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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO DEGARMO’S MATERIALS
AND PROCESSES IN MANUFACTURING
1.1 MATERIALS, MANUFACTURING, Tools, Tooling, and Workholders Basic Manufacutring Processes
AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING Tooling for Measurement and Other Manufacturing Operations
1.2 MANUFACTURING AND Inspection Understand Your Process
PRODUCTION SYSTEMS Integrating Inspection into the Technology
Production System––The Process Product Life Cycle and
Enterprise Products and Fabrications Life-Cycle Cost
Manufacturing Systems Workpiece and its Configuration Comparisons of Manufacturing
Manufacturing Processes Roles of Engineers in System Design
Job and Station Manufacturing New Manufacturing Systems
Operation Changing World Competition Case Study: Famous Manufacturing
Treatments Manufacturing System Designs Engineers

& 1.1 MATERIALS, MANUFACTURING,

AND THE STANDARD OF LIVING
Manufacturing is critical to a country’s economic welfare and standard of living because
the standard of living in any society is determined, primarily, by the goods and services
that are available to its people. Manufacturing companies contribute about 20% of the
GNP, employ about 18% of the workforce, and account for 40% of the exports of the
United States. In most cases, materials are utilized in the form of manufactured goods.
Manufacturing and assembly represent the organized activities that convert raw materials
into salable goods. The manufactured goods are typically divided into two classes: pro-
ducer goods and consumer goods. Producer goods are those goods manufactured for other
companies to use to manufacture either producer or consumer goods. Consumer goods
are those purchased directly by the consumer or the general public. For example, someone
has to build the machine tool (a lathe) that produces (using machining processes) the
large rolls that are sold to the rolling mill factory to be used to roll the sheets of steel that
are then formed (using dies) into body panels of your car. Similarly, many service indus-
tries depend heavily on the use of manufactured products, just as the agricultural industry
is heavily dependent on the use of large farming machines for efficient production.
Processes convert materials from one form to another adding value to them. The
more efficiently materials can be produced and converted into the desired products that
function with the prescribed quality, the greater will be the companies’ productivity and
the better will be the standard of living of the employees.
The history of man has been linked to his ability to work with tools and materials,
beginning with the Stone Age and ranging through the eras of copper and bronze, the
Iron Age, and recently the age of steel. While ferrous materials still dominate the man-
ufacturing world, we are entering the age of tailor-made plastics, composite materials,
and exotic alloys.
A good example of this progression is shown in Figure 1-1. The goal of the manufac-
turer of any product or service is to continually improve. For a given product or service,
this improvement process usually follows an S-shaped curve, as shown in Figure 1-1a,
often called a product life-cycle curve. After the initial invention/creation and develop-
ment, a period of rapid growth in performance occurs, with relatively few resources
required. However, each improvement becomes progressively more difficult. For a delta

1
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2 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

Run flat
Product Development
S-Curve
Silica
Maturity
Computer

Miles to failure
Design optimization

Performance
modeling

(Tread life)
Belt
Growth architectures
Synthetic
rubber
Innovation process:
Development superposition of design
Creation/invention enhancements

Time resource ‘45 1950 1965 1980 1995 2010

(a) (b)

FIGURE 1-1 (a) A product development curve usually has an ‘‘S’’-shape. (b) Example of the S-curve for
the radial tire. (Courtesy of Bart Thomas, Michelin)

gain, more money and time and ingenuity are required. Finally, the product or service
enters the maturity phase, during which additional performance gains become very costly.
For example, in the automobile tire industry, Figure 1-1b shows the evolution of
radial tire performance from its birth in 1946 to the present. Growth in performance is actu-
ally the superposition of many different improvements in material, processes, and design.
These innovations, known as sustaining technology, serve to continually bring
more value to the consumer of existing products and services. In general, sustaining
manufacturing technology is the backbone of American industry and the ever-
increasing productivity metric.
Although materials are no longer used only in their natural state, there is obvi-
ously an absolute limit to the amounts of many materials available here on earth. There-
fore, as the variety of man-made materials continues to increase, resources must be
used efficiently and recycled whenever possible. Of course, recycling only postpones
the exhaustion date.
Like materials, processes have also proliferated greatly in the past 50 years,
with new processes being developed to handle the new materials more efficiently and
with less waste. A good example is the laser, invented around 1960, which now finds
many uses in machining, measurement, inspection, heat treating, welding, and more.
New developments in manufacturing technology often account for improvements in
productivity. Even when the technology is proprietary, the competition often gains
access to it, usually quite quickly.
Starting with the product design, materials, labor, and equipment are interactive
factors in manufacturing that must be combined properly (integrated) to achieve low
cost, superior quality, and on-time delivery. Figure 1-2 shows a breakdown of costs for a

Giá bán Chi phí sản xuất / chế tạo ≅ 40% giá bán

Khấu hao
Chi phí công nhà máy
nghệ 15% năng lượng
Chi phí 12%
bán hàng Nguyên liệu
Chi phí
Tiếp thị bán thành phẩm
lao động
25% và
gián tiếp
các chi phí khác
26%
FIGURE 1-2 Manufacturing Chi phí sản xuất
cost is the largest part of the Lợi nhuận 40%
selling price, usually around ≅20% CP TT
40%. The largest part of the 10–12%
manufacturing cost is materials,
usually 50%.
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 3

product (like a car). Typically about 40% of the selling price of a product is the manu-
facturing cost. Because the selling price determines how much the customer is willing to
pay, maintaining the profit often depends on reducing manufacturing cost. The internal
customers who really make the product are called direct labor. They are usually the
targets of automation, but typically they account for only about 10% of the manufactur-
ing cost, even though they are the main element in increasing productivity. In Chapter 2,
a manufacturing strategy is presented that attacks the materials cost, indirect costs, and
general administration costs, in addition to labor costs. The materials costs include the
cost of storing and handling the materials within the plant. The strategy depends on a
new factory design and is called lean production.
Referring again to the total expenses shown in Figure 1-2 (selling price less profit),
about 68% of dollars are spent on people, but only 5 to 10% on director labor, the break-
down for the rest being about 15% for engineers and 25% for marketing, sales, and
general management people. The average labor cost in manufacturing in the United States
is around $15 per hour for hourly workers (2010). Reductions in direct labor will have only
marginal effects on the total people costs. The optimal combination of factors for produc-
ing a small quantity of a given product may be very inefficient for a larger quantity of the
same product. Consequently, a systems approach, taking all the factors into account, must
be used. This requires a sound and broad understanding on the part of the decision makers
on the value of materials, processes, and equipment to the company, and their customers,
accompanied by an understanding of the manufacturing systems. Materials, processes, and
manufacturing systems are what this book is all about.

& 1.2 MANUFACTURING AND PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Manufacturing is the economic term for making goods and services available to satisfy
human wants. Manufacturing implies creating value by applying useful mental or physi-
cal labor. The manufacturing processes are collected together to form a manufacturing
system (MS). The manufacturing system is a complex arrangement of physical elements
characterized by measurable parameters (Figure 1-3). The manufacturing system takes
inputs and produces products for the external customer.
The entire company is often referred to as the enterprise or the production
system. The production services the manufacturing system, as shown in Figure 1-4. In
this book, a production system will refer to the total company and will include within it
the manufacturing system. The production system includes the manufacturing system
plus all the other functional areas of the plant for information, design, analysis, and con-
trol. These subsystems are connected by various means to each other to produce either
goods or services or both.
Goods refers to material things. Services are nonmaterial things that we buy to
satisfy our wants, needs, or desires. Service production systems include transportation,
banking, finance, savings and loan, insurance, utilities, health care, education, commu-
nication, entertainment, sporting events, and so forth. They are useful labors that do
not directly produce a product. Manufacturing has the responsibility for designing

Inputs
A Flow Shop Manufacturing System
include

External
Raw
Lathe Broach Paint Subassembly customer
materials
Finished Goods

(consumer
Receiving

goods)
Storage

Component Final
supplies Saw Lathe Drill assembly
Outputs include
FIGURE 1-3 The • Components
Subassemblies
manufacturing system design Cast Mill Grinder Plating
• Goods
information
(aka the factory design) is • Products
composed of machines, tooling, • Parts
Internal Sequence of Processes
material handling equipment, • Subassemblies
customers
and people.
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4 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

The production system services the

manufacturing system (shaded).
Legend: information systems
Instructions or orders
Feedback
Material flow

External
customer
of Market
Deliver
goods information
products

Marketing
Distribution department
centers, (Estimate price Predict
Inspect warehouses and volume demand
products forecasts) (Q)

ty
ia bili
rel
Inspection
(quality Finance

ct
oje
control) department
Recommend

Pr
design changes

s t
Finished Production

co
% of scrap
products budget

tion
Iosses

Produc
Recommend ch
anges in desig
Receiving

assembly

n Product
shipping

Manufacturing to improve man

Final

ufacturing design
system Wo
rk s engineering
(see figure 1-7) che
du
les
Is
su
e
m

MSD
at
er

manufacturing Drawings,
ia
ls

Purchasing department specifications,

Production process and standards
department
Material design
and inventory
delivery control How to make
(schedules) the product

R&D
Material
requisitions
Ve

nd
ors
Design and test and
redesign
new products

FIGURE 1-4 The production system includes and services the manufacturing system. The functional
departments are connected by formal and informal information systems, designed to service the
manufacturing that produces the goods.

processes (sequences of operations and processes) and systems to create (make or

manufacture) the product as designed. The system must exhibit flexibility to meet
customer demand (volumes and mixes of products) as well as changes in product design.
Chapter 44 on the Web provides more detailed discussions of the production system
beyond what is presented here.
As shown in Table 1-1, production terms have a definite rank of importance,
somewhat like rank in the army. Confusing system with section is similar to mistaking a
colonel for a corporal. In either case, knowledge of rank is necessary. The terms tend to
overlap because of the inconsistencies of popular usage.
An obvious problem exists here in the terminology of manufacturing and produc-
tion. The same term can refer to different things. For example, drill can refer to the
machine tool that does these kinds of operations; the operation itself, which can be
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 5

TABLE 1-1 Production Terms for Manufacturing Production Systems

Term Meaning Examples

Production system; the All aspects of workers, machines, and information, Company that makes engines, assembly plant,
enterprise considered collectively, needed to manufacture parts or glassmaking factory, foundry; sometimes called the
products; integration of all units of the system is critical. enterprise or the business.
Manufacturing system The collection of manufacturing processes and Rolling steel plates, manufacturing of automobiles,
(sequence of operations, operations resulting in specific end products; an series of connected operations or processes, a job shop,
collection of processes) arrangement or layout of many processes, materials- a flow shop, a continuous process.
or factory handling equipment, and operators.
Machine or machine tool or A specific piece of equipment designed to accomplish Spot welding, milling machine, lathe, drill press, forge,
manufacturing process specific processes, often called a machine tool; machine drop hammer, die caster, punch press, grinder, etc.
tools linked together to make a manufacturing system.
Job (sometimes called a station; A collection of operations done on machines or a Operation of machines, inspection, final assembly; e.g.,
a collection of tasks) collection of tasks performed by one worker at one forklift driver has the job of moving materials.
location on the assembly line.
Operation (sometimes called A specific action or treatment, often done on a machine, Drill, ream, bend, solder, turn, face, mill extrude,
a process) the collection of which makes up the job of a worker. inspect, load.
Tools or tooling Refers to the implements used to hold, cut, shape, or Grinding wheel, drill bit, end milling cutter, die, mold,
deform the work materials; called cutting tools if clamp, three-jaw chuck, fixture.
referring to machining; can refer to jigs and fixtures in
workholding and punches and dies in metal forming.

done on many different kinds of machines; or the cutting tool, which exists in many dif-
ferent forms. It is therefore important to use modifiers whenever possible: ‘‘Use the
radial drill press to drill a hole with a 1-in.-diameter spade drill.’’ The emphasis of this
book will be directed toward the understanding of the processes, machines, and tools
required for manufacturing and how they interact with the materials being processed.
In the last section of the book, an introduction to systems aspects is presented.

PRODUCTION SYSTEM—THE ENTERPRISE

The highest-ranking term in the hierarchy is production system. A production system
includes people, money, equipment, materials and supplies, markets, management, and
the manufacturing system. In fact, all aspects of commerce (manufacturing, sales,
advertising, profit, and distribution) are involved. Table 1-2 provides a partial list of

TABLE 1-2 Partial List of Production Systems for Producer and Consumer Goods
Aerospace and airplanes Foods (canned, dairy, meats, etc.)
Appliances Footwear
Automotive (cars, trucks, vans, wagons, etc.) Furniture
Beverages Glass
Building supplies (hardware) Hospital suppliers
Cement and asphalt Leather and fur goods
Ceramics Machines
Chemicals and allied industries Marine engineering
Clothing (garments) Metals (steel, aluminum, etc.)
Construction Natural resources (oil, coal, forest, pulp and paper)
Construction materials (brick, block, panels) Publishing and printing (books, CDs, newspapers)
Drugs, soaps, cosmetics Restaurants
Electrical and microelectronics Retail (food, department stores, etc.)
Energy (power, gas, electric) Ship building
Engineering Textiles
Equipment and machinery (agricultural, Tire and rubber
construction and electrical products, electronics, Tobacco
household products, industrial machine tools, office
equipment, computers, power generators) Transportation vehicles (railroad, airline, truck, bus)
Vehicles (bikes, cycles, ATVs, snowmobiles)
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6 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

TABLE 1-3 Types of Service Industries production systems. Another term for them is ‘‘industries’’ as in the
‘‘aerospace industry.’’ Further discussion on the enterprise is found in
Advertising and marketing Chapter 44, on the Web.
Communication (telephone, computer networks) Much of the information given for manufacturing systems is rele-
Education vant to the service system. Most require a service production system
Entertainment (radio, TV, movies, plays) [SPS] for proper product sales. This is particularly true in industries,
Equipment and furniture rental such as the food (restaurant) industry, in which customer service is as
Financial (banks, investment companies, loan companies) important as quality and on-time delivery. Table 1-3 provides a short
Health care list of service industries.
Insurance
Transportation and car rental MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Travel (hotel, motel, cruise lines) A collection of operations and processes used to obtain a desired
product(s) or component(s) is called a manufacturing system. The
manufacturing system is therefore the design or arrangement of the
manufacturing processes in the factory. Control of a system applies to overall control
of the whole, not merely of the individual processes or equipment. The entire manu-
facturing system must be controlled in order to schedule and control the factory—all
its inputs, inventory levels, product quality, output rates, and so forth. Designs or
layouts of factories are discussed in Chapter 2.

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
A manufacturing process converts unfinished materials to finished products, often using
machines or machine tools. For example, injection molding, die casting, progressive
stamping, milling, arc welding, painting, assembling, testing, pasteurizing, homogeniz-
ing, and annealing are commonly called processes or manufacturing processes.
The term process can also refer to a sequence of steps, processes, or operations for
production of goods and services, as shown in Figure 1-5, which shows the processes to
manufacture an Olympic-type medal.
A machine tool is an assembly of related mechanisms on a frame or bed that
together produce a desired result. Generally, motors, controls, and auxiliary devices
are included. Cutting tools and workholding devices are considered separately.
A machine tool may do a single process (e.g., cutoff saw) or multiple processes, or
it may manufacture an entire component. Machine sizes vary from a tabletop drill press
to a 1000-ton forging press.

JOB AND STATION

In the classical manufacturing system, a job is the total of the work or duties a worker
performs. A station is a location or area where a production worker performs tasks
or his job.
A job is a group of related operations and tasks performed at one station or series of
stations in cells. For example, the job at a final assembly station may consist of four tasks:
1. Attach carburetor.
2. Connect gas line.
3. Connect vacuum line.
4. Connect accelerator rod.
The job of a turret lathe (a semiautomatic machine) operator may include the
following operations and tasks: load, start, index and stop, unload, inspect. The opera-
tor’s job may also include setting up the machine (i.e., getting ready for manufacturing).
Other machine operations include drilling, reaming, facing, turning, chamfering, and
knurling. The operator can run more than one machine or service at more than one
station.
The terms job and station have been carried over to unmanned machines. A job
is a group of related operations generally performed at one station, and a station is a
position or location in a machine (or process) where specific operations are performed.
A simple machine may have only one station. Complex machines can be composed of
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 7

How an olympic medal is made using the CAD/CAM process

Laser scan
model

Artist’s model
of medal

Model
of medal

(1) An oversized 3D plaster model is made (2) The model is scanned with a laser to
from the artist’s conceptual drawings. produce a digital computer called a
computer-aided design (CAD).

CAM

Top Die set

CAD

Cavity in
die forms
medal

Bottom
Computer
CNC machine tool

(3) The computer has software to produce a program to drive numerical control machine to cut a die set.

(4) Blanks are cut (5) The blanks are

from bronze heated and placed
metal sheet between the top
stock using an die and bottom
abrasive water die. Very high
jet under 2-axis pressure is
CNC control. Air supply applied by a press
port valve at very slow rates.
The blank
High-pressure plastically
water inlet deforms into the Formed
medal. This press medal
Abrasive is called hot Blank
metering isostatic pressing.
Abrasive
system
cutting head Abrasive
feed line
Additional finishing steps in the
Sheet stock
process include chemical etching;
(bronze)
gold or silver plating; packaging
Blank

FIGURE 1-5 The manufacturing process for making Olympic medals has many steps or operations, beginning with design
and including die making. (Courtesy J T. Black)
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8 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

Simplified Sequence of Operations

(Typical Machine Tool Used)

Raw material
Cut bar stock to length;
bar stock
centerdrill ends.
cylinder with
1 (saw and drill press)
GE flat ends
STA

Multiple cylinders Turn and face

made by turning rough turn and finish turn.
(see Figure 1-12) (Lathe)
2
GE
STA

External
cylindrical
Turn the smaller external
Three external cylindrical surfaces.
cylinders and (Lathe)
3 four flats
GE
STA

Flat
Flat
Mill the flat on the right end.
Three cylinders Mill the slot on the left end.
and six flats (Milling Machine)

Slot
Drill four holes on left end.
Four
Tap (internal threads) holes.
internal holes
(Drill press)

Holes
Internal
cylindrical

FIGURE 1-6 The component called a pinion shaft is manufactured by a ‘‘sequence of operations’’ to
produce various geometric surfaces. The engineer figures out the sequence and selects the tooling to
perform the steps.

many stations. The job at a station often includes many simultaneous operations, such
as ‘‘drill all five holes’’ by multiple spindle drills. In the planning of a job, a process
plan is often developed (by the engineer) to describe how a component is made using a
sequence of operation. The engineer begins with a part drawing and a piece of raw
material. Follow in Figure 1-6 the sequence of machining operations that transforms
the cylinder in a pinion shaft. This information can be embedded in a computer pro-
gram, in a machine tool called a lathe.

OPERATION
An operation is a distinct action performed to produce a desired result or effect. Typical
manual machine operations are loading and unloading. Operations can be divided into
suboperational elements. For example, loading is made up of picking up a part, placing
part in jig, closing jig. However, suboperational elements will not be discussed here.
Operations categorized by function are:
1. Materials handling and transporting: change in position of the product.
2. Processing: change in volume and quality, including assembly and disassembly; can
include packaging.
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 9

3. Packaging: special processing; may be temporary or permanent for shipping.
4. Inspecting and testing: comparison to .the standard or check of process behavior
5. Storing: time lapses without further operations.
These basic operations may occur more than once in some processes, or they may
sometimes be omitted. Remember, it is the manufacturing processes that change the
value and quality of the materials. Defective processes produce poor quality or scrap.
Other operations may be necessary but do not, in general, add value, whereas opera-
tions performed by machines that do material processing usually do add value.

TREATMENTS
Treatments operate continuously on the workpiece. They usually alter or modify the
product-in-process without tool contact. Heat treating, curing, galvanizing, plating,
finishing, (chemical) cleaning, and painting are examples of treatments. Treatments
usually add value to the part.
These processes are difficult to include in manufacturing cells because they often
have long cycle times, are hazardous to the workers’ health, or are unpleasant to
be around because of high heat or chemicals. They are often done in large tanks or
furnaces or rooms. The cycle time for these processes may dictate the cycle times for
the entire system. These operations also tend to be material specific. Many manufac-
tured products are given decorative and protective surface treatments that control the
finished appearance. A customer may not buy a new vehicle because it has a visible
defect in the chrome bumper, although this defect will not alter the operation of the car.

TOOLS, TOOLING, AND WORKHOLDERS

The lowest mechanism in the production term rank is the tool. Tools are used to hold,
cut, shape, or form the unfinished product. Common hand tools include the saw,
hammer, screwdriver, chisel, punch, sandpaper, drill, clamp, file, torch, and grindstone.
Basically, machines are mechanized versions of such hand tools and are called
cutting tools. Some examples of tools for cutting are drill bits, reamers, single-point
turning tools, milling cutters, saw blades, broaches, and grinding wheels. Noncutting
tools for forming include extrusion dies, punches, and molds.
Tools also include workholders, jigs, and fixtures. These tools and cutting tools are
generally referred to as the tooling, which usually must be considered (purchased) sepa-
rate from machine tools. Cutting tools wear and fail and must be periodically replaced
before parts are ruined. The workholding devices must be able to locate and secure the
workpieces during processing in a repeatable, mistake-proof way.

TOOLING FOR MEASUREMENT AND INSPECTION

Measuring tools and instruments are also important for manufacturing. Common
examples of measuring tools are rulers, calipers, micrometers, and gages. Precision
devices that use laser optics or vision systems coupled with sophisticated electronics
are becoming commonplace. Vision systems and coordinate measuring machines are
becoming critical elements for achieving superior quality.

INTEGRATING INSPECTION INTO THE PROCESS

The integration of the inspection process into the manufacturing process or the manu-
facturing system is a critical step toward building products of superior quality.
An example will help. Compare an electric typewriter with a computer that does word
processing. The electric typewriter is flexible. It types whatever words are wanted in
whatever order. It can type in Pica, Elite, or Orator, but the font (disk or ball that has
the appropriate type size on it) has to be changed according to the size and face of type
wanted. The computer can do all of this but can also, through its software, set italics; set
bold, dark type; vary the spacing to justify the right margin; plus many other functions.
It checks immediately for incorrect spelling and other defects like repeated words. The
software system provides a signal to the hardware to flash the word so that the operator
will know something is wrong and can make an immediate correction. If the system
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10 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

were designed to prevent the typist from typing repeated words, then this would be a
poka-yoke, a term meaning defect prevention. Defect prevention is better than immedi-
ate defect detection and correction. Ultimately, the system should be able to forecast
the probability of a defect, correcting the problem at the source. This means that
the typist would have to be removed from the process loop, perhaps by having the sys-
tem type out what it is told (convert oral to written directly). Poka-yoke devices and
source inspection techniques are keys to designing manufacturing systems that produce
superior-quality products at low cost.

PRODUCTS AND FABRICATIONS

In manufacturing, material things (goods) are made to satisfy human wants. Products
result from manufacture. Manufacture also includes conversion processes such as
refining, smelting, and mining.
Products can be manufactured by fabricating or by processing. Fabricating is
the manufacture of a product from pieces such as parts, components, or assemblies.
Individual products or parts can also be fabricated. Separable discrete items such as
tires, nails, spoons, screws, refrigerators, or hinges are fabricated.
Processing is also used to refer to the manufacture of a product by continuous
means, or by a continuous series of operations, for a specific purpose. Continuous items
such as steel strip, beverages, breakfast foods, tubing, chemicals, and petroleum are
‘‘processed.’’ Many processed products are marketed as discrete items, such as bottles
of beer, bolts of cloth, spools of wire, and sacks of flour.
Separable discrete products, both piece parts and assemblies, are fabricated in a
plant, factory, or mill, for instance, a textile or rolling mill. Products that flow (liquids,
gases, grains, or powders) are processed in a plant or refinery. The continuous-process
industries such as petroleum and chemical plants are sometimes called processing
industries or flow industries.
To a lesser extent, the terms fabricating industries and manufacturing industries are
used when referring to fabricators or manufacturers of large products composed of many
parts, such as a car, a plane, or a tractor. Manufacturing often includes continuous-process
treatments such as electroplating, heating, demagnetizing, and extrusion forming.
Construction or building is making goods by means other than manufacturing or
processing in factories. Construction is a form of project manufacturing of useful goods
like houses, highways, and buildings. The public may not consider construction as man-
ufacturing because the work is not usually done in a plant or factory, but it can be. There
is a company in Delaware that can build a custom house of any design in its factory,
truck it to the building site, and assemble it on a foundation in two or three weeks.
Agriculture, fisheries, and commercial fishing produce real goods from useful
labor. Lumbering is similar to both agriculture and mining in some respects, and mining
should be considered processing. Processes that convert the raw materials from agricul-
ture, fishing, lumbering, and mining into other usable and consumable products are also
forms of manufacturing.

WORKPIECE AND ITS CONFIGURATION

In the manufacturing of goods, the primary objective is to produce a component having
a desired geometry, size, and finish. Every component has a shape that is bounded by
various types of surfaces of certain sizes that are spaced and arranged relative to each
other. Consequently, a component is manufactured by producing the surfaces that
bound the shape. Surfaces may be:
1. Plane or flat.
2. Cylindrical (external or internal).
3. Conical (external or internal).
4. Irregular (curved or warped).
Figure 1-6 illustrates how a shape can be analyzed and broken up into these basic
bounding surfaces. Parts are manufactured by using a set or sequence of processes that
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 11

will either (1) remove portions of a rough block of material (bar stock, casting, forging)
so as to produce and leave the desired bounding surface or (2) cause material to form
into a stable configuration that has the required bounding surfaces (casting, forging).
Consequently, in designing an object, the designer specifies the shape, size, and
arrangement of the bounding surface. The part design must be analyzed to determine
what materials will provide the desired properties, including mating to other compo-
nents, and what processes can best be employed to obtain the end product at the most
reasonable cost. This is often the job of the manufacturing engineer.

ROLES OF ENGINEERS IN MANUFACTURING

Many engineers have as their function the designing of products. The products are
brought into reality through the processing or fabrication of materials. In this capacity
designers are a key factor in the material selection and manufacturing procedure.
A design engineer, better than any other person, should know what the design is to
accomplish, what assumptions can be made about service loads and requirements, what
service environment the product must withstand, and what appearance the final prod-
uct is to have. To meet these requirements, the material(s) to be used must be selected
and specified. In most cases, to utilize the material and to enable the product to have the
desired form, the designer knows that certain manufacturing processes will have to be
employed. In many instances, the selection of a specific material may dictate what proc-
essing must be used. On the other hand, when certain processes must be used, the design
may have to be modified in order for the process to be utilized effectively and economi-
cally. Certain dimensional sizes can dictate the processing, and some processes require
certain sizes for the parts going into them. In converting the design into reality, many
decisions must be made. In most instances, they can be made most effectively at the
design stage. It is thus apparent that design engineers are a vital factor in the manufac-
turing process, and it is indeed a blessing to the company if they can design for manufac-
turing, that is, design the product so that it can be manufactured and/or assembled
economically (i.e., at low unit cost). Design for manufacturing uses the knowledge of
manufacturing processes, and so the design and manufacturing engineers should work
together to integrate design and manufacturing activities.
Manufacturing engineers select and coordinate specific processes and equipment
to be used or supervise and manage their use. Some design special tooling is used so
that standard machines can be utilized in producing specific products. These engineers
must have a broad knowledge of manufacturing processes and material behavior so that
desired operations can be done effectively and efficiently without overloading or dam-
aging machines and without adversely affecting the materials being processed.
Although it is not obvious, the most hostile environment the material may ever encoun-
ter in its lifetime is the processing environment.
Industrial and lean engineers are responsible for manufacturing systems design
(or layout) of factories. They must take into account the interrelationships of the factory
design and the properties of the materials that the machines are going to process as well as
the interreaction of the materials and processes. The choice of machines and equipment
used in manufacturing and their arrangement in the factory are key design tasks.
The lean engineer has expertise in cell design, setup reduction (tool design), inte-
grated quality control devices (poka-yokes and decouplers) and reliability (mainte-
nance of machines and people) for the lean production system. See Chapter 29 for
discussion of cell design and lean engineering.
Materials engineers devote their major efforts to developing new and better
materials. They, too, must be concerned with how these materials can be processed and
with the effects that the processing will have on the properties of the materials. Although
their roles may be quite different, it is apparent that a large proportion of engineers must
concern themselves with the interrelationships of materials and manufacturing processes.
As an example of the close interrelationship of design, materials selection, and
the selection and use of manufacturing processes, consider the common desk stapler.
Suppose that this item is sold at the retail store for $20. The wholesale outlet sold the
stapler for $16 and the manufacturer probably received about $10 for it. Staplers typically
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12 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

consist of 10 to 12 parts and some rivets and pins. Thus, the manufacturer had to produce
and assemble the 10 parts for about $1 per part. Only by giving a great deal of attention to
design, selection of materials, selection of processes, selection of equipment used for man-
ufacturing (tooling), and utilization of personnel could such a result be achieved.
The stapler is a relatively simple product, yet the problems involved in its manu-
facture are typical of those that manufacturing industries must deal with. The elements
of design, materials, and processes are all closely related, each having its effect on the
performance of the device and the other elements. For example, suppose the designer
calls for the component that holds the staples to be a metal part. Will it be a machined
part rather than a formed part? Entirely different processes and materials need to be
specified depending on the choice. Or, if a part is to be changed from metal to plastic,
then a whole new set of fundamentally different materials and processes would need to
come into play. Such changes would also have a significant impact on cost as well as the
service (useful life) of the product.

CHANGING WORLD COMPETITION

In recent years, major changes in the world of goods manufacturing have taken place.
Three of these are:
1. Worldwide competition for global products and their manufacture.
2. High-tech manufacturing or advanced technology.
3. New manufacturing systems designs, strategies, and management.
Worldwide (global) competition is a fact of manufacturing life, and it will get stron-
ger in the future. The goods you buy today may have been made anywhere in the world.
For many U.S. companies, suppliers in China, India, and Mexico are not uncommon.
The second aspect, advanced manufacturing technology, usually refers to new
machine tools or processes controlled by computers. Companies that produce such
machine tools, though small, can have an enormous impact on factory productivity.
Improved processes lead to better components and more durable goods. However, the
new technology is often purchased from companies that have developed the technol-
ogy, so this approach is important but may not provide a unique competitive advantage
if your competitors can also buy the technology, provided that they have the capital.
Some companies develop their own unique process technology and try to keep it propri-
etary as long as they can.
The third change and perhaps the real key to success in manufacturing is to imple-
ment lean manufacturing system design that can deliver, on time to the customer, super-
quality goods at the lowest possible cost in a flexible way. Lean production is an effort to
reduce waste and improve markedly the methodology by which goods are produced
rather than simply upgrading the manufacturing process technology.
Manufacturing system design is discussed extensively in Chapters 2 and 29 of the
book, and it is strongly recommended that students examine this material closely after
they have gained a working knowledge of materials and processes. The next section
provides a brief discussion of manufacturing system designs.

MANUFACTURING SYSTEM DESIGNS

Five manufacturing system designs can be identified: the job shop, the flow shop, the
linked-cell shop, the project shop, and the continuous process. See Figure 1-7. The con-
tinuous process deals with liquids and/or gases (such as an oil refinery) rather than solids
or discrete parts and is used mostly by the chemical engineer.
The most common of these layouts is the job shop, characterized by large varieties
of components, general-purpose machines, and a functional layout (Figure 1-8). This
means that machines are collected by function (all lathes together, all broaches
together, all grinding machines together) and the parts are routed around the shop in
small lots to the various machines. The layout of the factory shows the multiple paths
through the shop and a detail on one of the seven broaching machine tools. The material
is moved from machine to machine in carts or containers and is called the lot or batch.
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 13

(a) Job shop (b) Project shop

Receiving Lathes Grinders Lot no.

73
Component
Supplies parts
Heat- House
treating Materials
Labor
Machines
Saws Drill C Equipment
process Sub-
B machines
Presses A
Milling
(sheet
machines
metal) Painting Assembly Storage

Job shop makes components for

subassembly using a functional
layout.

(c) Flow shop (d) Continuous process

STA 4 STA 3 STA 2 STA 1

Raw
materials
Moving Process I
assembly Work is devided Energy
line equally into the
stations
Rework line for detects
Product
STA 10
Process II Process II

REPAIR Gas By-products

Subassembly feeder lines

Oil
STA 14 STA 13 STA 12 STA 11

Continuous process systems

Finished Product
make products that can flow
Flow shop uses line balancing like gas and oil.
to achieve one piece flow.

(e) Linked-cell
Main assembly plant
Supplier

Seats Frames Controls

Chassis Final
Lean production
Subassembly Motors assembly
uses manufacturing
Mfg
and subassembly
cell I
cells linked to final
assembly.
Subassembly

Final assembly
Sub-
y assembly
bl
em cell II
a ss
ub In Out
S
Kanban link
Start

FIGURE 1-7 Schematic layouts of factory designs: (a) functional or job shop, (b) fixed location or project shop, (c) flow
shop or assembly line, (d) continuous process or lean shop or linked-cell design.
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14 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

8
Crack
Detection
(Outsourced)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10

I.H. S S
Saw
Lathe Draw Furnace Grinder
Broach I.H.
Saw S
Broach I.H. Grinder
Saw
Lathe
Saw Broach I.H. S S Grinder Washer

I.H.
160’

Lathe Broach Draw Furnace Broach

Grinder
stroke

I.H.
I.H.

S
Broach S S Grinder 90‘‘
Lathe S S
Broach Washer I.H. Grinder
Draw Furnace
Lathe Broach I.H.
S Grinder
I.H.

375‘ Floor level

Raw Finished
Material Parts
10‘

Detail on
broach

8‘

FIGURE 1-8 The vertical broaching machine is one of seven machines in this production job shop. IH ¼ induction
hardening, S ¼ bar strengthening.

This rack bar machining area is functionally designed so it operates like a job
shop, with lathes, broaches, and grinders lined up.
Flow shops are characterized by larger volumes of the same part or assembly, spe-
cial-purpose machines and equipment, less variety, less flexibility, and more mechaniza-
tion. Flow shop layouts are typically either continuous or interrupted and can be for
manufacturing or assembly, as shown in Figure 1-9. If continuous, a production line is
built that basically runs one large-volume complex item in great quantity and nothing
else. The common light bulb is made this way. A transfer line producing an engine block
is another typical example. If interrupted, the line manufactures large lots but is period-
ically ‘‘changed over’’ to run a similar but different component.
The linked-cell manufacturing system (L-CMS) is composed of manufactur-
ing and subassembly cells connected to final assembly (linked) using a unique
form of inventory and information control called kanban. The L-CMS is used in
lean production systems where manufacturing processes and subassemblies are
restructured into U-shaped cells so they can operate on a one-piece-flow basis,
like final assembly.
As shown in Figure 1-10, the lean production factory is laid out (designed) very
differently than the mass production system. At this writing, more than 60% of all
manufacturing industries have adopted lean production. Hundreds of manufacturing
companies have dismantled their conveyor-based flow lines and replaced them with
U-shaped subassembly cells, providing flexibility while eliminating the need for line
balancing. Chapter 2 discusses manufacturing system designs. Chapter 29 discusses
subassembly cells and manufacturing cells.
The project shop is characterized by the immobility of the item being manufac-
tured. In the construction industry, bridges and roads are good examples. In the manu-
facture of goods, large airplanes, ships, large machine tools, and locomotives are
manufactured in project shops. It is necessary that the workers, machines, and materials
come to the site. The number of end items is not very large, and therefore the lot sizes
of the components going into the end item are not large. Thus, the job shop usually
supplies parts and subassemblies to the project shop in small lots.
Continuous processes are used to manufacture liquids, oils, gases, and powders.
These manufacturing systems are usually large plants producing goods for other
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 15

Finish

Large Storage of Subassemblies

Conveyor

Subassembly lines make

Conveyor
components and subassemblies

Lines

Lines
Flow
for the installation into the
product, often using conveyors.
These lines are examples of
the flow shop.

Parts Storage

Start of final
assembly

Job Shop Station

Lathe Mill Drill

Final
Grind
Shipping and Inspection
Receiving

FIGURE 1-9 Flow shops and lines are common in the mass production system. Final assembly is usually a moving assembly line.
The product travels through stations in a specific amount of time. The work needed to assemble the product is distributed into the
stations, called division of labor. The moving assembly line for cars is an example of the flow shop.

producers or mass-producing canned or bottled goods for consumers. The manufactur-

ing engineer in these factories is often a chemical engineer.
Naturally, there are many hybrid forms of these manufacturing systems, but the
job shop is the most common system. Because of its design, the job shop has been shown
to be the least cost-efficient of all the systems. Component parts in a typical job shop
spend only 5% of their time in machines and the rest of the time waiting or being moved
from one functional area to the next. Once the part is on the machine, it is actually being
processed (i.e., having value added to it by the changing of its shape) only about 30 to
40% of the time. The rest of the time parts are being loaded, unloaded, inspected, and so
on. The advent of numerical control machines increased the percentage of time that the
machine is making chips because tool movements are programmed and the machines
can automatically change tools or load or unload parts.
However, there are a number of trends that are forcing manufacturing manage-
ment to consider means by which the job shop system itself can be redesigned to
improve its overall efficiency. These trends have forced manufacturing companies to
convert their batch-oriented job shops into linked-cell manufacturing systems, with the
manufacturing and subassembly cells structured around specific products.
Another way to identify families of products with a similar set of manufacturing
processes is called group technology. Group technology (GT) can be used to restructure
the factory floor. GT is a concept whereby similar parts are grouped together into part
families. Parts of similar size and shape can often be processed through a similar set of
processes. A part family based on manufacturing would have the same set or sequences
of manufacturing processes. The machine tools needed to process the part family are
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16 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

k
k
= Manufacturing cell
(see detail
k below)
k

k
Subassembly
k (Sub A) cells
Final (see detail
Cells are below)
assembly
one-piece
is
flow
mixed
model k = Kanban linking of cell
to Sub A or Sub A to
k
Final A

k
= Direct linking, flow,
or synchronized
in out

M M D

L G
Eliminate 1 2 3 4 Attach
5
Polarity Solder Meas- and adjust Attac
conveyor resistor
check repair urement fram h Cell # 1
e
IN
Directly link
Standing, L G
1 2 6 processes to
walking 3 Fasten eliminate
5 screws
workers in-process
OUT 4 inventory
7
L A
12 11 9 Attach lid 8
ing
Pack- External
10 Attach Main Cauld
aging inspection label meas-
urement
L
RM FG
Subassembly Cell

Manufacturing Cell

FIGURE 1-10 The linked-cell manufacturing system for lean production has subassembly and manufacturing cells
connected to final assembly by kanban links. The traditional subassembly lines can be redesigned into
U-shaped cells as part of the conversion of mass production to lean production.

gathered into a cell. Thus, with GT, job shops can be restructured into cells, each cell
specializing in a particular family of parts. The parts are handled less, machine setup
time is shorter, in-process inventory is lower, and the time needed for parts to get
through the manufacturing system (called the throughput time) is greatly reduced.

BASIC MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

It is the manufacturing processes that create or add value to a product. The manufactur-
ing processes can be classified as:
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 17

 Casting, foundry, or molding processes.
 Forming or metalworking processes.
 Machining (material removal) processes.
 Joining and assembly.
 Surface treatments (finishing).
 Rapid prototyping.
 Heat treating.
 Other.

These classifications are not mutually exclusive. For example, some finishing processes
involve a small amount of metal removal or metal forming. A laser can be used either
for joining or for metal removal or heat treating. Occasionally, we have a process such
as shearing, which is really metal cutting but is viewed as a (sheet) metal-forming pro-
cess. Assembly may involve processes other than joining. The categories of process
types are far from perfect.
Casting and molding processes are widely used to produce parts that often require
other follow-on processes, such as machining. Casting uses molten metal to fill a cavity.
The metal retains the desired shape of the mold cavity after solidification. An important
advantage of casting and molding is that, in a single step, materials can be converted
from a crude form into a desired shape. In most cases, a secondary advantage is that
excess or scrap material can easily be recycled. Figure 1-11 illustrates schematically
some of the basic steps in the lost-wax casting process, one of many processes used in
the foundry industry.
Casting processes are commonly classified into two types: permanent mold
(a mold can be used repeatedly) or nonpermanent mold (a new mold must be prepared
for each casting made). Molding processes for plastics and composites are included in
the chapters on forming processes.
Forming and shearing operations typically utilize material (metal or plastics) that
has been previously cast or molded. In many cases, the materials pass through a series of
forming or shearing operations, so the form of the material for a specific operation may
be the result of all the prior operations. The basic purpose of forming and shearing is to
modify the shape and size and/or physical properties of the material.
Metal-forming and shearing operations are done both ‘‘hot’’ and ‘‘cold,’’ a refer-
ence to the temperature of the material at the time it is being processed with respect to
the temperature at which this material can recrystallize (i.e., grow new grain structure).
Figure 1-12 shows the process by which the fender of a car is made using a series of
metalforming processes.
Metal cutting, machining, or metal removal processes refer to the removal of
certain selected areas from a part in order to obtain a desired shape or finish. Chips are
formed by interaction of a cutting tool with the material being machined. Figure 1-13
shows a chip being formed by a single-point cutting tool in a machine tool called a lathe.
The manufacturing engineer may be called upon to specify the cutting parameters such
as cutting speed, feed, or depth of cut (DOC). The engineer may also have to select the
cutting tools for the job.
Cutting tools used to perform the basic turning on the lathe are shown in Figure 1-14.
The cutting tools are mounted in machine tools, which provide the required movements of
the tool with respect to the work (or vice versa) to accomplish the process desired.
In recent years many new machining processes have been developed.
The seven basic machining processes are shaping, drilling, turning, milling,
sawing, broaching, and abrasive machining. Each of these basic processes is extensively
discussed. Historically, eight basic types of machine tools have been developed to
accomplish the basic processes. These machine tools are called shapers (and planers),
drill presses, lathes, boring machines, milling machines, saws, broaches, and grinders.
Most of these machine tools are capable of performing more than one of the basic
machining processes. Shortly after numerical control was invented, machining centers
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18 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

Steam
To make the foam parts, metal molds are used. Beads of
polystyrene are heated and expanded in the mold to get
Steam parts.
Plastic part

Patterns
of plastic
parts A pattern containing a sprue, runners, risers, and parts is
Sprue and made from single or multiple pieces of foamed
runner polystyrene plastic.
Polystyrene
pattern

The polystyrene pattern is dipped in a ceramic slurry,

which wets the surface and forms a coating about 0.005
Slurry
inch thick.
Dipped in
refractory slurry

Unbonded
sand
The coated pattern is placed in a flask and surrounded
Flask with loose, unbonded sand.

Surrounded with
loose unbonded sand

Vibration

The flask is vibrated so that the loose sand is compacted

around the pattern.
Compacted by
vibration

Molten metal

During the pouring of molten metal, the hot metal

vaporizes the pattern and fills the resulting cavity.

Metal poured onto

polystyrene pattern

Solidified
casting

The solidified casting is removed from flask and the loose

sand reclaimed.

FIGURE 1-11 Schematic of the Casting removed

lost-foam casting process. and sand reclaimed
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 19

Metalforming Process for Automobile Fender

Sheet metal bending/forming Single draw punch and die

Hot
rolling

Billet Slab Blank

Slide holder Upper die
Rolls
Punch
Slab Sheet metal
Cushion Punch
pin
Cold-rolling
plate Sheet metal

(a) Cast billets of metal are passed through (b) The flat sheet metal is “formed” into a
successive rollers to produce sheets of fender, using sets of dies mounted on
steel rolled stock. stands of large presses.

Metal shearing
Trim 1 Punch 2
punch
Sheet metal
Die Fender
Punch
Scrap
Die
Scrap
Die

(c) The fender is cut out of the sheet metal (d) Sheet metal shearing processes are
in the last stage using shearing like scissors cutting paper.
processes.
Next, the sheet metal parts are
welded into the body of the car.

FIGURE 1-12 The forming process used to make a fender for a car.

were developed that could combine many of the basic processes, plus other related pro-
cesses, into a single machine tool with a single workpiece setup.
Aside from the chip-making processes, there are processes wherein metal is
removed by chemical, electrical, electrochemical, or thermal sources. Generally speak-
ing, these nontraditional processes have evolved to fill a specific need when conven-
tional processes were too expensive or too slow when machining very hard materials.
One of the first uses of a laser was to machine holes in ultra-high-strength metals. Lasers
are being used today to drill tiny holes in turbine blades for jet engines. Because of its
ability to produce components with great precision and accuracy, metal cutting, using
machine tools, is recognized as having great value-adding capability.
In recent years a new family of processes has emerged called rapid prototyping or
rapid manufacturing or free-form manufacturing (see Chapter 19). These additive-type
processes produce first, or prototype, components directly from the software using spe-
cialized machines driven by computer-aided design packages. The prototypes can be
field tested and modifications to the design quickly implemented. Early versions of
these machines produced only nonmetallic components, but modern machines can
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20 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

The Machining Process

(turning on a lathe)

Cutting
tool Workpiece

The workpiece is mounted in a workholding device

in a machine tool (lathe) and is cut (machined) with
a cutting tool.

Lathe

Workpiece

Cutting The workpiece is rotated while the tool is

Original speed Final fed at some feed rate (inches per
diameter V diameter revolution). The desired cutting speed V
determines the rpm of the workpiece.
This process is called turning.
Depth of cut
Feed Chip
(inch/rev) Tool

The cutting tool interacts with the

workpiece to form a chip by a shearing
process. The tool shown here is an
indexable carbide insert tool with a
chip-breaking groove.

FIGURE 1-13 Single-point metal-cutting process (turning) produces a chip while creating a new
surface on the workpiece. (Courtesy J T. Black)

make metal parts. In contrast, the machining processes are recognized as having great
value-adding capability, that is, the ability to produce components with great precision
and accuracy. Companies have sprung up; you can send your CAD drawing over the
Internet and a prototype is made in hours.
Perhaps the largest collection of processes, in terms of both diversity and quantity,
are the joining processes, which include the following:

1. Mechanical fastening.
2. Soldering and brazing.
3. Welding.
4. Press, shrink, or snap fittings.
5. Adhesive bonding.
6. Assembly processes.

Many of these joining processes are often found in the assembly area of the plant.
Figure 1-14 provides one example where all but welding are used in the sequence of
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 21

Silicon wafer
Level 1
Microelectronic
manufacturing Die Level 2
Cover
Packaging chip
IC
or
Package for
C H I P S O N Integrated
connection
S I L I C O N circuit (IC)
on chip
W A F E R

Level 1
PCB fab
Computer
PCB
assembly

Motherboard

Level 3

Level 5 Level 4

FIGURE 1-14 How an electronic product is made.

operations to produce a computer. Starting in the upper left corner, microelectronic

fabrication methods produce entire integrated circuits (ICs) of solid-state (no moving
parts) components, with wiring and connections, on a single piece of semiconductor
material, usually single-crystalline silicon. Arrays of ICs are produced on thin, round
disks of semiconductor material called wafers. Once the semiconductor on the wafer
has been fabricated, the finished wafer is cut up into individual ICs, or chips. Next, at
level 2, these chips are individually housed with connectors or leads making up ‘‘dies’’
that are placed into ‘‘packages’’ using adhesives. The packages provide protection
from the elements and a connection between the die and another subassembly called
the printed circuit boards (PCBs). At level 3, IC packages, along with other discrete
components (e.g., resistors, capacitors, etc.), are soldered onto PCBs and then
assembled with even larger circuits on PCBs. This is sometimes referred to as electronic
assembly. Electronic packages at this level are called cards or printed wiring assemblies
(PWAs). Next, series of cards are combined on a back-panel PCB, also known as a
motherboard or simply a board. This level of packaging is sometimes referred to as
card-on-board packaging. Ultimately, card-on-board assemblies are put into housings
using mechanical fasteners and snap fitting and finally integrated with power supplies
and other electronic peripherals through the use of cables to produce final commercial
products. See Chapter 41 for more details on electronic manufacturing.
Finishing processes are yet another class of processes typically employed for
cleaning, removing burrs left by machining, or providing protective and/or decorative
surfaces on workpieces. Surface treatments include chemical and mechanical cleaning,
deburring, painting, plating, buffing, galvanizing, and anodizing.
Heat treatment is the heating and cooling of a metal for the specific purpose of
altering its metallurgical and mechanical properties. Because changing and controlling
these properties is so important in the processing and performance of metals, heat treat-
ment is a very important manufacturing process. Each type of metal reacts differently to
heat treatment. Consequently, a designer should know not only how a selected metal
can be altered by heat treatment but, equally important, how a selected metal will react,
favorably or unfavorably, to any heating or cooling that may be incidental to the manu-
facturing processes.
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22 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

OTHER MANUFACTURING OPERATIONS

In addition to the processes already described, there are many other fundamental manu-
facturing operations that must be considered. Inspection determines whether the desired
objectives stated by the designer in the specifications have been achieved. This activity
provides feedback to design and manufacturing with regard to the process behavior.
Essential to this inspection function are measurement activities. In the factory, measure-
ments are either by attributes or variables (see Chapter 35) to inspect the outcomes from
the process and determine how they compare to the specifications. The many aspects of
quality control are presented in Chapter 36. Chapter 43 (on the Web) covers testing, where
a product is tried by actual function or operation or by subjection to external effects.
Although a test is a form of inspection, it is often not viewed that way. In manufacturing,
parts and materials are inspected for conformance to the dimensional and physical specifi-
cations, while testing may simulate the environmental or usage demands to be made on a
product after it is placed in service. Complex processes may require many tests and inspec-
tions. Testing includes life-cycle tests, destructive tests, nondestructive testing to check for
processing defects, wind-tunnel tests, road tests, and overload tests.
Transportation of goods in the factory is often referred to as material handling
or conveyance of the goods and refers to the transporting of unfinished goods (work-
in-process) in the plant and supplies to and from, between, and during manufacturing
operations. Loading, positioning, and unloading are also material-handling opera-
tions. Transportation, by truck or train, is material handling between factories. Proper
manufacturing system design and mechanization can reduce material handling in
countless ways.
Automatic material handling is a critical part of continuous automatic manufac-
turing. The word automation is derived from automatic material handling. Material
handling, a fundamental operation done by people and by conveyors and loaders, often
includes positioning the workpiece within the machine by indexing, shuttle bars, slides,
and clamps. In recent years, wire-guided automated guided vehicles (AGVs) and auto-
matic storage and retrieval systems (AS/RSs) have been developed in an attempt to
replace forklift trucks on the factory floor. Another form of material handling, the
mechanized removal of waste (chips, trimming, and cutoffs), can be more difficult than
handling the product. Chip removal must be done before a tangle of scrap chips dam-
ages tooling or creates defective workpieces.
Most texts on manufacturing processes do not mention packaging, yet the packag-
ing is often the first thing the customer sees. Also, packaging often maintains the prod-
uct’s quality between completion and use. (The term packaging is also used in
electronics manufacturing to refer to placing microelectronic chips in containers for
mounting on circuit boards.) Packaging can also prepare the product for delivery to the
user. It varies from filling ampules with antibiotics to steel-strapping aluminum ingots
into palletized loads. A product may require several packaging operations. For exam-
ple, Hershey Kisses are (1) individually wrapped in foil, (2) placed in bags, (3) put into
boxes, and (4) placed in shipping cartons.
Weighing, filling, sealing, and labeling are packaging operations that are highly
automated in many industries. When possible, the cartons or wrappings are formed
from material on rolls in the packaging machine. Packaging is a specialty combining
elements of product design (styling), material handling, and quality control. Some pack-
ages cost more than their contents (e.g., cosmetics and razor blades).
During storage, nothing happens intentionally to the product or part except the
passage of time. Part or product deterioration on the shelf is called shelf life, meaning
that items can rust, age, rot, spoil, embrittle, corrode, creep, and otherwise change in
state or structure, while supposedly nothing is happening to them. Storage is detrimen-
tal, wasting the company’s time and money. The best strategy is to keep the product
moving with as little storage as possible. Storage during processing must be eliminated,
not automated or computerized. Companies should avoid investing heavily in large
automated systems that do not alter the bottom line. Have the outputs improved with
respect to the inputs, or has storage simply increased the costs (indirectly) without
improving either the quality or the throughput time?
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 23

TABLE 1-4 Characterizing a Process Technology By not storing a product, the company avoids
having to (1) remember where the product is
Mechanics (statics and dynamics of the process) stored, (2) retrieve it, (3) worry about its deterio-
How does the process work? rating, or (4) pay storage (including labor) costs.
What are the process mechanics (statics, dynamics, friction)? Storage is the biggest waste of all and should be
What physically happens, and what makes it happen? (Understand the physics.) eliminated at every opportunity.
Economics or costs
What are the tooling costs, the engineering costs? UNDERSTAND YOUR PROCESS
Which costs are short term, which long term? TECHNOLOGY
What are the setup costs? Understanding the process technology of the
Time spans company is very important for everyone in the com-
How long does it take to set up the process initially? pany. Manufacturing technology affects the design
What is the throughput time? of the product and the manufacturing system, the
How can these times be shortened? way in which the manufacturing system can be con-
How long does it take to run a part once it is set up (cycle time)? trolled, the types of people employed, and the
What process parameters affect the cycle time? materials that can be processed. Table 1-4 outlines
Constraints the factors that characterize a process technology.
What are the process limits? Take a process you are familiar with and think
What cannot be done? about these factors. One valid criticism of American
What constrains this process (sizes, speeds, forces, volumes, power, cost)? companies is that their managers seem to have an
What is very hard to do within an acceptable time/cost frame? aversion to understanding their companies’ manu-
Uncertainties and process reliability facturing technologies. Failure to understand the
What can go wrong? company business (i.e., its fundamental process
How can this machine fail? technology) can lead to the failure of the company.
What do people worry about with this process? The way to overcome technological aversion
Is this a reliable, stable process? is to run the process and study the technology.
Skills Only someone who has run a drill press can under-
What operator skills are critical? stand the sensitive relationship between feed rate
What is not done automatically? and drill torque and thrust. All processes have
How long does it take to learn to do this process? these ‘‘know-how’’ features. Those who run the
Flexibility processes must be part of the decision making for
Can this process be adapted easily for new parts of a new design or material? the factory. The CEO who takes a vacation work-
How does the process react to changes in part design and demand? ing on the plant floor and learning the processes
What changes are easy to do? will be well on the way to being the head of a suc-
Process capability cessful company.
What are the accuracy and precision of the process?
What tolerances does the process meet? (What is the process capability?) PRODUCT LIFE CYCLE AND
How repeatable are those tolerances? LIFE-CYCLE COST
Manufacturing systems are dynamic and change
with time. There is a general, traditional relation-
ship between a product’s life cycle and the kind of manufacturing system used to make
the product. Figure 1-15 simplifies the product life cycle into these steps, again using an
S-shaped curve.
1. Startup. New product or new company, low volume, small company.
2. Rapid growth. Products become standardized and volume increases rapidly. Com-
pany’s ability to meet demand stresses its capacity.
3. Maturation. Standard designs emerge. Process development is very important.
4. Commodity. Long-life, standard-of-the-industry type of product or
5. Decline. Product is slowly replaced by improved products.
The maturation of a product in the marketplace generally leads to fewer competi-
tors, with competition based more on price and on-time delivery than on unique prod-
uct features. As the competitive focus shifts during the different stages of the product
life cycle, the requirements placed on manufacturing—cost, quality, flexibility, and
delivery dependability—also change. The stage of the product life cycle affects the
product design stability, the length of the product development cycle, the frequency of
C01 06/17/2011 11:1:26 Page 24

24 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

Time
odity)
(Comm

(de
clin
e e)
m

ul
vo
s
le
Cost per unit

sa
al
nu
Saturation

An
Manufacturing
cost per unit

Time

Startup Rapid growth Maturation Commodity

or decline

Manufacturing Job shop Production job shop Production job shop More flow
system with some flow with some flow lines mass-produce
design and assembly lines

Product variety: Great variety; Increasing standardization; Emergence of a dominant High standardi-
product less variety standard design zation
innovation "Commodity"
great characteristics

Industry structure: Many small Fallout and consolidation Few large companies "Survivors"
competitors become
commodities

Form of Product Product quality, cost, Price and quality Price with con-
competition: characteristics and availability with reliability sistent quality

Process innovation: Low Medium to high High Medium

Automation: Low Medium Medium to high High

FIGURE 1-15 Product life-cycle costs change with the classic manufacturing system designs.

engineering change orders, and the commonality of components—all of which have

implications for manufacturing process technology.
During the design phase of the product, much of the cost of manufacturing and
assembly is determined. Assembly of the product is inherently integrative as it focuses
on pairs and groups of parts.
It is crucial to achieve this integration during the design phase because about 70%
of the life-cycle cost of a product is determined when it is designed. Design choices
determine materials; fabrication methods; assembly methods; and, to a lesser degree,
material-handling options, inspection techniques, and other aspects of the production
system. Manufacturing engineers and internal customers can influence only a small part
of the overall cost if they are presented with a finished design that does not reflect their
concerns. Therefore, all aspects of production should be included if product designs are
to result in real functional integration.
Life-cycle costs include the costs of all the materials, manufacture, use, repair, and
disposal of a product. Early design decisions determine about 60% of the cost, and all
activities up to the start of full-scale development determine about 75%. Later deci-
sions can make only minor changes to the ultimate total unless the design of the manu-
facturing system is changed.
In short, the concept of product life-cycle provides a framework for thinking
about the product’s evolution through time and the kind of market segments that are
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SECTION 1.2 Manufacturing and Production Systems 25

likely to develop at various times. Analysis of life-cycle costs shows that the design of
the manufacturing system determines the cost per unit, which generally decreases over
time with process improvements and increased volumes. For additional discussion on
reliability and maintainability of manufacturing equipment, see the Society of Automo-
tive Engineers SAE publication M-110.2.
The linked-cell manufacturing system design discussed in Chapters 2 and 29
(known as lean production or the Toyota Production System) has transformed the auto-
mobile industry and many other industries to be able to make a large variety of products
in small volumes with very short throughput times. Thousands of companies have
implemented lean to reduce waste, decrease cost per unit significantly while maintain-
ing flexibility and making smooth transitions. This is a new business model affecting
product development, design, purchasing, marketing, customer service and all other
aspects of the company.
Low-cost manufacturing does not just happen. There is a close, interdependent
relationship among the design of a product, the selection of materials, the selection of
processes and equipment, the design of the processes, and tooling selection and design.
Each of these steps must be carefully considered, planned, and coordinated before man-
ufacturing starts.
Some of the steps involved in getting the product from the original idea stage to
daily manufacturing are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10. The steps are closely
related to each other. For example, the design of the tooling is dependent on the design
of the parts to be produced. It is often possible to simplify the tooling if certain changes
are made in the design of the parts or the design of the manufacturing systems. Simi-
larly, the material selection will affect the design of the tooling or the processes
selected. Can the design be altered so that it can be produced with tooling already on
hand and thus avoid the purchase of new equipment? Close coordination of all the vari-
ous phases of design and manufacture is essential if economy is to result.
With the advent of computers and computer-controlled machines, the integration
of the design function and the manufacturing function through the computer is a reality.
This is usually called CAD/CAM (computed-aided design/computer-aided manufac-
turing). The key is a common database from which detailed drawings can be made
for the designer and the manufacturer and from which programs can be generated to
make all the tooling. In addition, extensive computer-aided testing and inspection
(CATI) of the manufactured parts is taking place. There is no doubt that this trend will
continue at ever-accelerating rates as computers become cheaper and smarter, but at
this time, the computers necessary to accomplish complete computer-integrated manu-
facturing (CIM) are expensive and the software very complex. Implementing CIM
requires a lot of manpower as well.

COMPARISONS OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEM DESIGN

When designing a manufacturing system, two customers must be taken into considera-
tion: the external customer who buys the product and the internal customer who makes
the product. The external customer is likely to be global and demand greater variety
with superior quality and reliability. The internal customer is often empowered to
make critical decisions about how to make the products. The Toyota Motor Company
is making vehicles in 25 countries. Their truck plant in Indiana has the capacity to make
150,000 vehicles per year (creating 2300 new jobs), using the Toyota Production System
(TPS). An appreciation of the complexity of the manufacturing system design problem
is shown in Figure 1-16, where the choices between the system designs are reflected
against the number of different products, or parts being made in the system, often called
variety. Clearly, there are many choices regarding which method (or system) to use to
make the goods. A manufacturer never really knows how large or diverse a market will
be. If a diverse and specialized market emerges, a company with a focused flow-line
system may be too inflexible to meet the varying demand. If a large but homogeneous
market develops, a manufacturer with a flexible system may find production costs too
high and the flexibility unexploitable. Another general relationship between manufac-
turing system designs and production volumes is shown in Figure 1-17.
C01 06/17/2011 11:1:27 Page 26

26 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

Transfer
line
Dedicated
flow lines
Job shop
1000
with stand-
alone CNC This part variety-production rate matrix
System production rate

Manned and shows examples of particular manufacturing

100 unmanned cells system designs. This matrix was developed
parts per hour

by Black based on real factory data. Notice

there is a large amount of overlap in the
10 middle of the matrix, so the manufacturing
Job shop engineer has many choices regarding which
No families of method or system to use to make the goods.
parts, stand-alone
1 This book will show the connection between
machines
the process and the manufacturing system
used to produce the products, turning raw
.1 FMS materials into finished goods.

.01 Project shop

1 10 100 1000 10,000 100,000

Large volume Variety of parts per system Large variety
Low variety

FIGURE 1-16 Different manufacturing system designs produce goods at different production rates.

Continuous Oil, Gas

flow Beer
processes Bricks The figure shows in a general way the
relationship between manufacturing systems
Transfer lines Not Autos and production volumes. The upper left
Continuous flow shop flexible; Cycles represents systems with low flexibility but
Assembly line more TVs high efficiency compared to the lower right,
efficient Trucks where volumes are low and so is efficiency.
Disconnected line Where a particular company lies in this matrix
Interrupted flow shop Airplanes
is determined by many forces, not all of which
Batch processing Ships
are controllable. The job of manufacturing and
Job shop Shuttles industrial engineers is to design and
Job shop Space implement a system which can achieve low
Less efficient; unit cost, superior quality, with on-time
ad hoc flow station
more flexible delivery in a flexible way.

Commodity Few types Multiple Very

High volume High volume products low volume
Low volume

FIGURE 1-17 This figure shows in a general way the relationship between manufacturing systems and production volumes.

NEW MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

The manufacturing process technology described in this text is available worldwide. Many
countries have about the same level of process development when it comes to manufactur-
ing technology. Much of the technology existing in the world today was developed in the
United States, Germany, France, and Japan. More recently Taiwan, Korea, and China
have been making great inroads into American markets, particularly in the automotive
and electronics industries. Many companies have developed and promoted a different
kind of manufacturing system design. This new manufacturing system, called lean manu-
facturing, will take its place with the American Armory System and the Ford System
for mass production. This new manufacturing system, developed by the Toyota Motor
Company, has been successfully adopted by many American companies.
For lean production to work, units with no defects (100% good) must flow rhyth-
mically to subsequent processes without interruption. In order to accomplish this, an
integrated quality control (IQC) program has to be developed. The responsibility for
quality has been given to manufacturing. All the employees are inspectors and are
C01 06/17/2011 11:1:27 Page 27

Review Questions 27
empowered to make it right the first time. There is a companywide attitude toward con-
stant quality improvement. Make quality easy to see, stop the line when something goes
wrong, and inspect things 100% if necessary to prevent defects from occurring. The
results of this system are astonishing in terms of quality, low cost, and on-time delivery
of goods to the customer.
The most important factor in economical and successful manufacturing is the
manner in which the resources—labor, materials, and capital—are organized and man-
aged so as to provide effective coordination, responsibility, and control. Part of the suc-
cess of lean production can be attributed to a different management approach. This
approach is characterized by a holistic attitude toward people.
The real secret of successful manufacturing lies in designing a manufacturing sys-
tem in which everyone who works in the system understands how the system works and
how goods are controlled, with the decision making placed at the correct level. The
engineers also must possess a broad fundamental knowledge of design, metallurgy,
processing, economics, accounting, and human relations. In the manufacturing game,
low-cost mass production is the result of teamwork within an integrated manufacturing/
production system. This is the key to producing superior quality at less cost with on-time
delivery.

& KEY WORDS

assembly heat treatment manufacturing cost product life cycle
casting inspection manufacturing engineer production system
construction job manufacturing process project shop
consumer goods job shop manufacturing system shearing
continuous process joining process materials engineer shelf life
design engineer lean engineer molding station
fabricating lean production numerical control storage
finishing process linked-cell manufacturing operation sustaining technology
flow shop system (L-CMS) packaging tooling
forming machine tool processing tools
goods machining producer goods Toyota Production System
group technology (GT) manufacturing product treatments

& REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What role does manufacturing play relative to the standard 14. It is acknowledged that chip-type machining is basically an
of living of a country? inefficient process. Yet it is probably used more than any
2. Aren’t all goods really consumer goods, depending on how other to produce desired shapes. Why?
you define the customer? Discuss. 15. Compare Figure 1-1 and Figure 1-15. What are the stages of
3. Is the Subway sandwich shop an example of a job shop, flow the product life cycle for a computer?
shop, or project shop? 16. In a modern safety razor with three or four blades that sells
4. How does a system differ from a process? From a machine for $1, what do you think the cost of the blades might be?
tool? From a job? From an operation? 17. List three purposes of packaging operations.
5. Is a cutting tool the same thing as a machine tool? 18. Assembly is defined as ‘‘the putting together of all the different
6. What are the major classifications of basic manufacturing parts to make a complete machine.’’ Think of (and describe) an
processes? assembly process. Is making a club sandwich an assembly pro-
7. Casting is often used to produce a complex-shaped part to be cess? What about carving a turkey? Is this an assembly process?
made from a hard-to-machine metal. How else could the part 19. What are the physical elements in a manufacturing system?
be made? 20. In the production system, who usually figures out how to
8. In the lost-wax casting process, what happens to the foam? make the product?
9. In making a gold medal, what do we mean by a ‘‘relief 21. In Figure 1-8, what do the lines connecting the processes
image’’ cut into the die? represent?
10. How is a railroad station like a station on an assembly 22. Characterize the process of squeezing toothpaste from a tube
line? (extrusion of toothpaste) using Table 1-4 as a guideline. See
11. Because no work is being done on a part when it is in storage, the index for help on extrusion.
it does not cost you anything. True or false? Explain. 23. What difficulties would result if production planning and
12. What forming processes are used to make a paper clip? scheduling were omitted from the procedure outlined in
13. What is tooling in a manufacturing system? Chapter 9 for making a product in a job shop?
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28 CHAPTER 1 Introduction to DeGarmo’s Materials and Processes in Manufacturing

24. It has been said that low-cost products are more likely to be 29. In the process of buying a calf, raising it to a cow, and disassem-
more carefully designed than high-priced items. Do you bling it into ‘‘cuts’’ of meat for sale, where is the ‘‘value added’’?
think this is true? Why or why not? 30. What kind of process is powder metallurgy: casting or
25. Proprietary processes are closely held or guarded company forming?
secrets. The chemical makeup of a lubricant for an extrusion 31. In view of Figure 1-2, who really determines the selling price
process is a good example. Give another example of a propri- per unit?
etary process. 32. What costs make up manufacturing cost (sometimes called
26. If the rolls for the cold-rolling mill that produces the sheet factory cost)?
metal used in your car cost $300,000 to $400,000, how is it 33. What are major phases of a product life cycle?
that your car can still cost less than $20,000? 34. How many different manufacturing systems might be used to
27. Make a list of service systems, giving an example of each. make a component with annual projected sales of 16,000
28. What is the fundamental difference between a service sys- parts per year with 10 to 12 different models (varieties)?
tems and a manufacturing system? 35. In general, as the annual volume for a product increases, the
unit cost decreases. Explain.

& PROBLEMS
1. The Toyota truck plant in Indiana produces 150,000 trucks What are the disadvantages of your new stapler design versus
per year. The plant runs one eight-hour shift, 300 days per the old stapler?
year, and makes 500 trucks per day. About 1300 people work 3. A company is considering making automobile bumpers from
on the final assembly line. Each car has about 20 labor hours aluminum instead of from steel. List some of the factors it
per car in it. would have to consider in arriving at its decision.
a. Assuming the truck sells for $16,000 and workers earn $30 4. Many companies are critically examining the relationship of
per hour in wages and benefits, what percentage of the cost product design to manufacturing and assembly. Why do they
of the truck is in direct labor? call this concurrent engineering?
b. What is the production rate of the final assembly line? 5. We can analogize your university to a manufacturing system
2. Suppose you wanted to redesign a stapler to have fewer com- that produces graduates. Assuming that it takes four years to
ponents. (You should be able to find a stapler at a local dis- get a college degree and that each course really adds value to
count store.) How much did it cost? How many parts does it the student’s knowledge base, what percentage of the four
have? Make up a ‘‘new parts’’ list and indicate which parts years is ‘‘value adding’’ (percentage of time in class plus two
would have to be redesigned and which parts would be elimi- hours of preparation for each hour in class)?
nated. Estimate the manufacturing cost of the stapler assum- 6. What are the major process steps in the assembly of an
ing that manufacturing costs are 40% of the selling price. automobile?

Chapter 1 CASE STUDY

Famous Manufacturing Engineers

M anufacturing engineering is that engineering

function charged with the responsibility of
interpreting product design in terms of manufacturing
 Select, design, and specify devices and instruments
that inspect products that have been manufactured to
determine their quality.
requirements and process capability. Specifically, the  Design and evaluate the performance of the manufac-
manufacturing engineer may: turing system.
  Perform all these functions (and many more) related to
Determine how the product is to be made in terms of
specific manufacturing processes. the actual making of the product at the most reason-
 Design workholding and work transporting tooling or able cost per unit without sacrifice of the functional
containers. requirements or the users’ service life.
 Select the tools (including the tool materials) that will There’s no great glory in being a great manufacturing
machine or form the work materials. engineer (MfE). If you want to be a manufacturing
C01 06/17/2011 11:1:28 Page 29

Case Study 29

engineer, you had better be ready to get your hands dirty. production methods. In 1848, he rented a plant in Hart-
Of course, there are exceptions. There have been some ford, Connecticut, and the Colt legend spread. In 1853
very famous manufacturing engineers. For example: he had built one of the world’s largest arms plant in
 John Wilkinson of Bersham, England built a boring mill Connecticut, which had 1400 machine tools. Colt
in 1775 to bore the cast iron cylinders for James Watt’s helped start the careers of
steam engine. How good was this machine?  E. K. Root, mechanic and superintendent, paying him
 Eli Whitney was said to have invented the cotton gin, a a salary of $25,000 in the 1800s. Abolished hand
machine to separate seeds from cotton. His machine work—jigs and fixtures.
was patented but was so simple, anyone could make  Francis Pratt and Amos Whitney—famous machine
one. He was credited with ‘‘interchangeability’’—but tool builders.
we know Thomas Jefferson observed interchangeabil-  William Gleason—gear manufacturer
ity in France in 1785 and probably the French gun-  E. P. Bullard—invented the Mult–An–Matic Multiple
smith LeBlanc is the real inventor here. Jefferson tried spindle machine, which cut the time to make a fly-
to bring the idea to America and Whitney certainly did. wheel from 18 minutes to slightly over 1 minute. Sold
He took 10 muskets to Congress, disassembled them, this to Ford.
and scattered the pieces. Interchangeable parts per-  Christopher Sponer.
mitted them to be reassembled. He was given a con-  E. J. Kingsbury—invented a drilling machine to drill
tract for 2000 guns to be made in two years. But what holes through toy wheel hubs that had a spring-
is the rest of his story? loaded cam that enabled the head to sense the condi-
 Joe Brown started a business in Rhode Island in 1833 tion of the casting and modify feed rate automatically.
making lathes and small tools as well as timepieces Now here are some more names from the past of
(watchmaker). Lucian Sharp joined the company in famous and not-so-famous manufacturing, mechanical,
1848 and developed a pocket sheet metal gage in and industrial engineers. Relate them to the development
1877 and a 1-inch micrometer, and in 1862 developed of manufacturing processes or manufacturing system
the universal milling machine. designs.
 At age 16, Sam Colt sailed to Calcutta on the Brig  Eli Whitney
‘‘Curve.’’ He whittled a wood model of a revolver on  Henry Ford
this voyage. He saved his money and had models of a  Charles Sorenson
gun built in Hartford by Anson Chase, for which he got  Sam Colt
a patent. He set up a factory in New Jersey—but he  John Parsons
could not sell his guns to the Army because they were  Eiji Toyoda
too complicated. He sold to the Texas Rangers and the  Elisha Root
Florida Frontiersmen, but he had to close the plant. In  John Hall
1846, the Mexican war broke out. General Zachary  Thomas Blanchard
Taylor and Captain Sam Walters wanted to buy guns.  Fred Taylor
Colt had none but accepted orders for 1000 guns and  Taiichi Ohno
constructed a model (Walker Colt); he arranged to  Ambrose Swasey
have them made at Whitney’s (now 40-year-old) plant
in Whitneyville. Here he learned about mass
C02 07/06/2011 16:29:29 Page 30

CHAPTER 2
MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS DESIGN
2.1 INTRODUCTION Flow Shop Factory Revolutions Evolve
2.2 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS Project Shop Evolution of the Second
Continuous Process MDS—The Flow Shop
2.3 CONTROL OF MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS Lean Manufacturing System The Third MDS—Lean
Production
2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING 2.5 SUMMARY OF FACTORY DESIGNS
SYSTEMS Summary
The Evolution of the First Factory
Job Shop

& 2.1 INTRODUCTION

In a factory, manufacturing processes are assembled together to form a manufacturing
system to produce a desired set of goods. The manufacturing system takes specific
inputs and materials, adds value through processes, and transforms the inputs into prod-
ucts for the customer. It is important to distinguish between the manufacturing system
and the production system, which is also known as the enterprise system, or the whole
company. The production system includes the manufacturing system.
As shown in Figure 2-1, the production system services the manufacturing system,
using all the other functional areas of the plant for information, design, analysis, and
control. These subsystems are connected to each other to produce goods or services,
or both.
A production system includes all aspects of the business, including design engi-
neering, manufacturing engineering, sales, advertising, production and inventory
control (scheduling and distribution), and, most important, the manufacturing system.
The enterprise and all its functional areas are discussed in Chapter 44 on the Web.

& 2.2 MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

A sequence of processes and people that actually produce the desired product(s) is
called the manufacturing system. In Figure 2-2, the manufacturing system is defined as
the complex arrangement of physical elements characterized (and controlled) by measur-
able parameters (Black, 1991). The relationship among the elements determines how
well the system can run or be controlled. The control of a system refers to the entire
manufacturing system (which means the control of the operators in a harmonious way
relative to the system’s objectives), not merely the individual processes or equipment.
The entire manufacturing system must be under daily control to enable the manage-
ment of material movement, people and processes (scheduling), inventory levels, prod-
uct quality, production rates, throughput, and, of course, cost.
As shown in Figure 2-2, inputs to the manufacturing system include materials,
information, and energy. The system is a complex set of elements that includes
machines (or machine tools), people, materials-handling equipment, and tooling.
Workers are the internal customers. They process materials within the system, which
gain value as the material progresses from process to machine. Manufacturing system
outputs may be finished or semifinished goods. Semifinished goods serve as inputs to
some other process at other locations. Manufacturing systems are dynamic, meaning
that they must be designed to adapt constantly to change. Many of the inputs cannot be
fully controlled by management, and the effect of disturbances must be counteracted
by manipulating the controllable inputs or the system itself. Controlling the input

30
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SECTION 2.2 Manufacturing Systems 31

The Production System

Requirements

Development

Feedback from the Customer

Orders Engineering and
Design

Feedback from ICs

Engineering
Concurrent
Sales and Part and Product
Marketing Definition Data
Information
Forecast

Manufacturing
Planning
Information

Manufacturing Systems
Engineering
Product
–What to order
Demand
–How to sequence/order
data
–When –How long
–Rate –How many

Information
MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
(The Factory)
External
Energy
Where value is added
Goods and customer

Materials

The Enterprise or
Production System
(Dotted line)
Components from Subassemblies,
Materials recg. From suppliers

FIGURE 2-1 The manufacturing system (shaded) is the heart of the company. It lies within and is served
by the production system or the enterprise.

material availability and/or predicting demand fluctuations may be difficult. A national

economic decline or recession can cause shifts in the business environment that can
seriously change any of these inputs. In manufacturing systems, not all inputs are fully
controllable. To understand how manufacturing systems work and be able to design
manufacturing systems, computer modeling (simulation) and analysis are used. How-
ever, modeling and analysis are difficult because
C02 07/06/2011 16:29:30 Page 32

32 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Unplanned
disturbances
Inputs to Outputs to
system customers

Materials A manufacturing Good products,

system is

External customer
Subassemblies good parts, etc.
Energy
A complex Information
arrangement of
Demand Service to customer
physical elements*
Social characterized by
Political measurable parameters† Defectives and scrap
Pressure
Information
from Design,
Purchasing,
Production Feedback
Control, etc.

* Physical elements: † Measurable system parameters:

• Machines for processing • Throughput time (TPT)
• Tooling (fixtures, dies, cutting tools) • Production rate (PR)
• Material handling equipment • Work-in-process inventory
FIGURE 2-2 Here is our (which includes all transportation • % on-time delivery
manufacturing system with its and storage)
• % defective
inputs and outputs. (From • People (internal customers)
Design of the Factory with a operators, workers, associates • Daily/weekly/monthly volume
Future, 1991, McGraw-Hill, • Cycle time or takt time (TT)
by J T. Black) • Total cost or unit cost

1. In the absence of a system design, the manufacturing systems can be very complex,
be difficult to define, and have conflicting goals.
2. The data or information may be difficult to secure, inaccurate, conflicting, missing, or
even too abundant to digest and analyze.
3. Relationships may be awkward to express in analytical terms, and interactions may
be nonlinear; thus, many analytical tools cannot be applied with accuracy. System
size may inhibit analysis.
4. Systems are always dynamic and change during analysis. The environment can
change the system, and vice versa.
5. All systems analyses are subject to errors of omission (missing information) and
commission (extra information). Some of these are related to breakdowns or delays
in feedback elements.
Because of these difficulties, digital simulation has become an important technique for
manufacturing systems modeling and analysis as well as for manufacturing system
design.

& 2.3 CONTROL OF THE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

In general, a manufacturing system should be an integrated whole, composed of inte-
grated subsystems, each of which interacts with the entire system. The critical control
functions are production rate and mix control, inventory control, quality control, and
machine tool control (reliability).While the system may have a number of objectives or
goals, the users of the system may seek to optimize the whole. Optimizing bits and
pieces does not optimize the entire system. System control functions require informa-
tion gathering, communication capabilities, and decision-making processes that are
integral parts of the manufacturing system.
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SECTION 2.4 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 33

& 2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
Manufacturing industries vary by the products that they make or assemble. While
almost all factories are different, there are five basic manufacturing system designs
(MSDs): four classic (or hybrid combinations thereof) and one new manufacturing sys-
tem design that is rapidly gaining acceptance in almost all
of these industries. The classical systems here are the job
TABLE 2-1 Types and Examples of Manufacturing shop, the flow shop, the project shop, and the continuous
Systems process. The lean shop is a new kind of system. The
Type of Examples assembly line is a form of the flow shop, and a system that
Manufacturing has batch flow might also be added as another manufac-
System Servicea Productb turing system. Figure 2-3 shows schematics of the four
classical systems along with the linked-cell manufactur-
Job shop Auto repair Machine shop ing system, or the lean shop.
Hospital Metal fabrication Table 2-1 lists examples of five types of manufactur-
Restaurant Custom jewelry ing systems. These lists are not meant to be complete, just
University FMS informative as there are hundreds of examples of each of
Flow shop or flow line X-ray TV factory the basic system designs.
Cafeteria Auto assembly line
College registration
Car wash
JOB SHOP
The job shop’s distinguishing feature is its functional
Lean shop or Fast-food restaurant Product families
linked-cell (KFC, Wendy’s) design. In the job shop, a variety of products are manu-
Food court at mall Family of turned parts factured, which results in small manufacturing lot sizes,
10-minute oil change Composite part often one of a kind. Job shop manufacturing is commonly
families done to specific customer order, but, in truth, many job
Design families shops produce to fill finished-goods inventories. Because
Project shop Producing a movie Locomotive assembly the plant must perform a wide variety of manufacturing
Broadway play Bridge construction processes, general-purpose production equipment is
TV show House construction required. Workers must have relatively high skill levels
Continuous process Telephone company Oil refinery to perform a range of different work assignments, often
Phone company Chemical plant due to a lack of work standardization, defects, and variety
a
Customer receives a service or perishable product. in goods produced. Job shop products include space vehi-
b
Products can be for customers or for other companies. cles, aircraft, machine tools, special tools, and equip-
ment. Figure 2-4 depicts the functionally arranged job
shop. Production machines are grouped according to the general type of manufacturing
process. The lathes are in one department, drill presses in another, plastic molding in
still another, and so on. The advantage of this layout is its ability to make a wide variety
of products. Each different part requiring its own unique sequence of operations can be
routed through the respective departments in the proper order. In the job shop, process
planning consists of determining the sequence of individual manufacturing processes
and operations needed to produce the parts. An overview of the product is developed
with a process flow chart, which shows the various levels of the product, subassemblies,
and components. Figure 2-5 shows a process flow chart and a bill of materials (BOM),
which lists all the parts and components in a product. The route sheet and the opera-
tions sheet are the documents that specify the process sequence through the job shop
and the sequence of operations to be performed at specific machines. Route sheets are
used as the production control device to define the path of the material through the
manufacturing system; see Figure 2-6, for example. Forklifts and handcarts are used to
move materials from one machine to the next. As the company grows, the job shop
evolves into a production job shop making products in large lots or batches.
The route sheet lists manufacturing operations and associated machine tools for
each workpiece. The route sheet travels with the parts, which move in batches (or lots)
between the processes. When a cart of parts has to be moved from one point in the job
shop to another, the route sheet provides routing (travel) information, telling the mate-
rial handler which machine in which department the parts must go to next. Now look at
Figure 2-4, which shows the path through the job shop that the punch would take from
start to finish as described in the route sheet.
 C02

Receiving Lathes Grinders Lot no.

34
07/06/2011

73
Component
Supplies parts
Heat- House
Materials
treating Labor
Machines
16:29:30

Equipment
Drill Sub-
Saws C
presses machines
Page 34

B
Presses A
Milling
(sheet
machines
metal) (d) Project shop – fixed position layout
Painting Assembly Storage

(a) Job shop – functional or process layout

Refinery
Assembly Using Conveyors
Raw materials
Process I
Inventory Energy

In Seated
Stand by
B

Storage

Receiving
III II

Out Gas By-products

Oil

(b) Flow shop – line or product layout (e) Continuous-process layout

Area manager housing Area manager assembly

Team leader Cores Frames Controls

housings Final
Subassembly Motors assembly
Mfg
cell I

Final assembly
y
Sub-
bl assembly
em
ss cell II

Subassembly
ba In
Su Out
Kanban link
Start
(c) Lean shop (U-shaped cells)

FIGURE 2-3 Schematic layouts of five manufacturing systems: (a) job shop (functional or process layout); (b) flow shop (line or product layout); (c) linked-cell
layout, or the lean production system; (d) project shop (fixed-position layout); and (e) continuous process.
C02 07/06/2011 16:29:30 Page 35

SECTION 2.4 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 35

Lathe Milling Drilling
Department Department Department

J&L D D Heat
L M1 M
lathe Treatment
Dept

D D F
J&L
L M M
lathe
Grinding
Department

L L M M G G Surface
grinding 3

Final Inspection and

Assembly G G
L L
I P

G G
Receiving and A A
Shipping

Key: Movement of parts in containers Dark arrow shows path

Machine tool operators for part shown in Figure 2-6
Machine tool

FIGURE 2-4 Schematic layout of a job shop where processes are gathered functionally into areas
or departments. Each square block represents a manufacturing process. Sometimes called the
‘‘spaghetti design.’’

The operations sheet describes what machining or assembly operations are done
to the parts at particular machines. The operations performed on an engine lathe to
make the part shown in Figure 2-7 are shown. Note that the details of speed, feed, and
depth of cut are specified (actually, recommended, because the machinist may change
them). Over time, many different people may plan the same part; therefore, there can
be many different process sequences and many different routes through the factory for
the same or similar parts.
Process Planning for the Job Shop. The first step in planning is to determine the
basic job requirements that must be satisfied. These are usually determined by analysis
of the drawings and the job orders. They involve consideration and determination of the
following:
1. Size and shape of the geometric components of the workpiece.
2. Tolerances, as applied by the designer.
3. Material from which the part is to be made.
4. Properties of material being machined (hardness).
5. Number of pieces to be produced (see the section in this chapter on quantity versus
process and case studies on economic analysis).
6. Machine tools available for this workpiece.
Such an analysis for the threaded shaft shown in Figure 2-7 would be as follows:
1. a. Two concentric and adjacent cylinders having diameters of 0.877/0.873 and 0.501/
0.499, respectively, and lengths of 2 in. and 11/2 in.
b. Three parallel plain surfaces forming the ends of the cylinders.
c. A 45  1=8 -in. bevel on the outer end of the 7=8 -in. cylinder.
d. A 7=8 -in. NF-2 thread cut the entire length of the 7=8 -in. cylinder.
C02 07/06/2011 16:29:30 Page 36

36 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Personal
computer
processor PC Final assembly
flow chart comp The video unit and the
Video keyboard unit have
monitor Processor been preassembled.
Connect the sockets on
Cables Video Processor Keyboard Sub-assembly the end of their cables
sockets monitor unit unit level Cable to the corresponding
plugs at the rear of the
Keyboard processor unit.
Memory S S S S
Box Arithmetic Switch Boards Processor subassembly
board
casing board (4 req.) level RAM
Assemble one switch(s)
(4 req.)
RAM to the inside of each of
RAM the 4 plug connections
RAM at the back of the box.
Ram Ram Then fit 4 memory
Micro- Chip
chip Switch Board chip Switch Board Arithmetic
cards boards into the 4
processor level
(4 req.) (2 req.) identical rows of
Board
connectors. Finally, fit
Bill of materials for computer the arithmetic cards
Memory card; C C into the front connector
assemble 4 RAM chips S
Item Low-level Quantity required C C row.
and 1 switch onto card
code for one unit
Arithmetic board 2 Assembled
Fabricate chips
Box casing 2 1 C
and boards
Ram chip 3 16
Keyboard unit 1 1
Memory board 2 Assembled
Processor unit 1 Assembled
Ram chip 3 2
Switch 3 9
Video unit 1 1
Board type X 3 4
Board type Y 3 1
Microprocessor 3 1

FIGURE 2-5 The process flow chart and the bill of materials (BOM) for a personal computer. See Chapter 34.

2. The tightest tolerance is 0.002 in., and the angular tolerance on the bevel is 1 .
3. The material is AISI1340 cold-rolled steel, BHN 200.
4. The job order calls for 25 parts.
Now the engineer can draw a number of conclusions regarding the processing of
the part. First, because concentric, external, cylindrical surfaces are involved, turning
operations are required and the piece should be made on some type of lathe. Second,
because 25 pieces are to be made, the use of an engine lathe or a computer numerical
control (CNC) lathe would be preferred over an automatic screw machine where the
setup time will likely be too long to justify this small a lot size. As the company’s numer-
ical control (NC) lathe is in use, an engine lathe will be used. Third, because the maxi-
mum required diameter is approximately 7=8 in., 1-in.-diameter cold-rolled stock will be
satisfactory; it will provide about 1=16 in. of material for rough and finish turning of
the large diameter. From this information, the operations sheet(s) for a particular
engine lathe is (are) prepared.
The engineer prepares the operations sheet shown in Figure 2-7 listing, in
sequence, the operations required for machining the threaded shaft shown in the part
drawing. A single operation sheet lists the operations that are done in sequence on a
single machine. This sheet is for an engine lathe (see Chapter 22).
Operations sheets vary greatly as to details. The simpler types often list only the
required operations and the machines to be used. Speeds and feeds may be left to
the discretion of the operator, particularly when skilled workers and small quantities
are involved. However, it is common practice for complete details to be given regarding
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SECTION 2.4 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 37

1
.000 16 D
0.249  .002 5
.000
32 0.125  .003

3
16
R
3 5
16 32
21
32
3
1 32

Punch
Matl. – 0.250 dia. AISI 1040 Part
H.T. to 50 R.C. on 0.249 dia. drawing

DARIC INDUSTRIES

ROUTING SHEET

NAME OF PART Punch PART NO. 2

QUANTITY 1,000 MATERIAL SAE 1040

EQUIPMENT
OPERATION DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION OR MACHINES TOOLING
NUMBER See Fig 41-4

5 J & L turret
1 Turn, 32 , 0.125, and 0.249 #642 box tools
diameters lathe 12

3
2 Cut off to 132 length #6 cutoff in
"
cross
turret

3
3 Mill 16 radius #1 Milwaukee Special jaws
in vise
3
16 form cutter
 4 D
1
4 Drill 16 hole Turret Drill 4
FIGURE 2-6 Part drawing for a
punch used in a progressive die
set (above) with the route sheet
(traveler) for making the punch. 5 Heat treat. 1,700° F for 30 Atmosphere
The route sheet is used in the job minutes, oil quench furnace
shop (layout in Figure 2-4) to tell
the material handler (forklift truck 3
6 Grind (cutting edges) Surface grinder 3 end radius
driver) where to take the 16
containers of parts after each on wheel
operation is completed. The
manufacturing engineer designs 7 Check hardness Rockwell
the process plan or sequence of tester
operations to make the product.

tools, speeds, and often the time allowed for completing each operation. Such data are
necessary if the work is to be done on NC machines, and experience has shown that
these preplanning steps are advantageous when ordinary machine tools are used.
The selection of speeds and feeds required to manufacture the part is discussed in
Chapters 20–24 and will depend on many factors such as tool material, workpiece
C02 07/06/2011 16:29:31 Page 38

38 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

7
45°  1° 8
– 14 NF–2 thread
BHN 艑 200

0.501 0.877
0.499 0.873

1 1
8 12
1
32

Matl. AISI 1340 Medium carbon steel

BHN 艑 200
Threaded shaft made in quantities of 25 units.

DEBLAKOS INDUSTRIES

OPERATION SHEET
Threaded Shaft 1340 Cold Rolled Steel
PART NAME: Part No. 7358-267-10

CUTTING SPEED DEPTH OF

OPER. NAME OF OPERATION MACH. CUTTING TOOL FEED CUT REMARKS
NO. TOOL ft/min rpm ipr Inches
Engine
10 Face end of bar 120 458 Hand Use 3-jaw Universal chuck
Lathe
20 Center drill end " Combination center drill 750 Hand

To prevent chattering, keep

9
Cut off to 316 Parting tool overhang of work and tool
30 " 120 458 Hand
length at a minimum and feed
steadily. Use lubricant.

Before replacing part in 3-jaw

RH facing tool (R) 18 max.
40 Face to length 120 458 Hand chuck, scribe a line
" (small radius point) (F) .005 1
marking the 3 2 inch length.

50 Center drill end " Combination center drill 750 Hand

Place between centers,
RH turning tool 120 (R) 458 (R) .0089 (R) .081 (3)
60 turn .501 diameter, "
.499 (small radius point) 160 (F) 611 (F) .0029 (F) .007
and face shoulder
Remove and replace end RH tools
.877 120 (R) 458 (R) .0089 (R) .057
70 for end and turn .873 " (R) (small radius point)
160 (F) 611 (F) .0029 (F) .005
diameter (F) Round nose tool

80 Produce 45°-chamfer " RH round nose tool 120 458 Hand (R) 18 max.
(F) .005

(1) Swivel compound rest to 30

degrees.
(2) Set tool with thread gage.
(3) When tool touches outside
90 Cut 7
- 14 NF-2 thread Threading tool 60 208 (R) .004 diamter of work set cross slide
8 "
(F) .001 to zero.
(4) Depth of cut for roughing = .004.
(5) Engage thread dial indicator on
any line.
(6) Depth of cut for finishing = .001
Use compound rest.
Remove burrs and sharp
edges " Hand file

Date

FIGURE 2-7 Part drawing (above) and operations sheet, which provides details of the recommended manufacturing
process steps.

material, and depth of cut. Tables of machining data will give suggested values for the
turning and facing operations for either high-speed-steel or carbide tools. The tables are
segregated by workpiece material (medium-carbon-alloy steels, wrought or cold
worked) and then by process—in this case, turning. For these materials, additional
tables for drilling and threading would have to be referenced. The depth of cut dictates
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SECTION 2.4 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 39

the speed and feed selection. The depth of cut for a roughing pass for operation 60 was
0.081 in., and the finish pass was 0.007 in. Therefore, for operation 60, three roughing
cuts and one finishing cut are used. Looking ahead to Chapter 22, could you estimate or
determine the cutting time for one of these roughing cuts?
While the operation sheet does not specifically say so, high-speed-steel tools are
being used throughout. If the job were being done on an NC lathe, it is likely that all
the cutting tools would be carbides, which would change all the cutting parameters.
Notice also that the job as described for the engine lathe required two setups, a three-
jaw chuck to get the part to length and produce the centers and a between-centers setup
to complete the part. It was necessary to stop the lathe to invert the part. Do you think
this part could be manufactured efficiently in an NC lathe? How would you orient
the part in the NC lathe? (See Chapter 40 for discussion of NC lathes.)
Speed and feed recommendations are often computerized to be compatible with
computer-aided manufacturing and computer-aided process planning systems, but the
manufacturing engineer is still responsible for the final process plan. As noted earlier,
the cutting time, as computed from the machining parameters, represents only 30 to
40% of the total time needed to complete the part. Referring again to Figure 2-6, the
operator will need to pick up the part after it is cut off at operation 30, stop the lathe,
open up the chuck, take out the piece of metal in the chuck, scribe a line on the part
marking the desired 31/2-in. length, place the part back in the chuck, change the cutoff
tool to a facing tool, adjust the facing tool to the right height, and move the tool to the
proper position for the desired facing cut in operation 40. All these operations take
time, and someone must estimate how much time is required for such noncutting opera-
tions if an accurate estimate of total time to make the part is to be obtained.
When an operation is machine controlled, as in making a lathe cut of a certain
length with power feed, the required time can be determined by simple mathematics.
For example, if a cut is 10 in. in length and the turning speed is 200 rpm, with a feed of
0.005 in. per revolution, the cutting time required will be 10 minutes. See Chapter 22 for
details of this calculation. Procedures are available for determining the time required
for people-controlled machining elements, such as moving the carriage of a lathe by
hand, back from the end of one cut to the starting point of a following cut. Such determi-
nations of time estimates are generally considered the job of the industrial engineer,
and space does not permit us to cover this material, but the techniques are well estab-
lished. Actual time studies, accumulated data from past operations, or some type of
motion-time data, such as MTM (methods-time-measurement), can be employed for
estimating such times. Each can provide accurate results that can be used for establish-
ing standard times for use in planning. Various handbooks and books on machine shop
estimating contain tables of average times for a wide variety of elemental operations for
use in estimating and setting standards. However, such data should be used with great
caution, even for planning purposes, and they should never be used as a basis of wage
payment. The conditions under which they were obtained may have been very different
from those for which a standard is being set.

Quantity versus Process and Material Alternatives. Most processes are not equally
suitable and economical for producing a wide range of quantities for a given product.
Consequently, the quantity to be produced should be considered, and the product
design should be adjusted to the process that actually is to be used before the design is
finalized. As an example, consider the part shown in Figure 2-8. Assume that, function-
ally, a brass alloy, a heat-treated aluminum alloy, or stainless steel would be suitable
materials. What material and process would be most economical if 10, 100, or 1000 parts
were to be made?
If only 10 parts were to be made, lathe turning, milling the flat, milling the slot, and
drilling and tapping the holes would be very economical. The part could be machined
out of bar stock. Casting would require the making of a pattern, which would be about
as costly to produce as the part itself. It is likely that a suitable piece of stainless steel,
brass, or heat-treated aluminum alloy would be available in the correct diameter and
finish so that the largest diameter would not need any additional machining. Brass may
C02 07/06/2011 16:29:31 Page 40

40 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Part drawing for a family of drive pinions, A, C, C.D.

A 1.375 B
Part no. 8060 1.100
(44.07)
Part name Drive pinion Slot 0.030 (0.77) 4.75
Quantity 1000 (120.7)
Lot size 200
Material 430F stainless
cold finished 16 µin. (400 nm) finish
Diameter 1.780 ± .003
Length 12 ft 1.750 0.50
(44.45) (12.7)
A 18.750 (A) B
14.750 (B)
10.750 (C)
0.50 8.750 (D)
0.375
(9.5)

Tap 38 –16, 1
2 (13) deep
Four places
3D view of part

1.250 diameter

View A-A View B-B

Material: 430F stainless steel
cold-finished, annealed

8060
Part no. _____________ 1000
Ordering quantity _____________ 430F Stainless
Material __________________
Drive Pinion
Part name ___________ 200
Lot requirement ______________ steel, 1.780 ± 0.003 in.
_________________________
cold - finished 12-ft
_________________________
bars = 1000 pieces
_________________________
$ 22.47
Unit material cost ___________

Workstation Operation Description of operations Setup Cycle Unit Labor Labor + Cost for labor
no. (list tools and gages) hour hour/ estimate rate overhead + overhead
100 units rate rate

Engine lathe 10 Face A-A end 0.05 3.2 10.067 0.117 18.35 1.70 3.65
# 137 center drill. A-A and
rough turn has
cast off to length 18.750

Engine lathe 11 Center drill B-B end 3.2 8.067 0.095 18.35 1.70 2.96
# 227 finish turn 1.100
turn 1.735 dirn

Vertical drill 20 End mill 0.50 stat 1.8 7.850 0.088 19.65 1.85 3.20
# 357 with 1/2 HSS and
mill (collet future)

Horizontal drill 30 Slab mill 4.75 x 3/8 1.3 1.500 0.022 19.65 1.80 0.78
# 469 (resting vise HSS tool)

NC rarret 40 Drill 3/8 hcles-4x 0.66 5.245 0.056 17.40 2.15 2.10
drill press tap 3/8-16
# 474 (collet fixture)

Cylindrical 50 Grind shaft to 1.0 10.067 0.110 19.65 1.80 3.89

Grinder 16gm – 1.10
# 67
$ 16.58 + 22.47 =
39.051
Estimated mig
cost per unit

FIGURE 2-8 (Top) Part drawing with 3D view of part. (Bottom) Process planning sheet based on manufacturing the
pinion in a job shop.
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SECTION 2.4 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 41

be slightly more expensive than the other materials in low volumes. However, brass
material with sawing, turning, milling, and drilling most likely would be the best combi-
nation. For 10 parts, the excess cost of brass over stainless steel would not be great, and
this combination would require no special consideration on the part of the designer.
For a quantity of 100 parts, an effort to minimize machining costs may be worth-
while. Forging discussed in Chapter 16 might be the most economical process, followed
by machining. Stainless steel would be cheaper than any of the other permissible mate-
rials. Although the design requirements for forging this simple shape would be minimal,
the designer would want to consider them, particularly as to whether the part should be
forged, as this will reduce machining time. (Can stainless steel be forged?)
For 1000 parts, entirely different solutions become feasible. The use of an alumi-
num extrusion, with the individual units being sawed off, might be the most economical
solution, assuming that the lead time required obtaining a special extrusion die was not
a detriment. Aluminum can be cut at much higher speeds than stainless steel. What
material would you recommend for the part now? How many feet of extrusion would
be required, including sawing allowance? How much should be spent on the die so that
the per-piece cost would not be great and probably would be more than offset by the
savings in machining costs? If extrusion is used, the designer should make sure that any
tolerances specified are well within commercial extrusion tolerances.
So what did the manufacturing engineer (MfE) decide to do for this part?
Figure 2-8 shows the process plan developed for this part using stainless steel bars that
were purchased in 12-ft lengths with diameters of 1.70  0.003 in. Follow the processing
steps (operations 10–50) to understand how the pinion was made. Notice that the pro-
cess plan is used to obtain a cost estimate for this part. The total cost estimate takes into
account all of the one-time or fixed costs associated with the component plus the labor
and material costs (variable costs) required to make the component. Estimating the cost
of making a product prior to ever making the first one is usually the job of the industrial
engineer (IE) or MfE, and there are many good reference texts available for this work.
This simple example clearly illustrates how quantity can interact with material
and process selection and how the selection of the process may require special consider-
ations and design revisions on the part of the designer. Obviously, if the dimensional
tolerances were changed, entirely different solutions might result. When more complex
products are involved, these relations become more complicated, but they also are usu-
ally more important and require detailed consideration by the designer.
The production job shop becomes extremely difficult to manage as it grows,
resulting in long product throughput times and very large in-process inventory levels.
In the job shop, parts typically spend 95% of the time waiting (delay) or being trans-
ported and only 5% of the time on the machine. Thus, the time spent actually adding
value may only be 2 or 3% of the total time available. The job shop typically builds large
volumes of products but still builds lots or batches, usually medium-sized lots of 50 to
200 units. The lots may be produced only once, or they may be produced at regular
intervals. The purpose of batch production is often to satisfy continuous customer
demand for an item. This system usually operates in the following manner: Because the
production rate can exceed the customer demand rate, the shop builds an inventory of
the item, then changes over the machines to produce other products to fill other
orders. This involves tearing down the setups on many machines and resetting them for
new products. When the stock of the first item becomes depleted, production is
repeated to build the inventory again. See Chapter 44 on the Web for a discussion on
inventory control.
Some machine tools are designed for higher production rates. For example,
automatic lathes capable of holding many cutting tools can have shorter processing
times than engine lathes. The machine tools are often equipped with specially designed
workholding devices, jigs, and fixtures, which increase process output rate, precision,
accuracy, and repeatability.
Industrial equipment, furniture, textbooks, and components for many assembled
consumer products (household appliances, lawn mowers, and so on) are made in pro-
duction job shops. Such systems are called machine shops, foundries, plastic-molding
C02 07/06/2011 16:29:31 Page 42

42 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

factories, and pressworking shops. Because the job shop has for years been the domi-
nant factory design, most service companies are also job shops, organized functionally.
Does your school have separate engineering or technology departments? Are you
routed to different departments for processing? This is how the job shop works.

FLOW SHOP
The flow shop has a product-oriented layout composed mainly of flow lines. When the
volume gets very large, especially in an assembly line, this is called mass production,
shown schematically in Figure 2-9. This kind of system can have (very) high production
rates. Specialized equipment, dedicated to the manufacture of a particular product, is
used. The entire plant may be designed exclusively to produce the particular product or
family of products, using special-purpose rather than general-purpose equipment. The
investment in specialized machines and specialized tooling is high. Many production
skills are transferred from the operator to the machines so that the manual labor skill
level in a flow shop tends to be lower than in a production job shop. Items are made to
‘‘flow’’ through a sequence of operations by material-handling devices (conveyors,
moving belts, and transfer devices).The items move through the operations one at a
time. The time the item spends at each station or location is fixed or equal (balanced).
Figure 2-10 shows a layout of an assembly line or flow line requiring line balancing.
Figure 2-11 shows an example of an automated transfer machine for the assembly
of engine blocks at the rate of 100 per hour. All the machines are specially designed and
built to perform specific tasks and are not capable of making any other products. Conse-
quently, to be economical, such machines must be operated for considerable periods of
time to spread the cost of the initial investment over many units. These machines and
systems, although highly efficient, can be utilized only to make products in very large
volume, hence the term mass production. Changes in product design are often avoided
or delayed because it would be too costly to change the process or scrap the machines.
However, as we have already noted, products manufactured to meet the demands
of free-economy, mass-consumption markets need to incorporate changes in design for
improved product performance as well as style changes. Therefore, hard automation
systems need to be as flexible as possible while retaining the ability to mass-produce.
The incorporation of programmable logic controllers (PLCs) and feedback con-
trol devices have made these machines more flexible. Modern PLCs have the functional
sophistication to perform virtually any control task. These devices are rugged, reliable,
easy to program, and economically competitive with alternative control devices. PLCs
have replaced conventional hard-wired relay panels in many applications because they
are easy to reprogram. Relay panels have the advantage of being well understood by
maintenance people and are invulnerable to electronic noise, but construction time is
long and tedious. PLCs allow for mathematical algorithms to be included in the closed-
loop control system and are being widely used for single-axis, point-to-point control as
typically required in straight-line machining, robot handling, and robot-assembly appli-
cations. They do not at this time challenge the computer numerical controls used on
multi-axis contouring machines. However, PLCs are used for monitoring temperature,
pressure, and voltage on such machines. PLCs are used on transfer lines to handle com-
plex material movement problems, gaging, automatic tool setting, online tool wear
compensation, and automatic inspection, giving these systems flexibility that they never
had before.
The transfer line has been combined with CNC machines to form flexible manu-
facturing systems (FMSs).These systems are discussed in Chapters 39 and 40.
In the flow-line manufacturing system, the processing and assembly facilities are
arranged in accordance with the product’s sequence of operations; see Figure 2-11. Work-
stations or machines are arranged in line with only one workstation of a type, except
where duplicates are needed for balancing the time products take at each station. The
line is organized by the processing sequence needed to make a single product or a regular
mix of products. A hybrid form of the flow line produces batches of products moving
through clusters of workstations or processes organized by product flow. In most cases,
the setup times to change from one product to another are long and often complicated.
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SECTION 2.4 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 43

Welding, body fitting

Press working

Final Cer Bodies

assembly Steel fragments
line Bale

Cupola furnace Baling machine

Painting

Machining
Foundry
Mechanical components fitting
Briquette Casting
plant
Chips

Briquette
From forging line Assembly

Line-off
Electronic parts

Moldings

Subassembly Lines
(See Figure 2-10)

Lathe Paint Assembly

Receiving

Storage

Saw Lathe Paint Assembly

Saw Mill Grinder Plating

Receiving Lathes Grinders Heat

department treatment
The job shop is a functionally designed A
factory with line processes grouped in
B
departments. Parts are routed from process
to process in tote boxes. C

Plating
Milling and
Saws machines painting Assembly

FIGURE 2-9 The mass production system produces large volumes at low unit cost, and personifies the economy of scale where
large fixed costs are spread out over many units.
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44 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

FLOW SHOP

STA 4 STA 3 STA 2 STA 1

Raw Material

Moving
assembly
Work is divided
line
equally into the
stations
Rework line for defects
Product

STA 10

Subassembly feeder lines

Finished Product

FIGURE 2-10 Schematic of a flow shop manufacturing system, which requires line balancing.

Various approaches and techniques have been used to develop machine tools that
would be highly effective in large-scale manufacturing. Their effectiveness was closely
related to the degree to which the design of the products was standardized and the time
over which no changes in the design were permitted. If a part or product is highly stan-
dardized and will be manufactured in large quantities, a machine that will produce the
parts with a minimum of skilled labor can be developed. A completely tooled automatic
screw machine is a good example for small parts.
Most factories are mixtures of the job shop with flow lines. Obviously, the demand
for products can precipitate a shift from batch to high-volume production, and much of
the production from these plants is consumed by that steady demand. Subassembly
lines and final assembly lines are further extensions of the flow line, but the latter are
usually much more labor intensive.

PROJECT SHOP
In the typical project shop, or project manufacturing system, a product must remain in a
fixed position or location during manufacturing because of its size and/or weight. The
materials, machines, and people used in fabrication are brought to the site. Prior to the
development of the flow shop, cars were assembled in this way. Today, large products
like locomotives, large machine tools, large aircraft, and large ships use fixed-position
layout. Obviously, fixed-position fabrication is also used in construction jobs (buildings,
bridges, and dams); see Figure 2-12. As with the fixed-position layout, the product
is large, and the construction equipment and workers must be moved to it. When
the job is completed, the equipment is removed from the construction site. The
project shop invariably has job shop/flow shop elements manufacturing all the
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Page 45

Piston Major preassembly parts

sub-assy

Connecting rod bearing

Main bearing

Crankshaft

Thrust bearing

Crank cap

Drive plate
Water pump
Oil pump

Rear retainer
Oil strainer

Major intermediate assembly parts Oil pan 1

Baffle plate

Oil pan 2

FIGURE 2-11 Transfer line for assembly of an engine is an example of a very automated flow line. (From Toyota Technical Review, Vol. 44, no. 1, 1994)

45
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46 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Plans
Materials
Supplies
Labor
Equipment

FIGURE 2-12 The project shop

involves large stationary
assemblies (projects), where
components are usually
fabricated elsewhere and
transported to the site.

subassemblies and components for the large complex project and thus has a functional-
ized production system.
The project shop often produces one-of-a-kind products with very low production
rates—from one per day to one per year. The work is scheduled using project manage-
ment techniques like the critical path method (CPM) or program evaluation and review
technique (PERT). These methods use precedence diagrams that show the sequence of
manufacturing and assembly events or steps and the relationship (precedence) between
the steps. There is always a path through the diagram that consumes the most time,
called the critical path. If any of the tasks on the longest path are delayed, it is likely
the whole project will be delayed. The process engineer must know the relationships
(the order) of the processes and be able to estimate the times needed to perform each
task. All this (and more) is the responsibility of project management. Project shop man-
ufacturing is labor intensive, with projects typically costing in the millions of dollars.

CONTINUOUS PROCESS
In the continuous process, the project physically flows. Oil refineries, chemical process-
ing plants, and food-processing operations are examples. This system is sometimes
called flow production, when the manufacture of either complex single parts (such as a
canning operation or bottling operation) or assembled products (such as television sets)
is described. However, these are not continuous processes but rather high-volume flow
lines. In continuous processes, the products really do flow because they are liquids,
gases, or powders. Continuous processes are the most efficient but least flexible kinds
of manufacturing systems. They usually have the leanest, simplest production systems
because these manufacturing systems designs are the easiest to control, having the least
work-in-process (WIP). However, these manufacturing systems usually involve com-
plex chemical reactions, and thus a special kind of manufacturing engineer (MfE),
called the chemical engineer (ChE), is usually assigned the task of designing, building,
and running the manufacturing system.

LEAN MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

The lean shop, or the lean manufacturing system, employs U-shaped cells or parallel
rows to manufacture components. The entire mass production factory is reconfigured.
The final assembly lines are converted to mixed-model, final assembly so that the
demand for subassemblies and components is leveled, making the daily demand for
components the same every day. Subassembly lines are also reconfigured into volume-
flexible, single-piece flow cells; see Figure 2-13.
The restructuring of the job shop is difficult; the concept is shown in Figure 2-14.
In the cells, the machine tools are upgraded to be single-cycle automatics so parts can be
loaded into the machine and the machining cycle started. The operator moves off to the
next machine in the sequence, carrying the part from the previous process with him, so
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SECTION 2.4 Classification of Manufacturing Systems 47

Lean Production
Mass Production
Final assembly
Final assembly

Final Assembly
Large batches

Mixed Model

Station #38
g
erin
Flow Shop

ink
Rack &

K-l
Ste
Subassembly Pinion
Inventory Out SubA
Out In
Subassembly

Steering K-Link
Gear In Mfg Call with
Key
transfer line
Line

SubA M Milling Machine In Out

D Driving Machine
S Saw
G Grinder

K-link
Parts storage I Inspection S I
Subassembly cells TL Transfer Line services the
manned cell Worker 1
Components
Job shop Rack L G
cell
Decouptor
Mill Drill M2 M1

Four Station Transfer Line TL D

Lathe Grind
Components in Mfg Cells M3 M4 Worker 2
“U” Shaped, one piece flow
Raw materials M M

FIGURE 2-13 The manufacturing system design on the left, called ‘‘mass production,’’ produces large volumes at low unit
cost. It can be restructured into a lean manufacturing system design to achieve single-piece flow, on the requirements of a L-
CMS design. On the right is a manufacturing cell with a small transfer serving one station in the cell.

the lean shop employs standing, walking multiprocess workers. System design require-
ments are used to design the cells. In a linked-cell system, the key proprietary aspects
are the U-shaped manufacturing and assembly cells. In the cells, the axiomatic design
concept of decoupling is employed to separate (decouple) the processing times for indi-
vidual machines from the cycle time for the cell, enabling the lead time for a batch of
parts to be independent of the processing times for individual machines. This effect of
this is to take all the variation out of the supply chain lead times, so scheduling of the
supply system becomes so simple that the supply chain can be operated by a pull system
of production control (kanban). Using kanban, the inventory levels can be dropped,
which decreases in turn, the throughput time for the manufacturing system.
Workers in the cells are also multifunctional; each worker can operate more than
one kind of process and also perform inspection and machine maintenance duties
according to a standard work pattern. Cells eliminate the job shop concept of one per-
son–one machine and thereby greatly increase worker productivity and utilization. The
restriction of the cell to a family of parts makes reduction of setup in the cell possible.
The general approach to setup reduction is discussed in Chapter 27 as part of the cell
design strategy.
In some cells decouplers are placed between the processes, operations, or
machines to connect the movement of parts between operators. A decoupler physically
holds one unit, decouples the variability in processing time between the machines, and
enables the separation of the worker from the machine. Decouplers can provide flexi-
bility, part transportation, inspection for defect prevention (poka-yoke) and quality
control, and process delay for the manufacturing cell.
Here is how an inspection decoupler might work. The part is removed from a pro-
cess and placed in a decoupler. The decoupler inspects the part for a critical dimension
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48 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

L L L

Lathe dept M L L
L L IN

Milling
M dept M
D D G
OUT
Mfg cell 1

M M M

L M M

Drill
D D dept D

D D G

D D D Mfg cell 2

D M L
G Grinding G
dept

G D G

Mfg cell 3

Finished good storage

or inventory

Functional layout of Cellular layout of the

the job shop L-CMS

FIGURE 2-14 The job shop portion of the plant requires a systems level conversion to reconfigure it into
manufacturing cells, operated by standing and walking workers.

and turns on a light if a bad (oversized) part is detected. A process delay decoupler
delays the part movement to allow the part to cool down, heat up, cure, or whatever is
necessary, for a period of time greater than the cycle time for the cell. Decouplers are
vital parts of manned and unmanned cells and will be discussed further in Chapter 29.
The system design ensures that the right mix and quantity of parts are made
according to an averaged customer demand. This system is robust in that it ensures that
the right quantity and mix are made, even though there is variation or disturbance in the
manufacturing process or other operations in the manufacturing system. If process vari-
ation or disturbances to the system occur from outside the manufacturing system’s
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SECTION 2.5 Summary of Factory Designs 49

Supplier in Mfg Final Pulls External

Tenn. U cell Assembly customer

Production
Sub- leveling boxes
Supplier in (Hyjunka box)
assembly
FIGURE 2-15 The linked-cell Alabhama U
cell Plant in
manufacturing pulls the goods Indiana
Customer
from the suppliers through the demand
assembly to the external information
customer. Plant’s manufacturing system boundry

boundary (i.e., incoming parts are defective), the system design is robust enough to han-
dle these disturbances due to its feedback control design.
A typical linked-cell system is shown in Figure 2-15 with the customer demand
information illustrated by dashed lines.
A specific level of inventory is established after each producing cell and is held in
the kanban links. This set-point level is sometimes called the standard work-in-process
(SWIP) inventory. The SWIP defines the minimum inventory necessary for the system
to produce the right quantity and mix to the external customer and to be able to com-
pensate for disturbances and variation to the system.

& 2.5 SUMMARY OF FACTORY DESIGNS

Let us summarize the characteristics of the lean shop versus the other basic factory
designs; see Table 2-2. The cell makes parts one at a time in a flexible design. Cell
capacity (the cycle time) can be altered quickly to respond to changes in customer
demand by increasing or decreasing operators. The cycle time does not depend on the
machining times.
Families of parts with similar designs, flexible workholding devices, and tool chan-
gers in programmable machines allow rapid changeover from one component to another.
Rapid change are over means that quick or one-touch setup is employed, often like flip-
ping a light switch. This leads to small lot production. Significant inventory reductions
between the cells are possible and the inventory level can be directly controlled by
the user. Quality is controlled within the cell, and the equipment within the cell is

TABLE 2-2 Characteristics of Basic Manufacturing Systems

Characteristics Job Shop Flow Shop Project Shop Continuous Process Lean Shop

Types of machines Flexible Single purpose General purpose Specialized, high Simple, customized
General purpose Single function Mobile, manual technology Single-cycle
Automation automatic
Design of processes Functional or process Product flow Project or Product Linked U-shaped
Process layout fixed-position layout cells
Setup time Long, variable Long and Variable, every Skill level Multifunctional,
frequent complex job different varies multipurpose
Workers Single function, One function, Specialized, highly Skill level varies Multifunctional,
highly skilled: one lower-skilled: one skilled multiprocess
worker–one machine worker–one machine
Inventories Large inventory to Large to provide Variable, Very small Small
(WIP) provide for large buffer storage usually large
variety
Lot sizes Small to medium Large lot Small lot Very large Small
Manufacturing Long, variable Short, constant Long, variable Very fast, Short,
lead time time lead constant constant
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50 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

maintained routinely by the workers. The utilization of individual machines is not opti-
mized, but the cell as a whole operates to exactly meet the pace of the customer’s
demand.
These characteristics of the lean shop are different from that of the other manu-
facturing systems because it has a different design. In the next section, we will review a
bit of the history of factory designs.

THE EVOLUTION OF THE FIRST FACTORY

There was a time when there were no factories. From 1700 to 1850, most manufacturing
was performed by skilled craftsmen in home-based workshops, what historians call
cottage industry. These artisans were gunsmiths, blacksmiths, toolmakers, silver-
smiths, and so on. The machines they had for forming and cutting materials were
manually powered.
Amber & Amber (1962) in their yardstick for automation pointed out that the first
step in mechanizing and automating the factory was to power the machines. The need to
power the machine tools efficiently created the need to gather the machine tools into
one location where the power source was concentrated. By this time, the steel and cast
iron to build machine tools were becoming economically available. Railroads were built
to transport goods. These were the technologies that influenced the factory design and
are now called enabling technologies; see Table 2-3. A functional design evolved
because of the method needed to drive or power the machines.
The first factories were built next to rivers, and the machines were powered by
flowing water driving waterwheels, which drove overhead shafts that ran into the fac-
tory. See Figure 2-16. Machines of like type were set, all in a line, underneath the appro-
priate power shaft (i.e., the shaft that turned at the speed needed to drive this type of
machine). Huge leather belts were used to take power off the shaft to the machines.
Thus, a factory design of collected like processes evolved, and it came to be known as
the job shop. So, all the lathes were collected under their own power shaft, likewise all
the milling machines and all the drill presses. Later, the waterwheel was replaced by a
steam engine, which allowed the factory to be built somewhere other than next to a
river. Eventually, large electric motors were used, and later individual electric motors
for each machine replaced the large steam and electric engines. Nevertheless, the job
shop design was replicated, and the functional design held. Many early factories were in
the northeastern part of the United States and were manufacturing guns. Filing jigs
were used by laborers to create interchangeable parts. In time, this design became

TABLE 2-3 The Evolution of Manufacturing System Designsa

First Factory Second Factory Third Factory Fourth Factory
Revolution Revolution Revolution Revolution

Time period 1840–1910 1910–1970 1960–2010 2000–???

Manufacturing Job shop Flow shop Lean shop Global Information
system design Technology
Layout Functional layout Product layout Linked-cells to Mixed Integrated supply chain
Model Final Assembly line
Enabling technologies Power for machines, steel Moving final assembly line, U-shaped cells, kanban, Virtual reality/simulation,
production, and railroad standardization leading to and rapid die exchange 3D design using low-cost,
for transportation true interchangeability, and very high performance
and automatic material computers, digital
handling technologyc
Historical company Whitney, Colt, Singer, Ford Toyota Motor Companyb, Boeing, Lockheed,
name and Remington Hewlett-Packard, Omark, Electric Boat, and
Harley Davidson, Honda Mercedes
Economics Economy of collected Economy of scale, high Economy of scope, wide Economy of global
technology volume > low unit cost variety at low unit cost manufacturing
a
MSD (manufacturing system design), including machine tools, material handling equipment, tooling and people
b
System developed by Taiichi Ohno, who called it the Toyota Production System (TPS)
c
Single-source digital product definition and 3D design, a manufacturing system simulated using virtual reality
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SECTION 2.5 Summary of Factory Designs 51

Water sluice

Early factory

Milling machines

Shafts
Grinders
Waterwheel

River
Main
power
shaft Lathes

Overhead shafts in plants

Gears in gear house

Return

FIGURE 2-16 Early factories

used water power to drive the
machines.

known as the American Armory System. People from all over the world came to Amer-
ica to observe the American Armory System, and this functionally designed system was
duplicated around the factory world as a key driver in the first factory revolution.

FACTORY REVOLUTIONS EVOLVE

Revolutions do not happen overnight but require many simultaneous events. An evolu-
tion in thought, philosophy, and the mindset of people in the factory, as well as the
redesign of the factory, are needed to revolutionize the factory setup. Even though
manufacturing is the leading wealth producer in the world, historians have often neglec-
ted the technical aspects of history.
The model used here is based on Thomas Kuhn’s book, The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions. He said there are three phases in any revolution: the crisis stage, the revo-
lution stage, and the normal science stage, as shown in Figure 2-17. Some people have
portrayed this last stage as the diffusion of science. The first factory revolution can be
considered a crisis due to the problems associated with craft production such as produc-
ing products in which filing was used to fit products together. This crisis was highlighted
in the United States by a congressional mandate to have interchangeable parts for mus-
kets in the field in the late 18th century.
Eli Whitney received a contract from Congress to produce 4000 muskets in 11/2
years with interchangeable parts. In wartime there was a need for part interchangeabil-
ity so that particular musket parts could be replaced in the field, instead of replacing the
entire musket. The goal was to reduce replacement time and cost. At that time, muskets
consisted of parts that were all craft-made, filed-to-fit products.
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52 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Evolution of the First Factory Revolution

37 Years of Revolutions Don't Happen Overnight
EVOLUTION
1785 Thomas Jefferson proposes that Congress mandate
Crisis interchangeable parts for all musket contracts.
24 yrs. 1792 Eli Whitney invents cotton gin.
1798 Eli Whitney contract for 4000 muskets in 1.5 years.
1801 Eli Whitney demonstrates interchangeability to Congress.
1809 Eli Whitney delivers, 8.5 years late, non-interchangeable
parts.
1811 John Hall patents breech-loading rifle.
1812 Roswell Lee becomes superintendent of Springfield Armory.
Revolution 1815 Congress orders Ordnance Dept. to require interchangeable
13 yrs. parts.
1818 Blanchard invents trip hammer for making gun barrels.
1819 Blanchard invents lathe for making gunstocks.
1819 Lee introduces inspection gages; Springfield Armory.
1822 John Hall announces success at Harpers Ferry using system
of gages to measure parts. Government report praises
effort.
1825 Eli Whitney dies.
Normal
1834 Simeon North at Middletown, CT, adopts Hall's gages,
science
delivers rifles (parts) interchangeable with Harpers Ferry
years
production.
1839 Samuel Colt and Eli Whitney Jr. revolver contract.
FIGURE 2-17 Evolution of the 1845 The Armory Practice spreads to private contractors.
first factory revolution. 1860 Pocket micrometer invented.
(David Cochran)

Part interchangeability was a manufacturing challenge for the armory system

from the beginning, and the ultimate success in achieving part interchangeability was
the result of John Hall’s work in 1822. His innovation was the ability to measure the
product. Instead of attempting to produce parts to a master part, as was the practice at
the time, a system of gages was introduced to measure the part. As a result, the engi-
neers and designers had to be able to draw the parts with specifications in terms of their
geometric dimensions and tolerances. The entire need for drawings, tolerances, and
specifications was the result of part measurement to achieve part interchangeability.
Many people viewed part interchangeability as adding additional manufacturing
cost and concluded that it was unnecessary. However, standard measurements and part
interchangeability were key enabling technologies for the development of the moving
assembly line during the second factory revolution.
After this evolution occurred, the practice of using gages to achieve part inter-
changeability was then moved to Middletown, Connecticut, from Harper’s Ferry, which
had adopted Hall’s system of gages. A gun could then be assembled from parts made
from the Harper’s Ferry and Middletown locations. By 1845, this armory practice
spread to private contractors. Soon, the ability to do gaging became ubiquitous through-
out the country. In 1860, the pocket micrometer was invented, and the science of mea-
surement spread throughout the world.
As a system design, the job shop still exists. Modern-day versions of the job shop
produce large volumes of goods in batches or lots of 50 to 200 pieces. Processes are still
grouped functionally but the walls are removed. Between the machines, filling the
aisles, are tote boxes filled with components in various stages of completion. While it
may be difficult to actually count the inventory, these designs have thousands of parts
on the floor at any one time. However, the production system for the early job shop was
minimal and most decisions about how to make the products were made by the opera-
tors on the shop floor.

EVOLUTION OF THE SECOND MSD—THE FLOW SHOP

The second factory revolution led to the development of mass production, shown in
Figure 2-18. Henry Ford defined the concept of economies of scale with mass production.
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SECTION 2.5 Summary of Factory Designs 53

Evolution of the Second Factory Revolution
50 Years of Revolutions Don't Happen Overnight
REVOLUTION
1878 Wisconsin sponsors 200-mile race, offering $10,000 for “a cheap and
practical substitute for the use of horses and other animals on the
highway and farm.”
1893 First production gasoline car by Charles & Frank Duryea, only 13 made in
three years. “It ran no faster than a man could walk but it did run.”
Crisis 1898 Haynes-Apperson Auto Co. produces one car every 3 weeks for $1500.
35 yrs. 1898 Winton Motor Carriage Co. 22 single cylinders; 100 in 1899 for $1000.
1901 Single-cylinder curved dash Olds – weight 700 pounds, cost $650.
2500 made in 1902; 4000 in 1903; 5508 in 1904; 6500 in 1905.
1903 Ford Model A, twin horizontally opposed engine, $750 ea., 1708 in 1904.
1905 25 made/day, Ford Mfg. Co. formed to produce engines/transmissions.
1906 Model N outsells Oldsmobile with 8,729, a 4 cylinder at $500.
1907 Models N, R ($750) and S ($700) sold 14,887 and 10,202 in 1908.
1908 Model T introduced, single cast 4 cylinder, 5 body styles: $825–$1000.
1909 100 produced per day. 17,771 Model T‘s sold.
1913 Moving assembly line at Highland Park. 308K in 1914, 501K in 1915 at $440.
Revolution 1922 Over 1 Million model T‘s sold yearly to 1926.
15 yrs. 1923 1.82 million produced at average of $300 with more options standard.
Normal science 1928 Chevrolet out-sells Ford and produces 1.2 million vehicles.
years 1945 Beginning of the Third Industrial Revolution

FIGURE 2-18 Evolution of the second factory revolution. (David Cochran)

His primary ‘‘mass production’’ tools were the extreme division of labor, the moving as-
sembly line, the shortage chaser to control minimum and maximum stock levels, and the
overarching reliance of assembly cycle time predictability with interchangeable parts.
Ford is credited with many product design innovations, as well as manufacturing
innovations. He developed the process for engine blocks. One reason for the Model T’s
success was a single cast engine block instead of four cylinders bolted together. The use of
this manufacturing process innovation decreased the car’s weight and increased power.
However, the enabling technology for mass production was interchangeable parts
based on exact standards of measurement. Ford insisted that every product meet specifi-
cations. He was a stickler about keeping all gages calibrated in the factory. In other
words, the second factory revolution was founded on the first factory revolution concept
of part interchangeability. Flow-line manufacturing began in the 1900s for small items
and evolved to the moving assembly line at the Ford Motor Company around 1913. This
methodology was developed by Ford production engineers led by Charles Sorenson.
Today’s moving assembly line for automobile production has hundreds of stations where
the car is assembled. This requires the work at each station to be balanced where tasks
at each station take about the same amount of time. This is called line balancing. The
moving assembly line makes cars one at a time, in what is now called single piece flow.
Just as in the 1800s, people throughout the world came to observe how this system
worked, and the new design methodology was again spread around the world. For many
companies, a hybrid system evolved, which included a mixture of job shop and flow shop,
with the components made in the job shop feeding the assembly line. This design per-
mitted companies to manufacture large volumes of identical products at low unit cost.
Mass production relied on the first factory revolution for part interchangeability,
while producing products in a fixed cycle time with moving assembly lines. To produce
at a fixed cycle time, division of labor was used, and unskilled workers replaced the
craftsmen in the factory (see Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations). With the division of
labor, instead of assembling an entire transmission, the workers performed the same
small set of tasks on each transmission. As a result, labor turnover in the factory
increased dramatically, so Ford introduced the ‘‘five-dollar day,’’ salary for all his work-
ers, an exorbitant amount of money in those days. In fact, the five-dollar day created the
economic system that enabled the emergence of the middle class. The workers were
able to buy the products they produced in high-volume, mass-production factories.
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54 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Between 1928 and 1945, the Ford factory system diffused to other products. Dur-
ing WWII, airplanes were produced at Ford’s Willow Run Factory using fixed cycle
time, moving assembly lines, and interchangeable parts. Planes were moved down
an assembly line at the pace of demand. All kinds of tooling and jigs were designed
and built so that interchangeable parts could be assembled onto the aircraft in a fixed
cycle time.
Next came a very automated form of the flow line for machining or assembling
complex products like engines for cars in large volumes (200,000 to 400,000 per year). It
was called the transfer line. The enabling technology here is repeat cycle automatic
machines. This system also required interchangeable parts based on precise standards
of measurement (gage blocks). The transfer line is designed for large volumes of identi-
cal goods. These systems are very expensive and not very flexible.
The parts that feed the flow line were made in the job shop in large lots, held in
inventory for long periods of time, then brought to the line where a particular product
was being assembled. The line would produce one product over a long run and then
switch to another product, which could be made for days or weeks. This mass-produc-
tion system was in place during WWII and was clearly responsible for producing the
military equipment and weapons that enabled the allies to win the war.
This massive production machine thrived after WWII, which enabled automobile
producers and many other companies to make cars in large volumes using the economy
of scale. Just when it appeared that nothing could stop this machine, a new player, the
Toyota Motor Company, evolved a new manufacturing system that truly changed the
manufacturing world. This system is based on a different system design, which ushered
in the third factory revolution, characterized by global companies producing for world-
wide markets.

THE THIRD MSD—LEAN PRODUCTION

The latest MSD is sometimes called lean production, the Toyota Production System
(TPS), just-in-time (JIT) manufacturing, or many other names. A new manufacturing
system design brings one or more new companies to the forefront of the industrial world
(this time, Toyota). See Figure 2-19 for details of this revolution. Each new design
employs some unique enabling technologies, in this case, manufacturing and assembly

Third Factory Revolution at Toyota in Japan (Ohno, 1988)

21 Years of Revolutions Don't Happen Overnight
REVOLUTION
Crisis 1945 Need to rebuild wide variety of products in low volume after World War II.
3 yrs. Only had six presses, requiring frequent and fast changeover.
1948 Withdrawal by subsequent processes.
1949 Intermediate warehouses abolished.
1950 In-line cells. Horseshoe or U-shaped machine layout replaces job shop.
1950 Machining and assembly lines balanced.
1953 Supermarket system in machine shop.
1955 Assembly and body plants linked.
1955 Main plant assembly line production system adopts visual control,
Revolution
line stop, and mixed load. Automation to autonomation.
18 yrs.
1958 Warehouse withdrawal slips abolished.
1961 Andon installed, Motomachi assembly plant.
1962 15-minute main plant setups.
1962 Kanban adopted company-wide.
1962 Full work control of machines pokayoke.
1965 Kanban adopted for ordering outside parts for 100% of supply system;
began teaching system to affiliates.
1966 First autonomated line Kamigo plant.
1971 Main office and Motomachi setups reach 3 minutes.
Diffusion 1971 Body indication system at Motomachi Crown line.
& normal 1981 Publication of Toyota Production System in English and infusion in United States.
science
1990 Publication of the Machine That Changed the World.

FIGURE 2-19 Third factory revolution at Toyota in Japan. (David Cochran)

C02 07/06/2011 16:29:33 Page 55

SECTION 2.5 Summary of Factory Designs 55

TABLE 2-4 Factory Revolutions Are Driven by New Manufacturing System

Designs (MSDs)
Zero 1700–1850 No
Craft/cottage production–hand powered tools MSD
First Factory 1840–1910 Job shop
Revolution First factory revolution (American Armory System) (functional layout)
 Creation of factories with powered machines
 Mechanization/Interchangeable parts
Second Factory 1910-1970 Flow shop
Revolution  Second factory revolution (the Ford system) (product layout)
 Assembly line–flow shop product layout
 Economy of scale yields mass production era
 Automation (automatic material handling)
Third Factory 1960–2010 (estimated) Lean shop
Revolution  Third factory revolution (lean production) (linked-cell layout)
 U-shaped manufacturing and assembly cells
 One-piece flow with mixed-model final assembly
 Flexibility in customer demand and product design
 Integrated control functions (kanban)

cells that produce defect-free goods. The new system has now been adopted by more
than 60% of American manufacturing companies and has been disseminated around
the industrial world.
Black’s Theory of Factory Revolutions as outlined in Table 2-4, proposes that we
are now 40-plus years into the factory revolution. This factory revolution is not based on
computers, hardware, or a particular process, but once again on the design of the manu-
facturing system—the complex arrangement of physical elements characterized by
measurable parameters. Again, people throughout the world went to observe the new
design, but this time they went to Japan to try to understand how this tiny nation
became a giant in the global manufacturing arena.
After World War II, the Japanese were confronted with different requirements of
manufacturing than that of the Americans. The United States had almost an infinite
capacity to produce. There were rows of stamping presses in the factories, a surplus of
resources, pent-up demand, and many people with money, so all the United States had
to do was to produce. In Japan, there were very few presses and very little money. One
of the first concepts of the Toyota Production System was that all parts had to be good,
because there was no excess capacity and no dealers in the United States to fix the
defects. The right mix of cars of perfect quality had to be made with limited resources,
and they had to be exactly right the first time in spite of any variations or disturbances
to the system.
The result was a new manufacturing system design, and just as a new MSD pushed
Colt and Remington to the forefront in the first factory revolution and Ford and Singer
in the second factory revolution, the development of this new manufacturing system
design vaulted Toyota into world leadership. Black defines the new physical system
design as linked-cell (Black, 1991) or L-CMS for linked-cell manufacturing system.
Toyota called it the Toyota Production System (TPS). Schonberger called it the JIT/
TQC system or World Class Manufacturing (WCM) system. In 1990 it was finally given
a name that would become universal: lean production. This term was coined by John
Krafcik, an engineer in the International Motor Vehicle program at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (Womack et al., 1991).
What was different about this system design was the development of manufactur-
ing and assembly cells linked to final assembly by a unique material control system, pro-
ducing a functionally integrated system for inventory and production control. In cells,
processes are grouped according to the sequence of operations needed to make a prod-
uct. This design uses one-piece flow like the flow shop, but is designed for flexibility.
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56 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Single cycle
M M D L L M M automatic
machine

D
L G Cell #2
Floor
space
available
Cell #1
for
A G G manufacturing
L G

FI G VM VM
L
A
Leftover
D
Cell #3 HM process

L
G
SAW L L

A
Receiving and shipping Added to cell

FIGURE 2-20 The functionally designed job shop can be restructured into manufacturing cells to process families of
components at production rates that match part consumption.

The cell is designed in a U-shape or in parallel rows so that the workers can readily
rebalance the line and change the output rate while moving from machine to machine
loading and unloading parts. Figure 2-20 shows how the job shop in Figure 2-4 can be
rearranged into manned cells. Cell 3 has one worker who can make a walking loop
around the cell in 60 seconds. The machines in the cell have been upgraded to single-
cycle automatic capability so they can complete the desired processing untended, turn-
ing themselves off when done with a machining cycle. The operator comes to a machine,
unloads a part, checks the part, loads a new part into the machine, and starts the
machining cycle again. The cell usually includes all the processing needed for a com-
plete part or subassembly and may even include assembly steps.
To form a linked-cell manufacturing system, the first step is to restructure portions
of the job shop, converting it in stages into manned cells. At the same time, the linear
flow lines in subassembly are also reconfigured into U-shaped cells, which operate
much like the manufacturing cells. The long setup times typical in flow lines must be
vigorously attacked and reduced so that the flow lines can be changed quickly from
making one product to another. The need to perform line-balancing tasks is eliminated
through design. The standing, walking workers are capable of performing multiples of
operations. More details are given in Chapter 29.

SUMMARY ON MANUFACTURING CELLS

Product designers can easily see how parts are made in the manufacturing cells because
all the operations and processes are together. Because quality-control techniques are
also integrated into the cells, the designer knows exactly the cell’s process capability.
The designer can easily configure the future designs to be made in the cell. This is truly
designing for manufacturing. CNC machining centers can do the same sequence of
steps but are not as flexible as a cell composed of multiple, simple machines. Cellular
layouts facilitate the integration of critical production functions while maintaining
flexibility in producing superior-quality families of components. The cells facilitate
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Problems 57
single-piece-flow (SPF) and volume flexibility. SPF is the movement of one part at a
time between machines by the multiprocess operators. In the main, each machine exe-
cutes a step in the sequence of processes or operations. The outcome of that step is
checked before the part is advanced to the next step. Volume flexibility is achieved by
the separation of man’s activities from the operations that machines do better. Output
per hour can be changed by the rapid reallocation of operations to workers.

& KEY WORDS

American Armory System Ford Production System mass production project shop
assembly line just-in-time (JIT) operations sheet route sheet
bill of materials (BOM) manufacturing part interchangeability single-piece-flow
continuous process lean production process planning (SPF)
critical path method (CPM) lean shop production system standard work-in-process
decouplers line balancing program evaluation and (SWIP)
flexible manufacturing linked-cell system review technique Toyota Production System
system (FMS) manufacturing system (PERT) (TPS)
flow shop manufacturing system programmable logic transfer line
job shop design (MSD) controller (PLC) volume flexibility

& REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are the major functional elements or departmental 9. Explain the difference between a route sheet and an opera-
areas of the production system? (See Chapter 44 on the Web tions sheet (or a process planning sheet).
for help.) 10. What does the study of ergonomics entail? (This was not dis-
2. What is a route sheet? Who uses it? cussed in Chapter 2.)
3. What is the function of a route sheet? 11. In project shop manufacturing, what is the critical path? (Not
4. Find an example of a route sheet other than the one in the discussed in Chapter 2.)
book. 12. How do the job shop, flow shop, and lean shop manufactur-
5. What are other names for a route sheet? ing systems perform in terms of quality, cost, delivery, and
6. What is a process flow chart? How is it related to the bill of flexibility?
materials? 13. What are the possibilities of incorporating lean manufactur-
7. What is an operations sheet? How is it related to the route ing concepts into a high-volume transfer line for machining?
sheet? 14. How did the Ford thinking build on the first factory
8. How does the design of the product influence the design of revolution?
the manufacturing system, including assembly and the pro-
duction system?

& PROBLEMS
1. Discuss this statement: ‘‘Software can be as costly to design that they slip into the stirrups easily and high heels to keep
and develop as hardware and will require long production the foot in the stirrup.
runs to recover, even though these costs may be hidden in 5. Most companies, when computing or estimating costs for a
the overhead costs.’’ job, will add in an overhead cost, often tying that cost to
2. Table 2-1 lists some examples of service job shops. Compare some direct cost, such as direct labor, through the academic
your college to a manufacturing/production system, using job shop. How would you calculate the cost per unit of a
the definition of a manufacturing system given in the chapter. product to include overhead?
Who is the internal customer in the academic job shop? 6. What is the impact of minimizing the unit cost of each
What or who are the products in the academic job shop? operation:
3. Outline your critical path through the academic job shop.
a. On machine design?
4. Explain how function dictates design with respect to the
b. On the workers?
design of footwear. Use examples of different kinds of foot-
c. On the factory as a system?
wear (shoes, sandals, high heels, boots, etc.) to emphasize
your points. For example, cowboy boots have pointed toes so
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58 CHAPTER 2 Manufacturing Systems Design

Chapter 2 CASE STUDY

Jury Duty for an Engineer

K atrin S. is suing the PogiBear Snowmobile Company

and an engineer for PippenCat Components for
$750,000 over her friend’s death. He was killed while
enough, thereby giving it insufficient thread engagement.
The engineer for PippenCat testified that these tie-rods
are hand assembled and checked only for overall length
racing his snowmobile through the woods in the upper and that such a misassembly was possible. In his
peninsula of Michigan. Her lawyer, Ken, claims that her summary, Ken, Katrin’s lawyer, stated that the failure was
friend was killed because a tie-rod broke, causing him to due to a combination of material change, manufacturing
lose control and crash into a tree, breaking his neck. error, and bad assembly—all combining to result in a
While it was impossible to determine whether the tie-rod failure of the tie-rod.
broke before the crash or as a result of the crash, the A design engineer for PogiBear testified that the tie-
following evidence has been put forth. rods were ‘‘way overdesigned’’ and would not fail even with
The tie-rod was originally designed and made entirely slightly small threads or misassembly. PogiBear’s lawyer
out of low-carbon steel (heat treated by case hardening) then claimed that the accident was caused by driver failure
in three pieces, as shown in Figure CS-2 These tie-rods and that the tie-rod broke upon impact of the snowmobile
were subcontracted by PogiBear to PippenCat with the tree. One of the men racing with Katrin’s friend
Components. PippenCat Components changed the claimed that her friend’s snowmobile had veered sharply
material of the sleeves from steel to a heat-treated just before he crashed, but under cross examination he
aluminum having the same ultimate tensile strength admitted that they had all been drinking that night because
(UTS), value as the steel. They did this because it was so cold (he guessed –20 to –30 F). Because this
aluminum sleeves were easier to thread than steel accident had taken place more than 5 years ago, he could
sleeves. It was further found that threads on one of the not remember how much they had had to drink.
tie-rod bolts were not as completely formed as they You are a member of the jury and have now been
should have been. The sleeve of the tie-rod in question sequestered to decide if PogiBear and PippenCat are
was split open (fractured) and one of the tie-rod bolts was guilty of negligence resulting in death. The rest of the jury,
bent. Katrin’s lawyer further claimed that the tie-rod was knowing you are an engineer, has asked for your opinion.
not assembled properly. He claimed that one rod was What do you think? Who is really to blame for this
screwed into the sleeve too far and the other not far accident? What actually caused the accident?

Tie-rod bolt Tie-rod bolt

Sleeve