UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

UNIT 1

Lecture 1

DEFINITION OF PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT:

One cannot demarcate the beginning and end point of Production and Operation Management in
an establishment. The reason is that it is interrelated with many other functional areas of business
viz. marketing, finance, industrial relations policies etc. Alternately, Production and Operation
Management is not independent of marketing, financial, and personnel management due to
which it is difficult to formulate some single appropriate definition of Production and Operation
Management. The following definitions try to explain main characteristics of Production and
Operation Management:
• In the words of Mr. E.L. Brech: ―Production and Operation Management is the process of
effective planning and regulating the operations of that section of an enterprise which is responsible
for the actual transformation of materials into finished products‖. This definition limits the scope
of operation and production management to those activities of an enterprise which is associated
with the transformation process of inputs into outputs. The definition does not include the human
factors involved in production process. It lays stress on materialistic features only.
• Production and Operation Management deals with decision making related to production
processes, so that the resulting goods and services are produced in accordance with the quantitative
specifications and demand schedule with minimum cost. According to this definition design and
control of the production system are two main functions of production and operation management.
• Production and Operation Management is a set of general principles for production economies,
facility design, job design, schedule design, quality control, inventory control work study and
cost band budgeting control. This definition explains the main areas of an enterprise where the
principles of production and operation management can be applied. This definition clearly points
out that the production and operation management is not a set of techniques,
It is evident from the above definitions that production planning and its control are the main
characteristics of production and operation management. In the case of poor planning and control
of production activities the organization may not be not be able to attain its objectives and may
result in loss of customer‘s‘ confidence and retardation in the progress of the establishment.
In short, the main activities of operation and production management can be listed as;
• Specialization and procurement of input resources namely management, material and labor,
equipment and capital.

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

• Product design and development to determine the production process for transforming the input
factors into output goods and services.
• Specialization and control of transformation process for efficient production of goods and
services.
SCOPE OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT:
Production and operations management concern with the conversion of inputs into outputs, using
physical resources, so as to provide the desired utilities to the customer while meeting the other
organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adoptability. It distinguishes itself from
other functions such as personnel, marketing, finance, etc., by its primary concern for
‗conversion by using physical resources.‘ Following are the activities which are listed under
production and operations management functions:
1. Location of facilities
2. Plant layouts and material handling
3. Product design
4. Process design
5. Production and planning control
6. Quality control
7. Materials management
8. Maintenance management.

Fig: Scope of Production and Operations Management

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Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Lecture 2
EVOLUTION OF PRODUCTION AND OPERATION MANAGEMENT:

Operation Management has been variously known as Industrial Management, Management

Science, Operation Research, Production management and Production and Operation Management.
The concepts associated with Operation Management, perhaps, have their roots embedded in the
development of early organizations. The class of problems represented by Operation Management
came in the era after Industrial Revolution. This was a period of radical changes. People got
replaced by machines and water and mule power replaced human muscular efforts. These
developments changed the nature of production. As production moved from the cottage to factory,
the seeds of operation management sprouted on fertile ground.
Time and Motion studies—Scientific Management: It has passed through various stages to reach
the present stage. Its roots go back to the concept of ―division of labor‖ advocated by Adam
Smith in his book ―The Wealth of Nations‖ in 1776. He recognized the economic benefits of
specialization of lab our, He recommended breaking the job down into subtasks and reassigning
workers to specialized tasks in which they would become highly skilled and efficient. In the
early twentieth century, Frederick W. Taylor implemented Smith‘s theories and enunciated his
theory of ―scientific management‖. The basis of scientific management was a focus on machines
and system of their utilization. This concept led to ―time and motion study ―Early in the
20th.century , Frank and Lillian Gilbreth developed a more systematic and sophisticated method
of time and motion study taking into account the limits to physical and mental capacity and
importance of good physical environment. The Hawthorne Studies by Elton Mayo, in 1927,
resulted in the Human Resource Movement. These developments changed the way operations
were managed in many businesses during that period World War II – Operation Research ---
1940—1980: Before World War II the focus of ‗scientific management‘ was based on the micro-
environment in the manufacturing sector.
During the war, the focus moved from micro-environment to macro-environment. There was
rapid development in the concepts ‗theory and techniques of production and operation
management after World War II. The operation Research techniques evolved during defense
operations in the World War II found useful operations e.g. linear programming and network
analysis.
A new multi-disciplinary approach to problem solving called ‗Operation Research‘ was
developed. This was quantitative approach basically concerned with the efficient allocation and
control of resources. Operation Research is the application of scientific methods to study and
devise solutions to managerial problems in decision making using mathematical models and system
approach. Operation Research has helped solve resource allocation, scheduling, processing,
inventory, location layout and control problems replacement methods, and advent of computers
introduced the field of automation. The demand of manpower in defense operations in Second
World War necessitated evolving production systems requiring lesser labor force. This resulted in
detailed time and motion studies and standard machine tool designs to improve the efficiency of
reduced work force.
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Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

TRENDS IN OPERATION MANAGEMENT:

Recently several developments that affect operations management practices have taken place in
the market place. These changes have been due to economic policies at the national and
international levels, advent of new sectors of industry and new technologies. The following
represent a brief projected perspective on what operation managers should look at when they
think of future. These are the emerging trends and future challenges which will have a profound
impact for operation strategy.
Dismantling of Trade Barriers: One of the recent developments which could potentially affect
the operation management practices in the country is the opening up the Indian market to foreign
competition. Beginning 1991, the Union Government brought new reforms for easy import of
foreign goods in India. In addition to cost pressures from overseas players Indian manufacturing
firms had to face large scale dumping of goods. Therefore the new market scenario sets new
priorities for operation management and manufacturing firms need to face up to the new challenge.
Besides this new challenge, Indian manufacturing firms have greater chances for market
expansion, on account of liberalized economy, for two important reasons. The first is the overall
attractiveness of Indian firms due to factor cost advantage, because of relatively low cost of
labor. The second advantage for India is the large installed base of technical manpower,
manufacturing know-how and experience in manufacturing and operation management .These
developments are likely to affect operation management practices in the country.
• Shift in Economic Activity: In the beginning of the 21‘st century the global economy shows
significant structural changes with a swing of service sector. Reserve Bank of India Annual Report
for the year 1998-99 notes that the services have emerged as the fastest growing sector. From
41.3%share in 1990-91 of services the real gross domestic product has increased to 51.2% in 1998-
99. Increasing economic activity in service sector that employment pattern will shift from
manufacturing sector to service sector.
• Out sourcing as a major wave: India is the direct beneficiary of the phenomenon of dismantling
of trade barriers. Based on the successful experience of outsourcing software jobs in India, firms
in developed countries are increasing variety of other jobs, thus creating an ‗outsourcing wave‘
.Business process outsourcing (BPO) is an arrangement by which some of the business processes
are done by a third party on behalf of the organization. The key motivation for a firm to
outsource some of its processes stems from three factors: (i) Cost (ii) - Capacity (iii)
Competency.
Excellence in operations is a prerequisite for being successful in the BPO sector. Since the primary
consideration for a BPO is cost operation strategy thus a BPO firm must emphasize cost leadership,
otherwise the BPO activities may be shifted to competitor. Another critical performance measure
is quality. Since an organization often outsourcers the entire operations pertaining to business
process to third party, quality considerations are followed as per stringent

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

norms. Therefore, developing strategic planning for high level of quality is another important
implication for BPO organizations. In several other cases, in addition to cost and quality
requirements, stringent delivery requirements may also have to be met as the processes may be in
the intermediate stages of value creating process.
• Collaborative Commerce through the Internet: One of the most recent developments is the advent
of Internet in commerce and trade. Using the huge IT infrastructure, consisting of network
connectivity, client-service architecture and several computers, it is possible to connect remote
trading partners. Collaborative commerce opens up new areas for consideration in the operations
management. Many of traditional methods of operation management can either be replaced or
supplemented by new procedures using the electronic methods. Two important areas of significant
interest are (i) procurement and supply management practices using electronic means (ii) design
and new product development by means of CAD.
Technological Change: There is a tremendous growth in the use of robots in automatic machine
loading. The robot is used to load position and then unload and transfer work pieces. Welding
processes use robots extensively. Project management techniques of PERT/CPM are very effective
tools of planning and control of various projects. Computer simulation, computer-aided design and
manufacturing (CAD/CAM), group technology (GT) and cellular manufacturing systems
(CMS) are being introduced in future. Lean Manufacturing concept conceived by Toyota
Corporation in Japan is widely adopted. Lean redefines the organization‘s means, methods
and mission. In lean philosophy non-value added activities (NVA‘s) are excluded.
• The Environment: Technologies, to make products more earth friendly will be developed.
Stringent legislations and their compliance will be mandatory. Recycling and reuse of waste will
be adopted in many industries. New technologies will be developed to provide benefits to the
organizations. In an organization production manager has to administer a great variety of activities.
He assembles appropriate resources and direct the use of resources, be they people, machines,
processing etc. in transforming material and time of people into products and services.
Managers also have to respond to others forces from the external environment such as government
regulation, labor organization as well as local, regional, national and international economic
conditions Thus managers have to pay more attention to not only what their customers might buy
but also to increasing government regulations and behavior of consumers and environment
protection groups.
• Production manager should concern himself with production planning: In every enterprise the
Production Manager is responsible for producing the required quantity of produces in time to
meet the stipulated delivery date. The quantity to be produced depends upon the magnitude of
the demand whereas the time by which the production should be completed is determined by the
delivery date. Besides, the production department has to make arrangements for input factors
and, also has to produce in economic lot quantity. To achieve all these objectives proper
production planning is necessary. Production planning involves the generation and identification
of alternative courses of action and to select the optimum alternative. This can be done by; (i)
Assessing the requirements of various factors of productions on the basis of demand forecast.

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Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

(ii)Formulating demand schedule for factors of production to permit purchase of raw material
and production of products in economic lot sizes.
• Production Control: It is the duty of the production manager to use the resources at its disposal
in the best possible manner as well as to regulate the operations in such a way that the desired
delivery schedule is maintained. This is done by routing, scheduling and inspection during the
production process.
• Production manager should concern himself with Quality Control: It is the responsibility of the
production manager to manufacture the goods and services of the desired specifications. Though
the quality of the finished goods can be ensured by inspection of the finished goods, but It is better
to employ measure which minimize the likelihood of producing defective items.
Method of Analysis: There can be a number of ways in which some operations can be executed.
Production manager should select the most efficient and economical method to perform the
operation.
• Plant layout and material handling: The physical management of manufacturing components
and the equipment for handling the material during production process has considerable effect on
cost of production. The material handling system and the plant layout should be most efficient
for the given situation.
• Proper Inventory Control: Inventory implies all the materials, parts, supplies, tools and in-
process or finished product kept in stock for some time. The procurement policy of these items
requires a careful consideration and analysis. The purchases should be planned in economic lot
sizes and the time of purchase should be so scheduled that the investment in inventory is at the
lowest possible level. This implies determination of economic lot size and re-orders level.
• Work Study: Method study and work measurement techniques are applied to find the relationship
between output of goods and services and inputs of human and material resources. The production
manager should try to find the most appropriate method of performing various operations involved
in the production process so as to obtain the optimum use of the resources as well as increasing the
productivity. Production manager should be able to generate the interest of the workers to increase
their efforts by providing them wage incentives. This will result in an increase in labor
productivity.
• The cost of production varies with different methods of production: The production manager is
responsible to follow a systematic approach to control capital and expenditure designed in a way
that the desired profit is ensured. The nature of problems associated in the production management
is such that the production manager should have the capacity as well as the aptitude to use
qualitative and quantitative methods of analysis to get the desired solution.
CURRENT TRENDS IN BUSINESS
Trends in Business in general and Operations Management which have shaped the industry and
the technological support to the industry include the following:-
1. The Internet, e-commerce, e-business

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Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

2. Management technology
3. Globalization
4. Management of supply chains
5. Agility

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Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

Lecture 3
WHAT IS STRATEGY?
Strategy can be defined as follows (Johnson et al., 2008)

‗Strategy is the direction and scope of an organisation over the long term: ideally, which matches
its resources to its changing environment, and in particular its markets, customers or clients so as
to meet stakeholder expectations.‘
Strategy can be seen to exist at 3 main levels of corporate, business and functional:
- Corporate level Strategy
At the highest or corporate level the strategy provides long-range guidance for the whole
organisation – What business should we be in?
- Business Level Strategy
Here the concern is with the products and services that should be offered in the market defined at
the corporate level – How do we compete in this business?
- Functional Level Strategy
This is where the functions of the business (e.g. operations, marketing, finance) make long-range
plans which support the competitive advantage being pursued by the business strategy- How
does the function contribute to the business strategy?
WHAT IS OPERATIONS STRATEGY?
Operations strategy is the total pattern of decisions which shape the long-term capabilities of any
type of operation and their contribution to overall strategy, through the reconciliation of market
requirements with operations resources (Slack and Lewis, 2011).
From the previous definition operations strategy is concerned with the reconciliation of market
requirements and operations resources. It does this by:
- Satisfying market requirements (measured by competitive factors) by setting appropriate
performance objectives for operations
- Taking decisions on the deployment of operations resources which effect the performance
objectives for operations Using a market-based approach to operations strategy an organisation
makes a decision regarding the markets and the customers within those markets that it intends to
target. The organisation‘s market position is one in which its performance enables it to attract
customers to its products or services in a more successful manner than its competitors. Competitive
factors are how a product/service wins orders (for example price, quality and delivery speed).
A resource-based view of operations strategy works from the inside-out of the firm, rather than
the outside-in perspective of the market-based approach. Here there is an assessment of the
operations decisions regarding:

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Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

- Structural decisions - physical arrangement and configuration of resources.

- Infrastructural decisions - activities that take place within the operation‘s structure.
The nature and complexity of formal and informal processes and tangible and intangible
resources is central to the resource-based view of strategy; that is externally unobservable
(within firm) factors are at least as important as observable industry market (between firm)
factors in determining competitive advantage. It has been found that not all companies pursue
strategy in accordance with a pure market-based approach and it has been found that
competitiveness is not just a matter of simply improving performance along specific competitive
dimensions in response to market needs, but incorporates the development of capabilities that
provide specific operating advantages. Thus the resource-based view of strategy is that
operations takes a more active role in providing long-term competitive advantage.
What makes the development of operation strategy particularly challenging is that not only
should the market-based and resource-based views of strategy need to be considered at a point in
time, but the changing characteristics of markets and the need to develop operations capabilities
over time means a dynamic as well as a static view of strategy is required.

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Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

LECTURE 4
FORECASTING FUNDAMENTALS

Forecast: A prediction, projection, or estimate of some future activity, event, or

occurrence.
Types of Forecasts
- Economic forecasts
o Predict a variety of economic indicators, like money supply, inflation
rates, interest rates, etc.
- Technological forecasts
o Predict rates of technological progress and innovation.
- Demand forecasts
o Predict the future demand for a company’s products or services.
Since virtually all the operations management decisions (in both the strategic
category and the tactical category) require as input a good estimate of future
demand, this is the type of forecasting that is emphasized in our textbook and in
this course.

TYPES OF FORECASTING METHODS

Qualitative methods: These types of forecasting methods are based on judgments,

opinions, intuition, emotions, or personal experiences and are subjective in nature.
They do not rely on any rigorous mathematical computations.
Quantitative methods: These types of forecasting methods are based on
mathematical (quantitative) models, and are objective in nature. They rely heavily
on mathematical computations.
QUALITATIVE FORECASTING METHODS
Qualitative Methods

Executive Market Sales Force Delphi

Opinion Survey Composite Method

Approach in which Approach that uses Approach in which Approach in which

a group of interviews and each salesperson consensus
managers meet surveys to judge estimates sales in agreement is
and collectively preferences of his or her region reached among a
develop a forecast customer and to group of experts
assess demand

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

QUANTITATIVE FORECASTING METHODS

Quantitative Methods

Time-Series Models Associative Models

Time series models look at past Associative models (often called

patterns of data and attempt to causal models) assume that the
predict the future based upon the variable being forecasted is related
underlying patterns contained to other variables in the
within those data. environment. They try to project
based upon those associations.

TIME SERIES MODELS

Model Description

Naïve Uses last period’s actual value as a forecast

Simple Mean (Average) Uses an average of all past data as a forecast

Uses an average of a specified number of the most

Simple Moving Average recent observations, with each observation receiving the
same emphasis (weight)
Uses an average of a specified number of the most
Weighted Moving Average recent observations, with each observation receiving a
different emphasis (weight)

A weighted average procedure with weights declining

Exponential Smoothing
exponentially as data become older

Technique that uses the least squares method to fit a

Trend Projection
straight line to the data

A mechanism for adjusting the forecast to accommodate

Seasonal Indexes
any seasonal patterns inherent in the data

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

DECOMPOSITION OF A TIME SERIES

Patterns that may be present in a time series

Trend: Data exhibit a steady growth or decline over time.

Seasonality: Data exhibit upward and downward swings in a short to intermediate time frame
(most notably during a year).

Cycles: Data exhibit upward and downward swings in over a very long time frame.

Random variations: Erratic and unpredictable variation in the data over time with no
discernable pattern.
ILLUSTRATION OF TIME SERIES DECOMPOSITION
Hypothetical Pattern of Historical Demand

Demand

Time

TREND COMPONENT IN HISTORICAL DEMAND

Demand

Time
Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

SEASONAL COMPONENT IN HISTORICAL DEMAND

Demand

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Time

CYCLE COMPONENT IN HISTORICAL DEMAND

Demand

Many years or decades Time

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

RANDOM COMPONENT IN HISTORICAL DEMAND

Demand

Time

DATA SET TO DEMONSTRATE FORECASTING METHODS

The following data set represents a set of hypothetical demands that have occurred over several
consecutive years. The data have been collected on a quarterly basis, and these quarterly values
have been amalgamated into yearly totals.

For various illustrations that follow, we may make slightly different assumptions about starting
points to get the process started for different models. In most cases we will assume that each year
a forecast has been made for the subsequent year. Then, after a year has transpired we will have
observed what the actual demand turned out to be (and we will surely see differences between
what we had forecasted and what actually occurred, for, after all, the forecasts are merely
educated guesses).

Finally, to keep the numbers at a manageable size, several zeros have been dropped off the
numbers (i.e., these numbers represent demands in thousands of units).

Year Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4 Total Annual Demand

1 62 94 113 41 310
2 73 110 130 52 365
3 79 118 140 58 395
4 83 124 146 62 415
5 89 135 161 65 450
6 94 139 162 70 465

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

LECTURE 5

ILLUSTRATION OF THE NAÏVE METHOD

Naïve method: The forecast for next period (period t+1) will be equal to this period's
actual demand (At).

In this illustration we assume that each year (beginning with year 2) we made a forecast, then
waited to see what demand unfolded during the year. We then made a forecast for the
subsequent year, and so on right through to the forecast for year 7.

Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (At) (Ft) Notes
There was no prior demand data on
1 310 --
which to base a forecast for period 1

From this point forward, these forecasts

2 365 310 were made on a year-by-year basis.

3 395 365

4 415 395

5 450 415

6 465 450

7 465

MEAN (SIMPLE AVERAGE) METHOD

Mean (simple average) method: The forecast for next period (period t+1) will be equal to
the average of all past historical demands.

In this illustration we assume that a simple average method is being used. We will also
assume that, in the absence of data at startup, we made a guess for the year 1 forecast (300).
At the end of year 1 we could start using this forecasting method. In this illustration we
assume that each year (beginning with year 2) we made a forecast, then waited to see what
Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

demand unfolded during the year. We then made a forecast for the subsequent year, and so on
right through to the forecast for year 7.
Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (At) (Ft) Notes
This forecast was a guess at the
1 310 300 beginning.
From this point forward, these forecasts
2 365 310.000 were made on a year-by-year basis
using a simple average approach.
3 395 337.500
4 415 356.667
5 450 371.250
6 465 387.000
7 400.000

SIMPLE MOVING AVERAGE METHOD

Simple moving average method: The forecast for next period (period t+1) will be equal to the
average of a specified number of the most recent observations, with each observation receiving
the same emphasis (weight).
In this illustration we assume that a 2-year simple moving average is being used. We will also
assume that, in the absence of data at startup, we made a guess for the year 1 forecast (300).
Then, after year 1 elapsed, we made a forecast for year 2 using a naïve method (310). Beyond
that point we had sufficient data to let our 2-year simple moving average forecasts unfold
throughout the years.
Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (A t ) (Ft) Notes
This forecast was a guess at the
1 310 300
beginning.
This forecast was made using a naïve
2 365 310
approach.
From this point forward, these forecasts
3 395 337.500 were made on a year-by-year basis
using a 2-yr moving average approach.
4 415 380.000
5 450 405.000
6 465 432.500
7 457.500

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

ANOTHER SIMPLE MOVING AVERAGE ILLUSTRATION

In this illustration we assume that a 3-year simple moving average is being used. We will also
assume that, in the absence of data at startup, we made a guess for the year 1 forecast (300).
Then, after year 1 elapsed, we used a naïve method to make a forecast for year 2 (310) and year 3
(365). Beyond that point we had sufficient data to let our 3-year simple moving average forecasts
unfold throughout the years.
Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (At) (Ft) Notes
This forecast was a guess at the
1 310 300
beginning.
This forecast was made using a naïve
2 365 310
approach.
This forecast was made using a naïve
3 395 365
approach.
From this point forward, these forecasts
4 415 356.667 were made on a year-by-year basis
using a 3-yr moving average approach.
5 450 391.667
6 465 420.000
7 433.333

WEIGHTED MOVING AVERAGE METHOD

Weighted moving average method: The forecast for next period (period t+1) will be equal to a
weighted average of a specified number of the most recent observations.
In this illustration we assume that a 3-year weighted moving average is being used. We will also
assume that, in the absence of data at startup, we made a guess for the year 1 forecast (300).
Then, after year 1 elapsed, we used a naïve method to make a forecast for year 2 (310) and year 3
(365). Beyond that point we had sufficient data to let our 3-year weighted moving average
forecasts unfold throughout the years. The weights that were to be used are as follows: Most
recent year, .5; year prior to that, .3; year prior to that, .2
Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (At) (Ft) Notes
This forecast was a guess at the
1 310 300
beginning.
This forecast was made using a naïve
2 365 310 approach.
This forecast was made using a naïve
3 395 365
approach.
From this point forward, these forecasts
4 415 369.000 were made on a year-by-year basis
using a 3-yr wtd. moving avg. approach.
5 450 399.000
6 465 428.500
7 450.500

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

LECTURE 6

EXPONENTIAL SMOOTHING METHOD

Exponential smoothing method: The new forecast for next period (period t) will be calculated
as follows:

New forecast = Last period’s forecast + (Last period’s actual demand – Last period’s forecast)

(this box contains all you need to know to apply exponential smoothing)
Ft = Ft-1 + (At-1 – Ft-1) (equation 1)

Ft = At-1 + (1-)Ft-1 (alternate equation 1 – a bit more user friendly)

Where is a smoothing coefficient whose value is between 0 and 1.

The exponential smoothing method only requires that you dig up two pieces of data to apply it
(the most recent actual demand and the most recent forecast).

An attractive feature of this method is that forecasts made with this model will include a portion
of every piece of historical demand. Furthermore, there will be different weights placed on these
historical demand values, with older data receiving lower weights. At first glance this may not be
obvious, however, this property is illustrated on the following page.
DEMONSTRATION: EXPONENTIAL SMOOTHING INCLUDES ALL PAST DATA Note:
the mathematical manipulations in this box are not something you would ever have to do when
applying exponential smoothing. All you need to use is equation 1 on the previous page. This
demonstration is to convince the skeptics that when using equation 1, all historical data will be
included in the forecast, and the older the data, the lower the weight applied to that data.

To make a forecast for next period, we would use the user friendly alternate equation 1:
Ft = At-1 + (1-)Ft-1 (equation 1)
When we made the forecast for the current period (Ft-1), it was made in the following fashion:
Ft-1 = At-2 + (1-)Ft-2 (equation 2)
If we substitute equation 2 into equation 1 we get the following:
Ft = At-1 + (1-)[At-2 + (1-)Ft-2]
Which can be cleaned up to the following:
Ft = At-1 + (1-)At-2 + (1-)2Ft-2 (equation 3)
We could continue to play that game by recognizing that Ft-2 = At-3 + (1-)Ft-3 (equation 4) If
we substitute equation 4 into equation 3 we get the following:
Ft = At-1 + (1-)At-2 + (1-)2[At-3 + (1-)Ft-3] Which
can be cleaned up to the following:
Ft = At-1 + (1-)At-2 + (1-)2At-3 + (1-)3Ft-3
If you keep playing that game, you should recognize that
Ft = At-1 + (1-)At-2 + (1-)2At-3 + (1-)3At-4 + (1-)4At-5 + (1-)5At-6 ……….
As you raise those decimal weights to higher and higher powers, the values get smaller and smaller.

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

EXPONENTIAL SMOOTHING ILLUSTRATION

In this illustration we assume that, in the absence of data at startup, we made a guess for the year
1 forecast (300). Then, for each subsequent year (beginning with year 2) we made a forecast
using the exponential smoothing model. After the forecast was made, we waited to see what
demand unfolded during the year. We then made a forecast for the subsequent year, and so on
right through to the forecast for year 7.
This set of forecasts was made using a value of .1
Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (A) (F) Notes
This was a guess, since there was no
1 310 300
prior demand data.
From this point forward, these forecasts
2 365 301 were made on a year-by-year basis
using exponential smoothing with =.1
3 395 307.4
4 415 316.16
5 450 326.044
6 465 338.4396
7 351.09564
A SECOND EXPONENTIAL SMOOTHING ILLUSTRATION
In this illustration we assume that, in the absence of data at startup, we made a guess for the year
1 forecast (300). Then, for each subsequent year (beginning with year 2) we made a forecast
using the exponential smoothing model. After the forecast was made, we waited to see what
demand unfolded during the year. We then made a forecast for the subsequent year, and so on
right through to the forecast for year 7.
This set of forecasts was made using an value of .2
Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (A) (F) Notes
This was a guess, since there was no
1 310 300
prior demand data.
From this point forward, these forecasts
2 365 302 were made on a year-by-year basis
using exponential smoothing with =.2
3 395 314.6
4 415 330.68
5 450 347.544
6 465 368.0352
7 387.42816

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

A THIRD EXPONENTIAL SMOOTHING ILLUSTRATION

In this illustration we assume that, in the absence of data at startup, we made a guess for the year
1 forecast (300). Then, for each subsequent year (beginning with year 2) we made a forecast
using the exponential smoothing model. After the forecast was made, we waited to see what
demand unfolded during the year. We then made a forecast for the subsequent year, and so on
right through to the forecast for year 7.

This set of forecasts was made using an value of .4

Actual
Demand Forecast
Year (A) (F) Notes
This was a guess, since there was no
1 310 300
prior demand data.

From this point forward, these forecasts

2 365 304 were made on a year-by-year basis
using exponential smoothing with =.4

3 395 328.4

4 415 355.04

5 450 379.024

6 465 407.4144

7 430.44864

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

TREND PROJECTION

Trend projection method: This method is a version of the linear regression technique. It
attempts to draw a straight line through the historical data points in a fashion that comes as close
to the points as possible. (Technically, the approach attempts to reduce the vertical deviations of
the points from the trend line, and does this by minimizing the squared values of the deviations
of the points from the line). Ultimately, the statistical formulas compute a slope for the trend line
(b) and the point where the line crosses the y-axis (a). This results in the straight line equation

Y = a + bX

Where X represents the values on the horizontal axis (time), and Y represents the values on the
vertical axis (demand).

For the demonstration data, computations for b and a reveal the following (NOTE: I will not
require you to make the statistical calculations for b and a; these would be given to you.
However, you do need to know what to do with these values when given to you.)

b = 30

a = 295

Y = 295 + 30X

This equation can be used to forecast for any year into the future. For example:

Year 7: Forecast = 295 + 30(7) = 505

Year 8: Forecast = 295 + 30(8) = 535

Year 9: Forecast = 295 + 30(9) = 565

Year 10: Forecast = 295 + 30(10) = 595

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

STABILITY VS. RESPONSIVENESS IN FORECASTING

All demand forecasting methods vary in the degree to which they emphasize recent demand
changes when making a forecast. Forecasting methods that react very strongly (or quickly) to
demand changes are said to be responsive. Forecasting methods that do not react quickly to
demand changes are said to be stable. One of the critical issues in selecting the appropriate
forecasting method hinges on the question of stability versus responsiveness. How much stability
or how much responsiveness one should employ is a function of how the historical demand has
been fluctuating. If demand has been showing a steady pattern of increase (or decrease), then
more responsiveness is desirable, for we would like to react quickly to those demand increases
(or decreases) when we make our next forecast. On the other hand, if demand has been fluctuating
upward and downward, then more stability is desirable, for we do not want to “over react” to
those up and down fluctuations in demand.

For some of the simple forecasting methods we have examined, the following can be noted:

Moving Average Approach: Using more periods in your moving average forecasts will result in
more stability in the forecasts. Using fewer periods in your moving average forecasts will result
in more responsiveness in the forecasts.

Weighted Moving Average Approach: Using more periods in your weighted moving average
forecasts will result in more stability in the forecasts. Using fewer periods in your weighted
moving average forecasts will result in more responsiveness in the forecasts. Furthermore,
placing lower weights on the more recent demand will result in more stability in the forecasts.
Placing higher weights on the more recent demand will result in more responsiveness in the
forecasts.

Simple Exponential Smoothing Approach: Using a lower alpha (α) value will result in more
stability in the forecasts. Using a higher alpha (α) value will result in more responsiveness in the
forecasts.

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

LECTURE 7

SEASONALITY ISSUES IN FORECASTING

Up to this point we have seen several ways to make a forecast for an upcoming year. In many
instances managers may want more detail that just a yearly forecast. They may like to have a
projection for individual time periods within that year (e.g., weeks, months, or quarters). Let’s
assume that our forecasted demand for an upcoming year is 480, but management would like a
forecast for each of the quarters of the year. A simple approach might be to simply divide the
total annual forecast of 480 by 4, yielding 120. We could then project that the demand for each
quarter of the year will be 120. But of course, such forecasts could be expected to be quite
inaccurate, for an examination of our original table of historical data reveals that demand is not
uniform across each quarter of the year. There seem to be distinct peaks and valleys (i.e.,
quarters of higher demand and quarters of lower demand). The graph below of the historical
quarterly demand clearly shows those peaks and valleys during the course of each year.

200
Quarterly Demands Over Six-Year History

150
Demand

100

50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Sequential Quarters Over Six Years

Mechanisms for dealing with seasonality are illustrated over the next several pages.

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

CALCULATING SEASONAL INDEX VALUES

This is the way you will find seasonal index values calculated in the textbook. Begin by
calculating the average demand in each of the four quarters of the year.

Col. 1 Col. 2 Col. 3 Col. 4 Col. 5 Col. 6

Annual
Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Demand
1 62 94 113 41 310
2 73 110 130 52 365
3 79 118 140 58 395
4 83 124 146 62 415
5 89 135 161 65 450
6 94 139 162 70 465
(62+73+ (94+110+ (113+130+ (41+52+
Avg. 79+83+ 118+124+ 140+146+ 58+62+
Demand 89+94) 135+139) 161+162) 65+70)
Per Qtr. ÷ 6 = 80 ÷ 6 = 120 ÷ 6 = 142 ÷ 6 = 58

Next, note that the total demand over these six years of history was 2400 (i.e., 310 + 365 + 395 +
415 + 450 + 465), and if this total demand of 2400 had been evenly spread over each of the 24
quarters in this six year period, the average quarterly demand would have been 100 units.
Another way to look at this is the average of the quarterly averages is 100 units, i.e.
(80 + 120 + 142 + 58)/4 = 100 units.

But, the numbers above indicate that the demand wasn’t evenly distributed over each quarter. In
Quarter 1 the average demand was considerably below 100 (it averaged 80 in Quarter 1). In
Quarters 2 and 3 the average demand was considerably above 100 (with averages of 120 and
142, respectively). Finally, in Quarter 4 the average demand was below 100 (it averaged 58 in
Quarter 4). We can calculate a seasonal index for each quarter by dividing the average quarterly
demand by the 100 that would have occurred if all the demand had been evenly distributed
across the quarters.

This would result in the following alternate seasonal index values:

Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Seasonal 80/100 = 120/100 = 142/100 = 58/100 =
Index .80 1.20 1.42 .58

A quick check of these alternate seasonal index values reveals that they average out to 1.0 (as
they should). (.80 + 1.20 + 1.42 + .58)/4 = 1.000

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

USING SEASONAL INDEX VALUES

The following forecasts were made for the next 4 years using the trend projection line approach
(the trend projection formula developed was Y = 295 + 30X, where Y is the forecast and X is the
year number).

Year Forecast
7 505
8 535
9 565
10 595

If these annual forecasts were evenly distributed over each year, the quarterly forecasts would
look like the following:

Annual
Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Annual/4
Forecast
7 126.25 126.25 126.25 126.25 505 126.25
8 133.75 133.75 133.75 133.75 535 133.75
9 141.25 141.25 141.25 141.25 565 141.25
10 148.75 148.75 148.75 148.75 595 148.75

However, seasonality in the past demand suggests that these forecasts should not be evenly
distributed over each quarter. We must take these even splits and multiply them by the seasonal
index (S.I.) values to get a more reasonable set of quarterly forecasts. The results of these
calculations are shown below.

S.I. .80 1.20 1.42 .58

Annual
Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
Forecast
7 101.000 151.500 179.275 73.225 505
8 107.000 160.500 189.925 77.575 535
9 113.000 169.500 200.575 81.925 565
10 119.000 178.500 211.225 86.275 595

If you check these final splits, you will see that the sum of the quarterly forecasts for a particular
year will equal the total annual forecast for that year (sometimes there might be a slight rounding
discrepancy).

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

OTHER METHODS FOR MAKING SEASONAL FORECASTS

Let's go back and reexamine the historical data we have for this problem. I have put a little
separation between the columns of each quarter to let you better visualize the fact that we could
look at any one of those vertical strips of data and treat it as a time series. For example, the Q1
column displays the progression of quarter 1 demands over the past six years. One could simply
peel off that strip of data and use it along with any of the forecasting methods we have examined
to forecast the Q1 demand in year 7. We could do the same thing for each of the other three
quarterly data strips.

Year Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4
1 62 94 113 41
2 73 110 130 52
3 79 118 140 58
4 83 124 146 62
5 89 135 161 65
6 94 139 162 70

To illustrate, I have used the linear trend line method on the quarter 1 strip of data, which would
result in the following trend line:

Y = 58.8 + 6.0571X

For year 7, X = 7, so the resulting Q1 forecast for year 7 would be 101.200

We could do the same thing with the Q2, Q3, and Q4 strips of data. For each strip we would
compute the trend line equation and use it to project that quarter’s year 7 demand. Those results
are summarized here:

Q2 trend line: Y = 89.4 + 8.7429X; Year 7 Q2 forecast would be 150.600

Q3 trend line: Y = 107.6 + 9.8286X; Year 7 Q3 forecast would be 176.400
Q4 trend line: Y = 39.2 + 5.3714X; Year 7 Q4 forecast would be 76.800

Total forecast for year 7 = 101.200 + 150.600 + 176.400 + 76.800 = 505.000

These quarterly forecasts are in the same ballpark as those made with the seasonal index values
earlier. They differ a bit, but we cannot say one is correct and one is incorrect. They are just slightly
different predictions of what is going to happen in the future. They do provide a total annual
forecast that is equal to the trend projection forecast made for year 7. (Don’t expect this to occur
on every occasion, but since it corroborates results obtained with a different method, it
does give us confidence in the forecasts we have made.)

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

ASSOCIATIVE FORECASTING METHOD

Associative forecasting models (causal models) assume that the variable being forecasted (the dependent
variable) is related to other variables (independent variables) in the environment. This approach tries to
project demand based upon those associations. In its simplest form, linear regression is used to fit a line to
the data. That line is then used to forecast the dependent variable for some selected value of the
independent variable.

In this illustration a distributor of drywall in a local community has historical demand data for the past
eight years as well as data on the number of permits that have been issued for new home construction.
These data are displayed in the following table:

# of new home Demand for 4’x8’

Year construction permits sheets of drywall
2004 400 60,000
2005 320 46,000
2006 290 45,000
2007 360 54,000
2008 380 60,000
2009 320 48,000
2010 430 65,000
2011 420 62,000

If we attempted to perform a time series analysis on demand, the results would not make much sense, for
a quick plot of demand vs. time suggests that there is no apparent pattern relationship here, as seen below.

Demand vs. Time

70000
65000
60000
55000
Demand

50000
45000
40000
35000
30000

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

Year

ASSOCIATIVE FORECASTING METHOD (CONTINUED)

If you plot the relationship between demand and the number of construction permits, a pattern emerges
that makes more sense. It seems to indicate that demand for this product is lower when fewer construction
permits are issued, and higher when more permits are issued. Therefore, regression will be used to
Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC
UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

establish a relationship between the dependent variable (demand) and the independent variable
(construction permits).

Demand vs. Construction Permits

70000
60000
50000
Demand

40000
30000
20000
10000
0
250 300 350 400 450
Construction Permits

The independent variable (X) is the number of construction permits. The dependent variable (Y)
is the demand for drywall.

Application of regression formulas yields the following forecasting model:

Y = 250 + 150X

If the company plans finds from public records that 350 construction permits have been issued
for the year 2012, then a reasonable estimate of drywall demand for 2012 would be:

Y = 250 + 150(350) = 250 + 52,500 = 52,750

(which means next year’s forecasted demand is 52,750 sheets of drywall)

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

LECTURE 8

MEASURING FORECAST ACCURACY

Mean Forecast Error (MFE): Forecast error is a measure of how accurate our forecast was in a
given time period. It is calculated as the actual demand minus the forecast, or

Et = At - Ft

Forecast error in one time period does not convey much information, so we need to look at the
accumulation of errors over time. We can calculate the average value of these forecast errors
over time (i.e., a Mean Forecast Error, or MFE).Unfortunately, the accumulation of the Et
values is not always very revealing, for some of them will be positive errors and some will be
negative. These positive and negative errors cancel one another, and looking at them alone (or
looking at the MFE over time) might give a false sense of security. To illustrate, consider our
original data, and the accompanying pair of hypothetical forecasts made with two different
forecasting methods.

Hypothetical Hypothetical
Forecasts Forecast Forecasts Forecast
Actual Made With Error With Made With Error With
Demand Method 1 Method 1 Method 2 Method 2
Year At Ft At - Ft Ft At - Ft
1 310 315 -5 370 -60
2 365 375 -10 455 -90
3 395 390 5 305 90
4 415 405 10 535 -120
5 450 435 15 390 60
6 465 480 -15 345 120
Accumulated Forecast Errors 0 0
Mean Forecast Error, MFE 0/6 = 0 0/6 = 0

Based on the accumulated forecast errors over time, the two methods look equally good. But,
most observers would judge that Method 1 is generating better forecasts than Method 2 (i.e.,
smaller misses).

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MEASURING FORECAST ACCURACY

Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD): To eliminate the problem of positive errors canceling
negative errors, a simple measure is one that looks at the absolute value of the error (size of the
deviation, regardless of sign). When we disregard the sign and only consider the size of the error,
we refer to this deviation as the absolute deviation. If we accumulate these absolute deviations
over time and find the average value of these absolute deviations, we refer to this measure as the
mean absolute deviation (MAD). For our hypothetical two forecasting methods, the absolute
deviations can be calculated for each year and an average can be obtained for these yearly
absolute deviations, as follows:

Hypothetical Forecasting Method 1 Hypothetical Forecasting Method 2

Actual Forecast Absolute Forecast Absolute
Demand Forecast Error Deviation Forecast Error Deviation
Year At Ft At - Ft |At - Ft| Ft At - Ft |At - Ft|
1 310 315 -5 5 370 -60 60
2 365 375 -10 10 455 -90 90
3 395 390 5 5 305 90 90
4 415 405 10 10 535 -120 120
5 450 435 15 15 390 60 60
6 465 480 -15 15 345 120 120
Total Absolute Deviation 60 540
Mean Absolute Deviation 60/6=10 540/6=90

The smaller misses of Method 1 has been formalized with the calculation of the MAD. Method 1
seems to have provided more accurate forecasts over this six year horizon, as evidenced by its
considerably smaller MAD.

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MEASURING FORECAST ACCURACY

Mean Squared Error (MSE): Another way to eliminate the problem of positive errors canceling
negative errors is to square the forecast error. Regardless of whether the forecast error has a
positive or negative sign, the squared error will always have a positive sign. If we accumulate
these squared errors over time and find the average value of these squared errors, we refer to this
measure as the mean squared error (MSE). For our hypothetical two forecasting methods, the
squared errors can be calculated for each year and an average can be obtained for these yearly
squared errors, as follows:

Hypothetical Forecasting Method 1 Hypothetical Forecasting Method 2

Actual Forecast Squared Forecast Squared
Demand Forecast Error Error Forecast Error Error
Year At Ft At - Ft (At - Ft)2 Ft At - Ft (At - Ft)2
1 310 315 -5 25 370 -60 3600
2 365 375 -10 100 455 -90 8100
3 395 390 5 25 305 90 8100
4 415 405 10 100 535 -120 14400
5 450 435 15 225 390 60 3600
6 465 480 -15 225 345 120 14400
Total Squared Error 700 52200
700/6 = 52200/6 =
Mean Squared Error
116.67 8700

Method 1 seems to have provided more accurate forecasts over this six year horizon, as Evidenced
by its considerably smaller MSE.

The Question often arises as to why one would use the more cumbersome MSE when the MAD
calculations are a bit simpler (you don’t have to square the deviations). MAD does have the
advantage of simpler calculations. However, there is a benefit to the MSE method. Since this
method squares the error term, large errors tend to be magnified. Consequently, MSE places a
higher penalty on large errors. This can be useful in situations where small forecast errors don’t
cause much of a problem, but large errors can be devastating.

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

MEASURING FORECAST ACCURACY

Mean Absolute Percent Error (MAPE): A problem with both the MAD and MSE is that their
values depend on the magnitude of the item being forecast. If the forecast item is measured in
thousands or millions, the MAD and MSE values can be very large. To avoid this problem, we
can use the MAPE. MAPE is computed as the average of the absolute difference between the
forecasted and actual values, expressed as a percentage of the actual values. In essence, we look
at how large the miss was relative to the size of the actual value. For our hypothetical two
forecasting methods, the absolute percentage error can be calculated for each year and an average
can be obtained for these yearly values, yielding the MAPE, as follows:

Hypothetical Forecasting Method 1 Hypothetical Forecasting Method 2

Actual Forecast Absolute Forecast Absolute
Demand Forecast Error % Error Forecast Error % Error
Year At Ft At - Ft 100|At - Ft |/At Ft At - Ft 100|At - Ft |/At
1 310 315 -5 1.16% 370 -60 19.35%
2 365 375 -10 2.74% 455 -90 24.66%
3 395 390 5 1.27% 305 90 22.78%
4 415 405 10 2.41% 535 -120 28.92%
5 450 435 15 3.33% 390 60 13.33%
6 465 480 -15 3.23% 345 120 17.14%
Total Absolute % Error 14.59% 134.85%

14.59/6= 134.85/6=
Mean Absolute % Error
2.43% 22.48%

Method 1seems to have provided more accurate forecasts over this six year horizon, as
evidenced by the fact that the percentages by which the forecasts miss the actual demand are
smaller with Method 1 (i.e., smaller MAPE).

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC

UNIT 1 8ME5-12: SUPPLY AND OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT

ILLUSTRATION OF THE FOUR FORECAST ACCURACY MEASURES

Here is a further illustration of the four measures of forecast accuracy, this time using hypothetical
forecasts that were generated using some different methods than the previous illustrations (called
forecasting methods A and B; actually, these forecasts were made up for purposes of illustration).
These calculations illustrate why we cannot rely on just one measure of forecast accuracy.

Hypothetical Forecasting Method A Hypothetical Forecasting Method B

Actual Forecast Absolute Squared Abs. % Forecast Absolute Squared Abs. %

Demand Forecast Error Deviation Deviation Error Forecast Error Deviation Deviation Error
Year At Ft At - Ft |At - Ft | (At - Ft)2 |At -Ft |/At Ft At - Ft |At - Ft | (At - Ft)2 |At -Ft |/At
1 310 330 -20 20 400 6.45% 310 0 0 0 0%
2 365 345 20 20 400 5.48% 365 0 0 0 0%
3 395 415 -20 20 400 5.06% 395 0 0 0 0%
4 415 395 20 20 400 4.82% 415 0 0 0 0%
5 450 430 20 20 400 4.44% 390 60 60 3600 13.33%
6 465 485 -20 20 400 4.30% 525 -60 60 3600 12.90%
Totals 0 120 2400 30.55% Totals 0 120 7200 26.23%
MFE = MAD = MSE = MAPE= MFE = MAD = MSE = MAPE=
0/6 = 120/6 = 2400/6 = 30.55/6 0/6 = 120/6 = 7200/6 = 26.23/6
0 20 400 5.09% 0 20 1200 4.37%

You can observe that for each of these forecasting methods, the same MFE resulted and the same
MAD resulted. With these two measures, we would have no basis for claiming that one of these
forecasting methods was more accurate than the other. With several measures of accuracy to
consider, we can look at all the data in an attempt to determine the better forecasting method to
use. Interpretation of these results will be impacted by the biases of the decision maker and the
parameters of the decision situation. For example, one observer could look at the forecasts with
method A and note that they were pretty consistent in that they were always missing by a modest
amount (in this case, missing by 20 units each year). However, forecasting method B was very
good in some years, and extremely bad in some years (missing by 60 units in years 5 and 6).
That observation might cause this individual to prefer the accuracy and consistency of
forecasting method A. This causal observation is formalized in the calculation of the MSE.
Forecasting method A has a considerably lower MSE than forecasting method B. The squaring
magnified those big misses that were observed with forecasting method B. However, another
individual might view these results and have a preference for method B, for the sizes of the
misses relative to the sizes of the actual demand are smaller than for method A, as indicated by
the MAPE calculations.

Notes Prepared By: Mukesh Kumar, Assistant Professor, ME, MITRC