of prince Salim (the future emperor Jahangir) which clearly marks him out as the most important figure in the
image 31.2 x 19.4 cm scene by drawing the eye immediately to him. Within the complex, spiralling composition Salim kneels to
Inv.: AKM00166 blindfold the cheetah that he and his men have just captured, watched by various other members of his retinue
Publ.: Colnaghi 1979, p. 36 (no. 16);
who stand around the qamargah (a corral of dense wattle), and also watched by two monkeys in the tree.
Welch–Welch 1982, pp. 179–182
(no. 60); Verma 1994, p. 67; Canby Cheetahs were captured for training as hunting animals: they were greatly prized and this picture shows the
1998, pp. 132–133 (no. 99). pains taken to capture them unscathed, a very difficult task that illustrates both Prince Salim’s courage and his
skill as a hunter. The painter Aqa Riza trained in the Persian style in Herat and joined the atelier of Prince Salim
around 1599; he was, as this painting clearly demonstrates, a notable artist in himself, but he is perhaps best
known now as the father of the painter Abu’l-Hasan who was eventually honoured with the title Nadir al-Zaman
(“Wonder of the Age”) by Jahangir (see cat. no. 139).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 341

Great Hornbill 153

An extraordinary interest in the natural world was evinced in the work of many Mughal painters, apparently led by Mughal Agra, India, c. 1640
the tastes and interests of the Mughal rulers themselves. The circulation of European botanical and natural Opaque watercolour, ink and gold
on paper
history prints and drawings within India has often been postulated as a spur to the development of a very
Page: 34.6 x 55.8 cm;
meticulous, closely observational style of painting found in Mughal paintings of plants, animals and, as shown image: 18.7 x 21.8 cm
here, birds. In fact this painting is a copy of an original image (now in the Shah Jahan album, Metropolitan Inv.: AKM00137
Museum) made c. 1615 by Mansur, the most famous of the Mughal painters of animals (see cat. no. 156). It is Unpublished
recorded in Jahangir’s memoirs that the emperor once called upon Mansur to paint an image of a falcon that
had just been killed by a cat, as well as dipper birds of the Deccan and the summer flowers of Kashmir
(Thackston 1999, pp. 314, 333, 339). One consequence of this appetite for recording the natural world from life is
a wealth of images of immediately identifiable species rather than generic types, creating a fascinating record of
the flora and fauna of seventeenth-century India. The Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis), also known as the Great
Indian Hornbill, is a very large and striking forest-dwelling bird; individual Great Hornbills have been known to
live a long time in captivity, so the subject of this painting may in fact have been an habitué of the court. In life
the Hornbill’s beak and wingbars are touched with a very bright yellow; here the artist appears to have muted the
colouring somewhat, perhaps as a consequence of working from Mansur’s painting rather than from life.
342 Portraits and Albums

154 Pigeons around a dovecote

Mughal India, c. 1670 This remarkable painting imitates the format of the album painting set into a separate, elaborately painted border,
Opaque watercolour and gold on but in fact the framing imagery and central composition have clearly been conceived as a whole in this case. The
paper
painting is particularly striking in its lack of any landscape setting: in the central image two pigeons stand before an
18.7 x 11.6 cm
Inv.: M183 elaborate gilded domed dovecote, but the smear above the dovecote appears to be an eradicated owner’s seal
Publ.: Canby 1998, p. 153 (no. 114). rather than a representation of atmospheric effects, and the ground is entirely blank. Instead, the considerable
power of the painting comes from the beautifully judged compositional balance of the central pair of pigeons, the
rhythmic placement of the smaller surrounding birds, and the striking and bold use of a controlled palette of black,
white, grey, brown and gold. A raking light reveals that individual feathers are picked out with an extremely fine gold
line, adding a depth of richness that is not obvious at first glance. Although the central pair of pigeons may well, as
Canby notes, derive from an earlier image in the Dara Shikoh album (Canby 1998, p. 153), the depiction of the
bobbing, throat-swelling courtship display of a male pigeon (right) before a coyly interested female (left) is so
accurate as to suggest the artist also had first-hand familiarity with the subject. This is borne out by the more-or-less
accurate depictions of pigeon behaviours and postures in the “border”, and an obvious interest in differentiating
between various real breeds. The Mughal Emperors were noted pigeon fanciers: it is recorded in the Ain-i Akbar,
written by Akbar’s vizier in the late sixteenth century, that Akbar was a pioneer in the breeding of pigeons,
developing a sophisticated set of criteria by which breeds were differentiated, and that there were more than twenty
thousand pigeons kept at Akbar’s court (Ain-i Akbari by Abu Fazl Allami, Vol. 1, trans. Blochmann and Jarret,
Calcutta 1973, pp. 298–302). This painting is exhibited by kind permission of Princess Catherine Aga Khan.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 343

Incense burner in the form of a bird 155

Islamic Mediterranean, possibly
Incense was used in the Islamic world in both secular and sacred contexts: according to the historian al-Mas‘udi, Sicily, eleventh or twelfth century
guests of the ninth-century caliph al-Ma‘mun (r. 813–833) were offered an incense burner to perfume themselves Cast bronze with pierced and
before meeting with him (Bloom–Blair 1997, p. 120), and other sources record the use of incense to scent engraved decoration
religious buildings, and to prepare the deceased for burial (Ward 1990–91, p. 67). Given its figural nature and Height: 17 cm; length: 25.5 cm
Inv.: AKM00603
high quality, this example was almost certainly intended for a secular context, probably palatial. A fine example of
Publ.: AKTC 2007a, p. 85 (no. 55);
medieval bronze casting, the head and neck of this piece are hinged to facilitate the placement of the incense, AKTC 2007b, p. 82 (no. 55);
which when burned would emit fragrant smoke through the body’s pierced decoration. It has been suggested by AKTC 2008a, pp. 30, 122–123 (no.
Dr. Jean Hansell that the form of this incense burner is not just a generic bird but a representation of a specific 42); AKTC 2008b, no. 6; AKTC
variety of pigeon called known as a Scandaroon, thought to have originated in Iraq and spread westward across 2009a, p. 102 (no. 55); AKTC
2009b, p. 102 (no. 55); AKTC 2010a,
the Mediterranean: a key diagnostic of this breed is its distinctive long, downward curving beak, a feature which
p. 104 (no. 56).
is also prominently displayed on the incense burner. While the present object is close in shape to contemporary
bird-shaped incense burners from Khurasan (an area including eastern Iran and Afghanistan), its casting is
heavier and more sculptural, the pierce-work holes are larger, and the colour and patination are different. It has
been suggested that this incense burner may have been produced in Sicily in the late eleventh or early twelfth
century under its Arab and Norman governors, although further research may yet indicate a different source.
344 Portraits and Albums

156 Two spot-billed ducks

Ascribed to Mansur Mansur, the great Mughal painter of animals (active c. 1580–1624; see also cat. no. 153), is named at the top of the
Mughal India, c. 1620 painting as the artist of this image of two ducks standing by a small pool: “These two birds [murghan] are [the
Margins attributed to Muhammad
work] of Mansur”. It has been suggested by Canby that the red inscription naming Mansur may be the work of the
Baqir, Iran, eighteenth century
Opaque watercolour on paper emperor Jahangir himself, although no other instances of red ink inscriptions by Jahangir are known (Canby 1998,
Page: 33.2 x 20.5 cm; p. 148). The whole page was previously part of an album of Persian and Mughal paintings compiled in eighteenth-
image 14.4 x 9.4 cm century Iran, and broken up for sale in 1982, and the verso bears an unrelated painting of a rather portly man in
Inv.: AKM00205 yellow playing a kamancheh (an Iranian stringed instrument). The ducks are carefully posed to create a pleasing
Publ.: Canby 1998, pp. 148–149
composition of parallel diagonal forms and display their plumage, painted with an extraordinary fineness, to
(no. 110); AKTC 2007a, p. 169 (no.
143); AKTC 2007b, p. 168 (no. 143). maximum advantage. Both the birds and the details of the washed landscape they occupy are built up from many
thousands of tiny brushstrokes, a technique Mansur perfected and one which lends a rather softened, ethereal
appearance and is particularly well suited to the representation of fur and feathers. Although Mansur is known for
the scientific accuracy of his images of wildlife, in this instance the birds appear to have been endowed with
slightly elongated bodies and contracted heads, presumably with a view to creating a more elegant shape on the
page. The yellow spots on the tips of both birds’ beaks, their grey back plumage and the white wing bars of the
bird on the left would suggest that these ducks are probably a variety of spot-billed duck (Anas poecilorhyncha), a
native of Pakistan, India and East Asia. The surrounding border paintings of a nut tree and eglantine rosebushes
are probably eighteenth-century, and have been attributed to the court painter Muhammad Baqir (ibid., p. 149).
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 345

Tulips and an iris 157

Mughal India, c. 1645–1651
This delicate and meticulous miniature painting is a spectacular example of the highly observational paintings of Opaque watercolour on paper
plants and flowers that became increasingly popular in India during the period of Mughal rule. Mughal rulers, Page: 32 x 20.3 cm;
from the founder of the dynasty Babur (r. 1526–1530) onwards, displayed a marked interest in the natural world, image: 26.5. x 16 cm
with Babur himself making detailed observations of India’s flora and fauna in his memoirs. A surviving Inv.: M127
Publ.: Welch–Welch 1982, pp.
description from the Shah Jahan-nama of tulips growing in Kashmir shows that the bulb, already so prized in
217–20; Welch 1985, pp. 245–7
Europe, was familiar to the Mughals by the seventeenth century; however, as Canby has shown, these flowers are (no. 161); Goswamy–Fischer 1987,
unlikely to have been painted from life. The style of drawing and the fantastic perfection of the flowers, with each pp. 74–5 (no. 29); Canby 1998, pp.
presented at the point of its fullest and most characteristic bloom, strongly suggests that the model for these 144–145 (no. 107); Joseph M. Dye in
images came from European botanical illustrations that must have been traded in both India and Turkey. A Ziad 2002, p. 175.
seventeenth-century Turkish drawing of the central tulip and the ground from which it grows has been found in
the collections of the British Museum (OA 1995.2–28.01; see Canby 1998, no. 107), meaning both the Turkish
drawing and this painting must have been drawn from a common prototype. S.C. Welch attributed this painting
to an artist he called the “Master of the Borders” (Welch 1995, pp. 245–7). This painting is exhibited by kind
permission of Princess Catherine Aga Khan.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy 347

CHART OF DYNASTIES
348 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy

CALLIGRAPHIC SCRIPTS dynamic forward movement. As with Kufic, the

naming of this script is problematic and many
scholars now avoid the term “Eastern Kufic”: Blair has
Hij$z› proposed “broken cursive” as a preferable alternative.

Geometric or ‘square’ Kufic

Nineteenth-century European paleographers retained

this name to designate the script seen in the first
Qur’anic writings, appearing in the second half of the
seventh century in the regions of Medina and Mecca.
Though similar to scripts in common use, the letters
are distinguished by their fine, almost slender Developed in the thirteenth century, “Geometric
appearance, and a slight orientation to the right. Kufic” is created only from straight lines intersecting
at right angles. It usually falls within the framework
of a square. It was frequently used for architectural
Kufic decoration, usually representing the names of God,
his Prophet Muhammad, or Ali.

Naskh or naskh›

Named after the city of Kufa in Iraq, from which site

early paleographers believed the style to have
originated, this term includes the varied scripts used
between the eighth and ninth centuries for copying
the Qur’an. The naming of this group of scripts has
Naskh was the first of the canonical “six styles” of
proved problematic, and Déroche has proposed that
traditional calligraphy. Stemming from common
“Kufic” be replaced by the term “early ‘Abbasid
administrative writing, the use of this cursive script,
script”; however, “Kufic” remains the most widely
codified by Ibn Muqla, became widespread during
recognised name. The script itself is distinguished by the tenth century and remains today the most widely
its austere angularity, strongly marked lines, used book script in the Arab world and the basis of
pronounced horizontal emphasis, and its vertical modern Arabic typography. It is characterised by its
elements, which have been reduced as much as regular course, simple and supple on the line,
possible to the perpendicular. Eventually supplanted without particular emphasis or angular features.
by cursive scripts, which could be executed more
quickly, Kufic became highly ornamental and in later
centuries was largely reserved for titles and epigraphy. Maghrib›

Eastern Kufic

This cursive script with fine lines and sweeping

curves developed in the Maghrib and Spain in the
tenth century and remained in common use in the
western Islamic lands until the invention of printing,
Appearing in the east of the Islamic Empire in the when it was replaced by naskh. Two consonants, f$ʼ
tenth century, so-called “Eastern Kufic” is more and q$f, were denoted by different diacritical marks
cursive than Kufic proper, and is distinguished by its from those used for the same letters in eastern
broken lines and angular shapes, and by the extreme scripts (and in modern typography). The use of
contrast between the thick and thin parts of its letters. colour to designate the vowels was maintained
The long vertical letters are bevelled on the ends and longer within the practices of maghrib› script than in
its short lines incline or lean to the left, giving it a the rest of the Muslim world.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 349

Bih$r› Tawq›‘

A stately cursive script used exclusively in pre- With many similarities to thuluth, tawq›‘ is a script of
Mughal India, with thick, cupping wedges for letter the chancellery rarely used in manuscripts other than
endings and wide spaces between words. The origins for colophons. It is characterised by small letters and
of this script are obscure, but it appears to be a compact words, and permits some unauthorised
mutation of naskh. connections (the linking of certain letters which did
not normally join directly to the next character).
Tawq›‘ underwent further development at the hands
Thuluth of Ottoman calligraphers, eventually evolving into a
more ornamental version. It was one of the “six
styles”, often partnered with riq$‘.

Riq$‘

One of the canonical “six styles”, and often partnered

with naskh, the decorative character of thuluth comes
particularly from its rounded shapes. Wider and
more elaborate than naskh, with drawn-out strokes,
it lends itself primarily to the writing of titles and The last of the six canonical styles, this script,
colophons. derived from tawq›‘, is essentially an administrative
and secretarial script. It is characterised by rounded
curves; the loops of the letters are invariably filled,
Muhaqqaq the horizontal lines are very short and several
unauthorised connections are employed.

Ta‘l›q

Particularly prized by copyists of the Qur’an under the

Mamluks and Ilkhanids, muhaqqaq – another of the
“six styles” – is a script of large size and is highly
legible, with a consistent thickness and with well-
spaced ligatures. The endings of the letters are Although Persian and Arabic share an alphabet and a
elongated and their flattened curves highlight the text. number of individual words, the two languages are
radically different in linguistic terms and their
appearance on the page differs correspondingly. To
Rayh$n› or rih$n accommodate the different endings of Persian words,
Iranian calligraphers developed so-called “hanging”
scripts. Ta‘l›q, the first of the hanging scripts, was
standardised by the late thirteenth century. Thought
to have developed from riq$‘ and tawq›‘, it displays
extreme contrasts between compression and
Also one of the “six styles”, rayh$n$ is a smaller expansion, and a sinuous curvilinearity.
counterpart to the larger muhaqqaq; it was used for
Qur’ans of smaller size. The script is notable for its
smooth line and delicacy.
350 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy

Nasta‘l›q Shikasta

Nasta‘l›q, which appeared in fourteenth-century Iran, This variant of nasta‘l›q emerged in the early
was a combination of naskh and ta‘l›q. A script of the seventeenth century in Iran and is characterised by
chancellery, it is characterised by a slightly its great density due to very large ligatures, low and
suspended quality and the strong contrast between slanting verticals and an absence of vowel signs. It
its downstrokes and upstrokes. Graceful and light, it permits more unauthorised connections than other
was adopted by the Persian, Ottoman and Indian scripts, and sometimes words were even joined
empires, and is currently the standard script for together. It was reserved for chancellery use and for
Persian and Urdu. The elongations are abnormally poetry, and appears in a number of calligraphic
long, tight curves are important, and letters and samples from the seventeenth to nineteenth
words have very precise dimensions that do not centuries.
follow the horizontal line. Nasta‘l›q is often written at
a slant, enabling the next word to be started above
the end of the preceding one. The calligraphic examples in this section were
created by Mustafa Ja’far.

D›v$n›

Derived from ta‘l›q, this majestic script was

developed under the Ottomans and was normally
reserved for important documents and decrees.
Significantly, within this script spaces were not left
between words, nor at the ends of lines, in order to
avoid the possibility of later (fraudulent)
interpolations within the official text. It is difficult to
decipher because it is written very closely, with
multiple diacritical marks; this also protected
confidentiality, as training was required to be able to
read and write d›v$n› script.

Ghub$r›

Ghub$r› was a miniscule script, the name of which

comes from the Arabic word for “dust”. Said to have
been invented for writing messages to be sent by
carrier pigeon, it was later used to copy miniscule
Qur’ans for talismans.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 351

Stéphane Ipert ~ François Vinourd CCL decoration is termed a finispiece.

GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN
Gilding The process of decorating the leather binding
THE ARTS OF THE BOOK of a book by embossing it with thin gold leaf. Done
with the aid of hot irons such as an awl featuring a
Burnishing Finishing work that smoothes the heavy distinct motif, or using large iron plates, generally
papers used in manuscript production, making them applied with a press.
glossy by polishing with a burnisher, in agate, glass
or metal. This process eliminates irregularities, Headband A headband is a sewn reinforcement
creating a better writing surface. braided or embroidered on each extremity of the
body of a volume. It is built on a frame, a narrow
Colophon A written statement at the end of a strip of leather or parchment, placed flat on the edge
manuscript in which the scribe gives the date or of the volume. Often, it has a pattern with two
place of copying, and sometimes his name as well as colours in the form of chevrons (fig. 1).
that of the manuscript’s sponsor.

Decorated and coloured paper Many manuscripts

were composed on decorated paper. Pages could be
dyed, decorated with flecks of gold or silver, or
marbled. There exist other less common techniques,
such as paper silhouettes, cut-outs, or decoration
with stencils. Similarly, the paper was often tinted;
this could be done by simply soaking or boiling, or by
combining the dye with a chemical fixer so that the
colour penetrated more easily into the fibres, or by
still more complex processes.

Decoration of bindings Concerning decoration, there

are generally three different types of bindings: Figure 1. Headband.
bindings without decoration, bindings whose boards
are entirely decorated and bindings featuring a Islamic bindings The earliest Islamic bindings were
central design element. Nevertheless, all three box bindings or case bindings. These are
patterns of decoration allow for diverse techniques of characterised by a leather strap with a height equal to
ornamentation by stamping, cutting, tooling and the thickness of the book. Attached by one part to the
gilding as well as ornamentation with textiles or back of the book and by the other part to the lower
lacquer. cover, this strap formed a case protecting the book
once it was closed. These binders were generally
Decoupage A decorative technique that involves provided with a clasp (fig 2).
cutting the leather binding to fully remove parts and
thus create an openwork design. A coloured
background, in textile or in paper, could then be
inserted to enhance legibility.

Doublure A piece of skin or hide glued to the inner

face of the covers of a binding. The lining materials
may be leather, parchment, paper or textiles. These
are characterised especially by their refinement, and
constitute a distinctive quality of the bindings of the
Islamic world.

Endpapers or fly leaves Sheets of paper or parchment

added at the beginning and ending of a book to
isolate the binding from the text itself.

Frontispiece An important page, or sometimes two

facing pages, of decoration that marks the beginning
of a book or text. When at the end of a book, such a Figure 2. Box or case binding.
352 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy

Flap bindings are emblematic of Islamic bindings. As resistant by a chemical process. Once tanned, the
their name suggests, they have a flap that extends skin can also be dyed. Basan is a sheepskin smooth
the outside of the lower cover and whose height and resistant to weakness, offering leather with an
equals the portion of the volume that it covers once even grain and supple flesh. Morocco is, in turn, a
closed. The flap itself is extended by a pentagon- goatskin with a full and irregular grain. Finally,
shaped covering over the upper board from its chagrin is a goatskin with a particularly tiny grain,
opening on the left side in the middle (fig. 3). thick and bulging.

Libraries The Islamic world historically contained

several kinds of libraries: caliphal libraries, religious
libraries in mosques and the libraries of madrasas,
traditionally colleges of religious instruction. The first
were places of cultural, political, religious,
philosophical or scientific exchange intended to
promote and increase knowledge. The second form
of library remains a vital part of contemporary
Islamic cultural life; these provide readings or
teaching of the Qur’an as well as secular books, and
might also loan books. Finally, the traditional library
of the madrasa is a vital resource for religious
education. Places for the preservation, transmission
and dissemination of knowledge, all of these types of
Figure 3. Typical Islamic flap binding. library experienced a true blossoming from the eighth
to the fifteenth century in the Islamic world through
scientific advances that developed and were
Finally, there are also western-type bindings consisting disseminated through manuscripts. They welcomed
simply of a back and two covers; these may have cords readers and scholars alike, and certain libraries
or clasps (fig. 4). A full exploration of this subject can hosted workshops of scribes and bookbinders as well
be found in François Déroche, Manuel de codicologie as translators. Their existence was ensured in part
des manuscrits en écriture arabe (Paris, 2000). through waqfs (charitable trusts).

Marbling A complex technique which involves

floating coloured inks on a bath of viscous liquid,
creating patterns within the inks and taking a print
from them. When done successfully, marbling makes
it possible to generate on the surface of a piece of
paper or the edge of a book a unique decoration with
spots or streaks of various colours artistically
arranged.

Mastara (ruling-board) A matrix of wood or

cardboard on which are hung the threads that order
the entire layout of the manuscript: these designate
the spacing of lines and columns as well as the
location of illustrations and illuminations. Once
defined, the matrix is placed under a sheet that is
rubbed slightly, so that the hanging threads are
Figure 4. Western-style binding. embossed in relief on the sheet.

Mid$d or Hibr (Black ink) Black ink has almost

Lacquer In the arts of the book, this term refers to always been used by Muslims for most writing,
bindings whose decorations, realised by various coloured ink being reserved for other more
processes, are then covered with a thick shiny ornamental uses such as highlighting certain words
varnish, which can be painted and gilded. or elements of the text like titles, systems of
vocalisation, punctuation signs or the beginning of
Leather Leather is made from the tanned skin of a Suras. Recipes for black ink varied according to
goat, sheep or calf. It is rendered soft and rot- region but also in accordance with the social and
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 353

cultural environment, as well as with the quality of layers, the fibres of the second layer perpendicular to
writing that a scribe wanted to give to his work. those of the first. The dried sheets are then beaten
However, depending on the correct proportioning, until level.
the quality of the ink and its retention time varied.
Furthermore, it is difficult to identify specific inks. Parchment Parchment is the skin of goat, sheep or
Black ink recipes are divided into three major groups donkey that has been limed but not tanned, dried
that all use the same binder: Arabic gum. The first under tension and scraped for use as a medium for
group consists of carbon inks, known as mid$d. writing. Its surface is smooth, and it is expensive to
Charred material remains the basis of these inks, but manufacture.
the substances used are of plant, mineral or animal
origin and the method of carbonisation varies. Then Pigments Pigments, of vegetable or mineral origin,
there are the metallo-gallic inks resulting from a were used to manufacture coloured inks or paint for
chemical reaction between two components: a tannic decoration or for miniatures. The principal pigments
element and a metallic salt. These are known as hibr. used for white were ceruse (white lead pigment) and
Finally, the third group combines the components of talc. Yellow was obtained from orpiment or saffron
the other two groups. with white; orange from red lead; red from mercury
sulphide, ochre, or plant or animal exudations; and
Mihbara or Daw$t (Inkwell) Frequently both a green from a mixture of orpiment and indigo, Appian
utilitarian object and a work of art, the inkwell is of green, the green earth of Smyrna or verdigris. Finally,
paramount importance since the preservation of the blue was principally obtained from a base of lapis:
ink used in calligraphy is dependent upon it. Inkwells along with gold, lapis lazuli was the most precious
from the Islamic world were normally fitted with a material in manuscript production. Once prepared,
tuft of wool or cotton to control of the quality of the these pigments were mixed with mediums or binders
ink by maintaining homogeneity and avoiding the such as Arabic gum or vegetable or animal glues to
formation of deposits in the bottom of the container, ensure that they would adhere to their support. The
while also giving the scribe close control over the content of the binders varied in accordance with the
amount of ink loaded into the qalam when dipped. intended use of the pigments, i.e. whether they were
to be used in ink or paint.
Muraqqa‘ (Album) Widespread in Turkey, Iran and
India, the muraqqa‘ is an album often containing Qalam (Reed Pen) A hollow reed sharpened into a
paintings and exercises in calligraphy. The point for writing. The manner in which the qalam is
calligraphic samples may comprise Qur’anic verses, cut, held in the hand, placed on the page and made
traditions from the Had›th, panegyrics and all to glide across the paper defines the quality and
manner of poetic texts. Especially made for the precision of the writing. In addition, each writing
album format, the individual pieces are generally style demands a corresponding reed pen of a
designed in the form of a rectangle; the text is copied particular size, adapted to the thickness of the
on one side only and framed by a cardboard support letters.
with four decorated margins. The sheets are then
bound together in accordion fashion. Qalamd$n (Pen box) Intended to hold reed pens,
examples of the pen box (along with the inkwell)
Paper Paper was born in China in the first century constitute some of the most beautiful objects
CE. The techniques of fabrication were revealed to manufactured in the Islamic world. This stems in
the Arabs by Chinese prisoners of war after the Battle part from their association with the art of calligraphy,
of Talas in 751. First manufactured in Samarqand, which, of all the arts, is the closest to God. Pen boxes
paper production spread very quickly within the can be of lacquer, metal, wood or ceramic. Their size,
Islamic world and even beyond its borders. While shape, material, decoration and inscriptions often
there are different manufacturing processes, paper reveal much about the social status of their owner. In
from the pre-modern Islamic world is distinguished Turkey they are usually made of silver and termed
by its thickness and smooth appearance, which is divit.
due to the fact that the sheet is pasted with rice or
wheat starch and polished with a burnishing Rahle or Kurs› (Lectern) Various types of wooden
instrument of glass, agate, metal or ivory. It also has structure associated with scribal practice and reading
the distinction of being manufactured with the help existed in the pre-modern Islamic world. Although
of a flexible form, a sieve. many images show the scribe leaning on a board,
often balanced on his knees, there also existed a type
Papyrus Papyrus is made from a plant called Cyperus of low folding table which, once opened, takes the
papyrus. Pulp bands are placed side by side on two appearance of an X with the upper opening receiving
354 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy

the book. This is called a rahle in Turkish, while it is

sometimes known as a kurs› in Arabic, although the
latter term is also used to refer to lecterns and
supports of other forms.

Sewing The action of sewing together the notebooks

or sections of a volume for binding.

Stamping The process of decorating by embossing

with shaped iron stamps, normally used for the
decoration of the backs or covers of bindings.
Stamping is usually done without gold (blind-
stamping), with hot irons and often uses repeated
small motifs to form mandorlas, stars, circular
patterns or larger and more complex designs.
Textile Textiles such as brocades, calicos, satin, silk
or silk embroidered with gold can be used for book-
coverings. The textiles are used to cover the boards
while the edges are usually made of leather and form
a frame.

Tooling / engraving Carving or engraving of leather

bindings, at times cutting some pieces into concave
hollows. Done with the aid of an awl, often practised
in combination with stamping.

Vellum Parchment of the highest quality is often

known as vellum. Strictly speaking, vellum is
prepared from the skin of a young animal or, in some
cases, an unborn or stillborn animal, giving it a
particular fineness that is highly prized.

Watermarks Unlike Western paper the paper of the

Islamic world has no watermarks, with the exception
of some examples found in Spain or Morocco.
Dating from the twelfth century, these are laid papers
with threads of chain placed at regular intervals and
contain, near the middle of the sheet, a zigzag mark
whose function is not yet known with certainty.
However, it is also possible to find Islamic
manuscripts of the early modern period that contain
watermarks: the Islamic world began to import
European paper from the sixteenth century onwards,
primarily from Italy, leading to the creation of a
special watermark of three crescent moons.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 355

GENERAL GLOSSARY caliphs, the title was taken by the leaders of the
Umayyad and subsequently the ‘Abbasid dynasties,
‘Abbasids and also by leaders of competing dynasties, notably
Dynasty of Sunni caliphs descended from ‘Abb$s, the the Fatimids in North Africa and the Spanish
uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. The ‘Abbasids Umayyads in Cordoba.
took power in 749 over much of the Islamic world as
well as Iraq, after overthrowing the Umayyad dhikr
caliphate. They founded the ‘Abbasid caliphal capital Form of prayer, which consists in the constant
at Baghdad in 762 and extended their empire to repetition of a name or formula, performed either in
India. From the tenth century the ‘Abbasid caliphs solitude or collectively.
lost political authority: although the ‘Abbasid ruler
continued as caliph in name, in reality political power d›v$n
increasingly lay outside of Baghdad. The ‘Abbasids Anthology of poetry.
were finally overthrown by the Mongols in 1258 with
the sack of Baghdad. Fatimids
Shi‘i dynasty that ruled large parts of North Africa
abjad and the Middle East from 909 to 1171, and founded
Alphanumeric system in which each letter of the the city of Cairo (al-Q$hira). Fatimid rulers bore the
Arabic alphabet is assigned a numerical value. title of caliph and opposed the Sunni ‘Abbasid
Caliphate and that of the Umayyads of Cordoba.
Almohads The Ayyubids brought the dynasty to an end in 1171.
Berber dynasty that ruled North Africa and southern
Spain from 1130 to 1269. Ghaznavids
Turkic dynasty that ruled parts of Iran, Afghanistan
Almoravids and India from 977 to 1186.
Berber dynasty that ruled North Africa and southern
Spain from 1062 to 1147. Had›th
Report of the sayings or actions of the Prophet.
$ya These reports formed the basis of the Traditions of
A verse from the Qur’an. the Prophet, which were first transmitted orally and
then collected into anthologies.
Ayyubids
Of Kurdish origin, this dynasty, divided into several Hajj
branches, reigned over Egypt, Syria and Yemen from Annual pilgrimage to Mecca.
1169 to 1260. It was founded by Sal$h al-D›n, known
in the West as Saladin (1169–1193), who recaptured Hijaz
Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187. The birthplace and spiritual centre of Islam.
Comprising the north-western part of the Arabian
basmala Peninsula, this area contains the two most holy cities
The invocation bi-smi ll$hi l-rahm$ni l-rah›m, meaning of Islam: Mecca and Medina.
“In the Name of God, the Compassionate, the
Merciful”. This expression opens every Qur’anic Sura Ilkhanids
except the ninth, and is arguably the most repeated Mongol dynasty established by Hül$gü, the grandson
phrase in Muslim usage. It is held that recitation of the of Genghis Khan, in Iran and part of Iraq. Vassals of
basmala should precede every text or important act. the Great Mongol Khan of China, the Ilkhanids ended
the ‘Abbasid caliphate with the sack of Baghdad in
Buyids 1258 and ruled the Iranian territories from 1256 to 1353.
Originating from northern Iran, the Buyid dynasty (c.
932–1062) secured the control of vast territories in Imam
the ‘Abbasid domain, especially in Iraq and western In general, a leader of prayers or religious leader;
Iran. They placed the caliphs of Baghdad under their used by the Shia to denote the spiritual leader of the
de facto control from 945 to 1055 before being ousted Shi‘i community, chosen by God.
by the Seljuqs.
Janna
Caliph Literally “garden”, janna is one of the names given to
The political and spiritual leader of the Islamic paradise in Islam. This is the reward given to
community. After the first four “Rightly-Guided” believers after their death on the day of resurrection.
356 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Call›graphy

Jazira minbar
(al-Jaz›ra = “the island”) Expression designating the Elevated pulpit in a mosque, from which the imam
northern part of the plateau situated between the addresses the faithful during the Friday sermon and
Tigris and the Euphrates, which also includes some announcements are made to the community.
land lying to the north of the upper Tigris and to the
east and west of the two rivers. Mudéjar
Name given to Muslims who continued to live in the
Juz’ territories of al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) after they
One thirtieth part of the Qur’an. were conquered by Christians during the Reconquista.
Ka‘ba
Mughals
Sanctuary in Mecca, focus of the Hajj and the point
Founded by Babur, who claimed both Mongol and
towards which all Muslims orient themselves when
they pray. Timurid ancestry, the Mughal dynasty became
established in India in 1526. It reached its peak
kh$nq$h between 1556 and 1707, and ended in 1858 with the
Lodge or hospice for Sufis. deposition of its last ruler by the British.

khutba muqarnas
Sermon delivered in a mosque during Friday prayers. Decorative vaulting system composed of tiers of
small niche-like elements resembling stalactites or
Lampas honeycombs.
Technique of weaving silk fabrics that appeared at
the end of the tenth or the early eleventh century in muraqqa‘
Persia. Lampas fabrics were assembled from threads Album with a collection of samples of calligraphy and
of silk, gold and silver, with designs formed in relief paintings.
on a woven background.
Nasrids
Madrasa Dynasty that ruled southern Spain from 1230 to 1492.
College or educational institution, especially for
religious studies. Ottomans
Turkish dynasty that came to power in Anatolia
Maghrib
during the early fourteenth century. Rapid Ottoman
Western part of the Islamic world, including modern
territorial expansion toward Europe and the Balkans
Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Libya and Mauritania, and
was marked by the capture of Edirne and
sometimes also taken to include Islamic Spain.
Constantinople in 1366 and 1453, sealing the end of
Mahout the Byzantine Empire. The greatest extent of the
The teacher, the guide and the trainer of an elephant. dynasty’s power, covering part of the Maghrib, Syro-
Egypt, Turkey and the Balkans, took place in the
Mamluks sixteenth century under Süleyman the Magnificent
The word mamlük literally means “a thing (1520–1566) and in the seventeenth century. This
possessed”, hence “slave”. Formed from the power gradually declined until its overthrow in 1924
personal guard of the Ayyubid sultan, whom they by Mustafa Kemal.
overthrew in 1250, the Mamluks ruled Egypt and
Syria through two lineages, the Bahri Mamluks p›r
(1250–1382) and the Burji Mamluks (1382–1517). The Spiritual guide qualified to lead disciples on the
dynasty fell to the Ottomans in 1516–17. mystical path.

maqsüra Qajars
“Imperial Box” in the form of a separate section of Stemming from Turkic tribes, the Qajars, ruled Iran
the mosque traditionally reserved for the sovereign, from 1779 to 1924. Many of their sovereigns formed
usually beside the minbar. alliances with European powers. They chose Tehran
as their capital instead of Isfahan, and were replaced
mihrab
by the Pahlavis in 1924.
Niche in the wall of a mosque that indicates the
direction of prayer (qibla). It is normally
qibla
distinguished from the rest of the building by its
decoration. The relative direction of Muslim prayer towards
Mecca.
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 357

Safavids state monopoly. This term is also used to designate

Dynasty that ruled Iran from 1501 to 1722 and the workshops from which they were derived, and
established Shi‘ism as the official state religion. sometimes also the technique of tapestry making.

Samanids tughra
Dynasty that ruled from 819 to 1005 in Central Asia Distinctive and intricately executed monogram of the
and Transoxania. Ottoman sultan.

saz Tulunids
Type of vegetal decoration common in Ottoman art Dynasty that governed Egypt from 868, gaining
of the sixteenth century. power against the backdrop of a declining ‘Abbasid
caliphate but effectively ended by temporarily
Seljuqs revitalised ‘Abbasid forces in 905.
Sunni Turkic dynasty that ruled parts of Iran and Iraq
from 1040 to 1194, as well as Anatolia from 1081 to Turanians
1307. In 1055 they seized Baghdad and liberated the Descendants of Tur, one of the three sons of King
‘Abbasid caliph from the control of the Shi‘i Buyid Faridun, the Turanians were a Central Asian tribe of
dynasty. They were then assigned the title of sultans Iranian origin who ruled Turkistan and China. Their
and assumed the leadership in Iran and Iraq. legendary origin is related in the Persian epic the
Shahnama as well as in the holy book of the
shah$da Zoroastrian religion, the Avesta.
The Muslim profession of faith. Ashhadu an l$ il$ha
ill$ ll$h wa-ashhadu anna Muhammadan rasülu ll$h: ‘ulam$’
“I testify that there is no god but God and I testify Religious and legal scholars.
that Muhammad is the messenger of God”.
Umayyads
Shahnama (“Book of Kings”) The first hereditary caliphate of Islam, the Umayyads
Vast Iranian national epic in verse. Several versions were at the head of the Islamic empire from 661 to 750
exist, but the most famous is that which was and established their capital in Damascus. They were
completed by Firdaws› around the year 1010. overthrown by the ‘Abbasids; a surviving member of
the house eventually settled in Spain where the
shar›‘a Spanish Umayyads ruled until 1031, assuming the title
Standard term used for the body of rules guiding the of caliph as rivals to the ‘Abbasid caliphate.
life of a Muslim.
waqf
Simurgh Pious endowment or trust stipulated for a charitable
Mythical Persian bird, involved in the lives of various purpose.
heroes of the Shahnama.

Sura
Chapter of the Qur’an.

tawh›d
The Oneness of God or belief in Divine Unity, one of
the fundamental tenets of Islam.

Timurids
Dynasty founded by Timur (known in the West as
Tamerlane) that ruled in Central Asia and
Afghanistan from 1370 to 1507.

tir$z
Fabric adorned with decorative bands of inscriptions,
on which were normally given the caliph’s name and
titles, and sometimes the date and workshop of
manufacture. As luxury textiles, essentially destined
for elite use, the fabrication of tir$z constituted a
358

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mushaf kuno’, Jurnal lektur keagamaan 2/1
Museo Aga Khan. Milan 2007.
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AKTC 2007b Aga Khan Trust for Culture, Spirit & Life:
Akbar forthcoming Ali Akbar, Mushaf Sultan Ternate
Masterpieces of Islamic Art from the Aga Khan
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Allan 1982 James W. Allan, Islamic Metalwork: The
AKTC 2008a Aga Khan Trust for Culture –
Nuhad Es-Said Collection. London 1982.
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and Portuguese). Lisbon 2008. Allan 2002 James W. Allan, Metalwork Treasures from
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 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 373

INDEX British Museum 64, 82, 193, 323, 334, 335, 345
al-Bukhari 240

‘Abbas Mirza 194 Cairo 3, 30, 41, 74, 75, 82, 84, 106, 125, 208, 229, 248,
‘Abbasid 17, 25, 50, 59, 61, 65, 68, 130, 201, 203 208, 255, 265, 267, 355
217, 222, 239, 242, 309, 348, 355, 357 Calligram 125, 149
‘Abd Allah, Isma‘il ibn (scribe) 164, 173 Chrysography 23-26, 116
‘Abd al-Malik (Caliph) 59, 208, 212
‘Abd al-Samad 86, 253, 254, 326 Dara Shikoh 193, 327, 342
Abjad 24, 37, 355 Dawlat Khan 339
Abu’l-Fazl 14, 188, 342 Dioscorides 201, 205, 217, 222, 223
Abu’l-Hasan 324, 325, 340 al-Du‘ali, Abu al-Aswad 58
Afrasiyab 275, 283, 285 Dust Muhammad 243, 244, 246-247, 255, 321
Aga Khan III, Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah 4, 9
Aga Khan, His Highness Prince Karim 5 Farangis 302
Aga Khan, Prince Amyn 5, 7, 9 Faridun 249, 250, 263, 274, 287, 288
Aga Khan, Prince Sadruddin 4, 5, 7, 9, 15, 123 Fath ‘Ali Shah 98, 99, 194, 328
Aga Khan, Princess Catherine iv, 5, 9, 46, 47, 87, 91, Fatimid xii, 2, 3, 4, 9, 25, 29, 41, 42, 43, 44, 50, 68,
138, 280, 342, 345 69, 71, 125, 276, 347, 355
Aga Khan, Sadr A‘zam Mirza 157 Firdawsi, Abu’l-Qasim 4, 107, 242, 244, 249, 254,
Ahmed III 109 256-258, 262, 264, 266, 272, 273, 302
Aja’ib al-makhluqat (Wonders of Creation) 217, 226, 232 Firman 196
Akbar 14, 106, 108, 144, 173, 300, 323, 326, 342
Genghis Khan 266, 267, 314, 328, 355
‘Alam 197
Ghaffari, Ahmad ibn Muhammad 303
Alamut 4
Ghazan Khan 220
Albarello 227-229
Ghazna 106, 256, 257, 347, 355
Alexander the Great: see Iskandar
Ghouchani, Abdullah 30, 41, 50, 218
Alhambra 53, 127, 308
Gushtasp 282, 291, 295
‘Ali ibn ‘Abd Allah (scribe) 172
Gwalior 114-123, 177
Almohad 52, 74, 347, 355
Anwar-i Suhayli (Lights of Canopus) 252, 296
Hafiz 4, 9, 20, 264
Aqa Riza 340
Hajji ‘Ali 231
Astrolabe 4, 7, 202, 203, 217, 230, 231
Hajji Khalifa 209, 214
Avicenna: see Ibn Sina
al-Hakim (Caliph) 3
Awrangzib 323
al-Hariri 19, 241
al-‘Aziz 287
Hatifi 243-245, 249, 255
Haydar Re’is 318
Babur 108, 114, 243, 255, 264, 300 Hisham ibn ‘Abd al-Malik (Caliph) 69
Bahram Gur 273 Humayun 108, 268, 326
Bahram Mirza 321
Bahram Sofrakesh 335 Ibn ‘Adiya, Jahiliyya Samaw’al (poet) 52
Bamiyan 88 Ibn Bakhtishu‘ 204, 217, 220
Bayezid II 108, 178 Ibn al-Bawwab 61, 65
Baysunghur 77, 107, 257, 258, 265-267, 312 Ibn al-Ma’mun, ‘Abd Allah (poet) 171
Benaki Museum 42 Ibn Muqla 17, 61, 65, 348
Bihari 78, 123, 177 Ibn al-Nadim 36, 59, 239, 255
Bihzad 107, 243-244, 246-250, 252-255 Ibn Sina (Avicenna) 7, 203, 218
Bijapur 133 Ibrahim Muteferriqa 109
Blue Qur’an 19, 24-25 Ilkhanid 54, 61-62, 76, 86, 106, 111, 116-117, 185, 205, 220,
Boné 10, 162-173 226, 258, 265-266, 267, 273-275, 309, 349, 355
374 Index

Isfandiyar 266, 295 Mi’at layla wa-layla (101 Nights) 206, 213, 214
Iskandar (Alexander the Great) 64, 242, 253, 263, 266, Minai ware 271, 279, 280
268, 286 Minassian, Adrienne 5
Ismaili Studies, Institute of 7 Ming 69, 91, 312
Iznik 7, 87, 151 Mir ‘Ali Sultan 107
Mir ‘Imad 334
Ja‘far al-Sadiq 69 Mirza ‘Ali 138, 291
Jahangir 254, 310-312, 323, 324-326, 340, 341, 344 Mirza Muhammad Baqir 139, 344
Jalayir, Isma‘il 101 Monif, Khan 5
Jingdezhen 91 Mount Saqila 250, 291
Mudéjar 127, 356
Kairouan: see Qayrawan Muhammad Ibrahim al-Katib al-Sultani 137
Kalila wa Dimna 209, 241, 242, 246, 248, 252, 255 Muhammad Isma‘il 158
Kalbad 292 Muhammad Zaman 310, 320, 330
Kashan 86, 276 Muhaqqaq 61, 62, 73, 75, 76, 77, 116, 119, 148, 176,
Kashkul 92, 197, 283 178, 349
Kay Kavus 275, 292, 328 Mu‘in Musavvir 107, 139, 140, 302, 332, 336, 337
Kay Khusraw 250, 275, 283, 328 al-Mu‘izz (Fatimid Caliph) 2, 50, 68
Khalili, Nasser D. 27, 88 Murad III 109, 262, 318
Khamsa 20, 173, 182, 261, 286, 293 muraqqa‘ 62, 73, 314, 317, 328, 332, 353, 356
Khawass al-Ashjar (De Materia Medica) 201, 205, 217, Murshid ibn al-Din Wazzan (scribe) 152, 282, 283
222, 223 al-Musabbihi 3
Kitab al-Jughrafiyya 130, 211
Kitab Suwar al-Kawakib al-Thabita 233 Na‘im al-Din 285
Kitabkhana 104-112, 144 Napoleon 5, 64, 194
Kufic 10, 16, 22-55, 59, 60, 63, 68, 73, 74, 75, 76, 106, Nasir al-Din Shah 158
116, 117, 119, 128, 135, 136, 177, 220, 348 Nasrid 52, 53, 74, 127, 347, 356
nasta‘liq 62, 66, 244, 350
Layla u Majnun 241 Nigaristan 303
Louvre Museum 89 Nizami 4, 20, 158, 182, 242, 254, 286, 293
al-Nu‘man 2
Maghrib xii, 59, 60, 74, 106, 127, 130, 202, 208, 211, Nun (inkwell) 126, 135
347, 348, 356
Mahmud Nishapuri 131 Ptolemy 64, 202, 203
Makassar 162-164, 173, 181
Maki, Fumihiko 9 Qalqashandi 134
al-Malik al-Nasir 83 Qambar ‘Ali 300
Mamluk 5, 7, 17, 61, 62, 75-77, 82, 83, 108, 109, 111, Qanun fi’l-Tibb 203, 205
112, 116, 117, 119, 121, 123, 134, 176, 208, 229, 347, Qarmathian 38
349, 356 Qasim Beg 300
Manafi‘ al-hayawan (Usefulness of Animals) 220 Qayrawan 2, 26, 27, 106, 202
Mani 238-240, 243, 244, 246, 247, 252, 254, 255 al-Qazwini 204, 226, 232, 285
al-Mansur (Caliph) 241
Mansur (painter) 341, 344 Rashid al-Din 105, 106
Mansur ibn Ilyas 204, 225 Rasulid 76
Manuchihr 287 Rawghan-i Kaman 304
Maqamat 19, 241 al-Razi (Rhazes) 203, 204
Mashq 36 Reza ‘Abbasi 139, 140, 302, 330, 332
Master of the Borders 345 Reza ‘Abbasi Museum 89, 295
Mehmed II 108, 309 Rumi, Jalal al-Din 4, 153
Mehmed IV 142
 Treasures of the Aga Khan Museum - Arts of the Book & Calligraphy 375

al-Sabah 27 Ulugh Beg 77, 107

Sa‘di 158, 263 Umayyads 125, 128, 200, 208, 347, 355, 357, 361, 364
Sadiqi Beg 107, 250, 250, 252, 296 Umma viii, 13, 253, 266
Sak›p Sabanc› Museum xii Ustad ibn Hajji Najjar 66
Salm 274, 287 ‘Uthman (Caliph) 58, 65
Samanid 34, 37, 45, 67, 68, 106, 218
Samarqand 18, 32, 33, 45-47, 54, 77, 107, 170, 171, 172, Victoria & Albert Museum 86, 127
266, 300, 353
Sayyid ‘Ali Tabatabai 100 Wajid ‘Ali Shah 196
Selim I 94, 109, 263 Welch, Anthony 8, 9, 123, 255, 268, 286, 295, 326
Selim II 180, 243, 248, 249, 262, 268, 318, 319 Welch, Stuart Cary viii, 5, 9, 123, 255, 266, 268, 314
Selim III 5, 319
Shah ‘Abbas 65, 107, 108, 250, 260, 265, 325 Yaqut al-Muta‘simi 17, 61, 73
Shah Isma‘il 94, 287, 295, 321 Yemeni 17, 232
Shah Jahan 193, 323, 327, 341, 345
Shah Sultan Husayn 310, 320 Zahhak 288, 290
Shah Tahmasp 131, 138, 180, 266, 287, 290, 291, 292, Zarin Qalam 131
321, 326 Zayn al-‘Abidin 99, 101
Shahnama 5, 7, 20, 107, 138, 152, 158, 241-243, 246, Zhangzhou 90, 361
248, 249, 250, 255, 256-268, 272-275, 282, 283, al-Zuhri, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr 130, 211
285, 287, 288, 290-292, 295, 297, 302, 304, 309,
328, 357
Sharaf al-Din Muhammad al-Busiri 67
Shaykh ‘Abbasi 330, 331
Shaykh ‘Abdallah 146
Shaykh Lutfallah 66
Shikasta 62, 96, 328, 350
Sindukht 290
Siyavush 302
al-Sufi, ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn ‘Umar 203, 233
Sulawesi 7, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170,
172, 173, 181
Süleyman the Magnificent 109, 318, 356
Sultan Ahmad al-Salih 164
Sultan Husayn Bayqara 146, 153, 253, 259, 321
Sultan Iskandar 107
Sultanate of Delhi 114, 115
Suwar al-Kawakib 105, 233
Swatow 90

Tashkent 33, 36
Tashrih 225
Thuluth 61, 62, 66, 73, 76, 82, 83, 86, 99, 116, 148,
154, 178, 181, 183, 185, 218, 328, 349
Timurid 54, 77, 78, 80, 107, 109, 111, 112, 146, 154,
185, 204, 253, 257-259, 262, 265-267, 271, 282,
285, 309, 310-312, 317, 321, 356
Tuhfet ul-Leta’if 297
Tulunids 28, 347, 357
Tur 274, 287, 357
al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din 144, 158, 196