of

by
Richards J. Heuer, Jr.

CENTER for the STUDY of INTELLIGENCE

Central Intelligence Agency
1999
This book was prepared primarily for the use of US Government officials,
and the format, coverage, and content were designed to meet their spe-
cific requirements.

Because this book is now out of print, this Portable Document File (PDF)
is formatted for two-sided printing to facilitate desktop publishing. It
may be used by US Government agencies to make copies for govern-
ment purposes and by non-governmental organizations to make copies
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This book will be available at www.odci.gov/csi.

All statements of fact, opinion, or analysis expressed in the main text

of this book are those of the author. Similarly, all such statements in
the Forward and the Introduction are those of the respective authors
of those sections. Such statements of fact, opinion, or analysis do
not necessarily reflect the official positions or views of the Central
Intelligence Agency or any other component of the US Intelligence
Community. Nothing in the contents of this book should be con-
strued as asserting or implying US Government endorsement of fac-
tual statements or interpretations.

ISBN 1 929667-00-0

Originally published in 1999.

iii
 Psychology of Intelligence Analysis
by Richards J. Heuer, Jr.
Author’s Preface.....................................................vi
Foreword................................................................ix
Introduction........................................................xiii
PART I—OUR MENTAL MACHINERY................1
Chapter 1: Thinking About Thinking............................1
Chapter 2: Perception: Why Can’t We See
What Is There To Be Seen?.............................................7
Chapter 3: Memory: How Do We Remember
What We Know?..........................................................17

PART II—TOOLS FOR THINKING...................31

Chapter 4: Strategies for Analytical Judgment:
Transcending the Limits of Incomplete Information....31
Chapter 5: Do You Really Need More Information?....51
Chapter 6: Keeping an Open Mind.............................65
Chapter 7: Structuring Analytical Problems.................85
Chapter 8: Analysis of Competing Hypotheses............95

PART III—COGNITIVE BIASES......................111

Chapter 9: What Are Cognitive Biases?......................111
Chapter 10: Biases in Evaluation of Evidence.............115


 Chapter 11: Biases in Perception of Cause and Effect 127
Chapter 12: Biases in Estimating Probabilities...........147
Chapter 13: Hindsight Biases in Evaluation of
Intelligence Reporting................................................161

PART IV—CONCLUSIONS..............................173
Chapter 14: Improving Intelligence Analysis..............173

vi
 Author’s Preface
This volume pulls together and republishes, with some editing,
updating, and additions, articles written during 1978–86 for internal
use within the CIA Directorate of Intelligence. Four of the articles also
appeared in the Intelligence Community journal Studies in Intelligence
during that time frame. The information is relatively timeless and still
relevant to the never-ending quest for better analysis.
The articles are based on reviewing cognitive psychology literature
concerning how people process information to make judgments on in-
complete and ambiguous information. I selected the experiments and
findings that seem most relevant to intelligence analysis and most in need
of communication to intelligence analysts. I then translated the techni-
cal reports into language that intelligence analysts can understand and
interpreted the relevance of these findings to the problems intelligence
analysts face.
The result is a compromise that may not be wholly satisfactory to
either research psychologists or intelligence analysts. Cognitive psychol-
ogists and decision analysts may complain of oversimplification, while
the non-psychologist reader may have to absorb some new terminology.
Unfortunately, mental processes are so complex that discussion of them
does require some specialized vocabulary. Intelligence analysts who have
read and thought seriously about the nature of their craft should have
no difficulty with this book. Those who are plowing virgin ground may
require serious effort.
I wish to thank all those who contributed comments and suggestions
on the draft of this book: Jack Davis (who also wrote the Introduction);
four former Directorate of Intelligence (DI) analysts whose names cannot
be cited here; my current colleague, Prof. Theodore Sarbin; and my edi-
tor at the CIA’s Center for the Study of Intelligence, Hank Appelbaum.
All made many substantive and editorial suggestions that helped greatly
to make this a better book.

—Richards J. Heuer, Jr.

vii
 Foreword
By Douglas MacEachin

My first exposure to Dick Heuer’s work was about 18 years ago, and
I have never forgotten the strong impression it made on me then. That
was at about the midpoint in my own career as an intelligence analyst.
After another decade and a half of experience, and the opportunity dur-
ing the last few years to study many historical cases with the benefit of
archival materials from the former USSR and Warsaw Pact regimes, read-
ing Heuer’s latest presentation has had even more resonance.
I know from first-hand encounters that many CIA officers tend to
react skeptically to treatises on analytic epistemology. This is understand-
able. Too often, such treatises end up prescribing models as answers to the
problem. These models seem to have little practical value to intelligence
analysis, which takes place not in a seminar but rather in a fast-breaking
world of policy. But that is not the main problem Heuer is addressing.
What Heuer examines so clearly and effectively is how the human
thought process builds its own models through which we process infor-
mation. This is not a phenomenon unique to intelligence; as Heuer’s
research demonstrates, it is part of the natural functioning of the human
cognitive process, and it has been demonstrated across a broad range of
fields ranging from medicine to stock market analysis.
The process of analysis itself reinforces this natural function of the
human brain. Analysis usually involves creating models, even though
they may not be labeled as such. We set forth certain understandings and
expectations about cause-and-effect relationships and then process and
interpret information through these models or filters.
The discussion in Chapter 5 on the limits to the value of additional
information deserves special attention, in my view—particularly for an

. Douglas MacEachin is a former CIA Deputy Director of Intelligence. After 32 years with the
Agency, he retired in 1997 and became a Senior Fellow at Harvard University’s John F. Kennedy
School of Government.

ix
intelligence organization. What it illustrates is that too often, newly ac-
quired information is evaluated and processed through the existing ana-
lytic model, rather than being used to reassess the premises of the model
itself. The detrimental effects of this natural human tendency stem from
the raison d’etre of an organization created to acquire special, critical in-
formation available only through covert means, and to produce analysis
integrating this special information with the total knowledge base.
I doubt that any veteran intelligence officer will be able to read this
book without recalling cases in which the mental processes described by
Heuer have had an adverse impact on the quality of analysis. How many
times have we encountered situations in which completely plausible
premises, based on solid expertise, have been used to construct a logically
valid forecast—with virtually unanimous agreement—that turned out
to be dead wrong? In how many of these instances have we determined,
with hindsight, that the problem was not in the logic but in the fact
that one of the premises—however plausible it seemed at the time—was
incorrect? In how many of these instances have we been forced to admit
that the erroneous premise was not empirically based but rather a conclu-
sion developed from its own model (sometimes called an assumption)?
And in how many cases was it determined after the fact that information
had been available which should have provided a basis for questioning
one or more premises, and that a change of the relevant premise(s) would
have changed the analytic model and pointed to a different outcome?
The commonly prescribed remedy for shortcomings in intelligence
analysis and estimates—most vociferously after intelligence “failures”—is
a major increase in expertise. Heuer’s research and the studies he cites
pose a serious challenge to that conventional wisdom. The data show that
expertise itself is no protection from the common analytic pitfalls that
are endemic to the human thought process. This point has been demon-
strated in many fields beside intelligence analysis.
A review of notorious intelligence failures demonstrates that the an-
alytic traps caught the experts as much as anybody. Indeed, the data show
that when experts fall victim to these traps, the effects can be aggravated
by the confidence that attaches to expertise—both in their own view and
in the perception of others.
These observations should in no way be construed as a denigration
of the value of expertise. On the contrary, my own 30-plus years in the
business of intelligence analysis biased me in favor of the view that, end-


less warnings of information overload notwithstanding, there is no such
thing as too much information or expertise. And my own observations
of CIA analysts sitting at the same table with publicly renowned experts
have given me great confidence that attacks on the expertise issue are
grossly misplaced. The main difference is that one group gets to promote
its reputations in journals, while the other works in a closed environment
in which the main readers are members of the intelligence world’s most
challenging audience—the policymaking community.
The message that comes through in Heuer’s presentation is that in-
formation and expertise are a necessary but not sufficient means of mak-
ing intelligence analysis the special product that it needs to be. A compa-
rable effort has to be devoted to the science of analysis. This effort has to
start with a clear understanding of the inherent strengths and weaknesses
of the primary analytic mechanism—the human mind—and the way it
processes information.
I believe there is a significant cultural element in how intelligence
analysts define themselves: Are we substantive experts employed by CIA,
or are we professional analysts and intelligence officers whose expertise
lies in our ability to adapt quickly to diverse issues and problems and
analyze them effectively? In the world at large, substantive expertise is far
more abundant than expertise on analytic science and the human mental
processing of information. Dick Heuer makes clear that the pitfalls the hu-
man mental process sets for analysts cannot be eliminated; they are part of
us. What can be done is to train people how to look for and recognize these
mental obstacles, and how to develop procedures designed to offset them.
Given the centrality of analytic science for the intelligence mission,
a key question that Heuer’s book poses is: Compared with other areas of
our business, have we committed a commensurate effort to the study of
analytic science as a professional requirement? How do the effort and re-
source commitments in this area compare to, for example, the effort and
commitment to the development of analysts’ writing skills?
Heuer’s book does not pretend to be the last word on this issue.
Hopefully, it will be a stimulant for much more work.

xi
 Introduction
Improving Intelligence Analysis
at CIA: Dick Heuer’s Contribution
to Intelligence Analysis

by Jack Davis

I applaud CIA’s Center for the Study of Intelligence for making the
work of Richards J. Heuer, Jr. on the psychology of intelligence analysis
available to a new generation of intelligence practitioners and scholars.
Dick Heuer’s ideas on how to improve analysis focus on helping
analysts compensate for the human mind’s limitations in dealing with
complex problems that typically involve ambiguous information, multi-
ple players, and fluid circumstances. Such multi-faceted estimative chal-
lenges have proliferated in the turbulent post-Cold War world.
Heuer’s message to analysts can be encapsulated by quoting two
sentences from Chapter 4 of this book:

Intelligence analysts should be self-conscious about their rea-

soning processes. They should think about how they make
judgments and reach conclusions, not just about the judgments
and conclusions themselves.

Heuer’s ideas are applicable to any analytical endeavor. In this

Introduction, I have concentrated on his impact—and that of other pio-
neer thinkers in the intelligence analysis field—at CIA, because that is
the institution that Heuer and his predecessors, and I myself, know best,
having spent the bulk of our intelligence careers there.

. Jack Davis served with the Directorate of Intelligence (DI), the National Intelligence
Council, and the Office of Training during his CIA career. He is now an independent contrac-
tor who specializes in developing and teaching analytic tradecraft. Among his publications is
Uncertainty, Surprise, and Warning (1996).

xiii
Leading Contributors to Quality of Analysis
Intelligence analysts, in seeking to make sound judgments, are al-
ways under challenge from the complexities of the issues they address
and from the demands made on them for timeliness and volume of pro-
duction. Four Agency individuals over the decades stand out for having
made major contributions on how to deal with these challenges to the
quality of analysis.
My short list of the people who have had the greatest positive im-
pact on CIA analysis consists of Sherman Kent, Robert Gates, Douglas
MacEachin, and Richards Heuer. My selection methodology was simple.
I asked myself: Whose insights have influenced me the most during my
four decades of practicing, teaching, and writing about analysis?

Sherman Kent
Sherman Kent’s pathbreaking contributions to analysis cannot be
done justice in a couple of paragraphs, and I refer readers to fuller treat-
ments elsewhere. Here I address his general legacy to the analytical pro-
fession.
Kent, a professor of European history at Yale, worked in the Research
and Analysis branch of the Office of Strategic Services during World War
II. He wrote an influential book, Strategic Intelligence for American World
Power, while at the National War College in the late 1940s. He served as
Vice Chairman and then as Chairman of the DCI’s Board of National
Estimates from 1950 to 1967.
Kent’s greatest contribution to the quality of analysis was to define
an honorable place for the analyst—the thoughtful individual “applying
the instruments of reason and the scientific method”—in an intelligence
world then as now dominated by collectors and operators. In a second
(1965) edition of Strategic Intelligence, Kent took account of the coming
computer age as well as human and technical collectors in proclaiming
the centrality of the analyst:

Whatever the complexities of the puzzles we strive to solve and

whatever the sophisticated techniques we may use to collect

. See, in particular, the editor’s unclassified introductory essay and “Tribute” by Harold P. Ford
in Donald P. Steury, Sherman Kent and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays (CIA,
Center for the Study of Intelligence, 1994). Hereinafter cited as Steury, Kent.

xiv
 the pieces and store them, there can never be a time when the
thoughtful man can be supplanted as the intelligence device
supreme.

More specifically, Kent advocated application of the techniques of

“scientific” study of the past to analysis of complex ongoing situations
and estimates of likely future events. Just as rigorous “impartial” analysis
could cut through the gaps and ambiguities of information on events
long past and point to the most probable explanation, he contended, the
powers of the critical mind could turn to events that had not yet trans-
pired to determine the most probable developments.
To this end, Kent developed the concept of the analytic pyramid,
featuring a wide base of factual information and sides comprised of
sound assumptions, which pointed to the most likely future scenario at
the apex.
In his proselytizing and in practice, Kent battled against bureaucrat-
ic and ideological biases, which he recognized as impediments to sound
analysis, and against imprecise estimative terms that he saw as obstacles
to conveying clear messages to readers. Although he was aware of what
is now called cognitive bias, his writings urge analysts to “make the call”
without much discussion of how limitations of the human mind were to
be overcome.
Not many Agency analysts read Kent nowadays. But he had a pro-
found impact on earlier generations of analysts and managers, and his
work continues to exert an indirect influence among practitioners of the
analytic profession.

Robert Gates
Bob Gates served as Deputy Director of Central Intelligence (1986–
1989) and as DCI (1991–1993). But his greatest impact on the quality
of CIA analysis came during his 1982–1986 stint as Deputy Director for
Intelligence (DDI).

. Sherman Kent, Writing History, second edition (1967). The first edition was published
in 1941, when Kent was an assistant professor of history at Yale. In the first chapter, “Why
History,” he presented ideas and recommendations that he later adapted for intelligence analy-
sis.
. Kent, “Estimates and Influence” (1968), in Steury, Kent.

xv
 Initially schooled as a political scientist, Gates earned a Ph.D. in
Soviet studies at Georgetown while working as an analyst at CIA. As
a member of the National Security Council staff during the 1970s, he
gained invaluable insight into how policymakers use intelligence anal-
ysis. Highly intelligent, exceptionally hard-working, and skilled in the
bureaucratic arts, Gates was appointed DDI by DCI William Casey in
good part because he was one of the few insiders Casey found who shared
the DCI’s views on what Casey saw as glaring deficiencies of Agency ana-
lysts. Few analysts and managers who heard it have forgotten Gates’ blis-
tering criticism of analytic performance in his 1982 “inaugural” speech
as DDI.
Most of the public commentary on Gates and Agency analysis
concerned charges of politicization levied against him, and his defense
against such charges, during Senate hearings for his 1991 confirmation as
DCI. The heat of this debate was slow to dissipate among CIA analysts,
as reflected in the pages of Studies in Intelligence, the Agency journal
founded by Sherman Kent in the 1950s.
I know of no written retrospective on Gates’ contribution to Agency
analysis. My insights into his ideas about analysis came mostly through an
arms-length collaboration in setting up and running an Agency training
course entitled “Seminar on Intelligence Successes and Failures.” During
his tenure as DDI, only rarely could you hold a conversation with ana-
lysts or managers without picking up additional viewpoints, thoughtful
and otherwise, on what Gates was doing to change CIA analysis.
Gates’s ideas for overcoming what he saw as insular, flabby, and in-
coherent argumentation featured the importance of distinguishing be-
tween what analysts know and what they believe—that is, to make clear
what is “fact” (or reliably reported information) and what is the analyst’s
opinion (which had to be persuasively supported with evidence). Among
his other tenets were the need to seek the views of non-CIA experts, in-

. Casey, very early in his tenure as DCI (1981-1987), opined to me that the trouble with
Agency analysts is that they went from sitting on their rear ends at universities to sitting on
their rear ends at CIA, without seeing the real world.
. “The Gates Hearings: Politicization and Soviet Analysis at CIA”, Studies in Intelligence
(Spring 1994). “Communication to the Editor: The Gates Hearings: A Biased Account,” Studies
in Intelligence (Fall 1994).
. DCI Casey requested that the Agency’s training office provide this seminar so that, at the
least, analysts could learn from their own mistakes. DDI Gates carefully reviewed the statement
of goals for the seminar, the outline of course units, and the required reading list.

xvi
cluding academic specialists and policy officials, and to present alternate
future scenarios.
Gates’s main impact, though, came from practice—from his direct
involvement in implementing his ideas. Using his authority as DDI, he
reviewed critically almost all in-depth assessments and current intelli-
gence articles prior to publication. With help from his deputy and two
rotating assistants from the ranks of rising junior managers, Gates raised
the standards for DDI review dramatically—in essence, from “looks
good to me” to “show me your evidence.”
As the many drafts Gates rejected were sent back to managers who
had approved them—accompanied by the DDI’s comments about in-
consistency, lack of clarity, substantive bias, and poorly supported judg-
ments—the whole chain of review became much more rigorous. Analysts
and their managers raised their standards to avoid the pain of DDI rejec-
tion. Both career advancement and ego were at stake.
The rapid and sharp increase in attention paid by analysts and man-
agers to the underpinnings for their substantive judgments probably was
without precedent in the Agency’s history. The longer term benefits of
the intensified review process were more limited, however, because insuf-
ficient attention was given to clarifying tradecraft practices that would
promote analytic soundness. More than one participant in the process
observed that a lack of guidelines for meeting Gates’s standards led to a
large amount of “wheel-spinning.”
Gates’s impact, like Kent’s, has to be seen on two planes. On the one
hand, little that Gates wrote on the craft of analysis is read these days.
But even though his pre-publication review process was discontinued
under his successors, an enduring awareness of his standards still gives
pause at jumping to conclusions to many managers and analysts who
experienced his criticism first-hand.

Douglas MacEachin
Doug MacEachin, DDI from 1993 to 1996, sought to provide an
essential ingredient for ensuring implementation of sound analytic stan-
dards: corporate tradecraft standards for analysts. This new tradecraft was
aimed in particular at ensuring that sufficient attention would be paid to
cognitive challenges in assessing complex issues.

xvii
 MacEachin set out his views on Agency analytical faults and correc-
tives in The Tradecraft of Analysis: Challenge and Change in the CIA. My
commentary on his contributions to sound analysis is also informed by a
series of exchanges with him in 1994 and 1995.
MacEachin’s university major was economics, but he also showed
great interest in philosophy. His Agency career—like Gates’—included
an extended assignment to a policymaking office. He came away from
this experience with new insights on what constitutes “value-added” in-
telligence usable by policymakers. Subsequently, as CIA’s senior manager
on arms control issues, he dealt regularly with a cadre of tough-minded
policy officials who let him know in blunt terms what worked as effective
policy support and what did not.
By the time MacEachin became DDI in 1993, Gates’s policy of
DDI front-office pre-publication review of nearly all DI analytical stud-
ies had been discontinued. MacEachin took a different approach; he
read—mostly on weekends—and reflected on numerous already-pub-
lished DI analytical papers. He did not like what he found. In his words,
roughly a third of the papers meant to assist the policymaking process
had no discernible argumentation to bolster the credibility of intelligence
judgments, and another third suffered from flawed argumentation. This
experience, along with pressures on CIA for better analytic performance
in the wake of alleged “intelligence failures” concerning Iraq’s invasion
of Kuwait, prompted his decision to launch a major new effort to raise
analytical standards.10
MacEachin advocated an approach to structured argumentation
called “linchpin analysis,” to which he contributed muscular terms de-
signed to overcome many CIA professionals’ distaste for academic no-
menclature. The standard academic term “key variables” became driv-
ers. “Hypotheses” concerning drivers became linchpins—assumptions
underlying the argument—and these had to be explicitly spelled out.
MacEachin also urged that greater attention be paid to analytical pro-
cesses for alerting policymakers to changes in circumstances that would
increase the likelihood of alternative scenarios.

. Unclassified paper published in 1994 by the Working Group on Intelligence Reform, which
had been created in 1992 by the Consortium for the Study of Intelligence, Washington, DC.
10. Discussion between MacEachin and the author of this Introduction, 1994.

xviii
 MacEachin thus worked to put in place systematic and transparent
standards for determining whether analysts had met their responsibili-
ties for critical thinking. To spread understanding and application of the
standards, he mandated creation of workshops on linchpin analysis for
managers and production of a series of notes on analytical tradecraft.
He also directed that the DI’s performance on tradecraft standards be
tracked and that recognition be given to exemplary assessments. Perhaps
most ambitious, he saw to it that instruction on standards for analysis
was incorporated into a new training course, “Tradecraft 2000.” Nearly
all DI managers and analysts attended this course during 1996–97.
As of this writing (early 1999), the long-term staying power of
MacEachin’s tradecraft initiatives is not yet clear. But much of what he
advocated has endured so far. Many DI analysts use variations on his
linchpin concept to produce soundly argued forecasts. In the training
realm, “Tradecraft 2000” has been supplanted by a new course that teach-
es the same concepts to newer analysts. But examples of what MacEachin
would label as poorly substantiated analysis are still seen. Clearly, ongo-
ing vigilance is needed to keep such analysis from finding its way into
DI products.

Richards Heuer
Dick Heuer was—and is—much less well known within the CIA
than Kent, Gates, and MacEachin. He has not received the wide acclaim
that Kent enjoyed as the father of professional analysis, and he has lacked
the bureaucratic powers that Gates and MacEachin could wield as DDIs.
But his impact on the quality of Agency analysis arguably has been at
least as important as theirs.
Heuer received a degree in philosophy in 1950 from Williams
College, where, he notes, he became fascinated with the fundamental
epistemological question, “What is truth and how can we know it?” In
1951, while a graduate student at the University of California’s Berkeley
campus, he was recruited as part of the CIA’s buildup during the Korean
War. The recruiter was Richard Helms, OSS veteran and rising player in
the Agency’s clandestine service. Future DCI Helms, according to Heuer,
was looking for candidates for CIA employment among recent graduates
of Williams College, his own alma mater. Heuer had an added advantage

xix
as a former editor of the college’s newspaper, a position Helms had held
some 15 years earlier.11
In 1975, after 24 years in the Directorate of Operations, Heuer
moved to the DI. His earlier academic interest in how we know the truth
was rekindled by two experiences. One was his involvement in the con-
troversial case of Soviet KGB defector Yuriy Nosenko. The other was
learning new approaches to social science methodology while earning a
Master’s degree in international relations at the University of Southern
California’s European campus.
At the time he retired in 1979, Heuer headed the methodology unit
in the DI’s political analysis office. He originally prepared most of the
chapters in this book as individual articles between 1978 and 1986; many
of them were written for the DI after his retirement. He has updated the
articles and prepared some new material for inclusion in this book.

Heuer’s Central Ideas

Dick Heuer’s writings make three fundamental points about the
cognitive challenges intelligence analysts face:

• The mind is poorly "wired" to deal effectively with both inherent

uncertainty (the natural fog surrounding complex, indeterminate
intelligence issues) and induced uncertainty (the man-made fog
fabricated by denial and deception operations).

• Even increased awareness of cognitive and other "unmotivated"

biases, such as the tendency to see information confirming an al-
ready-held judgment more vividly than one sees "disconfirming"
information, does little by itself to help analysts deal effectively
with uncertainty.

• Tools and techniques that gear the analyst's mind to apply higher
levels of critical thinking can substantially improve analysis on
complex issues on which information is incomplete, ambiguous,
and often deliberately distorted. Key examples of such intellectu-

11. Letter to the author of this Introduction, 1998.

xx
 al devices include techniques for structuring information, chal-
lenging assumptions, and exploring alternative interpretations.

The following passage from Heuer’s 1980 article entitled “Perception:

Why Can’t We See What Is There to be Seen?” shows that his ideas were
similar to or compatible with MacEachin’s concepts of linchpin analy-
sis.

Given the difficulties inherent in the human processing of com-

plex information, a prudent management system should:

• Encourage products that (a) clearly delineate their as-

sumptions and chains of inference and (b) specify the
degree and source of the uncertainty involved in the
conclusions.

• Emphasize procedures that expose and elaborate al-

ternative points of view—analytic debates, devil’s ad-
vocates, interdisciplinary brainstorming, competitive
analysis, intra-office peer review of production, and
elicitation of outside expertise.

Heuer emphasizes both the value and the dangers of mental models,
or mind-sets. In the book’s opening chapter, entitled “Thinking About
Thinking,” he notes that:

[Analysts] construct their own version of “reality” on the ba-

sis of information provided by the senses, but this sensory in-
put is mediated by complex mental processes that determine
which information is attended to, how it is organized, and the
meaning attributed to it. What people perceive, how readily
they perceive it, and how they process this information after
receiving it are all strongly influenced by past experience, edu-
cation, cultural values, role requirements, and organizational
norms, as well as by the specifics of the information received.

This process may be visualized as perceiving the world through

a lens or screen that channels and focuses and thereby may dis-
tort the images that are seen. To achieve the clearest possible
image . . . analysts need more than information . . . They also

xxi
 need to understand the lenses through which this information
passes. These lenses are known by many terms—mental mod-
els, mind-sets, biases, or analytic assumptions.

In essence, Heuer sees reliance on mental models to simplify and

interpret reality as an unavoidable conceptual mechanism for intelligence
analysts—often useful, but at times hazardous. What is required of ana-
lysts, in his view, is a commitment to challenge, refine, and challenge again
their own working mental models, precisely because these steps are cen-
tral to sound interpretation of complex and ambiguous issues.

Throughout the book, Heuer is critical of the orthodox prescription

of “more and better information” to remedy unsatisfactory analytic per-
formance. He urges that greater attention be paid instead to more inten-
sive exploitation of information already on hand, and that in so doing,
analysts continuously challenge and revise their mental models.

Heuer sees mirror-imaging as an example of an unavoidable cogni-

tive trap. No matter how much expertise an analyst applies to interpret-
ing the value systems of foreign entities, when the hard evidence runs out
the tendency to project the analyst’s own mind-set takes over. In Chapter
4, Heuer observes:

To see the options faced by foreign leaders as these leaders see

them, one must understand their values and assumptions and
even their misperceptions and misunderstandings. Without
such insight, interpreting foreign leaders’ decisions or forecast-
ing future decisions is often nothing more than partially in-
formed speculation. Too frequently, foreign behavior appears
“irrational” or “not in their own best interest.” Such conclu-
sions often indicate analysts have projected American values
and conceptual frameworks onto the foreign leaders and soci-
eties, rather than understanding the logic of the situation as it
appears to them.

Competing Hypotheses
To offset the risks accompanying analysts’ inevitable recourse to mir-
ror-imaging, Heuer suggests looking upon analysts’ calculations about

xxii
foreign beliefs and behavior as hypotheses to be challenged. Alternative
hypotheses need to be carefully considered—especially those that cannot
be disproved on the basis of available information.
Heuer’s concept of “Analysis of Competing Hypotheses” (ACH) is
among his most important contributions to the development of an in-
telligence analysis methodology. At the core of ACH is the notion of
competition among a series of plausible hypotheses to see which ones
survive a gauntlet of testing for compatibility with available information.
The surviving hypotheses—those that have not been disproved—are sub-
jected to further testing. ACH, Heuer concedes, will not always yield the
right answer. But it can help analysts overcome the cognitive limitations
discussed in his book.
Some analysts who use ACH follow Heuer’s full eight-step method-
ology. More often, they employ some elements of ACH—especially the
use of available information to challenge the hypotheses that the analyst
favors the most.

Denial and Deception

Heuer’s path-breaking work on countering denial and deception
(D&D) was not included as a separate chapter in this volume. But his
brief references here are persuasive.
He notes, for example, that analysts often reject the possibility of de-
ception because they see no evidence of it. He then argues that rejection
is not justified under these circumstances. If deception is well planned
and properly executed, one should not expect to see evidence of it readily
at hand. Rejecting a plausible but unproven hypothesis too early tends
to bias the subsequent analysis, because one does not then look for the
evidence that might support it. The possibility of deception should not
be rejected until it is disproved or, at least, until a systematic search for
evidence has been made and none has been found.

Heuer’s Impact
Heuer’s influence on analytic tradecraft began with his first articles.
CIA officials who set up training courses in the 1980s as part of then-
DDI Gates’s quest for improved analysis shaped their lesson plans partly
on the basis of Heuer’s findings. Among these courses were a seminar on
intelligence successes and failures and another on intelligence analysis.

xxiii
The courses influenced scores of DI analysts, many of whom are now
in the managerial ranks. The designers and teachers of Tradecraft 2000
clearly were also influenced by Heuer, as reflected in reading selections,
case studies, and class exercises.
Heuer’s work has remained on reading lists and in lesson plans for
DI training courses offered to all new analysts, as well as courses on warn-
ing analysis and on countering denial and deception. Senior analysts and
managers who have been directly exposed to Heuer’s thinking through
his articles, or through training courses, continue to pass his insights on
to newer analysts.

Recommendations
Heuer’s advice to Agency leaders, managers, and analysts is pointed:
To ensure sustained improvement in assessing complex issues, analysis
must be treated as more than a substantive and organizational process.
Attention also must be paid to techniques and tools for coping with
the inherent limitations on analysts’ mental machinery. He urges that
Agency leaders take steps to:

• Establish an organizational environment that promotes and re-

wards the kind of critical thinking he advocates—or example,
analysis on difficult issues that considers in depth a series of plau-
sible hypotheses rather than allowing the first credible hypothesis
to suffice.

• Expand funding for research on the role such mental processes

play in shaping analytical judgments. An Agency that relies on
sharp cognitive performance by its analysts must stay abreast
of studies on how the mind works—i.e., on how analysts reach
judgments.

• Foster development of tools to assist analysts in assessing informa-

tion. On tough issues, they need help in improving their mental
models and in deriving incisive findings from information they
already have; they need such help at least as much as they need
more information.

xxiv
 I offer some concluding observations and recommendations, rooted
in Heuer’s findings and taking into account the tough tradeoffs facing
intelligence professionals:

• Commit to a uniform set of tradecraft standards based on the insights

in this book. Leaders need to know if analysts have done their
cognitive homework before taking corporate responsibility for
their judgments. Although every analytical issue can be seen as
one of a kind, I suspect that nearly all such topics fit into about
a dozen recurring patterns of challenge based largely on varia-
tions in substantive uncertainty and policy sensitivity. Corporate
standards need to be established for each such category. And the
burden should be put on managers to explain why a given ana-
lytical assignment requires deviation from the standards. I am
convinced that if tradecraft standards are made uniform and
transparent, the time saved by curtailing personalistic review of
quick-turnaround analysis (e.g., “It reads better to me this way”)
could be “re-invested” in doing battle more effectively against
cognitive pitfalls. (“Regarding point 3, let’s talk about your as-
sumptions.”)

• Pay more honor to "doubt." Intelligence leaders and policymakers

should, in recognition of the cognitive impediments to sound
analysis, establish ground rules that enable analysts, after doing
their best to clarify an issue, to express doubts more openly. They
should be encouraged to list gaps in information and other ob-
stacles to confident judgment. Such conclusions as “We do not
know” or “There are several potentially valid ways to assess this
issue” should be regarded as badges of sound analysis, not as der-
eliction of analytic duty.

• Find a couple of successors to Dick Heuer. Fund their research. Heed

their findings.

xxv
 PART I—OUR MENTAL MACHINERY
Chapter 1
Thinking About Thinking
Of the diverse problems that impede accurate intelligence analysis, those
inherent in human mental processes are surely among the most important
and most difficult to deal with. Intelligence analysis is fundamentally a men-
tal process, but understanding this process is hindered by the lack of conscious
awareness of the workings of our own minds.
A basic finding of cognitive psychology is that people have no conscious
experience of most of what happens in the human mind. Many functions as-
sociated with perception, memory, and information processing are conducted
prior to and independently of any conscious direction. What appears sponta-
neously in consciousness is the result of thinking, not the process of thinking.
Weaknesses and biases inherent in human thinking processes can be
demonstrated through carefully designed experiments. They can be alleviated
by conscious application of tools and techniques that should be in the analyti-
cal tradecraft toolkit of all intelligence analysts.
*******************
“When we speak of improving the mind we are usually referring to
the acquisition of information or knowledge, or to the type of thoughts
one should have, and not to the actual functioning of the mind. We
spend little time monitoring our own thinking and comparing it with a
more sophisticated ideal.”12
When we speak of improving intelligence analysis, we are usually
referring to the quality of writing, types of analytical products, relations
between intelligence analysts and intelligence consumers, or organization

12. James L. Adams, Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas (New York: W.W. Norton,
second edition, 1980), p. 3.


of the analytical process. Little attention is devoted to improving how
analysts think.
Thinking analytically is a skill like carpentry or driving a car. It can
be taught, it can be learned, and it can improve with practice. But like
many other skills, such as riding a bike, it is not learned by sitting in a
classroom and being told how to do it. Analysts learn by doing. Most
people achieve at least a minimally acceptable level of analytical perfor-
mance with little conscious effort beyond completing their education.
With much effort and hard work, however, analysts can achieve a level of
excellence beyond what comes naturally.
Regular running enhances endurance but does not improve tech-
nique without expert guidance. Similarly, expert guidance may be re-
quired to modify long-established analytical habits to achieve an optimal
level of analytical excellence. An analytical coaching staff to help young
analysts hone their analytical tradecraft would be a valuable supplement
to classroom instruction.
One key to successful learning is motivation. Some of CIA’s best
analysts developed their skills as a consequence of experiencing analytical
failure early in their careers. Failure motivated them to be more self-con-
scious about how they do analysis and to sharpen their thinking pro-
cess.
This book aims to help intelligence analysts achieve a higher level of
performance. It shows how people make judgments based on incomplete
and ambiguous information, and it offers simple tools and concepts for
improving analytical skills.
Part I identifies some limitations inherent in human mental process-
es. Part II discusses analytical tradecraft—simple tools and approaches for
overcoming these limitations and thinking more systematically. Chapter
8, “Analysis of Competing Hypotheses,” is arguably the most important
single chapter. Part III presents information about cognitive biases—the
technical term for predictable mental errors caused by simplified infor-
mation processing strategies. A final chapter presents a checklist for ana-
lysts and recommendations for how managers of intelligence analysis can
help create an environment in which analytical excellence flourishes.
Herbert Simon first advanced the concept of “bounded” or limited
rationality.13 Because of limits in human mental capacity, he argued, the

13. Herbert Simon, Models of Man, 1957.


mind cannot cope directly with the complexity of the world. Rather, we
construct a simplified mental model of reality and then work with this
model. We behave rationally within the confines of our mental model,
but this model is not always well adapted to the requirements of the real
world. The concept of bounded rationality has come to be recognized
widely, though not universally, both as an accurate portrayal of human
judgment and choice and as a sensible adjustment to the limitations in-
herent in how the human mind functions.14
Much psychological research on perception, memory, attention
span, and reasoning capacity documents the limitations in our “mental
machinery” identified by Simon. Many scholars have applied these psy-
chological insights to the study of international political behavior.15 A
similar psychological perspective underlies some writings on intelligence
failure and strategic surprise.16
This book differs from those works in two respects. It analyzes prob-
lems from the perspective of intelligence analysts rather than policymak-
ers. And it documents the impact of mental processes largely through

14. James G. March., “Bounded Rationality, Ambiguity, and the Engineering of Choice,” in
David E. Bell, Howard Raiffa, and Amos Tversky, eds., Decision Making: Descriptive, Normative,
and Prescriptive Interactions (Cambridge University Press, 1988).
15. Among the early scholars who wrote on this subject were Joseph De Rivera, The
Psychological Dimension of Foreign Policy (Columbus, OH: Merrill, 1968), Alexander George
and Richard Smoke, Deterrence in American Foreign Policy (New York: Columbia University
Press, 1974), and Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976).
16. Christopher Brady, “Intelligence Failures: Plus Ca Change. . .” Intelligence and National
Security, Vol. 8, No. 4 (October 1993). N. Cigar, “Iraq’s Strategic Mindset and the Gulf
War: Blueprint for Defeat,” The Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 15, No. 1 (March 1992). J. J.
Wirtz, The Tet Offensive: Intelligence Failure in War (New York, 1991). Ephraim Kam, Surprise
Attack (Harvard University Press, 1988). Richard Betts, Surprise Attack: Lessons for Defense
Planning (Brookings, 1982). Abraham Ben-Zvi, “The Study of Surprise Attacks,” British Journal
of International Studies, Vol. 5 (1979). Iran: Evaluation of Intelligence Performance Prior to
November 1978 (Staff Report, Subcommittee on Evaluation, Permanent Select Committee on
Intelligence, US House of Representatives, January 1979). Richard Betts, “Analysis, War and
Decision: Why Intelligence Failures Are Inevitable,” World Politics, Vol. 31, No. 1 (October
1978). Richard W. Shryock, “The Intelligence Community Post-Mortem Program, 1973-
1975,” Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Fall 1977). Avi Schlaim, “Failures in National
Intelligence Estimates: The Case of the Yom Kippur War,” World Politics, Vol. 28 (April 1976).
Michael Handel, Perception, Deception, and Surprise: The Case of the Yom Kippur War (Jerusalem:
Leonard Davis Institute of International Relations, Jerusalem Paper No. 19, 1976). Klaus
Knorr, “Failures in National Intelligence Estimates: The Case of the Cuban Missiles,” World
Politics, Vol. 16 (1964).


experiments in cognitive psychology rather than through examples from
diplomatic and military history.
A central focus of this book is to illuminate the role of the observer in
determining what is observed and how it is interpreted. People construct
their own version of “reality” on the basis of information provided by the
senses, but this sensory input is mediated by complex mental processes
that determine which information is attended to, how it is organized,
and the meaning attributed to it. What people perceive, how readily they
perceive it, and how they process this information after receiving it are
all strongly influenced by past experience, education, cultural values, role
requirements, and organizational norms, as well as by the specifics of the
information received.
This process may be visualized as perceiving the world through a
lens or screen that channels and focuses and thereby may distort the im-
ages that are seen. To achieve the clearest possible image of China, for
example, analysts need more than information on China. They also need
to understand their own lenses through which this information passes.
These lenses are known by many terms—mental models, mind-sets, bi-
ases, or analytical assumptions.
In this book, the terms mental model and mind-set are used more
or less interchangeably, although a mental model is likely to be better
developed and articulated than a mind-set. An analytical assumption is
one part of a mental model or mind-set. The biases discussed in this book
result from how the mind works and are independent of any substantive
mental model or mind-set.
Before obtaining a license to practice, psychoanalysts are required
to undergo psychoanalysis themselves in order to become more aware of
how their own personality interacts with and conditions their observa-
tions of others. The practice of psychoanalysis has not been so success-
ful that its procedures should be emulated by the intelligence and for-
eign policy community. But the analogy highlights an interesting point:
Intelligence analysts must understand themselves before they can under-
stand others. Training is needed to (a) increase self-awareness concerning
generic problems in how people perceive and make analytical judgments
concerning foreign events, and (b) provide guidance and practice in over-
coming these problems.
Not enough training is focused in this direction—that is, inward
toward the analyst’s own thought processes. Training of intelligence ana-


lysts generally means instruction in organizational procedures, method-
ological techniques, or substantive topics. More training time should be
devoted to the mental act of thinking or analyzing. It is simply assumed,
incorrectly, that analysts know how to analyze. This book is intended
to support training that examines the thinking and reasoning processes
involved in intelligence analysis.
As discussed in the next chapter, mind-sets and mental models are
inescapable. They are, in essence, a distillation of all that we think we
know about a subject. The problem is how to ensure that the mind re-
mains open to alternative interpretations in a rapidly changing world.
The disadvantage of a mind-set is that it can color and control our
perception to the extent that an experienced specialist may be among
the last to see what is really happening when events take a new and un-
expected turn. When faced with a major paradigm shift, analysts who
know the most about a subject have the most to unlearn. This seems to
have happened before the reunification of Germany, for example. Some
German specialists had to be prodded by their more generalist supervi-
sors to accept the significance of the dramatic changes in progress toward
reunification of East and West Germany.
The advantage of mind-sets is that they help analysts get the produc-
tion out on time and keep things going effectively between those water-
shed events that become chapter headings in the history books.17
A generation ago, few intelligence analysts were self-conscious and
introspective about the process by which they did analysis. The accepted
wisdom was the “common sense” theory of knowledge—that to perceive
events accurately it was necessary only to open one’s eyes, look at the
facts, and purge oneself of all preconceptions and prejudices in order to
make an objective judgment.
Today, there is greatly increased understanding that intelligence
analysts do not approach their tasks with empty minds. They start with
a set of assumptions about how events normally transpire in the area
for which they are responsible. Although this changed view is becoming
conventional wisdom, the Intelligence Community has only begun to
scratch the surface of its implications.
If analysts’ understanding of events is greatly influenced by the
mind-set or mental model through which they perceive those events,

17. This wording is from a discussion with veteran CIA analyst, author, and teacher Jack Davis.


should there not be more research to explore and document the impact
of different mental models?18
The reaction of the Intelligence Community to many problems is
to collect more information, even though analysts in many cases already
have more information than they can digest. What analysts need is more
truly useful information—mostly reliable HUMINT from knowledge-
able insiders—to help them make good decisions. Or they need a more
accurate mental model and better analytical tools to help them sort
through, make sense of, and get the most out of the available ambiguous
and conflicting information.
Psychological research also offers to intelligence analysts additional
insights that are beyond the scope of this book. Problems are not limited
to how analysts perceive and process information. Intelligence analysts
often work in small groups and always within the context of a large, bu-
reaucratic organization. Problems are inherent in the processes that occur
at all three levels—individual, small group, and organization. This book
focuses on problems inherent in analysts’ mental processes, inasmuch as
these are probably the most insidious. Analysts can observe and get a feel
for these problems in small-group and organizational processes, but it
is very difficult, at best, to be self-conscious about the workings of one’s
own mind.

18. Graham Allison’s work on the Cuban missile crisis (Essence of Decision, Little, Brown &
Co., 1971) is an example of what I have in mind. Allison identified three alternative assump-
tions about how governments work--a rational actor model, an organizational process model,
and a bureaucratic politics model. He then showed how an analyst’s implicit assumptions about
the most appropriate model for analyzing a foreign government’s behavior can cause him or
her to focus on different evidence and arrive at different conclusions. Another example is my
own analysis of five alternative paths for making counterintelligence judgments in the contro-
versial case of KGB defector Yuriy Nosenko: Richards J. Heuer, Jr., “Nosenko: Five Paths to
Judgment,” Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Fall 1987), originally classified Secret but de-
classified and published in H. Bradford Westerfield, ed., Inside CIA’s Private World: Declassified
Articles from the Agency’s Internal Journal 1955-1992 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).


 Chapter 2
Perception: Why Can’t We See
What Is There To Be Seen?
The process of perception links people to their environment and is criti-
cal to accurate understanding of the world about us. Accurate intelligence
analysis obviously requires accurate perception. Yet research into human per-
ception demonstrates that the process is beset by many pitfalls. Moreover, the
circumstances under which intelligence analysis is conducted are precisely the
circumstances in which accurate perception tends to be most difficult. This
chapter discusses perception in general, then applies this information to il-
luminate some of the difficulties of intelligence analysis.19
*******************
People tend to think of perception as a passive process. We see, hear,
smell, taste or feel stimuli that impinge upon our senses. We think that
if we are at all objective, we record what is actually there. Yet percep-
tion is demonstrably an active rather than a passive process; it constructs
rather than records “reality.” Perception implies understanding as well
as awareness. It is a process of inference in which people construct their
own version of reality on the basis of information provided through the
five senses.
As already noted, what people in general and analysts in particular
perceive, and how readily they perceive it, are strongly influenced by
their past experience, education, cultural values, and role requirements,
as well as by the stimuli recorded by their receptor organs.
Many experiments have been conducted to show the extraordinary
extent to which the information obtained by an observer depends upon
the observer’s own assumptions and preconceptions. For example, when

19. An earlier version of this article was published as part of “Cognitive Factors in Deception
and Counterdeception,” in Donald C. Daniel and Katherine L. Herbig, eds., Strategic Military
Deception (Pergamon Press, 1982).


you looked at Figure 1 above, what did you see? Now refer to the foot-
note for a description of what is actually there.20 Did you perceive Figure
1 correctly? If so, you have exceptional powers of observation, were lucky,
or have seen the figure before. This simple experiment demonstrates one
of the most fundamental principles concerning perception:

We tend to perceive what we expect to perceive.

A corollary of this principle is that it takes more information, and

more unambiguous information, to recognize an unexpected phenom-
enon than an expected one.
One classic experiment to demonstrate the influence of expecta-
tions on perception used playing cards, some of which were gimmicked
so the spades were red and the hearts black. Pictures of the cards were
flashed briefly on a screen and, needless to say, the test subjects identified
the normal cards more quickly and accurately than the anomalous ones.
After test subjects became aware of the existence of red spades and black
hearts, their performance with the gimmicked cards improved but still
did not approach the speed or accuracy with which normal cards could
be identified.21

20. The article is written twice in each of the three phrases. This is commonly overlooked
because perception is influenced by our expectations about how these familiar phrases are
normally written.
21. Jerome S. Bruner and Leo Postman, “On the Perception of Incongruity: A Paradigm,” in
Jerome S. Bruner and David Kraut, eds., Perception and Personality: A Symposium (New York:
Greenwood Press, 1968).


 This experiment shows that patterns of expectation become so
deeply embedded that they continue to influence perceptions even when
people are alerted to and try to take account of the existence of data that
do not fit their preconceptions. Trying to be objective does not ensure
accurate perception.
The position of the test subject identifying playing cards is analo-
gous to that of the intelligence analyst or government leader trying to
make sense of the paper flow that crosses his or her desk. What is actually
perceived in that paper flow, as well as how it is interpreted, depends in
part, at least, on the analyst’s patterns of expectation. Analysts do not
just have expectations about the color of hearts and spades. They have
a set of assumptions and expectations about the motivations of people
and the processes of government in foreign countries. Events consistent
with these expectations are perceived and processed easily, while events
that contradict prevailing expectations tend to be ignored or distorted in
perception. Of course, this distortion is a subconscious or pre-conscious
process, as illustrated by how you presumably ignored the extra words in
the triangles in Figure 1.
This tendency of people to perceive what they expect to perceive is
more important than any tendency to perceive what they want to per-
ceive. In fact, there may be no real tendency toward wishful thinking.
The commonly cited evidence supporting the claim that people tend to
perceive what they want to perceive can generally be explained equally
well by the expectancy thesis.22
Expectations have many diverse sources, including past experience,
professional training, and cultural and organizational norms. All these
influences predispose analysts to pay particular attention to certain kinds
of information and to organize and interpret this information in certain
ways. Perception is also influenced by the context in which it occurs.
Different circumstances evoke different sets of expectations. People are
more attuned to hearing footsteps behind them when walking in an alley
at night than along a city street in daytime, and the meaning attributed
to the sound of footsteps will vary under these differing circumstances. A
military intelligence analyst may be similarly tuned to perceive indicators
of potential conflict.

22. For discussion of the ambiguous evidence concerning the impact of desires and fears on
judgment, see Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton,
NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), Chapter 10.


 Patterns of expectations tell analysts, subconsciously, what to look
for, what is important, and how to interpret what is seen. These pat-
terns form a mind-set that predisposes analysts to think in certain ways.
A mind-set is akin to a screen or lens through which one perceives the
world.
There is a tendency to think of a mind-set as something bad, to be
avoided. According to this line of argument, one should have an open
mind and be influenced only by the facts rather than by preconceived no-
tions! That is an unreachable ideal. There is no such thing as “the facts of
the case.” There is only a very selective subset of the overall mass of data
to which one has been subjected that one takes as facts and judges to be
relevant to the question at issue.
Actually, mind-sets are neither good nor bad; they are unavoidable.
People have no conceivable way of coping with the volume of stimuli
that impinge upon their senses, or with the volume and complexity of
the data they have to analyze, without some kind of simplifying precon-
ceptions about what to expect, what is important, and what is related to
what. “There is a grain of truth in the otherwise pernicious maxim that
an open mind is an empty mind.”23 Analysts do not achieve objective
analysis by avoiding preconceptions; that would be ignorance or self-de-
lusion. Objectivity is achieved by making basic assumptions and reason-
ing as explicit as possible so that they can be challenged by others and
analysts can, themselves, examine their validity.
One of the most important characteristics of mind-sets is:

Mind-sets tend to be quick to form but resistant to change.

Figure 2 illustrates this principle by showing part of a longer series

of progressively modified drawings that change almost imperceptibly
from a man into a woman.24 The right-hand drawing in the top row,
when viewed alone, has equal chances of being perceived as a man or a
woman. When test subjects are shown the entire series of drawings one
by one, their perception of this intermediate drawing is biased according
to which end of the series they started from. Test subjects who start by
viewing a picture that is clearly a man are biased in favor of continuing

23. Richard Betts, “Analysis, War and Decision: Why Intelligence Failures are Inevitable”, World
Politics, Vol. XXXI (October 1978), p. 84.
24. Drawings devised by Gerald Fisher in 1967.

10
to see a man long after an “objective observer” (for example, an observer
who has seen only a single picture) recognizes that the man is now a
woman. Similarly, test subjects who start at the woman end of the series
are biased in favor of continuing to see a woman. Once an observer has
formed an image—that is, once he or she has developed a mind-set or
expectation concerning the phenomenon being observed—this condi-
tions future perceptions of that phenomenon.
This is the basis for another general principle of perception:

New information is assimilated to existing images.

This principle explains why gradual, evolutionary change often goes

unnoticed. It also explains the phenomenon that an intelligence analyst
assigned to work on a topic or country for the first time may generate
accurate insights that have been overlooked by experienced analysts who
have worked on the same problem for 10 years. A fresh perspective is
sometimes useful; past experience can handicap as well as aid analysis.
This tendency to assimilate new data into pre-existing images is greater
“the more ambiguous the information, the more confident the actor is of

11
the validity of his image, and the greater his commitment to the estab-
lished view.”25
The drawing in Figure 3 provides the reader an opportunity to test
for him or herself the persistence of established images.26 Look at Figure
3. What do you see—an old woman or a young woman? Now look again
to see if you can visually and mentally reorganize the data to form a dif-
ferent image—that of a young woman if your original perception was of
an old woman, or of the old woman if you first perceived the young one.
If necessary, look at the footnote for clues to help you identify the other

25. Jervis, p. 195.

26. This picture was originally published in Puck magazine in 1915 as a cartoon entitled “My
Wife and My Mother-in-Law.”

12
image.27 Again, this exercise illustrates the principle that mind-sets are
quick to form but resistant to change.
When you have seen Figure 3 from both perspectives, try shifting
back and forth from one perspective to the other. Do you notice some
initial difficulty in making this switch? One of the more difficult men-
tal feats is to take a familiar body of data and reorganize it visually or
mentally to perceive it from a different perspective. Yet this is what in-
telligence analysts are constantly required to do. In order to understand
international interactions, analysts must understand the situation as it
appears to each of the opposing forces, and constantly shift back and
forth from one perspective to the other as they try to fathom how each
side interprets an ongoing series of interactions. Trying to perceive an
adversary’s interpretations of international events, as well as US interpre-
tations of those same events, is comparable to seeing both the old and
young woman in Figure 3. Once events have been perceived one way,
there is a natural resistance to other perspectives.
A related point concerns the impact of substandard conditions of
perception. The basic principle is:

Initial exposure to blurred or ambiguous stimuli interferes with

accurate perception even after more and better information be-
comes available.

This effect has been demonstrated experimentally by projecting onto

a screen pictures of common, everyday subjects such as a dog standing
on grass, a fire hydrant, and an aerial view of a highway cloverleaf inter-
section.28 The initial projection was blurred in varying degrees, and the
pictures were then brought into focus slowly to determine at what point
test subjects could identify them correctly.
This experiment showed two things. First, those who started view-
ing the pictures when they were most out of focus had more difficulty
identifying them when they became clearer than those who started view-

27. The old woman’s nose, mouth, and eye are, respectively, the young woman’s chin, necklace,
and ear. The old woman is seen in profile looking left. The young woman is also looking left,
but we see her mainly from behind so most facial features are not visible. Her eyelash, nose, and
the curve of her cheek may be seen just above the old woman’s nose.
28. Jerome S. Bruner and Mary C. Potter, “Interference in Visual Recognition,” Science, Vol.
144 (1964), pp. 424-25.

13
ing at a less blurred stage. In other words, the greater the initial blur, the
clearer the picture had to be before people could recognize it. Second, the
longer people were exposed to a blurred picture, the clearer the picture
had to be before they could recognize it.
What happened in this experiment is what presumably happens
in real life; despite ambiguous stimuli, people form some sort of tenta-
tive hypothesis about what they see. The longer they are exposed to this
blurred image, the greater confidence they develop in this initial and per-
haps erroneous impression, so the greater the impact this initial impres-
sion has on subsequent perceptions. For a time, as the picture becomes
clearer, there is no obvious contradiction; the new data are assimilated
into the previous image, and the initial interpretation is maintained until
the contradiction becomes so obvious that it forces itself upon our con-
sciousness.
The early but incorrect impression tends to persist because the
amount of information necessary to invalidate a hypothesis is consider-
ably greater than the amount of information required to make an initial
interpretation. The problem is not that there is any inherent difficulty in
grasping new perceptions or new ideas, but that established perceptions
are so difficult to change. People form impressions on the basis of very
little information, but once formed, they do not reject or change them
unless they obtain rather solid evidence. Analysts might seek to limit the
adverse impact of this tendency by suspending judgment for as long as
possible as new information is being received.

Implications for Intelligence Analysis

Comprehending the nature of perception has significant implica-
tions for understanding the nature and limitations of intelligence analy-
sis. The circumstances under which accurate perception is most difficult
are exactly the circumstances under which intelligence analysis is gener-
ally conducted—dealing with highly ambiguous situations on the basis
of information that is processed incrementally under pressure for early
judgment. This is a recipe for inaccurate perception.
Intelligence seeks to illuminate the unknown. Almost by definition,
intelligence analysis deals with highly ambiguous situations. As previ-
ously noted, the greater the ambiguity of the stimuli, the greater the
impact of expectations and pre-existing images on the perception of that

14
stimuli. Thus, despite maximum striving for objectivity, the intelligence
analyst’s own preconceptions are likely to exert a greater impact on the
analytical product than in other fields where an analyst is working with
less ambiguous and less discordant information.
Moreover, the intelligence analyst is among the first to look at new
problems at an early stage when the evidence is very fuzzy indeed. The
analyst then follows a problem as additional increments of evidence are
received and the picture gradually clarifies—as happened with test sub-
jects in the experiment demonstrating that initial exposure to blurred
stimuli interferes with accurate perception even after more and better
information becomes available. If the results of this experiment can be
generalized to apply to intelligence analysts, the experiment suggests that
an analyst who starts observing a potential problem situation at an early
and unclear stage is at a disadvantage as compared with others, such as
policymakers, whose first exposure may come at a later stage when more
and better information is available.
The receipt of information in small increments over time also fa-
cilitates assimilation of this information into the analyst’s existing views.
No one item of information may be sufficient to prompt the analyst to
change a previous view. The cumulative message inherent in many pieces
of information may be significant but is attenuated when this informa-
tion is not examined as a whole. The Intelligence Community’s review of
its performance before the 1973 Arab-Israeli War noted:
The problem of incremental analysis—especially as it applies
to the current intelligence process—was also at work in the
period preceding hostilities. Analysts, according to their own
accounts, were often proceeding on the basis of the day’s take,
hastily comparing it with material received the previous day.
They then produced in ‘assembly line fashion’ items which may
have reflected perceptive intuition but which [did not] accrue
from a systematic consideration of an accumulated body of in-
tegrated evidence.29
And finally, the intelligence analyst operates in an environment that
exerts strong pressures for what psychologists call premature closure.

29. The Performance of the Intelligence Community Before the Arab-Israeli War of October 1973:
A Preliminary Post-Mortem Report, December 1973. The one-paragraph excerpt from this post-
mortem, as quoted in the text above, has been approved for public release, as was the title of the
post-mortem, although that document as a whole remains classified.

15
Customer demand for interpretive analysis is greatest within two or three
days after an event occurs. The system requires the intelligence analyst to
come up with an almost instant diagnosis before sufficient hard infor-
mation, and the broader background information that may be needed
to gain perspective, become available to make possible a well-grounded
judgment. This diagnosis can only be based upon the analyst’s precon-
ceptions concerning how and why events normally transpire in a given
society.
As time passes and more information is received, a fresh look at all
the evidence might suggest a different explanation. Yet, the perception
experiments indicate that an early judgment adversely affects the forma-
tion of future perceptions. Once an observer thinks he or she knows what
is happening, this perception tends to resist change. New data received
incrementally can be fit easily into an analyst’s previous image. This per-
ceptual bias is reinforced by organizational pressures favoring consistent
interpretation; once the analyst is committed in writing, both the analyst
and the organization have a vested interest in maintaining the original
assessment.
That intelligence analysts perform as well as they do is testimony to
their generally sound judgment, training, and dedication in performing
a dauntingly difficult task.
The problems outlined here have implications for the management
as well as the conduct of analysis. Given the difficulties inherent in the
human processing of complex information, a prudent management sys-
tem should:

• Encourage products that clearly delineate their assumptions and

chains of inference and that specify the degree and source of un-
certainty involved in the conclusions.
• Support analyses that periodically re-examine key problems from
the ground up in order to avoid the pitfalls of the incremental
approach.
• Emphasize procedures that expose and elaborate alternative
points of view.
• Educate consumers about the limitations as well as the capabili-
ties of intelligence analysis; define a set of realistic expectations as
a standard against which to judge analytical performance.

16
 Chapter 3
Memory: How Do We Remember What We Know?
Differences between stronger and weaker analytical performance are at-
tributable in large measure to differences in the organization of data and
experience in analysts’ long-term memory. The contents of memory form a
continuous input into the analytical process, and anything that influences
what information is remembered or retrieved from memory also influences
the outcome of analysis.
This chapter discusses the capabilities and limitations of several com-
ponents of the memory system. Sensory information storage and short-term
memory are beset by severe limitations of capacity, while long-term memory,
for all practical purposes, has a virtually infinite capacity. With long-term
memory, the problems concern getting information into it and retrieving in-
formation once it is there, not physical limits on the amount of information
that may be stored. Understanding how memory works provides insight into
several analytical strengths and weaknesses.
*******************

Components of the Memory System

What is commonly called memory is not a single, simple function.
It is an extraordinarily complex system of diverse components and pro-
cesses. There are at least three, and very likely more, distinct memory
processes. The most important from the standpoint of this discussion
and best documented by scientific research are sensory information stor-

17
age (SIS), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).30
Each differs with respect to function, the form of information held, the
length of time information is retained, and the amount of information-
handling capacity. Memory researchers also posit the existence of an in-
terpretive mechanism and an overall memory monitor or control mech-
anism that guides interaction among various elements of the memory
system.

Sensory Information Storage

Sensory information storage holds sensory images for several tenths
of a second after they are received by the sensory organs. The functioning
of SIS may be observed if you close your eyes, then open and close them
again as rapidly as possible. As your eyes close, notice how the visual
image is maintained for a fraction of a second before fading. Sensory
information storage explains why a movie film shot at 16 separate frames
per second appears as continuous movement rather than a series of still
pictures. A visual trace is generally retained in SIS for about one-quarter
of a second. It is not possible to consciously extend the time that sensory
information is held in SIS. The function of SIS is to make it possible for
the brain to work on processing a sensory event for longer than the dura-
tion of the event itself.

Short-Term Memory
Information passes from SIS into short-term memory, where again
it is held for only a short period of time—a few seconds or minutes.
Whereas SIS holds the complete image, STM stores only the interpreta-
tion of the image. If a sentence is spoken, SIS retains the sounds, while
STM holds the words formed by these sounds.
Like SIS, short-term memory holds information temporarily, pend-
ing further processing. This processing includes judgments concerning
meaning, relevance, and significance, as well as the mental actions nec-
essary to integrate selected portions of the information into long-term

30. Memory researchers do not employ uniform terminology. Sensory information storage is
also known as sensory register, sensory store, and eidetic and echoic memory. Short- and long-
term memory are also referred to as primary and secondary memory. A variety of other terms
are in use as well. I have adopted the terminology used by Peter H. Lindsay and Donald A.
Norman in their text on Human Information Processing (New York: Academic Press, 1977). This
entire chapter draws heavily from Chapters 8 through 11 of the Lindsay and Norman book.

18
memory. When a person forgets immediately the name of someone to
whom he or she has just been introduced, it is because the name was not
transferred from short-term to long-term memory.
A central characteristic of STM is the severe limitation on its ca-
pacity. A person who is asked to listen to and repeat a series of 10 or 20
names or numbers normally retains only five or six items. Commonly it
is the last five or six. If one focuses instead on the first items, STM be-
comes saturated by this effort, and the person cannot concentrate on and
recall the last items. People make a choice where to focus their attention.
They can concentrate on remembering or interpreting or taking notes on
information received moments ago, or pay attention to information cur-
rently being received. Limitations on the capacity of short-term memory
often preclude doing both.
Retrieval of information from STM is direct and immediate because
the information has never left the conscious mind. Information can be
maintained in STM indefinitely by a process of “rehearsal”—repeating it
over and over again. But while rehearsing some items to retain them in
STM, people cannot simultaneously add new items. The severe limita-
tion on the amount of information retainable in STM at any one time is
physiological, and there is no way to overcome it. This is an important
point that will be discussed below in connection with working memory
and the utility of external memory aids.

Long-Term Memory
Some information retained in STM is processed into long-term
memory. This information on past experiences is filed away in the re-
cesses of the mind and must be retrieved before it can be used. In contrast
to the immediate recall of current experience from STM, retrieval of
information from LTM is indirect and sometimes laborious.
Loss of detail as sensory stimuli are interpreted and passed from
SIS into STM and then into LTM is the basis for the phenomenon of
selective perception discussed in the previous chapter. It imposes limits
on subsequent stages of analysis, inasmuch as the lost data can never be
retrieved. People can never take their mind back to what was actually
there in sensory information storage or short-term memory. They can
only retrieve their interpretation of what they thought was there as stored
in LTM.

19
 There are no practical limits to the amount of information that may
be stored in LTM. The limitations of LTM are the difficulty of processing
information into it and retrieving information from it. These subjects are
discussed below.
The three memory processes comprise the storehouse of informa-
tion or database that we call memory, but the total memory system must
include other features as well. Some mental process must determine what
information is passed from SIS into STM and from STM into LTM;
decide how to search the LTM data base and judge whether further
memory search is likely to be productive; assess the relevance of retrieved
information; and evaluate potentially contradictory data.
To explain the operation of the total memory system, psycholo-
gists posit the existence of an interpretive mechanism that operates on
the data base and a monitor or central control mechanism that guides
and oversees the operation of the whole system. Little is known of these
mechanisms and how they relate to other mental processes.
Despite much research on memory, little agreement exists on many
critical points. What is presented here is probably the lowest common
denominator on which most researchers would agree.
Organization of Information in Long-Term Memory. Physically,
the brain consists of roughly 10 billion neurons, each analogous to a
computer chip capable of storing information. Each neuron has octopus-
like arms called axons and dendrites. Electrical impulses flow through
these arms and are ferried by neurotransmitting chemicals across what is
called the synaptic gap between neurons. Memories are stored as patterns
of connections between neurons. When two neurons are activated, the
connections or “synapses” between them are strengthened.
As you read this chapter, the experience actually causes physical
changes in your brain. “In a matter of seconds, new circuits are formed
that can change forever the way you think about the world.”31
Memory records a lifetime of experience and thoughts. Such a mas-
sive data retrieval mechanism, like a library or computer system, must
have an organizational structure; otherwise information that enters the
system could never be retrieved. Imagine the Library of Congress if there
were no indexing system.

31. George Johnson, In the Palaces of Memory: How We Build the Worlds Inside Our Heads.
Vintage Books, 1992, p. xi.

20
 There has been considerable research on how information is orga-
nized and represented in memory, but the findings remain speculative.
Current research focuses on which sections of the brain process various
types of information. This is determined by testing patients who have
suffered brain damage from strokes and trauma or by using functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that “lights up” the active portion
of the brain as a person speaks, reads, writes, or listens.
None of the current theories seems to encompass the full range or
complexity of memory processes, which include memory for sights and
sounds, for feelings, and for belief systems that integrate information on
a large number of concepts. However useful the research has been for
other purposes, analysts’ needs are best served by a very simple image of
the structure of memory.
Imagine memory as a massive, multidimensional spider web. This
image captures what is, for the purposes of this book, perhaps the most
important property of information stored in memory—its interconnect-
edness. One thought leads to another. It is possible to start at any one
point in memory and follow a perhaps labyrinthine path to reach any
other point. Information is retrieved by tracing through the network of
interconnections to the place where it is stored.
Retrievability is influenced by the number of locations in which
information is stored and the number and strength of pathways from
this information to other concepts that might be activated by incom-
ing information. The more frequently a path is followed, the stronger
that path becomes and the more readily available the information located
along that path. If one has not thought of a subject for some time, it
may be difficult to recall details. After thinking our way back into the
appropriate context and finding the general location in our memory, the
interconnections become more readily available. We begin to remember
names, places, and events that had seemed to be forgotten.
Once people have started thinking about a problem one way, the
same mental circuits or pathways get activated and strengthened each
time they think about it. This facilitates the retrieval of information.
These same pathways, however, also become the mental ruts that make
it difficult to reorganize the information mentally so as to see it from a
different perspective. That explains why, in the previous chapter, once
you saw the picture of the old woman it was difficult to see the young

21
woman, or vice versa. A subsequent chapter will consider ways of break-
ing out of mental ruts.
One useful concept of memory organization is what some cogni-
tive psychologists call a “schema.” A schema is any pattern of relationships
among data stored in memory. It is any set of nodes and links between
them in the spider web of memory that hang together so strongly that
they can be retrieved and used more or less as a single unit.
For example, a person may have a schema for a bar that when acti-
vated immediately makes available in memory knowledge of the proper-
ties of a bar and what distinguishes a bar, say, from a tavern. It brings
back memories of specific bars that may in turn stimulate memories of
thirst, guilt, or other feelings or circumstances. People also have schemata
(plural for schema) for abstract concepts such as a socialist economic
system and what distinguishes it from a capitalist or communist system.
Schemata for phenomena such as success or failure in making an accurate
intelligence estimate will include links to those elements of memory that
explain typical causes and implications of success or failure. There must
also be schemata for processes that link memories of the various steps in-
volved in long division, regression analysis, or simply making inferences
from evidence and writing an intelligence report.
Any given point in memory may be connected to many different
overlapping schemata. This system is highly complex and not well un-
derstood.
This conception of a schema is so general that it begs many impor-
tant questions of interest to memory researchers, but it is the best that
can be done given the current state of knowledge. It serves the purpose
of emphasizing that memory does have structure. It also shows that how
knowledge is connected in memory is critically important in determin-
ing what information is retrieved in response to any stimulus and how
that information is used in reasoning.
Concepts and schemata stored in memory exercise a powerful in-
fluence on the formation of perceptions from sensory data. Recall the
experiment discussed in the previous chapter in which test subjects were
exposed very briefly to playing cards that had been doctored so that some
hearts were black and spades red. When retained in SIS for a fraction of a
second, the spades were indeed red. In the course of interpreting the sen-
sory impression and transferring it to STM, however, the spades became
black because the memory system has no readily available schema for a

22
red spade to be matched against the sensory impression. If information
does not fit into what people know, or think they know, they have great
difficulty processing it.
The content of schemata in memory is a principal factor distin-
guishing stronger from weaker analytical ability. This is aptly illustrated
by an experiment with chess players. When chess grandmasters and mas-
ters and ordinary chess players were given five to 10 seconds to note
the position of 20 to 25 chess pieces placed randomly on a chess board,
the masters and ordinary players were alike in being able to remember
the places of only about six pieces. If the positions of the pieces were
taken from an actual game (unknown to the test subjects), however, the
grandmasters and masters were usually able to reproduce almost all the
positions without error, while the ordinary players were still able to place
correctly only a half-dozen pieces.32
That the unique ability of the chess masters did not result from a
pure feat of memory is indicated by the masters’ inability to perform
better than ordinary players in remembering randomly placed positions.
Their exceptional performance in remembering positions from actual
games stems from their ability to immediately perceive patterns that
enable them to process many bits of information together as a single
chunk or schema. The chess master has available in long-term memory
many schemata that connect individual positions together in coherent
patterns. When the position of chess pieces on the board corresponds to
a recognized schema, it is very easy for the master to remember not only
the positions of the pieces, but the outcomes of previous games in which
the pieces were in these positions. Similarly, the unique abilities of the
master analyst are attributable to the schemata in long-term memory that
enable the analyst to perceive patterns in data that pass undetected by the
average observer.
Getting Information Into and Out of Long-Term Memory. It used
to be that how well a person learned something was thought to depend
upon how long it was kept in short-term memory or the number of times
they repeated it to themselves. Research evidence now suggests that nei-
ther of these factors plays the critical role. Continuous repetition does
not necessarily guarantee that something will be remembered. The key

32. A. D. deGroot, Thought and Choice in Chess (The Hague: Mouton, 1965) cited by Herbert
A. Simon, “How Big Is a Chunk?” Science, Vol. 183 (1974), p. 487.

23
factor in transferring information from short-term to long-term memory
is the development of associations between the new information and
schemata already available in memory. This, in turn, depends upon two
variables: the extent to which the information to be learned relates to
an already existing schema, and the level of processing given to the new
information.
Take one minute to try to memorize the following items from a
shopping list: bread, eggs, butter, salami, corn, lettuce, soap, jelly, chick-
en, and coffee. Chances are, you will try to burn the words into your
mind by repeating them over and over. Such repetition, or maintenance
rehearsal, is effective for maintaining the information in STM, but is an
inefficient and often ineffective means of transferring it to LTM. The list
is difficult to memorize because it does not correspond with any schema
already in memory.
The words are familiar, but you do not have available in memory a
schema that connects the words in this particular group to each other.
If the list were changed to juice, cereal, milk, sugar, bacon, eggs, toast,
butter, jelly, and coffee, the task would be much easier because the data
would then correspond with an existing schema—items commonly eat-
en for breakfast. Such a list can be assimilated to your existing store of
knowledge with little difficulty, just as the chess master rapidly assimi-
lates the positions of many chessmen.
Depth of processing is the second important variable in determin-
ing how well information is retained. Depth of processing refers to the
amount of effort and cognitive capacity employed to process informa-
tion, and the number and strength of associations that are thereby forged
between the data to be learned and knowledge already in memory. In ex-
periments to test how well people remember a list of words, test subjects
might be asked to perform different tasks that reflect different levels of
processing. The following illustrative tasks are listed in order of the depth
of mental processing required: say how many letters there are in each
word on the list, give a word that rhymes with each word, make a mental
image of each word, make up a story that incorporates each word.
It turns out that the greater the depth of processing, the greater
the ability to recall words on a list. This result holds true regardless of
whether the test subjects are informed in advance that the purpose of
the experiment is to test them on their memory. Advising test subjects to
expect a test makes almost no difference in their performance, presum-

24
ably because it only leads them to rehearse the information in short-term
memory, which is ineffective as compared with other forms of process-
ing.
There are three ways in which information may be learned or com-
mitted to memory: by rote, assimilation, or use of a mnemonic device.
Each of these procedures is discussed below.33
By Rote. Material to be learned is repeated verbally with sufficient
frequency that it can later be repeated from memory without use of any
memory aids. When information is learned by rote, it forms a separate
schema not closely interwoven with previously held knowledge. That is,
the mental processing adds little by way of elaboration to the new infor-
mation, and the new information adds little to the elaboration of existing
schemata. Learning by rote is a brute force technique. It seems to be the
least efficient way of remembering.
By Assimilation. Information is learned by assimilation when the
structure or substance of the information fits into some memory schema
already possessed by the learner. The new information is assimilated to
or linked to the existing schema and can be retrieved readily by first
accessing the existing schema and then reconstructing the new informa-
tion. Assimilation involves learning by comprehension and is, therefore,
a desirable method, but it can only be used to learn information that is
somehow related to our previous experience.
By Using A Mnemonic Device. A mnemonic device is any means of
organizing or encoding information for the purpose of making it easier to
remember. A high school student cramming for a geography test might
use the acronym “HOMES” as a device for remembering the first letter
of each of the Great Lakes—Huron, Ontario, etc.
To learn the first grocery list of disconnected words, you would cre-
ate some structure for linking the words to each other and/or to informa-
tion already in LTM. You might imagine yourself shopping or putting
the items away and mentally picture where they are located on the shelves
at the market or in the kitchen. Or you might imagine a story concerning
one or more meals that include all these items. Any form of processing
information in this manner is a more effective aid to retention than rote
repetition. Even more effective systems for quickly memorizing lists of

33. This discussion draws on Francis S. Bellezza, “Mnemonic Devices: Classification,

Characteristics, and Criteria” (Athens, Ohio: Ohio University, pre-publication manuscript,
January 1980).

25
names or words have been devised by various memory experts, but these
require some study and practice in their use.
Mnemonic devices are useful for remembering information that
does not fit any appropriate conceptual structure or schema already in
memory. They work by providing a simple, artificial structure to which
the information to be learned is then linked. The mnemonic device sup-
plies the mental “file categories” that ensure retrievability of information.
To remember, first recall the mnemonic device, then access the desired
information.

Memory and Intelligence Analysis

An analyst’s memory provides continuous input into the analytical
process. This input is of two types—additional factual information on
historical background and context, and schemata the analyst uses to de-
termine the meaning of newly acquired information. Information from
memory may force itself on the analyst’s awareness without any deliber-
ate effort by the analyst to remember; or, recall of the information may
require considerable time and strain. In either case, anything that influ-
ences what information is remembered or retrieved from memory also
influences intelligence analysis.
Judgment is the joint product of the available information and what
the analyst brings to the analysis of this information. An experiment
documenting differences between chess masters and ordinary chess play-
ers was noted earlier. Similar research with medical doctors diagnosing
illness indicates that differences between stronger and weaker performers
are to be found in the organization of information and experience in
long-term memory.34 The same presumably holds true for intelligence
analysts. Substantive knowledge and analytical experience determine the
store of memories and schemata the analyst draws upon to generate and
evaluate hypotheses. The key is not a simple ability to recall facts, but
the ability to recall patterns that relate facts to each other and to broader
concepts—and to employ procedures that facilitate this process.

34. Arthur S. Elstein, Lee S. Shulman & Sarah A. Sprafka, Medical Problem Solving: An Analysis
of Clinical Reasoning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 276.

26
Stretching the Limits of Working Memory
Limited information is available on what is commonly thought of as
“working memory”—the collection of information that an analyst holds
in the forefront of the mind as he or she does analysis. The general concept
of working memory seems clear from personal introspection. In writing
this chapter, I am very conscious of the constraints on my ability to keep
many pieces of information in mind while experimenting with ways to
organize this information and seeking words to express my thoughts. To
help offset these limits on my working memory, I have accumulated a
large number of written notes containing ideas and half-written para-
graphs. Only by using such external memory aids am I able to cope with
the volume and complexity of the information I want to use.
A well-known article written over 40 years ago, titled “The Magic
Number Seven—Plus or Minus Two,” contends that seven—plus or mi-
nus two—is the number of things people can keep in their head all at
once.35 That limitation on working memory is the source of many prob-
lems. People have difficulty grasping a problem in all its complexity. This
is why we sometimes have trouble making up our minds. For example,
we think first about the arguments in favor, and then about the argu-
ments against, and we can’t keep all those pros and cons in our head at
the same time to get an overview of how they balance off against each
other.
The recommended technique for coping with this limitation of
working memory is called externalizing the problem—getting it out of
one’s head and down on paper in some simplified form that shows the
main elements of the problem and how they relate to each other. Chapter
7, “Structuring Analytical Problems,” discusses ways of doing this. They
all involve breaking down a problem into its component parts and then
preparing a simple “model” that shows how the parts relate to the whole.
When working on a small part of the problem, the model keeps one from
losing sight of the whole.
A simple model of an analytical problem facilitates the assimila-
tion of new information into long-term memory; it provides a structure
to which bits and pieces of information can be related. The model de-
fines the categories for filing information in memory and retrieving it on

35. George A. Miller, “The Magical Number Seven--Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our
Capacity for Processing Information.” The Psychological Review, Vol. 63, No. 2 (March 1956).

27
demand. In other words, it serves as a mnemonic device that provides
the hooks on which to hang information so that it can be found when
needed.
The model is initially an artificial construct, like the previously
noted acronym “HOMES.” With usage, however, it rapidly becomes an
integral part of one’s conceptual structure—the set of schemata used in
processing information. At this point, remembering new information oc-
curs by assimilation rather than by mnemonics. This enhances the ability
to recall and make inferences from a larger volume of information in a
greater variety of ways than would otherwise be possible.
“Hardening of the Categories”. Memory processes tend to work
with generalized categories. If people do not have an appropriate category
for something, they are unlikely to perceive it, store it in memory, or be
able to retrieve it from memory later. If categories are drawn incorrectly,
people are likely to perceive and remember things inaccurately. When
information about phenomena that are different in important respects
nonetheless gets stored in memory under a single concept, errors of anal-
ysis may result. For example, many observers of international affairs had
the impression that Communism was a monolithic movement, that it
was the same everywhere and controlled from Moscow. All Communist
countries were grouped together in a single, undifferentiated category
called “international Communism” or “the Communist bloc.” In 1948,
this led many in the United States to downplay the importance of the
Stalin-Tito split. According to one authority, it “may help explain why
many Western minds, including scholars, remained relatively blind to
the existence and significance of Sino-Soviet differences long after they
had been made manifest in the realm of ideological formulae.”36
“Hardening of the categories” is a common analytical weakness.
Fine distinctions among categories and tolerance for ambiguity contrib-
ute to more effective analysis.
Things That Influence What Is Remembered. Factors that influ-
ence how information is stored in memory and that affect future retriev-
ability include: being the first-stored information on a given topic, the
amount of attention focused on the information, the credibility of the
information, and the importance attributed to the information at the

36. Robert Tucker, “Communist Revolutions, National Cultures, and the Divided Nations,”
Studies in Comparative Communism (Autumn 1974), 235-245.

28
moment of storage. By influencing the content of memory, all of these
factors also influence the outcome of intelligence analysis.
Chapter 12 on “Biases in Estimating Probabilities” describes how
availability in memory influences judgments of probability. The more
instances a person can recall of a phenomenon, the more probable that
phenomenon seems to be. This is true even though ability to recall past
examples is influenced by vividness of the information, how recently
something occurred, its impact upon one’s personal welfare, and many
other factors unrelated to the actual probability of the phenomenon.
Memory Rarely Changes Retroactively. Analysts often receive new
information that should, logically, cause them to reevaluate the credibili-
ty or significance of previous information. Ideally, the earlier information
should then become either more salient and readily available in memory,
or less so. But it does not work that way. Unfortunately, memories are
seldom reassessed or reorganized retroactively in response to new infor-
mation. For example, information that is dismissed as unimportant or
irrelevant because it did not fit an analyst’s expectations does not become
more memorable even if the analyst changes his or her thinking to the
point where the same information, received today, would be recognized
as very significant.

Memory Can Handicap as Well as Help

Understanding how memory works provides some insight into the
nature of creativity, openness to new information, and breaking mind-
sets. All involve spinning new links in the spider web of memory—links
among facts, concepts, and schemata that previously were not connected
or only weakly connected.
Training courses for intelligence analysts sometimes focus on try-
ing to open up an analyst’s established mind-set, to get him or her to
see problems from different perspectives in order to give a fairer shake
to alternative explanations. More often than not, the reaction of expe-
rienced analysts is that they have devoted 20 years to developing their
present mind-set, that it has served them well, and that they see no need
to change it. Such analysts view themselves, often accurately, as compa-
rable to the chess masters. They believe the information embedded in
their long-term memory permits them to perceive patterns and make
inferences that are beyond the reach of other observers. In one sense, they
are quite correct in not wanting to change; it is, indeed, their existing

29
schemata or mind-set that enables them to achieve whatever success they
enjoy in making analytical judgments.
There is, however, a crucial difference between the chess master and
the master intelligence analyst. Although the chess master faces a dif-
ferent opponent in each match, the environment in which each contest
takes place remains stable and unchanging: the permissible moves of the
diverse pieces are rigidly determined, and the rules cannot be changed
without the master’s knowledge. Once the chess master develops an ac-
curate schema, there is no need to change it. The intelligence analyst,
however, must cope with a rapidly changing world. Many countries that
previously were US adversaries are now our formal or de facto allies. The
American and Russian governments and societies are not the same today
as they were 20 or even 10 or five years ago. Schemata that were valid
yesterday may no longer be functional tomorrow.
Learning new schemata often requires the unlearning of existing
ones, and this is exceedingly difficult. It is always easier to learn a new
habit than to unlearn an old one. Schemata in long-term memory that
are so essential to effective analysis are also the principal source of iner-
tia in recognizing and adapting to a changing environment. Chapter 6,
“Keeping an Open Mind,” identifies tools for dealing with this prob-
lem.

30
 PART II—TOOLS FOR THINKING
Chapter 4
Strategies for Analytical Judgment:
Transcending the Limits of
Incomplete Information
When intelligence analysts make thoughtful analytical judgments, how
do they do it? In seeking answers to this question, this chapter discusses the
strengths and limitations of situational logic, theory, comparison, and simple
immersion in the data as strategies for the generation and evaluation of hy-
potheses. The final section discusses alternative strategies for choosing among
hypotheses. One strategy too often used by intelligence analysts is described as
“satisficing”—choosing the first hypothesis that appears good enough rather
than carefully identifying all possible hypotheses and determining which is
most consistent with the evidence.37
*******************
Intelligence analysts should be self-conscious about their reasoning
process. They should think about how they make judgments and reach
conclusions, not just about the judgments and conclusions themselves.
Webster’s dictionary defines judgment as arriving at a “decision or con-
clusion on the basis of indications and probabilities when the facts are
not clearly ascertained.” 38 Judgment is what analysts use to fill gaps in
their knowledge. It entails going beyond the available information and
is the principal means of coping with uncertainty. It always involves an
analytical leap, from the known into the uncertain.

37. An earlier version of this chapter was published as an unclassified article in Studies in
Intelligence in 1981, under the title “Strategies for Analytical Judgment.”
38. Webster’s New International Dictionary, unabridged, 1954.

31
 Judgment is an integral part of all intelligence analysis. While the
optimal goal of intelligence collection is complete knowledge, this goal is
seldom reached in practice. Almost by definition of the intelligence mis-
sion, intelligence issues involve considerable uncertainty. Thus, the ana-
lyst is commonly working with incomplete, ambiguous, and often con-
tradictory data. The intelligence analyst’s function might be described as
transcending the limits of incomplete information through the exercise
of analytical judgment.
The ultimate nature of judgment remains a mystery. It is possible,
however, to identify diverse strategies that analysts employ to process in-
formation as they prepare to pass judgment. Analytical strategies are im-
portant because they influence the data one attends to. They determine
where the analyst shines his or her searchlight, and this inevitably affects
the outcome of the analytical process.

Strategies for Generating and Evaluating Hypotheses

This book uses the term hypothesis in its broadest sense as a po-
tential explanation or conclusion that is to be tested by collecting and
presenting evidence. Examination of how analysts generate and evalu-
ate hypotheses identifies three principal strategies—the application of
theory, situational logic, and comparison—each of which is discussed at
some length below. A “non-strategy,” immersion in the data and letting
the data speak for themselves, is also discussed. This list of analytical
strategies is not exhaustive. Other strategies might include, for example,
projecting one’s own psychological needs onto the data at hand, but this
discussion is not concerned with the pathology of erroneous judgment.
Rather, the goal is to understand the several kinds of careful, conscien-
tious analysis one would hope and expect to find among a cadre of intel-
ligence analysts dealing with highly complex issues.

Situational Logic
This is the most common operating mode for intelligence analysts.
Generation and analysis of hypotheses start with consideration of con-
crete elements of the current situation, rather than with broad general-
izations that encompass many similar cases. The situation is regarded as
one-of-a-kind, so that it must be understood in terms of its own unique
logic, rather than as one example of a broad class of comparable events.

32
 Starting with the known facts of the current situation and an under-
standing of the unique forces at work at that particular time and place, the
analyst seeks to identify the logical antecedents or consequences of this
situation. A scenario is developed that hangs together as a plausible nar-
rative. The analyst may work backwards to explain the origins or causes
of the current situation or forward to estimate the future outcome.
Situational logic commonly focuses on tracing cause-effect relation-
ships or, when dealing with purposive behavior, means-ends relation-
ships. The analyst identifies the goals being pursued and explains why the
foreign actor(s) believe certain means will achieve those goals.
Particular strengths of situational logic are its wide applicability and
ability to integrate a large volume of relevant detail. Any situation, how-
ever unique, may be analyzed in this manner.
Situational logic as an analytical strategy also has two principal
weaknesses. One is that it is so difficult to understand the mental and
bureaucratic processes of foreign leaders and governments. To see the
options faced by foreign leaders as these leaders see them, one must un-
derstand their values and assumptions and even their misperceptions and
misunderstandings. Without such insight, interpreting foreign leaders’
decisions or forecasting future decisions is often little more than partially
informed speculation. Too frequently, foreign behavior appears “irratio-
nal” or “not in their own best interest.” Such conclusions often indicate
analysts have projected American values and conceptual frameworks onto
the foreign leaders and societies, rather than understanding the logic of
the situation as it appears to them.
The second weakness is that situational logic fails to exploit the
theoretical knowledge derived from study of similar phenomena in oth-
er countries and other time periods. The subject of national separatist
movements illustrates the point. Nationalism is a centuries-old problem,
but most Western industrial democracies have been considered well-in-
tegrated national communities. Even so, recent years have seen an in-
crease in pressures from minority ethnic groups seeking independence
or autonomy. Why has this phenomenon occurred recently in Scotland,
southern France and Corsica, Quebec, parts of Belgium, and Spain—as
well as in less stable Third World countries where it might be expected?
Dealing with this topic in a logic-of-the-situation mode, a country
analyst would examine the diverse political, economic, and social groups
whose interests are at stake in the country. Based on the relative power

33
positions of these groups, the dynamic interactions among them, and
anticipated trends or developments that might affect the future positions
of the interested parties, the analyst would seek to identify the driving
forces that will determine the eventual outcome.
It is quite possible to write in this manner a detailed and seemingly
well-informed study of a separatist movement in a single country while
ignoring the fact that ethnic conflict as a generic phenomenon has been
the subject of considerable theoretical study. By studying similar phe-
nomena in many countries, one can generate and evaluate hypotheses
concerning root causes that may not even be considered by an analyst
who is dealing only with the logic of a single situation. For example, to
what extent does the resurgence of long-dormant ethnic sentiments stem
from a reaction against the cultural homogenization that accompanies
modern mass communications systems?
Analyzing many examples of a similar phenomenon, as discussed
below, enables one to probe more fundamental causes than those nor-
mally considered in logic-of-the-situation analysis. The proximate causes
identified by situational logic appear, from the broader perspective of
theoretical analysis, to be but symptoms indicating the presence of more
fundamental causal factors. A better understanding of these fundamental
causes is critical to effective forecasting, especially over the longer range.
While situational logic may be the best approach to estimating short-
term developments, a more theoretical approach is required as the ana-
lytical perspective moves further into the future.

Applying Theory
Theory is an academic term not much in vogue in the Intelligence
Community, but it is unavoidable in any discussion of analytical judg-
ment. In one popular meaning of the term, “theoretical” is associated
with the terms “impractical” and “unrealistic”. Needless to say, it is used
here in a quite different sense.
A theory is a generalization based on the study of many examples of
some phenomenon. It specifies that when a given set of conditions arises,
certain other conditions will follow either with certainty or with some
degree of probability. In other words, conclusions are judged to follow
from a set of conditions and a finding that these conditions apply in the
specific case being analyzed. For example, Turkey is a developing country
in a precarious strategic position. This defines a set of conditions that

34
imply conclusions concerning the role of the military and the nature of
political processes in that country, because analysts have an implicit if not
explicit understanding of how these factors normally relate.
What academics refer to as theory is really only a more explicit ver-
sion of what intelligence analysts think of as their basic understanding of
how individuals, institutions, and political systems normally behave.
There are both advantages and drawbacks to applying theory in in-
telligence analysis. One advantage is that “theory economizes thought.”
By identifying the key elements of a problem, theory enables an analyst
to sort through a mass of less significant detail. Theory enables the analyst
to see beyond today’s transient developments, to recognize which trends
are superficial and which are significant, and to foresee future develop-
ments for which there is today little concrete evidence.
Consider, for example, the theoretical proposition that economic
development and massive infusion of foreign ideas in a feudal society
lead to political instability. This proposition seems well established.
When applied to Saudi Arabia, it suggests that the days of the Saudi
monarchy are numbered, although analysts of the Saudi scene using situ-
ational logic find little or no current evidence of a meaningful threat to
the power and position of the royal family. Thus, the application of a
generally accepted theoretical proposition enables the analyst to forecast
an outcome for which the “hard evidence” has not yet begun to develop.
This is an important strength of theoretical analysis when applied to real-
world problems.
Yet this same example also illustrates a common weakness in apply-
ing theory to analysis of political phenomena. Theoretical propositions
frequently fail to specify the time frame within which developments
might be anticipated to occur. The analytical problem with respect to
Saudi Arabia is not so much whether the monarchy will eventually be
replaced, as when or under what conditions this might happen. Further
elaboration of the theory relating economic development and foreign
ideas to political instability in feudal societies would identify early warn-
ing indicators that analysts might look for. Such indicators would guide
both intelligence collection and analysis of sociopolitical and socioeco-
nomic data and lead to hypotheses concerning when or under what cir-
cumstances such an event might occur.
But if theory enables the analyst to transcend the limits of available
data, it may also provide the basis for ignoring evidence that is truly

35
indicative of future events. Consider the following theoretical proposi-
tions in the light of popular agitation against the Shah of Iran in the late
1970s: (1) When the position of an authoritarian ruler is threatened, he
will defend his position with force if necessary. (2) An authoritarian ruler
enjoying complete support of effective military and security forces cannot
be overthrown by popular opinion and agitation. Few would challenge
these propositions, yet when applied to Iran in the late 1970s, they led
Iran specialists to misjudge the Shah’s chances for retaining the peacock
throne. Many if not most such specialists seemed convinced that the
Shah remained strong and that he would crack down on dissent when
it threatened to get out of control. Many persisted in this assessment for
several months after the accumulation of what in retrospect appears to
have been strong evidence to the contrary.
Persistence of these assumptions is easily understood in psychologi-
cal terms. When evidence is lacking or ambiguous, the analyst evaluates
hypotheses by applying his or her general background knowledge con-
cerning the nature of political systems and behavior. The evidence on
the strength of the Shah and his intention to crack down on dissidents
was ambiguous, but the Iranian monarch was an authoritarian ruler, and
authoritarian regimes were assumed to have certain characteristics, as
noted in the previously cited propositions. Thus beliefs about the Shah
were embedded in broad and persuasive assumptions about the nature
of authoritarian regimes per se. For an analyst who believed in the two
aforementioned propositions, it would have taken far more evidence, in-
cluding more unambiguous evidence, to infer that the Shah would be
overthrown than to justify continued confidence in his future.39
Figure 4 below illustrates graphically the difference between theory
and situational logic. Situational logic looks at the evidence within a
single country on multiple interrelated issues, as shown by the column

39. Even in retrospect these two propositions still seem valid, which is why some aspects of the
Shah’s fall remain incredible. There are, in principle, three possible reasons why these seemingly
valid theoretical assumptions failed to generate an accurate estimate on Iran: (1) One or more
of the initial conditions posited by the theory did not in fact apply--for example, the Shah was
not really an authoritarian ruler. (2) The theory is only partially valid, in that there are certain
circumstances under which it does and does not apply. These limiting conditions need to be
specified. (3) The theory is basically valid, but one cannot expect 100-percent accuracy from
social science theories. Social science, as distinct from natural science, deals with a probabilistic
environment. One cannot foresee all the circumstances that might cause an exception to the
general rules, so the best that can be expected is that the given conditions will lead to the speci-
fied outcome most of the time.

36
highlighted in gray. This is a typical area studies approach. Theoretical
analysis looks at the evidence related to a single issue in multiple coun-
tries, as shown by the row highlighted in gray. This is a typical social sci-
ence approach.
The distinction between theory and situational logic is not as clear
as it may seem from this graphic, however. Logic-of-the-situation analy-
sis also draws heavily on theoretical assumptions. How does the analyst
select the most significant elements to describe the current situation, or
identify the causes or consequences of these elements, without some im-
plicit theory that relates the likelihood of certain outcomes to certain
antecedent conditions?
For example, if the analyst estimating the outcome of an impending
election does not have current polling data, it is necessary to look back at
past elections, study the campaigns, and then judge how voters are likely
to react to the current campaigns and to events that influence voter at-
titudes. In doing so, the analyst operates from a set of assumptions about
human nature and what drives people and groups. These assumptions
form part of a theory of political behavior, but it is a different sort of
theory than was discussed under theoretical analysis. It does not illumi-
nate the entire situation, but only a small increment of the situation, and
it may not apply beyond the specific country of concern. Further, it is

37
much more likely to remain implicit, rather than be a focal point of the
analysis.

Comparison with Historical Situations

A third approach for going beyond the available information is
comparison. An analyst seeks understanding of current events by com-
paring them with historical precedents in the same country, or with simi-
lar events in other countries. Analogy is one form of comparison. When
an historical situation is deemed comparable to current circumstances,
analysts use their understanding of the historical precedent to fill gaps in
their understanding of the current situation. Unknown elements of the
present are assumed to be the same as known elements of the historical
precedent. Thus, analysts reason that the same forces are at work, that the
outcome of the present situation is likely to be similar to the outcome
of the historical situation, or that a certain policy is required in order to
avoid the same outcome as in the past.
Comparison differs from situational logic in that the present situa-
tion is interpreted in the light of a more or less explicit conceptual model
that is created by looking at similar situations in other times or places.
It differs from theoretical analysis in that this conceptual model is based
on a single case or only a few cases, rather than on many similar cases.
Comparison may also be used to generate theory, but this is a more nar-
row kind of theorizing that cannot be validated nearly as well as general-
izations inferred from many comparable cases.
Reasoning by comparison is a convenient shortcut, one chosen when
neither data nor theory are available for the other analytical strategies, or
simply because it is easier and less time-consuming than a more detailed
analysis. A careful comparative analysis starts by specifying key elements
of the present situation. The analyst then seeks out one or more historical
precedents that may shed light on the present. Frequently, however, a his-
torical precedent may be so vivid and powerful that it imposes itself upon
a person’s thinking from the outset, conditioning them to perceive the
present primarily in terms of its similarity to the past. This is reasoning
by analogy. As Robert Jervis noted, “historical analogies often precede,
rather than follow, a careful analysis of a situation.”40

40. Robert Jervis, “Hypotheses on Misperception,” World Politics 20 (April 1968), p. 471.

38
 The tendency to relate contemporary events to earlier events as a
guide to understanding is a powerful one. Comparison helps achieve un-
derstanding by reducing the unfamiliar to the familiar. In the absence of
data required for a full understanding of the current situation, reasoning
by comparison may be the only alternative. Anyone taking this approach,
however, should be aware of the significant potential for error. This course
is an implicit admission of the lack of sufficient information to under-
stand the present situation in its own right, and lack of relevant theory to
relate the present situation to many other comparable situations
The difficulty, of course, is in being certain that two situations are
truly comparable. Because they are equivalent in some respects, there is a
tendency to reason as though they were equivalent in all respects, and to
assume that the current situation will have the same or similar outcome
as the historical situation. This is a valid assumption only when based on
in-depth analysis of both the current situation and the historical prece-
dent to ensure that they are actually comparable in all relevant respects.
In a short book that ought to be familiar to all intelligence analysts,
Ernest May traced the impact of historical analogy on US foreign pol-
icy.41 He found that because of reasoning by analogy, US policymakers
tend to be one generation behind, determined to avoid the mistakes of
the previous generation. They pursue the policies that would have been
most appropriate in the historical situation but are not necessarily well
adapted to the current one.
Policymakers in the 1930s, for instance, viewed the international
situation as analogous to that before World War I. Consequently, they
followed a policy of isolation that would have been appropriate for pre-
venting American involvement in the first World War but failed to pre-
vent the second. Communist aggression after World War II was seen as
analogous to Nazi aggression, leading to a policy of containment that
could have prevented World War II.
More recently, the Vietnam analogy has been used repeatedly over
many years to argue against an activist US foreign policy. For example,
some used the Vietnam analogy to argue against US participation in the
Gulf War—a flawed analogy because the operating terrain over which

41. Ernest May, `Lessons’ of the Past: The Use and Misuse of History in American Foreign Policy
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1973).

39
battles were fought was completely different in Kuwait/Iraq and much
more in our favor there as compared with Vietnam.
May argues that policymakers often perceive problems in terms of
analogies with the past, but that they ordinarily use history badly:

When resorting to an analogy, they tend to seize upon the first

that comes to mind. They do not research more widely. Nor
do they pause to analyze the case, test its fitness, or even ask in
what ways it might be misleading.42

As compared with policymakers, intelligence analysts have more time

available to “analyze rather than analogize.” Intelligence analysts tend to
be good historians, with a large number of historical precedents available
for recall. The greater the number of potential analogues an analyst has
at his or her disposal, the greater the likelihood of selecting an appropri-
ate one. The greater the depth of an analyst’s knowledge, the greater the
chances the analyst will perceive the differences as well as the similarities
between two situations. Even under the best of circumstances, however,
inferences based on comparison with a single analogous situation prob-
ably are more prone to error than most other forms of inference.
The most productive uses of comparative analysis are to sug-
gest hypotheses and to highlight differences, not to draw conclusions.
Comparison can suggest the presence or the influence of variables that
are not readily apparent in the current situation, or stimulate the imagi-
nation to conceive explanations or possible outcomes that might not oth-
erwise occur to the analyst. In short, comparison can generate hypotheses
that then guide the search for additional information to confirm or refute
these hypotheses. It should not, however, form the basis for conclusions
unless thorough analysis of both situations has confirmed they are indeed
comparable.

Data Immersion
Analysts sometimes describe their work procedure as immersing
themselves in the data without fitting the data into any preconceived
pattern. At some point an apparent pattern (or answer or explanation)
emerges spontaneously, and the analyst then goes back to the data to
check how well the data support this judgment. According to this view,

42. Ibid., p. xi.

40
objectivity requires the analyst to suppress any personal opinions or pre-
conceptions, so as to be guided only by the “facts” of the case.
To think of analysis in this way overlooks the fact that information
cannot speak for itself. The significance of information is always a joint
function of the nature of the information and the context in which it is
interpreted. The context is provided by the analyst in the form of a set
of assumptions and expectations concerning human and organizational
behavior. These preconceptions are critical determinants of which infor-
mation is considered relevant and how it is interpreted.
Of course there are many circumstances in which the analyst has no
option but to immerse himself or herself in the data. Obviously, an ana-
lyst must have a base of knowledge to work with before starting analysis.
When dealing with a new and unfamiliar subject, the uncritical and rela-
tively non-selective accumulation and review of information is an ap-
propriate first step. But this is a process of absorbing information, not
analyzing it.
Analysis begins when the analyst consciously inserts himself or her-
self into the process to select, sort, and organize information. This selec-
tion and organization can only be accomplished according to conscious
or subconscious assumptions and preconceptions.
The question is not whether one’s prior assumptions and expecta-
tions influence analysis, but only whether this influence is made explicit
or remains implicit. The distinction appears to be important. In research
to determine how physicians make medical diagnoses, the doctors who
comprised the test subjects were asked to describe their analytical strate-
gies. Those who stressed thorough collection of data as their principal
analytical method were significantly less accurate in their diagnoses than
those who described themselves as following other analytical strategies
such as identifying and testing hypotheses.43 Moreover, the collection of
additional data through greater thoroughness in the medical history and
physical examination did not lead to increased diagnostic accuracy.44
One might speculate that the analyst who seeks greater objectivity
by suppressing recognition of his or her own subjective input actually has
less valid input to make. Objectivity is gained by making assumptions

43. Arthur S. Elstein, Lee S. Shulman, and Sarah A. Sprafka, Medical Problem Solving: An
Analysis of Clinical Reasoning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978), p. 270.
44. Ibid., p. 281. For more extensive discussion of the value of additional information, see
Chapter 5, “Do You Really Need More Information?”

41
explicit so that they may be examined and challenged, not by vain efforts
to eliminate them from analysis.

Relationships Among Strategies

No one strategy is necessarily better than the others. In order to
generate all relevant hypotheses and make maximum use of all poten-
tially relevant information, it would be desirable to employ all three
strategies at the early hypothesis generation phase of a research project.
Unfortunately, analysts commonly lack the inclination or time to do so.
Different analysts have different analytical habits and preferences
for analytical strategy. As a broad generalization that admits numerous
exceptions, analysts trained in area studies or history tend to prefer situ-
ational logic, while those with a strong social science background are
more likely to bring theoretical and comparative insights to bear on their
work. The Intelligence Community as a whole is far stronger in situ-
ational logic than in theory. In my judgment, intelligence analysts do not
generalize enough, as opposed to many academic scholars who generalize
too much. This is especially true in political analysis, and it is not entirely
due to unavailability of applicable political theory. Theoretical insights
that are available are often unknown to or at least not used by political
intelligence analysts.
Differences in analytical strategy may cause fundamental differences
in perspective between intelligence analysts and some of the policymak-
ers for whom they write. Higher level officials who are not experts on the
subject at issue use far more theory and comparison and less situational
logic than intelligence analysts. Any policymaker or other senior manag-
er who lacks the knowledge base of the specialist and does not have time
for detail must, of necessity, deal with broad generalizations. Many deci-
sions must be made, with much less time to consider each of them than
is available to the intelligence analyst. This requires the policymaker to
take a more conceptual approach, to think in terms of theories, models,
or analogies that summarize large amounts of detail. Whether this rep-
resents sophistication or oversimplification depends upon the individual
case and, perhaps, whether one agrees or disagrees with the judgments
made. In any event, intelligence analysts would do well to take this phe-
nomenon into account when writing for their consumers.

42
Strategies for Choice Among Hypotheses
A systematic analytical process requires selection among alternative
hypotheses, and it is here that analytical practice often diverges signifi-
cantly from the ideal and from the canons of scientific method. The ideal
is to generate a full set of hypotheses, systematically evaluate each hy-
pothesis, and then identify the hypothesis that provides the best fit to the
data. Scientific method, for its part, requires that one seek to disprove
hypotheses rather than confirm them.
In practice, other strategies are commonly employed. Alexander
George has identified a number of less-than-optimal strategies for mak-
ing decisions in the face of incomplete information and multiple, com-
peting values and goals. While George conceived of these strategies as ap-
plicable to how decisionmakers choose among alternative policies, most
also apply to how intelligence analysts might decide among alternative
analytical hypotheses.
The relevant strategies George identified are:

• "Satisficing"—selecting the first identified alternative that ap-

pears "good enough" rather than examining all alternatives to
determine which is "best."

• Incrementalism—focusing on a narrow range of alternatives rep-

resenting marginal change, without considering the need for dra-
matic change from an existing position.

• Consensus—opting for the alternative that will elicit the greatest

agreement and support. Simply telling the boss what he or she
wants to hear is one version of this.

• Reasoning by analogy—choosing the alternative that appears

most likely to avoid some previous error or to duplicate a previ-
ous success.

• Relying on a set of principles or maxims that distinguish a "good"

from a "bad" alternative.45

45. Alexander George, Presidential Decisionmaking in Foreign Policy: The Effective Use of
Information and Advice (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1980), Chapter 2.

43
 The intelligence analyst has another tempting option not available
to the policymaker: to avoid judgment by simply describing the current
situation, identifying alternatives, and letting the intelligence consumer
make the judgment about which alternative is most likely. Most of these
strategies are not discussed here. The following paragraphs focus only on
the one that seems most prevalent in intelligence analysis.

“Satisficing”
I would suggest, based on personal experience and discussions with
analysts, that most analysis is conducted in a manner very similar to
the satisficing mode (selecting the first identified alternative that appears
“good enough”).46 The analyst identifies what appears to be the most like-
ly hypothesis—that is, the tentative estimate, explanation, or description
of the situation that appears most accurate. Data are collected and orga-
nized according to whether they support this tentative judgment, and the
hypothesis is accepted if it seems to provide a reasonable fit to the data.
The careful analyst will then make a quick review of other possible hy-
potheses and of evidence not accounted for by the preferred judgment to
ensure that he or she has not overlooked some important consideration.
This approach has three weaknesses: the selective perception that re-
sults from focus on a single hypothesis, failure to generate a complete set
of competing hypotheses, and a focus on evidence that confirms rather
than disconfirms hypotheses. Each of these is discussed below.
Selective Perception. Tentative hypotheses serve a useful function
in helping analysts select, organize, and manage information. They nar-
row the scope of the problem so that the analyst can focus efficiently
on data that are most relevant and important. The hypotheses serve as
organizing frameworks in working memory and thus facilitate retrieval
of information from memory. In short, they are essential elements of the
analytical process. But their functional utility also entails some cost, be-
cause a hypothesis functions as a perceptual filter. Analysts, like people in
general, tend to see what they are looking for and to overlook that which
is not specifically included in their search strategy. They tend to limit the
processed information to that which is relevant to the current hypothesis.

46. The concept of “satisficing,” of seeking a satisfactory rather than an optimal solution, was
developed by Herbert A. Simon and is widely used in the literature on decision analysis.

44
If the hypothesis is incorrect, information may be lost that would suggest
a new or modified hypothesis.
This difficulty can be overcome by the simultaneous consideration
of multiple hypotheses. This approach is discussed in detail in Chapter
8. It has the advantage of focusing attention on those few items of evi-
dence that have the greatest diagnostic value in distinguishing among
the validity of competing hypotheses. Most evidence is consistent with
several different hypotheses, and this fact is easily overlooked when ana-
lysts focus on only one hypothesis at a time—especially if their focus is
on seeking to confirm rather than disprove what appears to be the most
likely answer.
Failure To Generate Appropriate Hypotheses. If tentative hypoth-
eses determine the criteria for searching for information and judging its
relevance, it follows that one may overlook the proper answer if it is not
encompassed within the several hypotheses being considered. Research
on hypothesis generation suggests that performance on this task is woe-
fully inadequate.47 When faced with an analytical problem, people are
either unable or simply do not take the time to identify the full range
of potential answers. Analytical performance might be significantly en-
hanced by more deliberate attention to this stage of the analytical pro-
cess. Analysts need to take more time to develop a full set of competing
hypotheses, using all three of the previously discussed strategies—theory,
situational logic, and comparison.
Failure To Consider Diagnosticity of Evidence. In the absence of
a complete set of alternative hypotheses, it is not possible to evaluate the
“diagnosticity” of evidence. Unfortunately, many analysts are unfamiliar
with the concept of diagnosticity of evidence. It refers to the extent to
which any item of evidence helps the analyst determine the relative likeli-
hood of alternative hypotheses.
To illustrate, a high temperature may have great value in telling a
doctor that a patient is sick, but relatively little value in determining
which illness the patient is suffering from. Because a high temperature is
consistent with so many possible hypotheses about a patient’s illness, it
has limited diagnostic value in determining which illness (hypothesis) is
the more likely one.

47. Charles Gettys et al., Hypothesis Generation: A Final Report on Three Years of Research.
Technical Report 15-10-80. University of Oklahoma, Decision Processes Laboratory, 1980.

45
 Evidence is diagnostic when it influences an analyst’s judgment on
the relative likelihood of the various hypotheses. If an item of evidence
seems consistent with all the hypotheses, it may have no diagnostic value
at all. It is a common experience to discover that most available evidence
really is not very helpful, as it can be reconciled with all the hypotheses.

Failure To Reject Hypotheses

Scientific method is based on the principle of rejecting hypotheses,
while tentatively accepting only those hypotheses that cannot be refuted.
Intuitive analysis, by comparison, generally concentrates on confirming
a hypothesis and commonly accords more weight to evidence supporting
a hypothesis than to evidence that weakens it. Ideally, the reverse would
be true. While analysts usually cannot apply the statistical procedures
of scientific methodology to test their hypotheses, they can and should
adopt the conceptual strategy of seeking to refute rather than confirm
hypotheses.
There are two aspects to this problem: people do not naturally seek
disconfirming evidence, and when such evidence is received it tends to be
discounted. If there is any question about the former, consider how of-
ten people test their political and religious beliefs by reading newspapers
and books representing an opposing viewpoint. Concerning the latter,
we have noted in Chapter 2, “Perception: Why Can’t We See What Is
There to Be Seen?” the tendency to accommodate new information to
existing images. This is easy to do if information supporting a hypothesis
is accepted as valid, while information that weakens it is judged to be of
questionable reliability or an unimportant anomaly. When information
is processed in this manner, it is easy to “confirm” almost any hypothesis
that one already believes to be true.
Apart from the psychological pitfalls involved in seeking confirma-
tory evidence, an important logical point also needs to be considered.
The logical reasoning underlying the scientific method of rejecting hy-
potheses is that “. . . no confirming instance of a law is a verifying in-
stance, but that any disconfirming instance is a falsifying instance.”48 In
other words, a hypothesis can never be proved by the enumeration of
even a large body of evidence consistent with that hypothesis, because

48. P. C. Wason, “On the Failure to Eliminate Hypotheses in a Conceptual Task,” The Quarterly
Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol. XII, Part 3 (1960).

46
the same body of evidence may also be consistent with other hypotheses.
A hypothesis may be disproved, however, by citing a single item of evi-
dence that is incompatible with it.
P. C. Wason conducted a series of experiments to test the view that
people generally seek confirming rather than disconfirming evidence.49
The experimental design was based on the above point that the validity
of a hypothesis can only be tested by seeking to disprove it rather than
confirm it. Test subjects were given the three-number sequence, 2 - 4 - 6,
and asked to discover the rule employed to generate this sequence. In
order to do so, they were permitted to generate three-number sequences
of their own and to ask the experimenter whether these conform to the
rule. They were encouraged to generate and ask about as many sequences
as they wished and were instructed to stop only when they believed they
had discovered the rule.
There are, of course, many possible rules that might account for the
sequence 2 - 4 - 6. The test subjects formulated tentative hypotheses such
as any ascending sequence of even numbers, or any sequence separated
by two digits. As expected, the test subjects generally took the incorrect
approach of trying to confirm rather than eliminate such hypotheses.
To test the hypothesis that the rule was any ascending sequence of even
numbers, for example, they might ask if the sequence 8 - 10 - 14 con-
forms to the rule.
Readers who have followed the reasoning to this point will recog-
nize that this hypothesis can never be proved by enumerating examples
of ascending sequences of even numbers that are found to conform to the
sought-for rule. One can only disprove the hypothesis by citing an as-
cending sequence of odd numbers and learning that this, too, conforms
to the rule.
The correct rule was any three ascending numbers, either odd or
even. Because of their strategy of seeking confirming evidence, only six of
the 29 test subjects in Wason’s experiment were correct the first time they
thought they had discovered the rule. When this same experiment was
repeated by a different researcher for a somewhat different purpose, none

49. Wason, ibid.

47
of the 51 test subjects had the right answer the first time they thought
they had discovered the rule.50
In the Wason experiment, the strategy of seeking confirming rather
than disconfirming evidence was particularly misleading because the 2
- 4 - 6 sequence is consistent with such a large number of hypotheses.
It was easy for test subjects to obtain confirmatory evidence for almost
any hypothesis they tried to confirm. It is important to recognize that
comparable situations, when evidence is consistent with several different
hypotheses, are extremely common in intelligence analysis.
Consider lists of early warning indicators, for example. They are
designed to be indicative of an impending attack. Very many of them,
however, are also consistent with the hypothesis that military movements
are a bluff to exert diplomatic pressure and that no military action will be
forthcoming. When analysts seize upon only one of these hypotheses and
seek evidence to confirm it, they will often be led astray.
The evidence available to the intelligence analyst is in one impor-
tant sense different from the evidence available to test subjects asked to
infer the number sequence rule. The intelligence analyst commonly deals
with problems in which the evidence has only a probabilistic relation-
ship to the hypotheses being considered. Thus it is seldom possible to
eliminate any hypothesis entirely, because the most one can say is that a
given hypothesis is unlikely given the nature of the evidence, not that it
is impossible.
This weakens the conclusions that can be drawn from a strategy
aimed at eliminating hypotheses, but it does not in any way justify a
strategy aimed at confirming them.
Circumstances and insufficient data often preclude the application
of rigorous scientific procedures in intelligence analysis—including, in
particular, statistical methods for testing hypotheses. There is, howev-
er, certainly no reason why the basic conceptual strategy of looking for
contrary evidence cannot be employed. An optimal analytical strategy
requires that analysts search for information to disconfirm their favorite
theories, not employ a satisficing strategy that permits acceptance of the
first hypothesis that seems consistent with the evidence.

50. Harold M. Weiss and Patrick A. Knight, “The Utility of Humility: Self-Esteem,
Information Search, and Problem-Solving Efficiency,” Organizational Behavior and Human
Performance, Vol. 25, No. 2 (April 1980), 216-223.

48
Conclusion
There are many detailed assessments of intelligence failures, but
few comparable descriptions of intelligence successes. In reviewing the
literature on intelligence successes, Frank Stech found many examples
of success but only three accounts that provide sufficient methodologi-
cal details to shed light on the intellectual processes and methods that
contributed to the successes. These dealt with successful American and
British intelligence efforts during World War II to analyze German pro-
paganda, predict German submarine movements, and estimate future
capabilities and intentions of the German Air Force.51
Stech notes that in each of these highly successful efforts, the ana-
lysts employed procedures that “. . . facilitated the formulation and test-
ing against each other of alternative hypothetical estimates of enemy in-
tentions. Each of the three accounts stressed this pitting of competing
hypotheses against the evidence.”52
The simultaneous evaluation of multiple, competing hypotheses
permits a more systematic and objective analysis than is possible when
an analyst focuses on a single, most-likely explanation or estimate. The
simultaneous evaluation of multiple, competing hypotheses entails far
greater cognitive strain than examining a single, most-likely hypothesis.
Retaining multiple hypotheses in working memory and noting how each
item of evidence fits into each hypothesis add up to a formidable cogni-
tive task. That is why this approach is seldom employed in intuitive anal-
ysis of complex issues. It can be accomplished, however, with the help
of simple procedures described in Chapter 8, “Analysis of Competing
Hypotheses.”

51. Alexander George, Propaganda Analysis: A Study of Inferences Made From Nazi Propaganda in
World War II (Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson, 1959); Patrick Beesly, Very Special Intelligence: The
Story of the Admiralty’s Operational Intelligence Center 1939-1945 (London: Hamish Hamilton,
1977); and R. V. Jones, Wizard War: British Scientific Intelligence 1939-1945 (New York:
Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, 1978).
52. Frank J. Stech, Political and Military Intention Estimation: A Taxonometric Analysis, Final
Report for Office of Naval Research (Bethesda, MD: MATHTECH, Inc., November 1979), p.
283.

49
50
 Chapter 5
Do You Really Need More Information?
The difficulties associated with intelligence analysis are often attrib-
uted to the inadequacy of available information. Thus the US Intelligence
Community invests heavily in improved intelligence collection systems while
managers of analysis lament the comparatively small sums devoted to en-
hancing analytical resources, improving analytical methods, or gaining bet-
ter understanding of the cognitive processes involved in making analytical
judgments. This chapter questions the often-implicit assumption that lack of
information is the principal obstacle to accurate intelligence judgments.53
*******************
Using experts in a variety of fields as test subjects, experimental psy-
chologists have examined the relationship between the amount of infor-
mation available to the experts, the accuracy of judgments they make
based on this information, and the experts’ confidence in the accuracy of
these judgments. The word “information,” as used in this context, refers
to the totality of material an analyst has available to work with in making
a judgment.
Using experts in a variety of fields as test subjects, experimental psy-
chologists have examined the relationship between the amount of infor-
mation available to the experts, the accuracy of judgments they make
based on this information, and the experts’ confidence in the accuracy of
these judgments. The word “information,” as used in this context, refers

53. This is an edited version of an article that appeared in Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 23, No. 1
(Spring 1979). That Studies in Intelligence article was later reprinted in H. Bradford Westerfield,
ed., Inside CIA’s Private World: Declassified Articles from the Agency’s Internal Journal, 1955-1992
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995). A slightly different version was published in The
Bureaucrat, Vol. 8, 1979, under the title “Improving Intelligence Analysis: Some Insights on
Data, Concepts, and Management in the Intelligence Community.” For this book, portions of
the original article dealing with improving intelligence analysis have been moved to Chapter 14
on “Improving Intelligence Analysis.”

51
to the totality of material an analyst has available to work with in making
a judgment.
Key findings from this research are:

• Once an experienced analyst has the minimum information nec-

essary to make an informed judgment, obtaining additional in-
formation generally does not improve the accuracy of his or her
estimates. Additional information does, however, lead the analyst
to become more confident in the judgment, to the point of over-
confidence.

• Experienced analysts have an imperfect understanding of what

information they actually use in making judgments. They are
unaware of the extent to which their judgments are determined
by a few dominant factors, rather than by the systematic integra-
tion of all available information. Analysts actually use much less
of the available information than they think they do.

As will be noted below, these experimental findings should not nec-

essarily be accepted at face value. For example, circumstances exist in
which additional information does contribute to more accurate analy-
sis. However, there also are circumstances in which additional informa-
tion—particularly contradictory information—decreases rather than in-
creases an analyst’s confidence.
To interpret the disturbing but not surprising findings from these
experiments, it is necessary to consider four different types of informa-
tion and discuss their relative value in contributing to the accuracy of
analytical judgments. It is also helpful to distinguish analysis in which
results are driven by the data from analysis that is driven by the concep-
tual framework employed to interpret the data.
Understanding the complex relationship between amount of infor-
mation and accuracy of judgment has implications for both the manage-
ment and conduct of intelligence analysis. Such an understanding sug-
gests analytical procedures and management initiatives that may indeed
contribute to more accurate analytical judgments. It also suggests that
resources needed to attain a better understanding of the entire analytical
process might profitably be diverted from some of the more costly intel-
ligence collection programs.

52
 These findings have broad relevance beyond the Intelligence
Community. Analysis of information to gain a better understanding of
current developments and to estimate future outcomes is an essential
component of decisionmaking in any field. In fact, the psychological
experiments that are most relevant have been conducted with experts in
such diverse fields as medical and psychological diagnosis, stock market
analysis, weather forecasting, and horserace handicapping. The experi-
ments reflect basic human processes that affect analysis of any subject.
One may conduct experiments to demonstrate these phenomena
in any field in which experts analyze a finite number of identifiable and
classifiable kinds of information to make judgments or estimates that
can subsequently be checked for accuracy. The stock market analyst, for
example, commonly works with information concerning price-earnings
ratios, profit margins, earnings per share, market volume, and resistance
and support levels, and it is relatively easy to measure quantitatively the
accuracy of the resulting predictions. By controlling the information
made available to a group of experts and then checking the accuracy of
judgments based on this information, it is possible to investigate how
people use information to arrive at analytical judgments.

An Experiment: Betting on the Horses

A description of one such experiment serves to illustrate the proce-
dure.54 Eight experienced horserace handicappers were shown a list of 88
variables found on a typical past-performance chart—for example, the
weight to be carried; the percentage of races in which horse finished first,
second, or third during the previous year; the jockey’s record; and the
number of days since the horse’s last race. Each handicapper was asked to
identify, first, what he considered to be the five most important items of
information—those he would wish to use to handicap a race if he were
limited to only five items of information per horse. Each was then asked
to select the 10, 20, and 40 most important variables he would use if
limited to those levels of information.
At this point, the handicappers were given true data (sterilized so
that horses and actual races could not be identified) for 40 past races and

54. Paul Slovic, “Behavioral Problems of Adhering to a Decision Policy,” unpublished manu-
script, 1973.

53
were asked to rank the top five horses in each race in order of expected
finish. Each handicapper was given the data in increments of the 5, 10,
20 and 40 variables he had judged to be most useful. Thus, he predicted
each race four times—once with each of the four different levels of in-
formation. For each prediction, each handicapper assigned a value from
0 to 100 percent to indicate degree of confidence in the accuracy of his
prediction.
When the handicappers’ predictions were compared with the ac-
tual outcomes of these 40 races, it was clear that average accuracy of
predictions remained the same regardless of how much information the
handicappers had available. Three of the handicappers actually showed
less accuracy as the amount of information increased, two improved their
accuracy, and three were unchanged. All, however, expressed steadily in-
creasing confidence in their judgments as more information was received.
This relationship between amount of information, accuracy of the handi-

54
cappers’ prediction of the first place winners, and the handicappers’ con-
fidence in their predictions is shown in Figure 5.
With only five items of information, the handicappers’ confidence
was well calibrated with their accuracy, but they became overconfident as
additional information was received.
The same relationships among amount of information, accuracy,
and analyst confidence have been confirmed by similar experiments in
other fields.55 In one experiment with clinical psychologists, a psycho-
logical case file was divided into four sections representing successive
chronological periods in the life of a relatively normal individual. Thirty-
two psychologists with varying levels of experience were asked to make
judgments on the basis of this information. After reading each section
of the case file, the psychologists answered 25 questions (for which there
were known answers) about the personality of the subject of the file. As
in other experiments, increasing information resulted in a strong rise in
confidence but a negligible increase in accuracy.56
A series of experiments to examine the mental processes of medical
doctors diagnosing illness found little relationship between thoroughness
of data collection and accuracy of diagnosis. Medical students whose self-
described research strategy stressed thorough collection of information
(as opposed to formation and testing of hypotheses) were significantly
below average in the accuracy of their diagnoses. It seems that the explicit
formulation of hypotheses directs a more efficient and effective search for
information.57

Modeling Expert Judgment

Another significant question concerns the extent to which analysts
possess an accurate understanding of their own mental processes. How
good is their insight into how they actually weight evidence in mak-
ing judgments? For each situation to be analyzed, they have an implicit
“mental model” consisting of beliefs and assumptions as to which vari-

55. For a list of references, see Lewis R. Goldberg, “Simple Models or Simple Processes? Some
Research on Clinical Judgments,” American Psychologist, 23 (1968), pp. 261-265.
56. Stuart Oskamp, “Overconfidence in Case-Study Judgments,” Journal of Consulting
Psychology, 29 (1965), pp. 261-265.
57. Arthur S. Elstein et al., Medical Problem Solving: An Analysis of Clinical Reasoning
(Cambridge, MA and London: Harvard University Press, 1978), pp. 270 and 295.

55
ables are most important and how they are related to each other. If ana-
lysts have good insight into their own mental model, they should be able
to identify and describe the variables they have considered most impor-
tant in making judgments.
There is strong experimental evidence, however, that such self-in-
sight is usually faulty. The expert perceives his or her own judgmental
process, including the number of different kinds of information taken
into account, as being considerably more complex than is in fact the case.
Experts overestimate the importance of factors that have only a minor
impact on their judgment and underestimate the extent to which their
decisions are based on a few major variables. In short, people’s mental
models are simpler than they think, and the analyst is typically unaware
not only of which variables should have the greatest influence, but also
which variables actually are having the greatest influence.
All this has been demonstrated by experiments in which analysts
were asked to make quantitative estimates concerning a relatively large
number of cases in their area of expertise, with each case defined by a
number of quantifiable factors. In one experiment, for example, stock
market analysts were asked to predict long-term price appreciation for 50
securities, with each security being described in such terms as price/earn-
ings ratio, corporate earnings growth trend, and dividend yield.58 After
completing this task, the analysts were asked to explain how they reached
their conclusions, including how much weight they attached to each of
the variables. They were instructed to be sufficiently explicit that another
person going through the same information could apply the same judg-
mental rules and arrive at the same conclusions.
In order to compare this verbal rationalization with the judgmental
policy reflected in the stock market analysts’ actual decisions, multiple
regression analysis or other similar statistical procedures can be used to
develop a mathematical model of how each analyst actually weighed and
combined information on the relevant variables.59 There have been at
least eight studies of this type in diverse fields,60 including one involving

58. Paul Slovic, Dan Fleissner, and W. Scott Bauman, “Analyzing the Use of Information in
Investment Decision Making: A Methodological Proposal,” The Journal of Business, 45 (1972),
pp. 283-301.
59. For a discussion of the methodology, see Slovic, Fleissner, and Bauman, op. cit.
60. For a list of references, see Paul Slovic and Sarah Lichtenstein, “Comparison of Bayesian and
Regression Approaches to the Study of Information Processing in Judgment,” Organizational
Behavior and Human Performance, 6 (1971), p. 684.

56
prediction of future socioeconomic growth of underdeveloped nations.61
The mathematical model based on the analyst’s actual decisions is invari-
ably a more accurate description of that analyst’s decisionmaking than
the analyst’s own verbal description of how the judgments were made.
Although the existence of this phenomenon has been amply dem-
onstrated, its causes are not well understood. The literature on these ex-
periments contains only the following speculative explanation:
Possibly our feeling that we can take into account a host of differ-
ent factors comes about because, although we remember that at some
time or other we have attended to each of the different factors, we fail
to notice that it is seldom more than one or two that we consider at any
one time.62

When Does New Information Affect Our Judgment?

To evaluate the relevance and significance of these experimental
findings in the context of intelligence analysts’ experiences, it is necessary
to distinguish four types of additional information that an analyst might
receive:

• Additional detail about variables already included in the

analysis: Much raw intelligence reporting falls into this category.
One would not expect such supplementary information to affect
the overall accuracy of the analyst’s judgment, and it is readily
understandable that further detail that is consistent with previ-
ous information increases the analyst’s confidence. Analyses for
which considerable depth of detail is available to support the
conclusions tend to be more persuasive to their authors as well as
to their readers.

• Identification of additional variables: Information on addi-

tional variables permits the analyst to take into account other
factors that may affect the situation. This is the kind of addi-
tional information used in the horserace handicapper experi-

61. David A. Summers, J. Dale Taliaferro, and Donna J. Fletcher, “Subjective vs. Objective
Description of Judgment Policy,” Psychonomic Science, 18 (1970) pp. 249-250.
62. R. N. Shepard, “On Subjectively Optimum Selection Among Multiattribute Alternatives,”
in M. W. Shelly, II and G. L. Bryan, eds., Human Judgments and Optimality (New York: Wiley,
1964), p. 166.

57
 ment. Other experiments have employed some combination of
additional variables and additional detail on the same variables.
The finding that judgments are based on a few critical variables
rather than on the entire spectrum of evidence helps to explain
why information on additional variables does not normally im-
prove predictive accuracy. Occasionally, in situations when there
are known gaps in an analyst’s understanding, a single report
concerning some new and previously unconsidered factor—for
example, an authoritative report on a policy decision or planned
coup d’etat—will have a major impact on the analyst’s judgment.
Such a report would fall into one of the next two categories of
new information.

• Information concerning the value attributed to variables al-

ready included in the analysis: An example of such informa-
tion would be the horserace handicapper learning that a horse
he thought would carry 110 pounds will actually carry only 106.
Current intelligence reporting tends to deal with this kind of
information; for example, an analyst may learn that a dissident
group is stronger than had been anticipated. New facts affect the
accuracy of judgments when they deal with changes in variables
that are critical to the estimates. Analysts’ confidence in judg-
ments based on such information is influenced by their confi-
dence in the accuracy of the information as well as by the amount
of information.

• Information concerning which variables are most important

and how they relate to each other: Knowledge and assump-
tions as to which variables are most important and how they
are interrelated comprise the mental model that tells the analyst
how to analyze the data received. Explicit investigation of such
relationships is one factor that distinguishes systematic research
from current intelligence reporting and raw intelligence. In the
context of the horserace handicapper experiment, for example,
handicappers had to select which variables to include in their
analysis. Is weight carried by a horse more, or less, important
than several other variables that affect a horse’s performance? Any
information that affects this judgment influences how the handi-

58
 capper analyzes the available data; that is, it affects his mental
model.

The accuracy of an analyst’s judgment depends upon both the ac-

curacy of our mental model (the fourth type of information discussed
above) and the accuracy of the values attributed to the key variables in
the model (the third type of information discussed above). Additional
detail on variables already in the analyst’s mental model and information
on other variables that do not in fact have a significant influence on our
judgment (the first and second types of information) have a negligible
impact on accuracy, but form the bulk of the raw material analysts work
with. These kinds of information increase confidence because the conclu-
sions seem to be supported by such a large body of data.

This discussion of types of new information is the basis for distin-

guishing two types of analysis- data-driven analysis and conceptually-
driven analysis.

Data-Driven Analysis
In this type of analysis, accuracy depends primarily upon the accu-
racy and completeness of the available data. If one makes the reasonable
assumption that the analytical model is correct and the further assump-
tion that the analyst properly applies this model to the data, then the
accuracy of the analytical judgment depends entirely upon the accuracy
and completeness of the data.
Analyzing the combat readiness of a military division is an example
of data-driven analysis. In analyzing combat readiness, the rules and pro-
cedures to be followed are relatively well established. The totality of these
procedures comprises a mental model that influences perception of the
intelligence collected on the unit and guides judgment concerning what
information is important and how this information should be analyzed
to arrive at judgments concerning readiness.
Most elements of the mental model can be made explicit so that
other analysts may be taught to understand and follow the same analyti-
cal procedures and arrive at the same or similar results. There is broad,
though not necessarily universal, agreement on what the appropriate
model is. There are relatively objective standards for judging the quality

59
of analysis, inasmuch as the conclusions follow logically from the appli-
cation of the agreed-upon model to the available data.

Conceptually Driven Analysis

Conceptually driven analysis is at the opposite end of the spectrum
from data-driven analysis. The questions to be answered do not have neat
boundaries, and there are many unknowns. The number of potentially
relevant variables and the diverse and imperfectly understood relation-
ships among these variables involve the analyst in enormous complexity
and uncertainty. There is little tested theory to inform the analyst con-
cerning which of the myriad pieces of information are most important
and how they should be combined to arrive at probabilistic judgments.
In the absence of any agreed-upon analytical schema, analysts are
left to their own devices. They interpret information with the aid of
mental models that are largely implicit rather than explicit. Assumptions
concerning political forces and processes in the subject country may not
be apparent even to the analyst. Such models are not representative of an
analytical consensus. Other analysts examining the same data may well
reach different conclusions, or reach the same conclusions but for differ-
ent reasons. This analysis is conceptually driven, because the outcome
depends at least as much upon the conceptual framework employed to
analyze the data as it does upon the data itself.
To illustrate further the distinction between data-driven and con-
ceptually driven analysis, it is useful to consider the function of the ana-
lyst responsible for current intelligence, especially current political intelli-
gence as distinct from longer term research. The daily routine is driven by
the incoming wire service news, embassy cables, and clandestine-source
reporting from overseas that must be interpreted for dissemination to
consumers throughout the Intelligence Community. Although current
intelligence reporting is driven by incoming information, this is not what
is meant by data-driven analysis. On the contrary, the current intelligence
analyst’s task is often extremely concept-driven. The analyst must provide
immediate interpretation of the latest, often unexpected events. Apart
from his or her store of background information, the analyst may have
no data other than the initial, usually incomplete report. Under these
circumstances, interpretation is based upon an implicit mental model
of how and why events normally transpire in the country for which the
analyst is responsible. Accuracy of judgment depends almost exclusively

60
upon accuracy of the mental model, for there is little other basis for judg-
ment.
It is necessary to consider how this mental model gets tested against
reality, and how it can be changed to improve the accuracy of analytical
judgment. Two things make it hard to change one’s mental model. The
first is the nature of human perception and information-processing. The
second is the difficulty, in many fields, of learning what truly is an ac-
curate model.
Partly because of the nature of human perception and information-
processing, beliefs of all types tend to resist change. This is especially true
of the implicit assumptions and supposedly self-evident truths that play
an important role in forming mental models. Analysts are often surprised
to learn that what are to them self-evident truths are by no means self-
evident to others, or that self-evident truth at one point in time may be
commonly regarded as uninformed assumption 10 years later.
Information that is consistent with an existing mind-set is perceived
and processed easily and reinforces existing beliefs. Because the mind
strives instinctively for consistency, information that is inconsistent with
an existing mental image tends to be overlooked, perceived in a distorted
manner, or rationalized to fit existing assumptions and beliefs.63
Learning to make better judgments through experience assumes sys-
tematic feedback on the accuracy of previous judgments and an ability
to link the accuracy of a judgment with the particular configuration of
variables that prompted an analyst to make that judgment. In practice,
intelligence analysts get little systematic feedback, and even when they
learn that an event they had foreseen has actually occurred or failed to
occur, they typically do not know for certain whether this happened for
the reasons they had foreseen. Thus, an analyst’s personal experience may
be a poor guide to revision of his or her mental mode.64

63. This refers, of course, to subconscious processes. No analyst will consciously distort infor-
mation that does not fit his or her preconceived beliefs. Important aspects of the perception and
processing of new information occur prior to and independently of any conscious direction,
and the tendencies described here are largely the result of these subconscious or preconscious
processes.
64. A similar point has been made in rebutting the belief in the accumulated wisdom of the
classroom teacher. “It is actually very difficult for teachers to profit from experience. They al-
most never learn about their long-term successes or failures, and their short-term effects are not
easily traced to the practices from which they presumably arose.” B. F. Skinner, The Technology
of Teaching (New York: Appleton-Century Crofts, 1968), pp. 112-113.

61
Mosaic Theory of Analysis
Understanding of the analytic process has been distorted by the
mosaic metaphor commonly used to describe it. According to the mo-
saic theory of intelligence, small pieces of information are collected that,
when put together like a mosaic or jigsaw puzzle, eventually enable ana-
lysts to perceive a clear picture of reality. The analogy suggests that accu-
rate estimates depend primarily upon having all the pieces, that is, upon
accurate and relatively complete information. It is important to collect
and store the small pieces of information, as these are the raw material
from which the picture is made; one never knows when it will be possible
for an astute analyst to fit a piece into the puzzle. Part of the rationale
for large technical intelligence collection systems is rooted in this mosaic
theory.
Insights from cognitive psychology suggest that intelligence analysts
do not work this way and that the most difficult analytical tasks cannot
be approached in this manner. Analysts commonly find pieces that ap-
pear to fit many different pictures. Instead of a picture emerging from
putting all the pieces together, analysts typically form a picture first and
then select the pieces to fit. Accurate estimates depend at least as much
upon the mental model used in forming the picture as upon the number
of pieces of the puzzle that have been collected.
A more accurate analogy for describing how intelligence analysis
should work is medical diagnosis. The doctor observes indicators (symp-
toms) of what is happening, uses his or her specialized knowledge of how
the body works to develop hypotheses that might explain these observa-
tions, conducts tests to collect additional information to evaluate the hy-
potheses, then makes a diagnosis. This medical analogy focuses attention
on the ability to identify and evaluate all plausible hypotheses. Collection
is focused narrowly on information that will help to discriminate the
relative probability of alternate hypothesis.
To the extent that this medical analogy is the more appropriate
guide to understanding the analytical process, there are implications for
the allocation of limited intelligence resources. While analysis and col-
lection are both important, the medical analogy attributes more value to
analysis and less to collection than the mosaic metaphor.

62
Conclusions
To the leaders and managers of intelligence who seek an improved
intelligence product, these findings offer a reminder that this goal can be
achieved by improving analysis as well as collection. There appear to be
inherent practical limits on how much can be gained by efforts to im-
prove collection. By contrast, an open and fertile field exists for imagina-
tive efforts to improve analysis.
These efforts should focus on improving the mental models em-
ployed by analysts to interpret information and the analytical processes
used to evaluate it. While this will be difficult to achieve, it is so criti-
cal to effective intelligence analysis that even small improvements could
have large benefits. Specific recommendations are included the next three
chapters and in Chapter 14, “Improving Intelligence Analysis.”

63
64
 Chapter 6
Keeping an Open Mind
Minds are like parachutes. They only function when they are open. After
reviewing how and why thinking gets channeled into mental ruts, this chap-
ter looks at mental tools to help analysts keep an open mind, question assump-
tions, see different perspectives, develop new ideas, and recognize when it is
time to change their minds.
A new idea is the beginning, not the end, of the creative process. It must
jump over many hurdles before being embraced as an organizational product
or solution. The organizational climate plays a crucial role in determining
whether new ideas bubble to the surface or are suppressed.
*******************
Major intelligence failures are usually caused by failures of analysis,
not failures of collection. Relevant information is discounted, misinter-
preted, ignored, rejected, or overlooked because it fails to fit a prevailing
mental model or mind-set.65 The “signals” are lost in the “noise.”66 How
can we ensure that analysts remain open to new experience and recognize

65. Christopher Brady, “Intelligence Failures: Plus Ca Change. . .” Intelligence and National
Security, Vol. 8, No. 4 (October 1993). N. Cigar, “Iraq’s Strategic Mindset and the Gulf War:
Blueprint for Defeat,” The Journal of Strategic Studies, Vol. 15, No. 1 (March 1992). J. J.
Wirtz, The Tet Offensive: Intelligence Failure in War (New York, 1991). Ephraim Kam, Surprise
Attack (Harvard University Press, 1988). Richard Betts, Surprise Attack: Lessons for Defense
Planning (Brookings, 1982). Abraham Ben-Zvi, “The Study of Surprise Attacks,” British Journal
of International Studies, Vol. 5 (1979). Iran: Evaluation of Intelligence Performance Prior to
November 1978 (Staff Report, Subcommittee on Evaluation, Permanent Select Committee on
Intelligence, US House of Representatives, January 1979). Richard Betts, “Analysis, War and
Decision: Why Intelligence Failures Are Inevitable,” World Politics, Vol. 31, No. 1 (October
1978). Richard W. Shryock, “The Intelligence Community Post-Mortem Program, 1973-
1975,” Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 21, No. 1 (Fall 1977). Avi Schlaim, “Failures in National
Intelligence Estimates: The Case of the Yom Kippur War,” World Politics, Vol. 28 (April 1976).
Michael Handel, Perception, Deception, and Surprise: The Case of the Yom Kippur War (Jerusalem:
Leonard Davis Institute of International Relations, Jerusalem Paper No. 19, 1976). Klaus
Knorr, “Failures in National Intelligence Estimates: The Case of the Cuban Missiles,” World
Politics, Vol. 16 (1964).
66. Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision (Stanford University Press, 1962).
Roberta Wohlstetter, “Cuba and Pearl Harbor: Hindsight and Foresight,” Foreign Affairs, Vol.
43, No. 4 (July 1965).

65
when long-held views or conventional wisdom need to be revised in re-
sponse to a changing world?
Beliefs, assumptions, concepts, and information retrieved from
memory form a mind-set or mental model that guides perception and
processing of new information. The nature of the intelligence business
forces us to deal with issues at an early stage when hard information is
incomplete. If there were no gaps in the information on an issue or situa-
tion, and no ambiguity, it would not be an interesting intelligence prob-
lem. When information is lacking, analysts often have no choice but to
lean heavily on prior beliefs and assumptions about how and why events
normally transpire in a given country.
A mind-set is neither good nor bad. It is unavoidable. It is, in es-
sence, a distillation of all that analysts think they know about a subject.
It forms a lens through which they perceive the world, and once formed,
it resists change.

Understanding Mental Ruts

Chapter 3 on memory suggested thinking of information in mem-
ory as somehow interconnected like a massive, multidimensional spider
web. It is possible to connect any point within this web to any other
point. When analysts connect the same points frequently, they form a
path that makes it easier to take that route in the future. Once they start
thinking along certain channels, they tend to continue thinking the same
way and the path may become a rut. The path seems like the obvious and
natural way to go. Information and concepts located near that path are
readily available, so the same images keep coming up. Information not
located near that path is less likely to come to mind.
Talking about breaking mind-sets, or creativity, or even just open-
ness to new information is really talking about spinning new links and
new paths through the web of memory. These are links among facts and
concepts, or between schemata for organizing facts or concepts, that were
not directly connected or only weakly connected before.
New ideas result from the association of old elements in new com-
binations. Previously remote elements of thought suddenly become as-

66
sociated in a new and useful combination.67 When the linkage is made,
the light dawns. This ability to bring previously unrelated information
and ideas together in meaningful ways is what marks the open-minded,
imaginative, creative analyst.
To illustrate how the mind works, consider my personal experience
with a kind of mental block familiar to all analysts—writer’s block. I
often need to break a mental block when writing. Everything is going
along fine until I come to one paragraph and get stuck. I write something
down, know it is not quite right, but just cannot think of a better way to
say it. However I try to change the paragraph, it still comes out basically
the same way. My thinking has become channeled, and I cannot break
out of that particular thought pattern to write it differently.
A common response to this problem is to take a break, work on
something different for a while, and come back to the difficult portion
later. With the passage of time, the path becomes less pronounced and it
becomes easier to make other connections.
I have found another solution. I force myself to talk about it out
loud. I close the door to my office—I am embarrassed to have anyone
hear me talking to myself—and then stand up and walk around and talk.
I say, okay, “What is the point of this paragraph? What are you trying to
communicate?” I answer myself out loud as though talking to someone
else. “The point I am trying to get across is that . . . ,” and then it just
comes. Saying it out loud breaks the block, and words start coming to-
gether in different ways.
Recent research explains why this happens. Scientists have learned
that written language and spoken language are processed in different
parts of the brain.68 They activate different neurons.

Problem-Solving Exercise
Before discussing how analysts can keep their minds open to new
information, let us warm up to this topic with a brief exercise. Without
lifting pencil from paper, draw no more than four straight lines that will
cross through all nine dots in Figure 6.69

67. S. A. Mednick, “The Associative Basis of the Creative Process,” Psychological Review, Vol. 69
(1962), p. 221.
68. Jerry E. Bishop, “Stroke Patients Yield Clues to Brain’s Ability to Create Language,” Wall
Street Journal, Oct. 12, 1993, p.A1.
69. The puzzle is from James L. Adams, Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas. Second
Edition (New York: W. W. Norton, 1980), p. 23.

67
 After trying to solve the puzzle on your own, refer to the end of
this chapter for answers and further discussion. Then consider that intel-
ligence analysis is too often limited by similar, unconscious, self-imposed
constraints or “cages of the mind.”
You do not need to be constrained by conventional wisdom. It is
often wrong. You do not necessarily need to be constrained by existing
policies. They can sometimes be changed if you show a good reason for
doing so. You do not necessarily need to be constrained by the specific
analytical requirement you were given. The policymaker who originated
the requirement may not have thought through his or her needs or the
requirement may be somewhat garbled as it passes down through several
echelons to you to do the work. You may have a better understanding
than the policymaker of what he or she needs, or should have, or what is
possible to do. You should not hesitate to go back up the chain of com-
mand with a suggestion for doing something a little different than what
was asked for.

68
Mental Tools
People use various physical tools such as a hammer and saw to en-
hance their capacity to perform various physical tasks. People can also
use simple mental tools to enhance their ability to perform mental tasks.
These tools help overcome limitations in human mental machinery for
perception, memory, and inference. The next few sections of this chapter
discuss mental tools for opening analysts’ minds to new ideas, while the
next one (Chapter 7) deals with mental tools for structuring complex
analytical problems.

Questioning Assumptions
It is a truism that analysts need to question their assumptions.
Experience tells us that when analytical judgments turn out to be wrong,
it usually was not because the information was wrong. It was because an
analyst made one or more faulty assumptions that went unchallenged.
The problem is that analysts cannot question everything, so where do
they focus their attention?
Sensitivity Analysis. One approach is to do an informal sensitivity
analysis. How sensitive is the ultimate judgment to changes in any of
the major variables or driving forces in the analysis? Those linchpin as-
sumptions that drive the analysis are the ones that need to be questioned.
Analysts should ask themselves what could happen to make any of these
assumptions out of date, and how they can know this has not already
happened. They should try to disprove their assumptions rather than
confirm them. If an analyst cannot think of anything that would cause
a change of mind, his or her mind-set may be so deeply entrenched that
the analyst cannot see the conflicting evidence. One advantage of the
competing hypotheses approach discussed in Chapter 8 is that it helps
identify the linchpin assumptions that swing a conclusion in one direc-
tion or another.
Identify Alternative Models. Analysts should try to identify alter-
native models, conceptual frameworks, or interpretations of the data by
seeking out individuals who disagree with them rather than those who
agree. Most people do not do that very often. It is much more comfort-
able to talk with people in one’s own office who share the same basic
mind-set. There are a few things that can be done as a matter of policy,

69
and that have been done in some offices in the past, to help overcome
this tendency.
At least one Directorate of Intelligence component, for example,
has had a peer review process in which none of the reviewers was from
the branch that produced the report. The rationale for this was that an
analyst’s immediate colleagues and supervisor(s) are likely to share a com-
mon mind-set. Hence these are the individuals least likely to raise funda-
mental issues challenging the validity of the analysis. To avoid this mind-
set problem, each research report was reviewed by a committee of three
analysts from other branches handling other countries or issues. None
of them had specialized knowledge of the subject. They were, however,
highly accomplished analysts. Precisely because they had not been im-
mersed in the issue in question, they were better able to identify hidden
assumptions and other alternatives, and to judge whether the analysis
adequately supported the conclusions.
Be Wary of Mirror Images. One kind of assumption an analyst
should always recognize and question is mirror-imaging—filling gaps in
the analyst’s own knowledge by assuming that the other side is likely to
act in a certain way because that is how the US would act under similar
circumstances. To say, “if I were a Russian intelligence officer . . .” or “if
I were running the Indian Government . . .” is mirror-imaging. Analysts
may have to do that when they do not know how the Russian intelligence
officer or the Indian Government is really thinking. But mirror-imaging
leads to dangerous assumptions, because people in other cultures do not
think the way we do. The frequent assumption that they do is what Adm.
David Jeremiah, after reviewing the Intelligence Community failure to
predict India’s nuclear weapons testing, termed the “everybody-thinks-
like-us mind-set.”70
Failure to understand that others perceive their national interests
differently from the way we perceive those interests is a constant source of
problems in intelligence analysis. In 1977, for example, the Intelligence
Community was faced with evidence of what appeared to be a South
African nuclear weapons test site. Many in the Intelligence Community,
especially those least knowledgeable about South Africa, tended to dis-
miss this evidence on the grounds that “Pretoria would not want a nucle-

70. Jim Wolf, “CIA Inquest Finds US Missed Indian `Mindset’,” UPI wire service, June 3,
1998.

70
ar weapon, because there is no enemy they could effectively use it on.”71
The US perspective on what is in another country’s national interest is
usually irrelevant in intelligence analysis. Judgment must be based on
how the other country perceives its national interest. If the analyst can-
not gain insight into what the other country is thinking, mirror-imaging
may be the only alternative, but analysts should never get caught putting
much confidence in that kind of judgment.

Seeing Different Perspectives

Another problem area is looking at familiar data from a different
perspective. If you play chess, you know you can see your own options
pretty well. It is much more difficult to see all the pieces on the board
as your opponent sees them, and to anticipate how your opponent will
react to your move. That is the situation analysts are in when they try
to see how the US Government’s actions look from another country’s
perspective. Analysts constantly have to move back and forth, first seeing
the situation from the US perspective and then from the other country’s
perspective. This is difficult to do, as you experienced with the picture of
the old woman/young woman in Chapter 2 on perception.
Several techniques for seeing alternative perspectives exploit the
general principle of coming at the problem from a different direction and
asking different questions. These techniques break your existing mind-set
by causing you to play a different and unaccustomed role.
Thinking Backwards. One technique for exploring new ground is
thinking backwards. As an intellectual exercise, start with an assumption
that some event you did not expect has actually occurred. Then, put
yourself into the future, looking back to explain how this could have
happened. Think what must have happened six months or a year earlier
to set the stage for that outcome, what must have happened six months
or a year before that to prepare the way, and so on back to the present.
Thinking backwards changes the focus from whether something
might happen to how it might happen. Putting yourself into the future
creates a different perspective that keeps you from getting anchored in
the present. Analysts will often find, to their surprise, that they can con-
struct a quite plausible scenario for an event they had previously thought
unlikely. Thinking backwards is particularly helpful for events that have

71. Discussion with Robert Jaster, former National Intelligence Officer for Southern Africa.

71
a low probability but very serious consequences should they occur, such
as a collapse or overthrow of the Saudi monarchy.
Crystal Ball. The crystal ball approach works in much the same
way as thinking backwards.72 Imagine that a “perfect” intelligence source
(such as a crystal ball) has told you a certain assumption is wrong. You
must then develop a scenario to explain how this could be true. If you
can develop a plausible scenario, this suggests your assumption is open
to some question.
Role playing. Role playing is commonly used to overcome con-
straints and inhibitions that limit the range of one’s thinking. Playing
a role changes “where you sit.” It also gives one license to think and act
differently. Simply trying to imagine how another leader or country will
think and react, which analysts do frequently, is not role playing. One
must actually act out the role and become, in a sense, the person whose
role is assumed. It is only “living” the role that breaks an analyst’s normal
mental set and permits him or her to relate facts and ideas to each other
in ways that differ from habitual patterns. An analyst cannot be expected
to do this alone; some group interaction is required, with different ana-
lysts playing different roles, usually in the context of an organized simu-
lation or game.
Most of the gaming done in the Defense Department and in the
academic world is rather elaborate and requires substantial preparatory
work. It does not have to be that way. The preparatory work can be
avoided by starting the game with the current situation already known
to analysts, rather than with a notional scenario that participants have to
learn. Just one notional intelligence report is sufficient to start the action
in the game. In my experience, it is possible to have a useful political
game in just one day with almost no investment in preparatory work.
Gaming gives no “right” answer, but it usually causes the players
to see some things in a new light. Players become very conscious that
“where you stand depends on where you sit.” By changing roles, the par-
ticipants see the problem in a different context. This frees the mind to
think differently.
Devil’s Advocate. A devil’s advocate is someone who defends a mi-
nority point of view. He or she may not necessarily agree with that view,

72. Jon Fallesen, Rex Michel, James Lussier, and Julia Pounds, “Practical Thinking: Innovation
in Battle Command Instruction” (Technical Report 1037, US Army Research Institute for the
Behavioral and Social Sciences, January 1996).

72
but may choose or be assigned to represent it as strenuously as possible.
The goal is to expose conflicting interpretations and show how alterna-
tive assumptions and images make the world look different. It often re-
quires time, energy, and commitment to see how the world looks from a
different perspective.73
Imagine that you are the boss at a US facility overseas and are wor-
ried about the possibility of a terrorist attack. A standard staff response
would be to review existing measures and judge their adequacy. There
might well be pressure—subtle or otherwise—from those responsible for
such arrangements to find them satisfactory. An alternative or supple-
mentary approach would be to name an individual or small group as a
devil’s advocate assigned to develop actual plans for launching such an
attack. The assignment to think like a terrorist liberates the designated
person(s) to think unconventionally and be less inhibited about finding
weaknesses in the system that might embarrass colleagues, because un-
covering any such weaknesses is the assigned task.
Devil’s advocacy has a controversial history in the Intelligence
Community. Suffice it to say that some competition between conflict-
ing views is healthy and must be encouraged; all-out political battle is
counterproductive.

Recognizing When To Change Your Mind

As a general rule, people are too slow to change an established view,
as opposed to being too willing to change. The human mind is conserva-
tive. It resists change. Assumptions that worked well in the past continue
to be applied to new situations long after they have become outmoded.
Learning from Surprise. A study of senior managers in industry
identified how some successful managers counteract this conservative
bent. They do it, according to the study,

By paying attention to their feelings of surprise when a par-

ticular fact does not fit their prior understanding, and then by
highlighting rather than denying the novelty. Although surprise
made them feel uncomfortable, it made them take the cause
[of the surprise] seriously and inquire into it. . . . Rather than

73. For an interesting discussion of the strengths and potential weaknesses of the “devil’s
advocate” approach, see Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics
(Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 415-418.

73
 deny, downplay, or ignore disconfirmation [of their prior view],
successful senior managers often treat it as friendly and in a way
cherish the discomfort surprise creates. As a result, these man-
agers often perceive novel situations early on and in a frame of
mind relatively undistorted by hidebound notions.74

Analysts should keep a record of unexpected events and think hard

about what they might mean, not disregard them or explain them away.
It is important to consider whether these surprises, however small, are
consistent with some alternative hypothesis. One unexpected event may
be easy to disregard, but a pattern of surprises may be the first clue that
your understanding of what is happening requires some adjustment, is at
best incomplete, and may be quite wrong.
Strategic Assumptions vs. Tactical Indicators. Abraham Ben-Zvi
analyzed five cases of intelligence failure to foresee a surprise attack.75 He
made a useful distinction between estimates based on strategic assump-
tions and estimates based on tactical indications. Examples of strategic
assumptions include the US belief in 1941 that Japan wished to avoid
war at all costs because it recognized US military superiority, and the
Israeli belief in 1973 that the Arabs would not attack Israel until they
obtained sufficient air power to secure control of the skies. A more recent
instance was the 1998 Indian nuclear test, which was widely viewed as a
surprise and, at least in part, as a failure by the experts to warn of an im-
pending test. The incorrect strategic assumption was that the new Indian
Government would be dissuaded from testing nuclear weapons for fear
of US economic sanctions.76
Tactical indicators are specific reports of preparations or intent to
initiate hostile action or, in the recent Indian case, reports of preparations
for a nuclear test. Ben-Zvi found that whenever strategic assumptions
and tactical indicators of impending attack converged, an immediate
threat was perceived and appropriate precautionary measures were taken.

74. Daniel J. Isenberg, “How Senior Managers Think,” in David Bell, Howard Raiffa, and
Amos Tversky, Decision Making: Descriptive, Normative, and Prescriptive Interactions (Cambridge
University Press, 1988), p. 535.
75. Abraham Ben Zvi, “Hindsight and Foresight: A Conceptual Framework for the Analysis of
Surprise Attacks,” World Politics, April 1976.
76. Transcript of Admiral David Jeremiah’s news conference on the Intelligence Community’s
performance concerning the Indian nuclear test, fourth and fifth paragraphs and first Q and A,
2 June 1998.

74
When discrepancies existed between tactical indicators and strategic as-
sumptions in the five cases Ben-Zvi analyzed, the strategic assumptions
always prevailed, and they were never reevaluated in the light of the in-
creasing flow of contradictory information. Ben-Zvi concludes that tac-
tical indicators should be given increased weight in the decisionmaking
process. At a minimum, the emergence of tactical indicators that contra-
dict our strategic assumption should trigger a higher level of intelligence
alert. It may indicate that a bigger surprise is on the way.
Chapter 8, “Analysis of Competing Hypotheses,” provides a frame-
work for identifying surprises and weighing tactical indicators and other
forms of current evidence against longstanding assumptions and beliefs.

Stimulating Creative Thinking

Imagination and creativity play important roles in intelligence anal-
ysis as in most other human endeavors. Intelligence judgments require
the ability to imagine possible causes and outcomes of a current situ-
ation. All possible outcomes are not given. The analyst must think of
them by imagining scenarios that explicate how they might come about.
Similarly, imagination as well as knowledge is required to reconstruct
how a problem appears from the viewpoint of a foreign government.
Creativity is required to question things that have long been taken for
granted. The fact that apples fall from trees was well known to everyone.
Newton’s creative genius was to ask “why?” Intelligence analysts, too, are
expected to raise new questions that lead to the identification of previ-
ously unrecognized relationships or to possible outcomes that had not
previously been foreseen.
A creative analytical product shows a flair for devising imaginative
or innovative—but also accurate and effective—ways to fulfill any of the
major requirements of analysis: gathering information, analyzing infor-
mation, documenting evidence, and/or presenting conclusions. Tapping
unusual sources of data, asking new questions, applying unusual analytic
methods, and developing new types of products or new ways of fitting
analysis to the needs of consumers are all examples of creative activity.
A person’s intelligence, as measured by IQ tests, has little to do with
creativity, but the organizational environment exercises a major influ-
ence. New but appropriate ideas are most likely to arise in an organiza-
tional climate that nurtures their development and communication.

75
 The old view that creativity is something one is born with, and that
it cannot be taught or developed, is largely untrue. While native tal-
ent, per se, is important and may be immutable, it is possible to learn
to employ one’s innate talents more productively. With understanding,
practice, and conscious effort, analysts can learn to produce more imagi-
native, innovative, creative work.
There is a large body of literature on creativity and how to stimu-
late it. At least a half-dozen different methods have been developed for
teaching, facilitating, or liberating creative thinking. All the methods for
teaching or facilitating creativity are based on the assumption that the
process of thinking can be separated from the content of thought. One
learns mental strategies that can be applied to any subject.
It is not our purpose here to review commercially available programs
for enhancing creativity. Such programmatic approaches can be applied
more meaningfully to problems of new product development, advertis-
ing, or management than to intelligence analysis. It is relevant, however,
to discuss several key principles and techniques that these programs have
in common, and that individual intelligence analysts or groups of ana-
lysts can apply in their work.
Intelligence analysts must generate ideas concerning potential causes
or explanations of events, policies that might be pursued or actions tak-
en by a foreign government, possible outcomes of an existing situation,
and variables that will influence which outcome actually comes to pass.
Analysts also need help to jog them out of mental ruts, to stimulate their
memories and imaginations, and to perceive familiar events from a new
perspective.
Here are some of the principles and techniques of creative thinking
that can be applied to intelligence analysis.
Deferred Judgment. The principle of deferred judgment is undoubt-
edly the most important. The idea-generation phase of analysis should be
separated from the idea-evaluation phase, with evaluation deferred until
all possible ideas have been brought out. This approach runs contrary to
the normal procedure of thinking of ideas and evaluating them concur-
rently. Stimulating the imagination and critical thinking are both im-
portant, but they do not mix well. A judgmental attitude dampens the
imagination, whether it manifests itself as self-censorship of one’s own
ideas or fear of critical evaluation by colleagues or supervisors. Idea gen-
eration should be a freewheeling, unconstrained, uncritical process.

76
 New ideas are, by definition, unconventional, and therefore likely
to be suppressed, either consciously or unconsciously, unless they are
born in a secure and protected environment. Critical judgment should
be suspended until after the idea-generation stage of analysis has been
completed. A series of ideas should be written down and then evaluated
later. This applies to idea searching by individuals as well as brainstorm-
ing in a group. Get all the ideas out on the table before evaluating any
of them.
Quantity Leads to Quality. A second principle is that quantity of
ideas eventually leads to quality. This is based on the assumption that
the first ideas that come to mind will be those that are most common
or usual. It is necessary to run through these conventional ideas before
arriving at original or different ones. People have habitual ways of think-
ing, ways that they continue to use because they have seemed successful
in the past. It may well be that these habitual responses, the ones that
come first to mind, are the best responses and that further search is un-
necessary. In looking for usable new ideas, however, one should seek to
generate as many ideas as possible before evaluating any of them.
No Self-Imposed Constraints. A third principle is that thinking
should be allowed—indeed encouraged—to range as freely as possible. It
is necessary to free oneself from self-imposed constraints, whether they
stem from analytical habit, limited perspective, social norms, emotional
blocks, or whatever.
Cross-Fertilization of Ideas. A fourth principle of creative prob-
lem-solving is that cross-fertilization of ideas is important and necessary.
Ideas should be combined with each other to form more and even better
ideas. If creative thinking involves forging new links between previously
unrelated or weakly related concepts, then creativity will be stimulated
by any activity that brings more concepts into juxtaposition with each
other in fresh ways. Interaction with other analysts is one basic mecha-
nism for this. As a general rule, people generate more creative ideas when
teamed up with others; they help to build and develop each other’s ideas.
Personal interaction stimulates new associations between ideas. It also
induces greater effort and helps maintain concentration on the task.
These favorable comments on group processes are not meant to en-
compass standard committee meetings or coordination processes that
force consensus based on the lowest common denominator of agree-
ment. My positive words about group interaction apply primarily to

77
brainstorming sessions aimed at generating new ideas and in which, ac-
cording to the first principle discussed above, all criticism and evaluation
are deferred until after the idea generation stage is completed.
Thinking things out alone also has its advantages: individual thought
tends to be more structured and systematic than interaction within a
group. Optimal results come from alternating between individual think-
ing and team effort, using group interaction to generate ideas that sup-
plement individual thought. A diverse group is clearly preferable to a
homogeneous one. Some group participants should be analysts who are
not close to the problem, inasmuch as their ideas are more likely to reflect
different insights.
Idea Evaluation. All creativity techniques are concerned with
stimulating the flow of ideas. There are no comparable techniques for
determining which ideas are best. The procedures are, therefore, aimed
at idea generation rather than idea evaluation. The same procedures do
aid in evaluation, however, in the sense that ability to generate more al-
ternatives helps one see more potential consequences, repercussions, and
effects that any single idea or action might entail.

Organizational Environment
A new idea is not the end product of the creative process. Rather,
it is the beginning of what is sometimes a long and tortuous process of
translating an idea into an innovative product. The idea must be devel-
oped, evaluated, and communicated to others, and this process is influ-
enced by the organizational setting in which it transpires. The potentially
useful new idea must pass over a number of hurdles before it is embraced
as an organizational product.
The following paragraphs describe in some detail research conducted
by Frank Andrews to investigate the relationship among creative ability,
organizational setting, and innovative research products.77 The subjects
of this research were 115 scientists, each of whom had directed a re-
search project dealing with social-psychological aspects of disease. These
scientists were given standardized tests that measure creative ability and
intelligence. They were also asked to fill out an extensive questionnaire

77. Frank M. Andrews, “Social and Psychological Factors Which Influence the Creative
Process,” in Irving A. Taylor and Jacob W. Getzels, eds., Perspectives in Creativity (Chicago,
Aldine Publishing, 1975).

78
concerning the environment in which their research was conducted. A
panel of judges composed of the leading scientists in the field of medical
sociology was asked to evaluate the principal published results from each
of the 115 research projects.
Judges evaluated the research results on the basis of productivity and
innovation. Productivity was defined as the “extent to which the research
represents an addition to knowledge along established lines of research
or as extensions of previous theory.” Innovativeness was defined as “addi-
tions to knowledge through new lines of research or the development of
new theoretical statements of findings that were not explicit in previous
theory.78 Innovation, in other words, involved raising new questions and
developing new approaches to the acquisition of knowledge, as distinct
from working productively within an already established framework.
This same definition applies to innovation in intelligence analysis.
Andrews found virtually no relationship between the scientists’ cre-
ative ability and the innovativeness of their research. (There was also no
relationship between level of intelligence and innovativeness.) Those who
scored high on tests of creative ability did not necessarily receive high
ratings from the judges evaluating the innovativeness of their work. A
possible explanation is that either creative ability or innovation, or both,
were not measured accurately, but Andrews argues persuasively for an-
other view. Various social and psychological factors have so great an ef-
fect on the steps needed to translate creative ability into an innovative
research product that there is no measurable effect traceable to creative
ability alone. In order to document this conclusion, Andrews analyzed
data from the questionnaires in which the scientists described their work
environment.
Andrews found that scientists possessing more creative ability pro-
duced more innovative work only under the following favorable condi-
tions:

• When the scientist perceived himself or herself as responsible for

initiating new activities. The opportunity for innovation, and
the encouragement of it, are—not surprisingly—important vari-
ables.

78. Ibid., p. 122.

79
 • When the scientist had considerable control over decisionmak-
ing concerning his or her research program—in other words, the
freedom to set goals, hire research assistants, and expend funds.
Under these circumstances, a new idea is less likely to be snuffed
out before it can be developed into a creative and useful prod-
uct.

• When the scientist felt secure and comfortable in his or her pro-
fessional role. New ideas are often disruptive, and pursuing them
carries the risk of failure. People are more likely to advance new
ideas if they feel secure in their positions.

• When the scientist's administrative superior "stayed out of the

way." Research is likely to be more innovative when the superior
limits himself or herself to support and facilitation rather than
direct involvement.

• When the project was relatively small with respect to the number
of people involved, budget, and duration. Small size promotes
flexibility, and this in turn is more conducive to creativity.

• When the scientist engaged in other activities, such as teaching or

administration, in addition to the research project. Other work
may provide useful stimulation or help one identify opportuni-
ties for developing or implementing new ideas. Some time away
from the task, or an incubation period, is generally recognized as
part of the creative process."

The importance of any one of these factors was not very great, but
their impact was cumulative. The presence of all or most of these con-
ditions exerted a strongly favorable influence on the creative process.
Conversely, the absence of these conditions made it quite unlikely that
even highly creative scientists could develop their new ideas into innova-
tive research results. Under unfavorable conditions, the most creatively
inclined scientists produced even less innovative work than their less
imaginative colleagues, presumably because they experienced greater
frustration with their work environment.

80
 In summary, some degree of innate creative talent may be a neces-
sary precondition for innovative work, but it is unlikely to be of much
value unless the organizational environment in which that work is done
nurtures the development and communication of new ideas. Under un-
favorable circumstances, an individual’s creative impulses probably will
find expression outside the organization.
There are, of course, exceptions to the rule. Some creativity occurs
even in the face of intense opposition. A hostile environment can be
stimulating, enlivening, and challenging. Some people gain satisfaction
from viewing themselves as lonely fighters in the wilderness, but when it
comes to conflict between a large organization and a creative individual
within it, the organization generally wins.
Recognizing the role of organizational environment in stimulating
or suppressing creativity points the way to one obvious set of measures to
enhance creative organizational performance. Managers of analysis, from
first-echelon supervisors to the Director of Central Intelligence, should
take steps to strengthen and broaden the perception among analysts that
new ideas are welcome. This is not easy; creativity implies criticism of
that which already exists. It is, therefore, inherently disruptive of estab-
lished ideas and organizational practices.
Particularly within his or her own office, an analyst needs to enjoy a
sense of security, so that partially developed ideas may be expressed and
bounced off others as sounding boards with minimal fear of criticism or
ridicule for deviating from established orthodoxy. At its inception, a new
idea is frail and vulnerable. It needs to be nurtured, developed, and tested
in a protected environment before being exposed to the harsh reality of
public criticism. It is the responsibility of an analyst’s immediate supervi-
sor and office colleagues to provide this sheltered environment.

Conclusions
Creativity, in the sense of new and useful ideas, is at least as impor-
tant in intelligence analysis as in any other human endeavor. Procedures
to enhance innovative thinking are not new. Creative thinkers have em-
ployed them successfully for centuries. The only new elements—and even
they may not be new anymore—are the grounding of these procedures
in psychological theory to explain how and why they work, and their
formalization in systematic creativity programs.

81
 Learning creative problem-solving techniques does not change an
analyst’s native-born talents but helps an analyst achieve his or her full
potential. Most people have the ability to be more innovative than they
themselves realize. The effectiveness of these procedures depends, in large
measure, upon the analyst’s motivation, drive, and perseverance in taking
the time required for thoughtful analysis despite the pressures of day-to-
day duties, mail, and current intelligence reporting.
A questioning attitude is a prerequisite to a successful search for
new ideas. Any analyst who is confident that he or she already knows the
answer, and that this answer has not changed recently, is unlikely to pro-
duce innovative or imaginative work. Another prerequisite to creativity
is sufficient strength of character to suggest new ideas to others, possibly
at the expense of being rejected or even ridiculed on occasion. “The ideas
of creative people often lead them into direct conflict with the trends of
their time, and they need the courage to be able to stand alone.”79

79. Robin Hogarth, Judgment and Choice (New York: Wiley, 1980), p. 117.

82
SOLUTIONS TO PUZZLE PRESENTED IN FIGURE 6

The nine-dots puzzle illustrated in Figure 6 above and earlier in this

chapter is difficult to solve only if one defines the problem to narrowly.
A surprising number of people assume they are not supposed to let the
pencil go outside an imaginary square drawn around the nine dots.

This unconscious constraint exists only in the mind of the problem-

solver; it is not specified in the definition of the problem. With no limit
on the length of lines, it should be relatively easy to come up with the
answer shown in Figure 7.

83
 Another common, unconscious constraint is the assumption that
the lines must pass through the center of the dots. This constraint, too,
exists only in the mind of the problem solver. Without it, the three-line
solution in Figure 8 becomes rather obvious.

A more subtle and certainly more pervasive mental block is the as-
sumption that such problems must be solved within a two-dimensional-
plane. By rolling the paper to form a cylinder, it becomes possible to draw
a single straight line that spirals through all nine dots, as in Figure 9.

84
 Chapter 7
Structuring Analytical Problems

This chapter discusses various structures for decomposing and externaliz-

ing complex analytical problems when we cannot keep all the relevant factors
in the forefront of our consciousness at the same time.
Decomposition means breaking a problem down into its component
parts. Externalization means getting the problem out of our heads and into
some visible form that we can work with.
*******************
The discussion of working memory in Chapter 3 indicated that “The
Magic Number Seven—Plus or Minus Two”80 is the number of things
most people can keep in working memory at one time. To experience
firsthand this limitation on working memory while doing a mental task,
try multiplying in your head any pair of two-digit numbers- for example,
46 times 78. On paper, this is a simple problem, but most people cannot
keep track of that many numbers in their head.
The limited capacity of working memory is the source of many
problems in doing intelligence analysis. It is useful to consider just how
complicated analysis can get, and how complexity might outstrip your
working memory and impede your ability to make accurate judgments.
Figure 10 illustrates how complexity increases geometrically as the num-
ber of variables in an analytical problem increases. The four-sided square
shows that when a problem has just four variables, there are six possible
interrelationships between those variables. With the pentagon, the five
variables have 10 possible interrelationships. With six and eight variables,
respectively, there are 15 and 28 possible interrelationships between vari-
ables.
The number of possible relationships between variables grows geo-
metrically as the number of variables increases.
There are two basic tools for dealing with complexity in analysis—
decomposition and externalization.

80. George A. Miller, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our
Capacity for Processing Information.” The Psychological Review, Vol. 63, No. 2 (March 1956).

85
 Decomposition means breaking a problem down into its component
parts. That is, indeed, the essence of analysis. Webster’s Dictionary de-
fines analysis as division of a complex whole into its parts or elements.81
The spirit of decision analysis is to divide and conquer: Decompose
a complex problem into simpler problems, get one’s thinking straight in
these simpler problems, paste these analyses together with a logical glue
. . .82
Externalization means getting the decomposed problem out of one’s
head and down on paper or on a computer screen in some simplified
form that shows the main variables, parameters, or elements of the prob-
lem and how they relate to each other. Writing down the multiplication
problem, 46 times 78, is a very simple example of externalizing an ana-

81. Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, 1988.

82. Howard Raiffa, Decision Analysis (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1968).

86
lytical problem. When it is down on paper, one can easily manipulate
one part of the problem at a time and often be more accurate than when
trying to multiply the numbers in one’s head.
I call this drawing a picture of your problem. Others call it making
a model of your problem. It can be as simple as just making lists pro and
con.
This recommendation to compensate for limitations of working
memory by decomposing and externalizing analytical problems is not
new. The following quote is from a letter Benjamin Franklin wrote in
1772 to the great British scientist Joseph Priestley, the discoverer of oxy-
gen:

In the affair of so much importance to you, wherein you ask my

advice, I cannot for want of sufficient premises, advise you what
to determine, but if you please I will tell you how. When those
difficult cases occur, they are difficult, chiefly because while we
have them under consideration, all the reasons pro and con
are not present to the mind at the same time, but sometimes
one set present themselves, and at other times another, the first
being out of sight. Hence the various purposes or inclinations
that alternatively prevail, and the uncertainty that perplexes us.

To get over this, my way is to divide half a sheet of paper by a line

into two columns; writing over the one Pro, and over the other
Con. Then, during three or four days of consideration, I put down
under the different heads short hints of the different motives,
that at different times occur to me, for or against the measure.

When I have thus got them all together in one view, I en-
deavor to estimate their respective weights; and where I find
two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both
out. If I find a reason pro equal to some two reasons con, I
strike out the three . . . and thus proceeding I find at length
where the balance lies; and if, after a day or two of fur-
ther consideration, nothing new that is of importance oc-
curs on either side, I come to a determination accordingly.

87
 And, though the weight of reasons cannot be taken with the
precision of algebraic quantities, yet when each is thus consid-
ered, separately and comparatively, and the whole lies before
me, I think I can judge better, and am less liable to make a rash
step, and in fact I have found great advantage from this kind of
equation. . . . 83

It is noteworthy that Franklin over 200 years ago ident2ified the

problem of limited working memory and how it affects one’s ability to
make judgments. As Franklin noted, decision problems are difficult be-
cause people cannot keep all the pros and cons in mind at the same time.
We focus first on one set of arguments and then on another, “. . . hence
the various purposes and inclinations that alternatively prevail, and the
uncertainty that perplexes us.”
Franklin also identified the solution—getting all the pros and cons
out of his head and onto paper in some visible, shorthand form. The fact
that this topic was part of the dialogue between such illustrious individu-
als reflects the type of people who use such analytical tools. These are
not aids to be used by weak analysts but unneeded by the strong. Basic
limitations of working memory affect everyone. It is the more astute and
careful analysts who are most conscious of this and most likely to recog-
nize the value gained by applying these very simple tools.
Putting ideas into visible form ensures that they will last. They will
lie around for days goading you into having further thoughts. Lists are ef-
fective because they exploit people’s tendency to be a bit compulsive—we
want to keep adding to them. They let us get the obvious and habitual
answers out of the way, so that we can add to the list by thinking of other
ideas beyond those that came first to mind. One specialist in creativity
has observed that “for the purpose of moving our minds, pencils can
serve as crowbars”84—just by writing things down and making lists that
stimulate new associations.
With the key elements of a problem written down in some abbrevi-
ated form, it is far easier to work with each of the parts while still keeping
the problem as a whole in view. Analysts can generally take account of
more factors than when making a global judgment. They can manipulate

83. J. Bigelow, ed., The Complete Works of Benjamin Franklin (New York: Putnam, 1887), p.
522.
84. Alex Osborn, Applied Imagination, Revised Edition (New York: Scribner’s, 1979), p. 202.

88
individual elements of the problem to examine the many alternatives
available through rearranging, combining, or modifying them. Variables
may be given more weight or deleted, causal relationships reconceptual-
ized, or conceptual categories redefined. Such thoughts may arise spon-
taneously, but they are more likely to occur when an analyst looks at
each element, one by one, and asks questions designed to encourage and
facilitate consideration of alternative interpretations.

Problem Structure
Anything that has parts also has a structure that relates these parts
to each other. One of the first steps in doing analysis is to determine an
appropriate structure for the analytical problem, so that one can then
identify the various parts and begin assembling information on them.
Because there are many different kinds of analytical problems, there are
also many different ways to structure analysis.
Lists such as Franklin made are one of the simplest structures. An
intelligence analyst might make lists of relevant variables, early warning
indicators, alternative explanations, possible outcomes, factors a foreign
leader will need to take into account when making a decision, or argu-
ments for and against a given explanation or outcome.
Other tools for structuring a problem include outlines, tables, dia-
grams, trees, and matrices, with many sub-species of each. For example,
trees include decision trees and fault trees. Diagrams includes causal dia-
grams, influence diagrams, flow charts, and cognitive maps.
Consideration of all those tools is beyond the scope of this book,
but several such tools are discussed. Chapter 11, “Biases in Perception of
Cause and Effect,” has a section on Illusory Correlation that uses a (2x2)
contingency table to structure analysis of the question: Is deception most
likely when the stakes are very high? Chapter 8, “Analysis of Competing
Hypotheses,” is arguably the most useful chapter in this book. It recom-
mends using a matrix to array evidence for and against competing hy-
potheses to explain what is happening now or estimate what may happen
in the future.
The discussion below also uses a matrix to illustrate decomposition
and externalization and is intended to prepare you for the next chapter
on “Analysis of Competing Hypotheses.” It demonstrates how to apply

89
these tools to a type of decision commonly encountered in our personal
lives.

Car Purchase Matrix

In choosing among alternative purchases, such as when buying a car,
a new computer, or a house, people often want to maximize their satis-
faction on a number of sometimes-conflicting dimensions. They want a
car at the lowest possible price, with the lowest maintenance cost, highest
resale value, slickest styling, best handling, best gas mileage, largest trunk
space, and so forth. They can’t have it all, so they must decide what is
most important and make tradeoffs. As Ben Franklin said, the choice is
sometimes difficult. We vacillate between one choice and another, be-
cause we cannot keep in working memory at the same time all the char-
acteristics of all the choices. We think first of one and then the other.
To handle this problem analytically, follow the divide-and-conquer
principle and “draw a picture” of the problem as a whole that helps you
identify and make the tradeoffs. The component parts of the car purchase
problem are the cars you are considering buying and the attributes or
dimensions you want to maximize. After identifying the desirable attri-
butes that will influence your decision, weigh how each car stacks up on
each attribute. A matrix is the appropriate tool for keeping track of your
judgments about each car and each attribute, and then putting all the
parts back together to make a decision.
Start by listing the important attributes you want to maximize, as
shown for example in Figure 11.

90
 Next, quantify the relative importance of each attribute by dividing
100 percent among them. In other words, ask yourself what percentage
of the decision should be based on price, on styling, etc. This forces you
to ask relevant questions and make decisions you might have glossed over
if you had not broken the problem down in this manner. How important
is price versus styling, really? Do you really care what it looks like from
the outside, or are you mainly looking for comfort on the inside and how

it drives? Should safety be included in your list of important attributes?

Because poor gas mileage can be offset by lower maintenance cost for
repairs, perhaps both should be combined into a single attribute called
operating cost.
This step might produce a result similar to Figure 12, depending on
your personal preferences. If you do this together with your spouse, the
exact basis of any difference of opinion will become immediately appar-
ent and can be quantified.

91
 Next, identify the cars you are considering and judge how each one
ranks on each of the six attributes shown in Figure 12. Set up a matrix
as shown in Figure 13 and work across the rows of the matrix. For each
attribute, take 10 points and divide it among the three cars based on how
well they meet the requirements of that attribute. (This is the same as tak-
ing 100 percent and dividing it among the cars, but it keeps the numbers
lower when you get to the next step.)
You now have a picture of your analytical problem—the compara-
tive value you attribute to each of the principal attributes of a new car
and a comparison of how various cars satisfy those desired attributes. If
you have narrowed it down to three alternatives, your matrix will look
something like Figure 13:
When all the cells of the matrix have been filled in, you can then
calculate which car best suits your preferences. Multiply the percentage
value you assigned to each attribute by the value you assigned to that
attribute for each car, which produces the result in Figure 14. If the per-
centage values you assigned to each attribute accurately reflect your pref-
erences, and if each car has been analyzed accurately, the analysis shows
you will gain more satisfaction from the purchase of Car 3 than either of
the alternatives.

92
 At this point, you do a sensitivity analysis to determine whether
plausible changes in some values in the matrix would swing the decision
to a different car. Assume, for example, that your spouse places different
values than you on the relative importance of price versus styling. You
can insert your spouse’s percentage values for those two attributes and see
if that makes a difference in the decision. (For example, one could reduce
the importance of price to 20 percent and increase styling to 30 percent.
That is still not quite enough to switch the choice to Car 2, which rates
highest on styling.)
There is a technical name for this type of analysis. It is called
Multiattribute Utility Analysis, and there are complex computer pro-
grams for doing it. In simplified form, however, it requires only pencil
and paper and high school arithmetic. It is an appropriate structure for
any purchase decision in which you must make tradeoffs between mul-
tiple competing preferences.

93
Conclusions
The car purchase example was a warmup for the following chap-
ter. It illustrates the difference between just sitting down and thinking
about a problem and really analyzing a problem. The essence of analysis
is breaking down a problem into its component parts, assessing each part
separately, then putting the parts back together to make a decision. The
matrix in this example forms a “picture” of a complex problem by getting
it out of our head and onto paper in a logical form that enables you to
consider each of the parts individually.
You certainly would not want to do this type of analysis for all your
everyday personal decisions or for every intelligence judgment. You may
wish to do it, however, for an especially important, difficult, or contro-
versial judgment, or when you need to leave an audit trail showing how
you arrived at a judgment. The next chapter applies decomposition, ex-
ternalization, and the matrix structure to a common type of intelligence
problem.

94
 Chapter 8
Analysis of Competing Hypotheses
Analysis of competing hypotheses, sometimes abbreviated ACH, is a tool
to aid judgment on important issues requiring careful weighing of alterna-
tive explanations or conclusions. It helps an analyst overcome, or at least
minimize, some of the cognitive limitations that make prescient intelligence
analysis so difficult to achieve.
ACH is an eight-step procedure grounded in basic insights from cogni-
tive psychology, decision analysis, and the scientific method. It is a surprisingly
effective, proven process that helps analysts avoid common analytic pitfalls.
Because of its thoroughness, it is particularly appropriate for controversial is-
sues when analysts want to leave an audit trail to show what they considered
and how they arrived at their judgment.85
*******************
When working on difficult intelligence issues, analysts are, in effect,
choosing among several alternative hypotheses. Which of several possible
explanations is the correct one? Which of several possible outcomes is the
most likely one? As previously noted, this book uses the term “hypoth-
esis” in its broadest sense as a potential explanation or conclusion that is
to be tested by collecting and presenting evidence.
Analysis of competing hypotheses (ACH) requires an analyst to ex-
plicitly identify all the reasonable alternatives and have them compete
against each other for the analyst’s favor, rather than evaluating their
plausibility one at a time.
The way most analysts go about their business is to pick out what
they suspect intuitively is the most likely answer, then look at the avail-
able information from the point of view of whether or not it supports
this answer. If the evidence seems to support the favorite hypothesis,

85. The analysis of competing hypotheses procedure was developed by the author for use by
intelligence analysts dealing with a set of particularly difficult problems.

95
analysts pat themselves on the back (“See, I knew it all along!”) and look
no further. If it does not, they either reject the evidence as misleading or
develop another hypothesis and go through the same procedure again.
Decision analysts call this a satisficing strategy. (See Chapter 4, Strategies
for Analytical Judgment.) Satisficing means picking the first solution that
seems satisfactory, rather than going through all the possibilities to iden-
tify the very best solution. There may be several seemingly satisfactory
solutions, but there is only one best solution.
Chapter 4 discussed the weaknesses in this approach. The principal
concern is that if analysts focus mainly on trying to confirm one hy-
pothesis they think is probably true, they can easily be led astray by the
fact that there is so much evidence to support their point of view. They
fail to recognize that most of this evidence is also consistent with other
explanations or conclusions, and that these other alternatives have not
been refuted.
Simultaneous evaluation of multiple, competing hypotheses is very
difficult to do. To retain three to five or even seven hypotheses in working
memory and note how each item of information fits into each hypothesis
is beyond the mental capabilities of most people. It takes far greater men-
tal agility than listing evidence supporting a single hypothesis that was
pre-judged as the most likely answer. It can be accomplished, though,
with the help of the simple procedures discussed here. The box below
contains a step-by-step outline of the ACH process.

Step 1
Identify the possible hypotheses to be considered. Use a group of
analysts with different perspectives to brainstorm the possibilities.
Psychological research into how people go about generating hypoth-
eses shows that people are actually rather poor at thinking of all the pos-
sibilities.86 If a person does not even generate the correct hypothesis for
consideration, obviously he or she will not get the correct answer.

86. Charles Gettys et al., Hypothesis Generation: A Final Report on Three Years of Research,
Technical Report 15-10-80 (University of Oklahoma, Decision Processes Laboratory, 1980).

96
 Step-by-Step Outline of Analysis of Competing Hypotheses

1. Identify the possible hypotheses to be considered. Use a group of ana-

lysts with different perspectives to brainstorm the possibilities.

2. Make a list of significant evidence and arguments for and against

each hypothesis.

3. Prepare a matrix with hypotheses across the top and evidence down
the side. Analyze the “diagnosticity” of the evidence and arguments—
that is, identify which items are most helpful in judging the relative
likelihood of the hypotheses.

4. Refine the matrix. Reconsider the hypotheses and delete evidence

and arguments that have no diagnostic value.

5. Draw tentative conclusions about the relative likelihood of each

hypothesis. Proceed by trying to disprove the hypotheses rather than
prove them.

6. Analyze how sensitive your conclusion is to a few critical items of

evidence. Consider the consequences for your analysis if that evidence
were wrong, misleading, or subject to a different interpretation.

7. Report conclusions. Discuss the relative likelihood of all the hypoth-

eses, not just the most likely one.

8. Identify milestones for future observation that may indicate events

are taking a different course than expected.

It is useful to make a clear distinction between the hypothesis gen-

eration and hypothesis evaluation stages of analysis. Step 1 of the recom-
mended analytical process is to identify all hypotheses that merit detailed
examination. At this early hypothesis generation stage, it is very useful
to bring together a group of analysts with different backgrounds and
perspectives. Brainstorming in a group stimulates the imagination and

97
may bring out possibilities that individual members of the group had
not thought of. Initial discussion in the group should elicit every pos-
sibility, no matter how remote, before judging likelihood or feasibility.
Only when all the possibilities are on the table should you then focus
on judging them and selecting the hypotheses to be examined in greater
detail in subsequent analysis.
When screening out the seemingly improbable hypotheses that you
do not want to waste time on, it is necessary to distinguish hypotheses
that appear to be disproved from those that are simply unproven. For an
unproven hypothesis, there is no evidence that it is correct. For a dis-
proved hypothesis, there is positive evidence that it is wrong. As dis-
cussed in Chapter 4, “Strategies for Analytical Judgment,” and under
Step 5 below, you should seek evidence that disproves hypotheses. Early
rejection of unproven, but not disproved, hypotheses biases the subse-
quent analysis, because one does not then look for the evidence that
might support them. Unproven hypotheses should be kept alive until
they can be disproved.
One example of a hypothesis that often falls into this unproven but
not disproved category is the hypothesis that an opponent is trying to
deceive us. You may reject the possibility of denial and deception because
you see no evidence of it, but rejection is not justified under these cir-
cumstances. If deception is planned well and properly implemented, one
should not expect to find evidence of it readily at hand. The possibility
should not be rejected until it is disproved, or, at least, until after a sys-
tematic search for evidence has been made and none has been found.
There is no “correct” number of hypotheses to be considered. The
number depends upon the nature of the analytical problem and how
advanced you are in the analysis of it. As a general rule, the greater your
level of uncertainty, or the greater the policy impact of your conclusion,
the more alternatives you may wish to consider. More than seven hy-
potheses may be unmanageable; if there are this many alternatives, it may
be advisable to group several of them together for your initial cut at the
analysis.

98
Step 2
Make a list of significant evidence and arguments for and against
each hypothesis.
In assembling the list of relevant evidence and arguments, these
terms should be interpreted very broadly. They refer to all the factors
that have an impact on your judgments about the hypotheses. Do not
limit yourself to concrete evidence in the current intelligence reporting.
Also include your own assumptions or logical deductions about another
person’s or group’s or country’s intentions, goals, or standard procedures.
These assumptions may generate strong preconceptions as to which hy-
pothesis is most likely. Such assumptions often drive your final judg-
ment, so it is important to include them in the list of “evidence.”
First, list the general evidence that applies to all the hypotheses.
Then consider each hypothesis individually, listing factors that tend to
support or contradict each one. You will commonly find that each hy-
pothesis leads you to ask different questions and, therefore, to seek out
somewhat different evidence.
For each hypothesis, ask yourself this question: If this hypothesis is
true, what should I expect to be seeing or not seeing? What are all the
things that must have happened, or may still be happening, and that one
should expect to see evidence of? If you are not seeing this evidence, why
not? Is it because it has not happened, it is not normally observable, it is
being concealed from you, or because you or the intelligence collectors
have not looked for it?
Note the absence of evidence as well as its presence. For example,
when weighing the possibility of military attack by an adversary, the steps
the adversary has not taken to ready his forces for attack may be more
significant than the observable steps that have been taken. This recalls
the Sherlock Holmes story in which the vital clue was that the dog did
not bark in the night. One’s attention tends to focus on what is reported
rather than what is not reported. It requires a conscious effort to think
about what is missing but should be present if a given hypothesis were
true.

99
Step 3
Prepare a matrix with hypotheses across the top and evidence
down the side. Analyze the “diagnosticity” of the evidence and argu-
ments- that is, identify which items are most helpful in judging the
relative likelihood of alternative hypotheses.
Step 3 is perhaps the most important element of this analytical pro-
cedure. It is also the step that differs most from the natural, intuitive
approach to analysis, and, therefore, the step you are most likely to over-
look or misunderstand.
The procedure for Step 3 is to take the hypotheses from Step 1 and
the evidence and arguments from Step 2 and put this information into
a matrix format, with the hypotheses across the top and evidence and
arguments down the side. This gives an overview of all the significant
components of your analytical problem.
Then analyze how each piece of evidence relates to each hypothesis.
This differs from the normal procedure, which is to look at one hypoth-
esis at a time in order to consider how well the evidence supports that
hypothesis. That will be done later, in Step 5. At this point, in Step 3,
take one item of evidence at a time, then consider how consistent that
evidence is with each of the hypotheses. Here is how to remember this
distinction. In Step 3, you work across the rows of the matrix, examining
one item of evidence at a time to see how consistent that item of evidence
is with each of the hypotheses. In Step 5, you work down the columns
of the matrix, examining one hypothesis at a time, to see how consistent
that hypothesis is with all the evidence.
To fill in the matrix, take the first item of evidence and ask whether
it is consistent with, inconsistent with, or irrelevant to each hypothesis.
Then make a notation accordingly in the appropriate cell under each
hypothesis in the matrix. The form of these notations in the matrix is a
matter of personal preference. It may be pluses, minuses, and question
marks. It may be C, I, and N/A standing for consistent, inconsistent, or
not applicable. Or it may be some textual notation. In any event, it will
be a simplification, a shorthand representation of the complex reason-
ing that went on as you thought about how the evidence relates to each
hypothesis.
After doing this for the first item of evidence, then go on to the
next item of evidence and repeat the process until all cells in the ma-

100
trix are filled. Figure 15 shows an example of how such a matrix might
look. It uses as an example the intelligence question that arose after the
US bombing of Iraqi intelligence headquarters in 1993: Will Iraq retali-
ate? The evidence in the matrix and how it is evaluated are hypothetical,
fabricated for the purpose of providing a plausible example of the proce-
dure. The matrix does not reflect actual evidence or judgments available
at that time to the US Intelligence Community.

The matrix format helps you weigh the diagnosticity of each item of
evidence, which is a key difference between analysis of competing hy-
potheses and traditional analysis. Diagnosticity of evidence is an impor-
tant concept that is, unfortunately, unfamiliar to many analysts. It was
introduced in Chapter 4, and that discussion is repeated here for your
convenience.

101
 Diagnosticity may be illustrated by a medical analogy. A high-tem-
perature reading may have great value in telling a doctor that a patient
is sick, but relatively little value in determining which illness a person is
suffering from. Because a high temperature is consistent with so many
possible hypotheses about a patient’s illness, this evidence has limited
diagnostic value in determining which illness (hypothesis) is the more
likely one.
Evidence is diagnostic when it influences your judgment on the
relative likelihood of the various hypotheses identified in Step 1. If an
item of evidence seems consistent with all the hypotheses, it may have no
diagnostic value. A common experience is to discover that most of the
evidence supporting what you believe is the most likely hypothesis really
is not very helpful, because that same evidence is also consistent with
other hypotheses. When you do identify items that are highly diagnostic,
these should drive your judgment. These are also the items for which
you should re-check accuracy and consider alternative interpretations, as
discussed in Step 6.
In the hypothetical matrix dealing with Iraqi intentions, note that
evidence designated “E1” is assessed as consistent with all of the hypoth-
eses. In other words, it has no diagnostic value. This is because we did
not give any credence to Saddam’s public statement on this question. He
might say he will not retaliate but then do so, or state that he will retali-
ate and then not do it. On the other hand, E4 is diagnostic: increased
frequency or length of Iraqi agent radio broadcasts is more likely to be
observed if the Iraqis are planning retaliation than if they are not. The
double minus for E6 indicates this is considered a very strong argument
against H1. It is a linchpin assumption that drives the conclusion in fa-
vor of either H2 or H3. Several of the judgments reflected in this matrix
will be questioned at a later stage in this analysis.
In some cases it may be useful to refine this procedure by using a
numerical probability, rather than a general notation such as plus or mi-
nus, to describe how the evidence relates to each hypothesis. To do this,
ask the following question for each cell in the matrix: If this hypothesis is
true, what is the probability that I would be seeing this item of evidence?
You may also make one or more additional notations in each cell of the
matrix, such as:

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 • Adding a scale to show the intrinsic importance of each item of
evidence.

• Adding a scale to show the ease with which items of evidence

could be concealed, manipulated, or faked, or the extent to
which one party might have an incentive to do so. This may be
appropriate when the possibility of denial and deception is a seri-
ous issue.

Step 4
Refine the matrix. Reconsider the hypotheses and delete evi-
dence and arguments that have no diagnostic value.
The exact wording of the hypotheses is obviously critical to the con-
clusions one can draw from the analysis. By this point, you will have seen
how the evidence breaks out under each hypothesis, and it will often be
appropriate to reconsider and reword the hypotheses. Are there hypoth-
eses that need to be added, or finer distinctions that need to be made
in order to consider all the significant alternatives? If there is little orno
evidence that helps distinguish between two hypotheses, should they be
combined into one?
Also reconsider the evidence. Is your thinking about which hypoth-
eses are most likely and least likely influenced by factors that are not
included in the listing of evidence? If so, put them in. Delete from the
matrix items of evidence or assumptions that now seem unimportant or
have no diagnostic value. Save these items in a separate list as a record of
information that was considered.

Step 5
Draw tentative conclusions about the relative likelihood of each
hypothesis. Proceed by trying to disprove hypotheses rather than
prove them.
In Step 3, you worked across the matrix, focusing on a single item
of evidence or argument and examining how it relates to each hypothesis.
Now, work down the matrix, looking at each hypothesis as a whole. The
matrix format gives an overview of all the evidence for and against all the
hypotheses, so that you can examine all the hypotheses together and have
them compete against each other for your favor.

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 In evaluating the relative likelihood of alternative hypotheses, start
by looking for evidence or logical deductions that enable you to reject
hypotheses, or at least to determine that they are unlikely. A fundamental
precept of the scientific method is to proceed by rejecting or eliminating
hypotheses, while tentatively accepting only those hypotheses that can-
not be refuted. The scientific method obviously cannot be applied in toto
to intuitive judgment, but the principle of seeking to disprove hypoth-
eses, rather than confirm them, is useful.
No matter how much information is consistent with a given hy-
pothesis, one cannot prove that hypothesis is true, because the same in-
formation may also be consistent with one or more other hypotheses. On
the other hand, a single item of evidence that is inconsistent with a hy-
pothesis may be sufficient grounds for rejecting that hypothesis. This was
discussed in detail in Chapter 4, “Strategies for Analytical Judgment.”
People have a natural tendency to concentrate on confirming hy-
potheses they already believe to be true, and they commonly give more
weight to information that supports a hypothesis than to information
that weakens it. This is wrong; we should do just the opposite. Step 5
again requires doing the opposite of what comes naturally.
In examining the matrix, look at the minuses, or whatever other
notation you used to indicate evidence that may be inconsistent with a
hypothesis. The hypotheses with the fewest minuses is probably the most
likely one. The hypothesis with the most minuses is probably the least
likely one. The fact that a hypothesis is inconsistent with the evidence is
certainly a sound basis for rejecting it. The pluses, indicating evidence
that is consistent with a hypothesis, are far less significant. It does not
follow that the hypothesis with the most pluses is the most likely one,
because a long list of evidence that is consistent with almost any reason-
able hypothesis can be easily made. What is difficult to find, and is most
significant when found, is hard evidence that is clearly inconsistent with
a reasonable hypothesis.
This initial ranking by number of minuses is only a rough rank-
ing, however, as some evidence obviously is more important than other
evidence, and degrees of inconsistency cannot be captured by a single
notation such as a plus or minus. By reconsidering the exact nature of the
relationship between the evidence and the hypotheses, you will be able to
judge how much weight to give it.

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 Analysts who follow this procedure often realize that their judg-
ments are actually based on very few factors rather than on the large mass
of information they thought was influencing their views. Chapter 5, “Do
You Really Need More Information?,” makes this same point based on
experimental evidence.
The matrix should not dictate the conclusion to you. Rather, it
should accurately reflect your judgment of what is important and how
these important factors relate to the probability of each hypothesis. You,
not the matrix, must make the decision. The matrix serves only as an
aid to thinking and analysis, to ensure consideration of all the possible
interrelationships between evidence and hypotheses and identification of
those few items that really swing your judgment on the issue.
When the matrix shows that a given hypothesis is probable or un-
likely, you may disagree. If so, it is because you omitted from the matrix
one or more factors that have an important influence on your thinking.
Go back and put them in, so that the analysis reflects your best judg-
ment. If following this procedure has caused you to consider things you
might otherwise have overlooked, or has caused you to revise your earlier
estimate of the relative probabilities of the hypotheses, then the proce-
dure has served a useful purpose. When you are done, the matrix serves
as a shorthand record of your thinking and as an audit trail showing how
you arrived at your conclusion.
This procedure forces you to spend more analytical time than you
otherwise would on what you had thought were the less likely hypoth-
eses. This is desirable. The seemingly less likely hypotheses usually in-
volve plowing new ground and, therefore, require more work. What you
started out thinking was the most likely hypothesis tends to be based
on a continuation of your own past thinking. A principal advantage of
the analysis of competing hypotheses is that it forces you to give a fairer
shake to all the alternatives.

Step 6
Analyze how sensitive your conclusion is to a few critical items
of evidence. Consider the consequences for your analysis if that evi-
dence were wrong, misleading, or subject to a different interpreta-
tion.

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 In Step 3 you identified the evidence and arguments that were most
diagnostic, and in Step 5 you used these findings to make tentative judg-
ments about the hypotheses. Now, go back and question the few linchpin
assumptions or items of evidence that really drive the outcome of your
analysis in one direction or the other. Are there questionable assumptions
that underlie your understanding and interpretation? Are there alterna-
tive explanations or interpretations? Could the evidence be incomplete
and, therefore, misleading?
If there is any concern at all about denial and deception, this is
an appropriate place to consider that possibility. Look at the sources of
your key evidence. Are any of the sources known to the authorities in
the foreign country? Could the information have been manipulated? Put
yourself in the shoes of a foreign deception planner to evaluate motive,
opportunity, means, costs, and benefits of deception as they might ap-
pear to the foreign country.
When analysis turns out to be wrong, it is often because of key
assumptions that went unchallenged and proved invalid. It is a truism
that analysts should identify and question assumptions, but this is much
easier said than done. The problem is to determine which assumptions
merit questioning. One advantage of the ACH procedure is that it tells
you what needs to be rechecked.
In Step 6 you may decide that additional research is needed to check
key judgments. For example, it may be appropriate to go back to check
original source materials rather than relying on someone else’s interpreta-
tion. In writing your report, it is desirable to identify critical assumptions
that went into your interpretation and to note that your conclusion is
dependent upon the validity of these assumptions.

Step 7
Report conclusions. Discuss the relative likelihood of all the hy-
potheses, not just the most likely one.
If your report is to be used as the basis for decisionmaking, it will be
helpful for the decisionmaker to know the relative likelihood of all the
alternative possibilities. Analytical judgments are never certain. There is
always a good possibility of their being wrong. Decisionmakers need to
make decisions on the basis of a full set of alternative possibilities, not

106
just the single most likely alternative. Contingency or fallback plans may
be needed in case one of the less likely alternatives turns out to be true.
If you say that a certain hypothesis is probably true, that could mean
anywhere from a 55-percent to an 85-percent chance that future events
will prove it correct. That leaves anywhere from a 15-percent to 45 per-
cent possibility that a decision based on your judgment will be based on
faulty assumptions and will turn out wrong. Can you be more specific
about how confident you are in your judgment? Chapter 12, “Biases in
Estimating Probabilities,” discusses the difference between such “subjec-
tive probability” judgments and statistical probabilities based on data on
relative frequencies.
When one recognizes the importance of proceeding by eliminating
rather than confirming hypotheses, it becomes apparent that any written
argument for a certain judgment is incomplete unless it also discusses
alternative judgments that were considered and why they were rejected.
In the past, at least, this was seldom done.
The narrative essay, which is the dominant art form for the pre-
sentation of intelligence judgments, does not lend itself to comparative
evaluation of competing hypotheses. Consideration of alternatives adds
to the length of reports and is perceived by many analysts as detracting
from the persuasiveness of argument for the judgment chosen. Analysts
may fear that the reader could fasten on one of the rejected alternatives
as a good idea. Discussion of alternative hypotheses is nonetheless an
important part of any intelligence appraisal, and ways can and should be
found to include it.

Step 8
Identify milestones for future observation that may indicate
events are taking a different course than expected.
Analytical conclusions should always be regarded as tentative. The
situation may change, or it may remain unchanged while you receive
new information that alters your appraisal. It is always helpful to specify
in advance things one should look for or be alert to that, if observed,
would suggest a significant change in the probabilities. This is useful for

107
intelligence consumers who are following the situation on a continuing
basis. Specifying in advance what would cause you to change your mind
will also make it more difficult for you to rationalize such developments,
if they occur, as not really requiring any modification of your judgment.

Summary and Conclusion

Three key elements distinguish analysis of competing hypotheses
from conventional intuitive analysis.

• Analysis starts with a full set of alternative possibilities, rather

than with a most likely alternative for which the analyst seeks
confirmation. This ensures that alternative hypotheses receive
equal treatment and a fair shake.

• Analysis identifies and emphasizes the few items of evidence or

assumptions that have the greatest diagnostic value in judging
the relative likelihood of the alternative hypotheses. In conven-
tional intuitive analysis, the fact that key evidence may also be
consistent with alternative hypotheses is rarely considered explic-
itly and often ignored.

• Analysis of competing hypotheses involves seeking evidence to

refute hypotheses. The most probable hypothesis is usually the
one with the least evidence against it, not the one with the most
evidence for it. Conventional analysis generally entails looking
for evidence to confirm a favored hypothesis.

The analytical effectiveness of this procedure becomes apparent

when considering the Indian nuclear weapons testing in 1998. According
to Admiral Jeremiah, the Intelligence Community had reported that “
there was no indication the Indians would test in the near term.”87 Such
a conclusion by the Community would fail to distinguish an unproven
hypothesis from a disproved hypothesis. An absence of evidence does
not necessarily disprove the hypothesis that India will indeed test nuclear
weapons.

87. Transcript of Adm. Jeremiah’s news conference, last sentence of third paragraph, 2 June
1998.

108
 If the ACH procedure had been used, one of the hypotheses would
certainly have been that India is planning to test in the near term but will
conceal preparations for the testing to forestall international pressure to
halt such preparations.
Careful consideration of this alternative hypothesis would have re-
quired evaluating India’s motive, opportunity, and means for concealing
its intention until it was too late for the US and others to intervene. It
would also have required assessing the ability of US intelligence to see
through Indian denial and deception if it were being employed. It is hard
to imagine that this would not have elevated awareness of the possibility
of successful Indian deception.
A principal lesson is this. Whenever an intelligence analyst is tempt-
ed to write the phrase “there is no evidence that . . . ,” the analyst should
ask this question: If this hypothesis is true, can I realistically expect to
see evidence of it? In other words, if India were planning nuclear tests
while deliberately concealing its intentions, could the analyst realistically
expect to see evidence of test planning? The ACH procedure leads the
analyst to identify and face these kinds of questions.
Once you have gained practice in applying analysis of competing
hypotheses, it is quite possible to integrate the basic concepts of this
procedure into your normal analytical thought process. In that case, the
entire eight-step procedure may be unnecessary, except on highly contro-
versial issues.
There is no guarantee that ACH or any other procedure will produce
a correct answer. The result, after all, still depends on fallible intuitive
judgment applied to incomplete and ambiguous information. Analysis
of competing hypotheses does, however, guarantee an appropriate
process of analysis. This procedure leads you through a rational, sys-
tematic process that avoids some common analytical pitfalls. It in-
creases the odds of getting the right answer, and it leaves an audit
trail showing the evidence used in your analysis and how this evidence
was interpreted. If others disagree with your judgment, the matrix
can be used to highlight the precise area of disagreement. Subsequent
discussion can then focus productively on the ultimate source of the
differences.
A common experience is that analysis of competing hypotheses at-
tributes greater likelihood to alternative hypotheses than would conven-
tional analysis. One becomes less confident of what one thought one

109
knew. In focusing more attention on alternative explanations, the proce-
dure brings out the full uncertainty inherent in any situation that is poor
in data but rich in possibilities. Although such uncertainty is frustrating,
it may be an accurate reflection of the true situation. As Voltaire said,
“Doubt is not a pleasant state, but certainty is a ridiculous one.”88
The ACH procedure has the offsetting advantage of focusing atten-
tion on the few items of critical evidence that cause the uncertainty or
which, if they were available, would alleviate it. This can guide future
collection, research, and analysis to resolve the uncertainty and produce
a more accurate judgment.

88. M. Rogers, ed., Contradictory Quotations (England: Longman Group, Ltd., 1983).

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 PART III—COGNITIVE BIASES
Chapter 9
What Are Cognitive Biases?
This mini-chapter discusses the nature of cognitive biases in general. The
four chapters that follow it describe specific cognitive biases in the evaluation
of evidence, perception of cause and effect, estimation of probabilities, and
evaluation of intelligence reporting.
*******************
Fundamental limitations in human mental processes were identi-
fied in Chapters 2 and 3. A substantial body of research in cognitive
psychology and decisionmaking is based on the premise that these cog-
nitive limitations cause people to employ various simplifying strategies
and rules of thumb to ease the burden of mentally processing informa-
tion to make judgments and decisions.89 These simple rules of thumb are
often useful in helping us deal with complexity and ambiguity. Under
many circumstances, however, they lead to predictably faulty judgments
known as cognitive biases.
Cognitive biases are mental errors caused by our simplified informa-
tion processing strategies. It is important to distinguish cognitive biases
from other forms of bias, such as cultural bias, organizational bias, or bias
that results from one’s own self-interest. In other words, a cognitive bias
does not result from any emotional or intellectual predisposition toward
a certain judgment, but rather from subconscious mental procedures for
processing information. A cognitive bias is a mental error that is consis-
tent and predictable. For example:

89. Much of this research was stimulated by the seminal work of Amos Tversky and Daniel
Kahneman, “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases,” Science, 27 September
1974, Vol. 185, pp. 1124-1131. It has been summarized by Robin Hogarth, Judgement
and Choice (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1980), Richard Nisbett and Lee Ross, Human
Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Human Judgment (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1980), and Robyn Dawes, Rational Choice in an Uncertain World (New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich College Publishers, 1988). The Hogarth book contains an excellent bibliography of
research in this field, organized by subject.

111
 The apparent distance of an object is determined in part by
its clarity. The more sharply the object is seen, the closer it ap-
pears to be. This rule has some validity, because in any given
scene the more distant objects are seen less sharply than nearer
objects. However, the reliance on this rule leads to systematic
errors in estimation of distance. Specifically, distances are of-
ten overestimated when visibility is poor because the contours
of objects are blurred. On the other hand, distances are often
underestimated when visibility is good because the objects are
seen sharply. Thus the reliance on clarity as an indication of
distance leads to common biases.90

This rule of thumb about judging distance is very useful. It usu-

ally works and helps us deal with the ambiguity and complexity of life
around us. Under certain predictable circumstances, however, it will lead
to biased judgment.
Cognitive biases are similar to optical illusions in that the error re-
mains compelling even when one is fully aware of its nature. Awareness
of the bias, by itself, does not produce a more accurate perception.
Cognitive biases, therefore, are, exceedingly difficult to overcome.
Psychologists have conducted many experiments to identify the
simplifying rules of thumb that people use to make judgments on in-
complete or ambiguous information, and to show—at least in laboratory
situations—how these rules of thumb prejudice judgments and decisions.
The following four chapters discuss cognitive biases that are particularly
pertinent to intelligence analysis because they affect the evaluation of
evidence, perception of cause and effect, estimation of probabilities, and
retrospective evaluation of intelligence reports.
Before discussing the specific biases, it is appropriate to consider the
nature of such experimental evidence and the extent to which one can
generalize from these experiments to conclude that the same biases are
prevalent in the Intelligence Community.
When psychological experiments reveal the existence of a bias, this
does not mean that every judgment by every individual person will be bi-
ased. It means that in any group of people, the bias will exist to a greater
or lesser degree in most judgments made by most of the group. On the
basis of this kind of experimental evidence, one can only generalize about

90. Tversky and Kahneman, ibid.

112
the tendencies of groups of people, not make statements about how any
specific individual will think.
I believe that conclusions based on these laboratory experiments can
be generalized to apply to intelligence analysts. In most, although not all
cases, the test subjects were experts in their field. They were physicians,
stock market analysts, horserace handicappers, chess masters, research di-
rectors, and professional psychologists, not undergraduate students as in
so many psychological experiments. In most cases, the mental tasks per-
formed in these experiments were realistic; that is, they were comparable
to the judgments that specialists in these fields are normally required to
make.
Some margin for error always exists when extrapolating from experi-
mental laboratory to real-world experience, but classes of CIA analysts to
whom these ideas were presented found them relevant and enlightening.
I replicated a number of the simpler experiments with military officers
in the National Security Affairs Department of the Naval Postgraduate
School.

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114
 Chapter 10
Biases in Evaluation of Evidence
Evaluation of evidence is a crucial step in analysis, but what evidence
people rely on and how they interpret it are influenced by a variety of ex-
traneous factors. Information presented in vivid and concrete detail often
has unwarranted impact, and people tend to disregard abstract or statistical
information that may have greater evidential value. We seldom take the ab-
sence of evidence into account. The human mind is also oversensitive to the
consistency of the evidence, and insufficiently sensitive to the reliability of the
evidence. Finally, impressions often remain even after the evidence on which
they are based has been totally discredited.91
*******************
The intelligence analyst works in a somewhat unique informational
environment. Evidence comes from an unusually diverse set of sources:
newspapers and wire services, observations by American Embassy offi-
cers, reports from controlled agents and casual informants, information
exchanges with foreign governments, photo reconnaissance, and com-
munications intelligence. Each source has its own unique strengths,
weaknesses, potential or actual biases, and vulnerability to manipulation
and deception. The most salient characteristic of the information envi-
ronment is its diversity—multiple sources, each with varying degrees of
reliability, and each commonly reporting information which by itself is
incomplete and sometimes inconsistent or even incompatible with re-
porting from other sources. Conflicting information of uncertain reli-
ability is endemic to intelligence analysis, as is the need to make rapid
judgments on current events even before all the evidence is in.
The analyst has only limited control over the stream of information.
Tasking of sources to report on specific subjects is often a cumbersome
and time-consuming process. Evidence on some important topics is spo-
radic or nonexistent. Most human-source information is second hand at
best.

91. An earlier version of this chapter was published as an unclassified article in Studies in
Intelligence in summer 1981, under the same title.

115
 Recognizing and avoiding biases under such circumstances is partic-
ularly difficult. Most of the biases discussed in this chapter are unrelated
to each other and are grouped together here only because they all concern
some aspect of the evaluation of evidence.

The Vividness Criterion

The impact of information on the human mind is only imperfectly
related to its true value as evidence.92 Specifically, information that is
vivid, concrete, and personal has a greater impact on our thinking than
pallid, abstract information that may actually have substantially greater
value as evidence. For example:

• Information that people perceive directly, that they hear with

their own ears or see with their own eyes, is likely to have greater
impact than information received secondhand that may have
greater evidential value.

• Case histories and anecdotes will have greater impact than more
informative but abstract aggregate or statistical data.

Events that people experience personally are more memorable than

those they only read about. Concrete words are easier to remember than
abstract words,93 and words of all types are easier to recall than numbers.
In short, information having the qualities cited in the preceding para-
graph is more likely to attract and hold our attention. It is more likely
to be stored and remembered than abstract reasoning or statistical sum-
maries, and therefore can be expected to have a greater immediate effect
as well as a continuing impact on our thinking in the future.
Intelligence analysts generally work with secondhand information.
The information that analysts receive is mediated by the written words
of others rather than perceived directly with their own eyes and ears.
Partly because of limitations imposed by their open CIA employment,
many intelligence analysts have spent less time in the country they are

92. Most of the ideas and examples in this section are from Richard Nisbett and Lee Ross,
Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
Hall, 1980), Chapter 3.
93. A. Paivio, Imagery and Verbal Processes (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971).

116
analyzing and had fewer contacts with nationals of that country than
their academic and other government colleagues. Occasions when an an-
alyst does visit the country whose affairs he or she is analyzing, or speaks
directly with a national from that country, are memorable experiences.
Such experiences are often a source of new insights, but they can also be
deceptive.
That concrete, sensory data do and should enjoy a certain priority
when weighing evidence is well established. When an abstract theory
or secondhand report is contradicted by personal observation, the lat-
ter properly prevails under most circumstances. There are a number of
popular adages that advise mistrust of secondhand data: “Don’t believe
everything you read,” “You can prove anything with statistics,” “Seeing is
believing,” “I’m from Missouri. . .”
It is curious that there are no comparable maxims to warn against
being misled by our own observations. Seeing should not always be be-
lieving.
Personal observations by intelligence analysts and agents can be
as deceptive as secondhand accounts. Most individuals visiting foreign
countries become familiar with only a small sample of people represent-
ing a narrow segment of the total society. Incomplete and distorted per-
ceptions are a common result.
A familiar form of this error is the single, vivid case that outweighs
a much larger body of statistical evidence or conclusions reached by ab-
stract reasoning. When a potential car buyer overhears a stranger com-
plaining about how his Volvo turned out to be a lemon, this may have as
much impact on the potential buyer’s thinking as statistics in Consumer
Reports on the average annual repair costs for foreign-made cars. If the
personal testimony comes from the potential buyer’s brother or close
friend, it will probably be given even more weight. Yet the logical status
of this new information is to increase by one the sample on which the
Consumer Reports statistics were based; the personal experience of a single
Volvo owner has little evidential value.

117
 Nisbett and Ross label this the “man-who” syndrome and provide
the following illustrations:94

• "But I know a man who smoked three packs of cigarettes a day

and lived to be ninety-nine.”

• "I've never been to Turkey but just last month I met a man who
had, and he found it . . .”

Needless to say, a “man-who” example seldom merits the evidential

weight intended by the person citing the example, or the weight often
accorded to it by the recipient.
The most serious implication of vividness as a criterion that deter-
mines the impact of evidence is that certain kinds of very valuable evi-
dence will have little influence simply because they are abstract. Statistical
data, in particular, lack the rich and concrete detail to evoke vivid images,
and they are often overlooked, ignored, or minimized.
For example, the Surgeon General’s report linking cigarette smok-
ing to cancer should have, logically, caused a decline in per-capita ciga-
rette consumption. No such decline occurred for more than 20 years.
The reaction of physicians was particularly informative. All doctors were
aware of the statistical evidence and were more exposed than the gen-
eral population to the health problems caused by smoking. How they
reacted to this evidence depended upon their medical specialty. Twenty
years after the Surgeon General’s report, radiologists who examine lung
x-rays every day had the lowest rate of smoking. Physicians who diag-
nosed and treated lung cancer victims were also quite unlikely to smoke.
Many other types of physicians continued to smoke. The probability that
a physician continued to smoke was directly related to the distance of
the physician’s specialty from the lungs. In other words, even physicians,
who were well qualified to understand and appreciate the statistical data,
were more influenced by their vivid personal experiences than by valid
statistical data.95
Personal anecdotes, actual accounts of people’s responsiveness or in-
difference to information sources, and controlled experiments can all be
cited ad infinitum “to illustrate the proposition that data summaries, de-

94. Nisbett and Ross, p. 56.

95. Ibid.

118
spite their logically compelling implications, have less impact than does
inferior but more vivid evidence.”96 It seems likely that intelligence ana-
lysts, too, assign insufficient weight to statistical information.
Analysts should give little weight to anecdotes and personal case his-
tories unless they are known to be typical, and perhaps no weight at all if
aggregate data based on a more valid sample can be obtained.

Absence of Evidence
A principal characteristic of intelligence analysis is that key infor-
mation is often lacking. Analytical problems are selected on the basis
of their importance and the perceived needs of the consumers, without
much regard for availability of information. Analysts have to do the best
they can with what they have, somehow taking into account the fact that
much relevant information is known to be missing.
Ideally, intelligence analysts should be able to recognize what rel-
evant evidence is lacking and factor this into their calculations. They
should also be able to estimate the potential impact of the missing data
and to adjust confidence in their judgment accordingly. Unfortunately,
this ideal does not appear to be the norm. Experiments suggest that “out
of sight, out of mind” is a better description of the impact of gaps in the
evidence.
This problem has been demonstrated using fault trees, which are
schematic drawings showing all the things that might go wrong with any
endeavor. Fault trees are often used to study the fallibility of complex
systems such as a nuclear reactor or space capsule.
A fault tree showing all the reasons why a car might not start was
shown to several groups of experienced mechanics.97 The tree had seven
major branches—insufficient battery charge, defective starting system,
defective ignition system, defective fuel system, other engine problems,
mischievous acts or vandalism, and all other problems—and a number
of subcategories under each branch. One group was shown the full tree
and asked to imagine 100 cases in which a car won’t start. Members of
this group were then asked to estimate how many of the 100 cases were

96. Nisbett and Ross, p. 57.

97. Baruch Fischhoff, Paul Slovic, and Sarah Lichtenstein, Fault Trees: Sensitivity of Estimated
Failure Probabilities to Problem Representation, Technical Report PTR- 1 042-77-8 (Eugene,
OR: Decision Research, 1977).

119
attributable to each of the seven major branches of the tree. A second
group of mechanics was shown only an incomplete version of the tree:
three major branches were omitted in order to test how sensitive the test
subjects were to what was left out.
If the mechanics’ judgment had been fully sensitive to the missing
information, then the number of cases of failure that would normally
be attributed to the omitted branches should have been added to the
“Other Problems” category. In practice, however, the “Other Problems”
category was increased only half as much as it should have been. This
indicated that the mechanics shown the incomplete tree were unable to
fully recognize and incorporate into their judgments the fact that some
of the causes for a car not starting were missing. When the same experi-
ment was run with non-mechanics, the effect of the missing branches
was much greater.
As compared with most questions of intelligence analysis, the “car
won’t start” experiment involved rather simple analytical judgments
based on information that was presented in a well-organized manner.
That the presentation of relevant variables in the abbreviated fault tree
was incomplete could and should have been recognized by the experi-
enced mechanics selected as test subjects. Intelligence analysts often have
similar problems. Missing data is normal in intelligence problems, but
it is probably more difficult to recognize that important information is
absent and to incorporate this fact into judgments on intelligence ques-
tions than in the more concrete “car won’t start” experiment.
As an antidote for this problem, analysts should identify explicitly
those relevant variables on which information is lacking, consider alterna-
tive hypotheses concerning the status of these variables, and then modify
their judgment and especially confidence in their judgment accordingly.
They should also consider whether the absence of information is normal
or is itself an indicator of unusual activity or inactivity.

Oversensitivity to Consistency
The internal consistency in a pattern of evidence helps determine
our confidence in judgments based on that evidence.98 In one sense,
consistency is clearly an appropriate guideline for evaluating evidence.

98. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and
Biases,” Science, Vol. 185 (27 September 1974), 1126.

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People formulate alternative explanations or estimates and select the one
that encompasses the greatest amount of evidence within a logically con-
sistent scenario. Under some circumstances, however, consistency can be
deceptive. Information may be consistent only because it is highly cor-
related or redundant, in which case many related reports may be no more
informative than a single report. Or it may be consistent only because
information is drawn from a very small sample or a biased sample.
Such problems are most likely to arise in intelligence analysis when
analysts have little information, say on political attitudes of Russian
military officers or among certain African ethnic groups. If the avail-
able evidence is consistent, analysts will often overlook the fact that it
represents a very small and hence unreliable sample taken from a large
and heterogeneous group. This is not simply a matter of necessity—of
having to work with the information on hand, however imperfect it may
be. Rather, there is an illusion of validity caused by the consistency of the
information.
The tendency to place too much reliance on small samples has been
dubbed the “law of small numbers.”99 This is a parody on the law of large
numbers, the basic statistical principle that says very large samples will be
highly representative of the population from which they are drawn. This
is the principle that underlies opinion polling, but most people are not
good intuitive statisticians. People do not have much intuitive feel for
how large a sample has to be before they can draw valid conclusions from
it. The so-called law of small numbers means that, intuitively, we make
the mistake of treating small samples as though they were large ones.
This has been shown to be true even for mathematical psychologists
with extensive training in statistics. Psychologists designing experiments
have seriously incorrect notions about the amount of error and unreli-
ability inherent in small samples of data, unwarranted confidence in the
early trends from the first few data points, and unreasonably high ex-
pectations of being able to repeat the same experiment and get the same
results with a different set of test subjects.
Are intelligence analysts also overly confident of conclusions drawn
from very little data—especially if the data seem to be consistent? When
working with a small but consistent body of evidence, analysts need to
consider how representative that evidence is of the total body of poten-

99. Tversky and Kahneman (1974), p. 1125-1126.

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tially available information. If more reporting were available, how likely
is it that this information, too, would be consistent with the already avail-
able evidence? If an analyst is stuck with only a small amount of evidence
and cannot determine how representative this evidence is, confidence in
judgments based on this evidence should be low regardless of the consis-
tency of the information.

Coping with Evidence of Uncertain Accuracy

There are many reasons why information often is less than perfectly
accurate: misunderstanding, misperception, or having only part of the
story; bias on the part of the ultimate source; distortion in the report-
ing chain from subsource through source, case officer, reports officer, to
analyst; or misunderstanding and misperception by the analyst. Further,
much of the evidence analysts bring to bear in conducting analysis is
retrieved from memory, but analysts often cannot remember even the
source of information they have in memory let alone the degree of cer-
tainty they attributed to the accuracy of that information when it was
first received.
The human mind has difficulty coping with complicated probabilis-
tic relationships, so people tend to employ simple rules of thumb that re-
duce the burden of processing such information. In processing informa-
tion of uncertain accuracy or reliability, analysts tend to make a simple
yes or no decision. If they reject the evidence, they tend to reject it fully,
so it plays no further role in their mental calculations. If they accept the
evidence, they tend to accept it wholly, ignoring the probabilistic nature
of the accuracy or reliability judgment. This is called a “best guess” strat-
egy.100 Such a strategy simplifies the integration of probabilistic informa-
tion, but at the expense of ignoring some of the uncertainty. If analysts
have information about which they are 70- or 80-percent certain but
treat this information as though it were 100-percent certain, judgments
based on that information will be overconfident.
A more sophisticated strategy is to make a judgment based on an
assumption that the available evidence is perfectly accurate and reliable,

100. See Charles F. Gettys, Clinton W. Kelly III, and Cameron Peterson, “The Best Guess
Hypothesis in Multistage Inference,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 10,
3 (1973), 365-373; and David A. Schum and Wesley M. DuCharme, “Comments on the
Relationship Between the Impact and the Reliability of Evidence,” Organizational Behavior and
Human Performance, 6 (1971), 111-131.

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then reduce the confidence in this judgment by a factor determined by
the assessed validity of the information. For example, available evidence
may indicate that an event probably (75 percent) will occur, but the ana-
lyst cannot be certain that the evidence on which this judgment is based
is wholly accurate or reliable. Therefore, the analyst reduces the assessed
probability of the event (say, down to 60 percent) to take into account
the uncertainty concerning the evidence. This is an improvement over
the best-guess strategy but generally still results in judgments that are
overconfident when compared with the mathematical formula for calcu-
lating probabilities.101
In mathematical terms, the joint probability of two events is equal
to the product of their individual probabilities. Imagine a situation in
which you receive a report on event X that is probably (75 percent) true.
If the report on event X is true, you judge that event Y will probably (75
percent) happen. The actual probability of Y is only 56 percent, which is
derived by multiplying 75 percent times 75 percent.
In practice, life is not nearly so simple. Analysts must consider many
items of evidence with different degrees of accuracy and reliability that
are related in complex ways with varying degrees of probability to several
potential outcomes. Clearly, one cannot make neat mathematical calcu-
lations that take all of these probabilistic relationships into account. In
making intuitive judgments, we unconsciously seek shortcuts for sorting
through this maze, and these shortcuts involve some degree of ignor-
ing the uncertainty inherent in less-than-perfectly-reliable information.
There seems to be little an analyst can do about this, short of breaking the
analytical problem down in a way that permits assigning probabilities to
individual items of information, and then using a mathematical formula
to integrate these separate probability judgments.
The same processes may also affect our reaction to information that
is plausible but known from the beginning to be of questionable authen-
ticity. Ostensibly private statements by foreign officials are often reported
though intelligence channels. In many instances it is not clear whether
such a private statement by a foreign ambassador, cabinet member, or
other official is an actual statement of private views, an indiscretion, part
of a deliberate attempt to deceive the US Government, or part of an ap-

101. Edgar M. Johnson, “The Effect of Data Source Reliability on Intuitive Inference,”
Technical Paper 251 (Arlington, VA: US Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social
Sciences, 1974).

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proved plan to convey a truthful message that the foreign government
believes is best transmitted through informal channels.
The analyst who receives such a report often has little basis for judg-
ing the source’s motivation, so the information must be judged on its
own merits. In making such an assessment, the analyst is influenced by
plausible causal linkages. If these are linkages of which the analyst was
already aware, the report has little impact inasmuch as it simply supports
existing views. If there are plausible new linkages, however, thinking is
restructured to take these into account. It seems likely that the impact on
the analyst’s thinking is determined solely by the substance of the infor-
mation, and that the caveat concerning the source does not attenuate the
impact of the information at all. Knowing that the information comes
from an uncontrolled source who may be trying to manipulate us does
not necessarily reduce the impact of the information.

Persistence of Impressions Based on Discredited Evidence

Impressions tend to persist even after the evidence that created those
impressions has been fully discredited. Psychologists have become inter-
ested in this phenomenon because many of their experiments require that
the test subjects be deceived. For example, test subjects may be made to
believe they were successful or unsuccessful in performing some task, or
that they possess certain abilities or personality traits, when this is not in
fact the case. Professional ethics require that test subjects be disabused of
these false impressions at the end of the experiment, but this has proved
surprisingly difficult to achieve.
Test subjects’ erroneous impressions concerning their logical prob-
lem-solving abilities persevered even after they were informed that ma-
nipulation of good or poor teaching performance had virtually guaran-
teed their success or failure.102 Similarly, test subjects asked to distinguish
true from fictitious suicide notes were given feedback that had no re-
lationship to actual performance. The test subjects had been randomly
divided into two groups, with members of one group being given the
impression of above-average success and the other of relative failure at
this task. The subjects’ erroneous impressions of the difficulty of the task

102. R. R. Lau, M. R. Lepper, and L. Ross, “Persistence of Inaccurate and Discredited Personal
Impressions: A Field Demonstration of Attributional Perseverance,” paper presented at 56th
Annual Meeting of the Western Psychological Association (Los Angeles, April 1976).

124
and of their own performance persisted even after they were informed
of the deception—that is, informed that their alleged performance had
been preordained by their assignment to one or the other test group.
Moreover, the same phenomenon was found among observers of the ex-
periment as well as the immediate participants.103
There are several cognitive processes that might account for this phe-
nomenon. The tendency to interpret new information in the context of
pre-existing impressions is relevant but probably not sufficient to explain
why the pre-existing impression cannot be eradicated even when new
information authoritatively discredits the evidence on which it is based.
An interesting but speculative explanation is based on the strong
tendency to seek causal explanations, as discussed in the next chapter.
When evidence is first received, people postulate a set of causal connec-
tions that explains this evidence. In the experiment with suicide notes,
for example, one test subject attributed her apparent success in distin-
guishing real from fictitious notes to her empathetic personality and the
insights she gained from the writings of a novelist who committed sui-
cide. Another ascribed her apparent failure to lack of familiarity with
people who might contemplate suicide. The stronger the perceived causal
linkage, the stronger the impression created by the evidence.
Even after learning that the feedback concerning their performance
was invalid, these subjects retained this plausible basis for inferring that
they were either well or poorly qualified for the task. The previously
perceived causal explanation of their ability or lack of ability still came
easily to mind, independently of the now-discredited evidence that first
brought it to mind.104 Colloquially, one might say that once information
rings a bell, the bell cannot be unrung.
The ambiguity of most real-world situations contributes to the
operation of this perseverance phenomenon. Rarely in the real world
is evidence so thoroughly discredited as is possible in the experimental
laboratory. Imagine, for example, that you are told that a clandestine
source who has been providing information for some time is actually
under hostile control. Imagine further that you have formed a number

103. Lee Ross, Mark R. Lepper, and Michael Hubbard, “Perseverance in Self-Perception and
Social Perception: Biased Attributional Processes in the Debriefing Paradigm,” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 5, (1975), 880-892.
104. Lee Ross, Mark R. Lepper, Fritz Strack, and Julia Steinmetz, “Social Explanation and
Social Expectation: Effects of Real and Hypothetical Explanations on Subjective Likelihood,”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 33, 11 (1977), 818.

125
of impressions on the basis of reporting from this source. It is easy to
rationalize maintaining these impressions by arguing that the informa-
tion was true despite the source being under control, or by doubting the
validity of the report claiming the source to be under control. In the lat-
ter case, the perseverance of the impression may itself affect evaluation of
the evidence that supposedly discredits the impression.

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 Chapter 11
Biases in Perception of Cause and Effect
Judgments about cause and effect are necessary to explain the past, un-
derstand the present, and estimate the future. These judgments are often bi-
ased by factors over which people exercise little conscious control, and this can
influence many types of judgments made by intelligence analysts. Because of
a need to impose order on our environment, we seek and often believe we
find causes for what are actually accidental or random phenomena. People
overestimate the extent to which other countries are pursuing a coherent,
coordinated, rational plan, and thus also overestimate their own ability to
predict future events in those nations. People also tend to assume that causes
are similar to their effects, in the sense that important or large effects must
have large causes.
When inferring the causes of behavior, too much weight is accorded to
personal qualities and dispositions of the actor and not enough to situational
determinants of the actor’s behavior. People also overestimate their own im-
portance as both a cause and a target of the behavior of others. Finally, people
often perceive relationships that do not in fact exist, because they do not have
an intuitive understanding of the kinds and amount of information needed
to prove a relationship.
*******************
We cannot see cause and effect in the same sense that we see a desk
or a tree. Even when we observe one billiard ball striking another and
then watch the previously stationary ball begin to move, we are not per-
ceiving cause and effect. The conclusion that one ball caused the other to
move results only from a complex process of inference, not from direct
sensory perception. That inference is based on the juxtaposition of events
in time and space plus some theory or logical explanation as to why this
happens.
There are several modes of analysis by which one might infer cause
and effect. In more formal analysis, inferences are made through pro-
cedures that collectively comprise the scientific method. The scientist
advances a hypothesis, then tests this hypothesis by the collection and
statistical analysis of data on many instances of the phenomenon in ques-
tion. Even then, causality cannot be proved beyond all possible doubt.

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The scientist seeks to disprove a hypothesis, not to confirm it. A hypoth-
esis is accepted only when it cannot be rejected.
Collection of data on many comparable cases to test hypotheses
about cause and effect is not feasible for most questions of interest to
the Intelligence Community, especially questions of broad political or
strategic import relating to another country’s intentions. To be sure, it is
feasible more often than it is done, and increased use of scientific proce-
dures in political, economic, and strategic research is much to be encour-
aged. But the fact remains that the dominant approach to intelligence
analysis is necessarily quite different. It is the approach of the historian
rather than the scientist, and this approach presents obstacles to accurate
inferences about causality.
The procedures and criteria most historians use to attribute causality
are less well defined than the scientist’s.

The historian’s aim [is] to make a coherent whole out of the

events he studies. His way of doing that, I suggest, is to look
for certain dominant concepts or leading ideas by which to il-
luminate his facts, to trace the connections between those ideas
themselves, and then to show how the detailed facts became
intelligible in the light of them by constructing a “significant”
narrative of the events of the period in question.105

The key ideas here are coherence and narrative. These are the prin-
ciples that guide the organization of observations into meaningful struc-
tures and patterns. The historian commonly observes only a single case,
not a pattern of covariation (when two things are related so that change
in one is associated with change in the other) in many comparable cases.
Moreover, the historian observes simultaneous changes in so many vari-
ables that the principle of covariation generally is not helpful in sort-
ing out the complex relationships among them. The narrative story, on
the other hand, offers a means of organizing the rich complexity of the
historian’s observations. The historian uses imagination to construct a
coherent story out of fragments of data.
The intelligence analyst employing the historical mode of analysis
is essentially a storyteller. He or she constructs a plot from the previous

105. W. H. Walsh, Philosophy of History: An Introduction (Revised Edition: New York: Harper
and Row, 1967), p. 61.

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events, and this plot then dictates the possible endings of the incomplete
story. The plot is formed of the “dominant concepts or leading ideas” that
the analyst uses to postulate patterns of relationships among the available
data. The analyst is not, of course, preparing a work of fiction. There are
constraints on the analyst’s imagination, but imagination is nonetheless
involved because there is an almost unlimited variety of ways in which
the available data might be organized to tell a meaningful story. The
constraints are the available evidence and the principle of coherence. The
story must form a logical and coherent whole and be internally consis-
tent as well as consistent with the available evidence.
Recognizing that the historical or narrative mode of analysis involves
telling a coherent story helps explain the many disagreements among
analysts, inasmuch as coherence is a subjective concept. It assumes some
prior beliefs or mental model about what goes with what. More relevant
to this discussion, the use of coherence rather than scientific observation
as the criterion for judging truth leads to biases that presumably influ-
ence all analysts to some degree. Judgments of coherence may be influ-
enced by many extraneous factors, and if analysts tend to favor certain
types of explanations as more coherent than others, they will be biased in
favor of those explanations.

Bias in Favor of Causal Explanations

One bias attributable to the search for coherence is a tendency to
favor causal explanations. Coherence implies order, so people naturally
arrange observations into regular patterns and relationships. If no pattern
is apparent, our first thought is that we lack understanding, not that we
are dealing with random phenomena that have no purpose or reason. As
a last resort, many people attribute happenings that they cannot under-
stand to God’s will or to fate, which is somehow preordained; they resist
the thought that outcomes may be determined by forces that interact in
random, unpredictable ways. People generally do not accept the notion
of chance or randomness. Even dice players behave as though they exert
some control over the outcome of a throw of dice.106 The prevalence of
the word “because” in everyday language reflects the human tendency to
seek to identify causes.

106. Ellen J. Langer, “The Psychology of Chance,” Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 7
(1977), 185-208.

129
 People expect patterned events to look patterned, and random
events to look random, but this is not the case. Random events often
look patterned. The random process of flipping a coin six times may re-
sult in six consecutive heads. Of the 32 possible sequences resulting from
six coin flips, few actually look “random.”107 This is because randomness
is a property of the process that generates the data that are produced.
Randomness may in some cases be demonstrated by scientific (statistical)
analysis. However, events will almost never be perceived intuitively as be-
ing random; one can find an apparent pattern in almost any set of data
or create a coherent narrative from any set of events.
Because of a need to impose order on their environment, people
seek and often believe they find causes for what are actually random phe-
nomena. During World War II, Londoners advanced a variety of causal
explanations for the pattern of German bombing. Such explanations fre-
quently guided their decisions about where to live and when to take ref-
uge in air raid shelters. Postwar examination, however, determined that
the clustering of bomb hits was close to a random distribution.108
The Germans presumably intended a purposeful pattern, but pur-
poses changed over time and they were not always achieved, so the net
result was an almost random pattern of bomb hits. Londoners focused
their attention on the few clusters of hits that supported their hypotheses
concerning German intentions—not on the many cases that did not.
Some research in paleobiology seems to illustrate the same tendency.
A group of paleobiologists has developed a computer program to simu-
late evolutionary changes in animal species over time. But the transitions
from one time period to the next are not determined by natural selection
or any other regular process: they are determined by computer-generated
random numbers. The patterns produced by this program are similar to
the patterns in nature that paleobiologists have been trying to under-
stand. Hypothetical evolutionary events that seem, intuitively, to have a
strong pattern were, in fact, generated by random processes.109
Yet another example of imposing causal explanations on random
events is taken from a study dealing with the research practices of psy-

107. Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky, “Subjective Probability: A Judgment of

Representativeness,” Cognitive Psychology, 3 (1972), 430-54.
108. W. Feller, An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications (3rd Edition; New
York: Wiley, 1968), p. 160.
109. Gina Bari Kolata, “Paleobiology: Random Events over Geological Time,” Science, 189
(1975), 625-626.

130
chologists. When experimental results deviated from expectations, these
scientists rarely attributed the deviation to variance in the sample. They
were always able to come up with a more persuasive causal explanation
for the discrepancy.110
B. F. Skinner even noted a similar phenomenon in the course of
experiments with the behavioral conditioning of pigeons. The normal
pattern of these experiments was that the pigeons were given positive
reinforcement, in the form of food, whenever they pecked on the proper
lever at the proper time. To obtain the food regularly, they had to learn
to peck in a certain sequence. Skinner demonstrated that the pigeons
“learned” and followed a pattern (which Skinner termed a superstition)
even when the food was actually dispensed randomly.111
These examples suggest that in military and foreign affairs, where
the patterns are at best difficult to fathom, there may be many events for
which there are no valid causal explanations. This certainly affects the
predictability of events and suggests limitations on what might logically
be expected of intelligence analysts.

Bias Favoring Perception of Centralized Direction

Very similar to the bias toward causal explanations is a tendency to
see the actions of other governments (or groups of any type) as the inten-
tional result of centralized direction and planning. “. . .most people are
slow to perceive accidents, unintended consequences, coincidences, and
small causes leading to large effects. Instead, coordinated actions, plans
and conspiracies are seen.”112 Analysts overestimate the extent to which
other countries are pursuing coherent, rational, goal-maximizing poli-
cies, because this makes for more coherent, logical, rational explanations.
This bias also leads analysts and policymakers alike to overestimate the
predictability of future events in other countries.
Analysts know that outcomes are often caused by accident, blunder,
coincidence, the unintended consequence of well-intentioned policy,
improperly executed orders, bargaining among semi-independent bu-

110. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “Belief in the Law of Small Numbers,” Psychological
Bulletin, 72, 2 (1971), 105-110.
111. B. F. Skinner, “Superstition in the Pigeon,” Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38 (1948),
168-172.
112. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1976), p. 320.

131
reaucratic entities, or following standard operating procedures under
inappropriate circumstances.113 But a focus on such causes implies a dis-
orderly world in which outcomes are determined more by chance than
purpose. It is especially difficult to incorporate these random and usually
unpredictable elements into a coherent narrative, because evidence is sel-
dom available to document them on a timely basis. It is only in histori-
cal perspective, after memoirs are written and government documents
released, that the full story becomes available.
This bias has important consequences. Assuming that a foreign gov-
ernment’s actions result from a logical and centrally directed plan leads
an analyst to:

• Have expectations regarding that governmentÍs actions that may

not be fulfilled if the behavior is actually the product of shifting
or inconsistent values, bureaucratic bargaining, or sheer confu-
sion and blunder.

• Draw far-reaching but possibly unwarranted inferences from iso-

lated statements or actions by government officials who may be
acting on their own rather than on central direction.

• Overestimate the United States' ability to influence the other

government's actions.

• Perceive inconsistent policies as the result of duplicity and

Machiavellian maneuvers, rather than as the product of weak
leadership, vacillation, or bargaining among diverse bureaucratic
or political interests.

Similarity of Cause and Effect

When systematic analysis of covariation is not feasible and several
alternative causal explanations seem possible, one rule of thumb people
use to make judgments of cause and effect is to consider the similarity
between attributes of the cause and attributes of the effect. Properties of
the cause are “. . .inferred on the basis of being correspondent with or

113. For many historical examples, see Jervis, ibid., p. 321-23.

132
similar to properties of the effect.”114 Heavy things make heavy noises;
dainty things move daintily; large animals leave large tracks. When deal-
ing with physical properties, such inferences are generally correct.
People tend, however, to reason in the same way under circumstanc-
es when this inference is not valid. Thus, analysts tend to assume that
economic events have primarily economic causes, that big events have
important consequences, and that little events cannot affect the course
of history. Such correspondence between cause and effect makes a more
logical and persuasive—a more coherent—narrative, but there is little
basis for expecting such inferences to correspond to historical fact.
Fischer labels the assumption that a cause must somehow resemble
its effect the “fallacy of identity,”115 and he cites as an example the his-
toriography of the Spanish Armada. Over a period of several centuries,
historians have written of the important consequences of the English
defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. After refuting each of these argu-
ments, Fischer notes:

In short, it appears that the defeat of the Armada, mighty and

melodramatic as it was, may have been remarkably barren of re-
sult. Its defeat may have caused very little, except the disruption
of the Spanish strategy that sent it on its way. That judgment is
sure to violate the patriotic instincts of every Englishman and
the aesthetic sensibilities of us all. A big event must have big
results, we think.116

The tendency to reason according to similarity of cause and effect is

frequently found in conjunction with the previously noted bias toward
inferring centralized direction. Together, they explain the persuasiveness
of conspiracy theories. Such theories are invoked to explain large effects
for which there do not otherwise appear to be correspondingly large
causes. For example, it seems “. . .outrageous that a single, pathetic, weak
figure like Lee Harvey Oswald should alter world history.”117 Because the
purported motive for the assassination of John Kennedy is so dissimilar

114. Harold H. Kelley, “The Processes of Causal Attribution,” American Psychologist (February
1973), p. 121.
115. David Hackett Fischer, Historian’s Fallacies (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1970), p. 177.
116. Ibid, p. 167.
117. Richard E. Nisbett and Timothy DeC. Wilson, “Telling More Than We Can Know: Verbal
Reports on Mental Processes,” Psychological Review (May 1977), p. 252.

133
from the effect it is alleged to explain, in the minds of many it fails to
meet the criterion of a coherent narrative explanation. If such “little”
causes as mistakes, accidents, or the aberrant behavior of a single indi-
vidual have big effects, then the implication follows that major events
happen for reasons that are senseless and random rather than by purpose-
ful direction.
Intelligence analysts are more exposed than most people to hard
evidence of real plots, coups, and conspiracies in the international arena.
Despite this—or perhaps because of it—most intelligence analysts are
not especially prone to what are generally regarded as conspiracy theo-
ries. Although analysts may not exhibit this bias in such extreme form,
the bias presumably does influence analytical judgments in myriad little
ways. In examining causal relationships, analysts generally construct
causal explanations that are somehow commensurate with the magni-
tude of their effects and that attribute events to human purposes or pre-
dictable forces rather than to human weakness, confusion, or unintended
consequences.

Internal vs. External Causes of Behavior

Much research into how people assess the causes of behavior em-
ploys a basic dichotomy between internal determinants and external
determinants of human actions. Internal causes of behavior include a
person’s attitudes, beliefs, and personality. External causes include incen-
tives and constraints, role requirements, social pressures, or other forces
over which the individual has little control. The research examines the
circumstances under which people attribute behavior either to stable dis-
positions of the actor or to characteristics of the situation to which the
actor responds.
Differences in judgments about what causes another person’s or
government’s behavior affect how people respond to that behavior. How
people respond to friendly or unfriendly actions by others may be quite
different if they attribute the behavior to the nature of the person or
government than if they see the behavior as resulting from situational
constraints over which the person or government has little control.
A fundamental error made in judging the causes of behavior is to
overestimate the role of internal factors and underestimate the role of
external factors. When observing another’s behavior, people are too in-

134
clined to infer that the behavior was caused by broad personal qualities
or dispositions of the other person and to expect that these same inherent
qualities will determine the actor’s behavior under other circumstances.
Not enough weight is assigned to external circumstances that may have
influenced the other person’s choice of behavior. This pervasive tendency
has been demonstrated in many experiments under quite diverse circum-
stances118 and has often been observed in diplomatic and military inter-
actions.119
Susceptibility to this biased attribution of causality depends upon
whether people are examining their own behavior or observing that of
others. It is the behavior of others that people tend to attribute to the
nature of the actor, whereas they see their own behavior as conditioned
almost entirely by the situation in which they find themselves. This dif-
ference is explained largely by differences in information available to ac-
tors and observers. People know a lot more about themselves.
The actor has a detailed awareness of the history of his or her own
actions under similar circumstances. In assessing the causes of our own
behavior, we are likely to consider our previous behavior and focus on
how it has been influenced by different situations. Thus situational vari-
ables become the basis for explaining our own behavior. This contrasts
with the observer, who typically lacks this detailed knowledge of the
other person’s past behavior. The observer is inclined to focus on how
the other person’s behavior compares with the behavior of others under
similar circumstances.120 This difference in the type and amount of infor-
mation available to actors and observers applies to governments as well
as people.
An actor’s personal involvement with the actions being observed
enhances the likelihood of bias. “Where the observer is also an actor, he
is likely to exaggerate the uniqueness and emphasize the dispositional
origins of the responses of others to his own actions.”121 This is because
the observer assumes his or her own actions are unprovocative, clearly

118. Lee Ross, “The Intuitive Psychologist and his Shortcomings: Distortions in the Attribution
Process,” in Leonard Berkowitz, ed., Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 10
(New York: Academic Press, 1977), p. 184.
119. Jervis, ibid., Chapter 2.
120. Edward E. Jones, “How Do People Perceive the Causes of Behavior?” American Scientist,
64 (1976), p. 301.
121. Daniel Heradstveit, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: Psychological Obstacles to Peace (Oslo:
Universitetsforlaget, 1979), p. 25.

135
understood by other actors, and well designed to elicit a desired response.
Indeed, an observer interacting with another actor sees himself as deter-
mining the situation to which the other actor responds. When the actor
does not respond as expected, the logical inference is that the response
was caused by the nature of the actor rather than by the nature of the
situation.
Intelligence analysts are familiar with the problem of weighing in-
ternal versus external causes of behavior in a number of contexts. When
a new leader assumes control of a foreign government, analysts assess the
likely impact of changed leadership on government policy. For example,
will the former Defense Minister who becomes Prime Minister continue
to push for increases in the defense budget? Analysts weigh the known
predispositions of the new Prime Minister, based on performance in pre-
vious positions, against the requirements of the situation that constrain
the available options. If relatively complete information is available on
the situational constraints, analysts may make an accurate judgment on
such questions. Lacking such information, they tend to err on the side
of assuming that the individual’s personal predispositions will prompt
continuation of past behavior.
Consider the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The Soviets’ perception
of their own behavior was undoubtedly very different from the American
perception. Causal attribution theory suggests that Soviet leaders would
see the invasion as a reaction to the imperatives of the situation in South
Asia at that time, such as the threat of Islamic nationalism spreading
from Iran and Afghanistan into the Soviet Union. Further, they would
perceive US failure to understand their “legitimate” national interests as
caused by fundamental US hostility.122

122. See Richards J. Heuer, Jr., “Analyzing the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan: Hypotheses
from Causal Attribution Theory,” Studies in Comparative Communism, Winter 1980. These
comments concerning the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan are based solely on the results of
psychological research, not on information concerning Soviet actions in Afghanistan or the
US reaction thereto. The nature of generalizations concerning how people normally process
information is that they apply “more or less” to many cases but may not offer a perfect fit to any
single instance. There were obviously many other factors that influenced analysis of Soviet ac-
tions, including preconceptions concerning the driving forces behind Soviet policy. The intent
is to illustrate the relevance of psychological research on the analytical process, not to debate
the merits of alternative interpretations of Soviet policy. Thus I leave to the reader to judge how
much his or her own interpretation of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan may be influenced by
these attributional tendencies.

136
 Conversely, observers of the Soviet invasion would be inclined to
attribute it to the aggressive and expansionist nature of the Soviet re-
gime. Dislike of the Soviet Union and lack of information on the situ-
ational constraints as perceived by the Soviets themselves would be likely
to exacerbate the attributional bias.123 Further, to the extent that this
bias stemmed from insufficient knowledge of situational pressures and
constraints, one might expect policymakers who were not Soviet experts
to have had a stronger bias than analysts specializing in the Soviet Union.
With their greater base of information on the situational variables, the
specialists may be better able to take these variables into account.
Specialists on occasion become so deeply immersed in the affairs of
the country they are analyzing that they begin to assume the perspec-
tive—and the biases—of that country’s leaders. During the Cold War,
there was a persistent difference between CIA specialists in Soviet affairs
and specialists in Chinese affairs when dealing with Sino-Soviet relations.
During border clashes in 1969, for example, specialists on the USSR ar-
gued that the Chinese were being “provocative.” These specialists tended
to accept the Soviet regime’s versions as to the history and alignment
of the border. Specialists in Chinese affairs tended to take the opposite
view—that is, that the arrogant Russians were behaving like Russians
often do, while the Chinese were simply reacting to the Soviet high-
handedness.124 In other words, the analysts assumed the same biased
perspective as the leaders of the country about which they were most
knowledgeable. An objective account of causal relationships might have
been somewhere between these two positions.
The Egypt-Israel peace negotiations in 1978–1979 offered another
example of apparent bias in causal attribution. In the words of one ob-
server at the time:

Egyptians attribute their willingness to sign a treaty with Israel

as due to their inherent disposition for peace; Israelis explain
Egyptian willingness to make peace as resulting from a dete-
riorating economy and a growing awareness of Israel’s military
superiority. On the other hand, Israelis attribute their own ori-
entation for accommodation as being due to their ever-present

123. Edward Jones and Richard Nisbett, “The Actor and the Observer: Divergent Perceptions
of Their Behavior,” in Edward Jones et al., Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior (New
Jersey: General Learning Press, 1971), p. 93.
124. Based on personal discussion with CIA analysts.

137
 preference for peace. Egypt, however, explains Israel’s compro-
mises regarding, for example, Sinai, as resulting from external
pressures such as positive inducements and threats of negative
sanctions by the United States. In addition, some Egyptians
attribute Israel’s undesirable behavior, such as establishment of
Jewish settlements on the West Bank of the Jordan River, as
stemming from Zionist expansionism. If Israel should not place
settlements in that territory, Egyptians might account for such
desirable behavior as being due to external constraints, such
as Western condemnation of settlements. Israelis, on the other
hand explain undesirable behavior, such as Egypt’s past tenden-
cy to issue threats to drive them into the sea, as resulting from
Egypt’s inherent opposition to a Jewish state in the Middle
East. When Egyptians ceased to make such threats, Israelis at-
tributed this desirable behavior as emanating from external cir-
cumstances, such as Israel’s relative military superiority.125

The persistent tendency to attribute cause and effect in this man-

ner is not simply the consequence of self-interest or propaganda by the
opposing sides. Rather, it is the readily understandable and predictable
result of how people normally attribute causality under many different
circumstances.
As a general rule, biased attribution of causality helps sow the seeds
of mistrust and misunderstanding between people and between govern-
ments. We tend to have quite different perceptions of the causes of each
other’s behavior.

Overestimating Our Own Importance

Individuals and governments tend to overestimate the extent to
which they successfully influence the behavior of others.126 This is an
exception to the previously noted generalization that observers attribute
the behavior of others to the nature of the actor. It occurs largely because
a person is so familiar with his or her own efforts to influence another,
but much less well informed about other factors that may have influ-
enced the other’s decision.

125. Raymond Tanter, “Bounded Rationality and Decision Aids,” essay prepared for the
Strategies of Conflict seminar, Mont Pelerin, Switzerland, 11-16 May 1980.
126. This section draws heavily upon Jervis, Chapter 9.

138
 In estimating the influence of US policy on the actions of another
government, analysts more often than not will be knowledgeable of US
actions and what they are intended to achieve, but in many instances
they will be less well informed concerning the internal processes, politi-
cal pressures, policy conflicts, and other influences on the decision of the
target government.
This bias may have played a role in the recent US failure to an-
ticipate Indian nuclear weapons testing even though the new Indian
Government was elected partly on promises it would add nuclear weap-
ons to India’s military arsenal. Most US intelligence analysts apparently
discounted the promises as campaign rhetoric, believing that India would
be dissuaded from joining the nuclear club by economic sanctions and
diplomatic pressure. Analysts overestimated the ability of US policy to
influence Indian decisions.
When another country’s actions are consistent with US desires, the
most obvious explanation, in the absence of strong evidence to the con-
trary, is that US policy effectively influenced the decision.127 Conversely,
when another country behaves in an undesired manner, this is normally
attributed to factors beyond US control. People and governments sel-
dom consider the possibility that their own actions have had unintended
consequences. They assume that their intentions have been correctly per-
ceived and that actions will have the desired effect unless frustrated by
external causes.
Many surveys and laboratory experiments have shown that people
generally perceive their own actions as the cause of their successes but
not of their failures. When children or students or workers perform well,
their parents, teachers, or supervisors take at least part of the credit; when
they do poorly, their mentors seldom assume any blame. Successful can-
didates for Congress generally believe their own behavior contributed
strongly to their victory, while unsuccessful candidates blame defeat on
factors beyond their control.
Another example is the chest thumping that some Americans en-
gaged in after the fall of the Soviet Union. According to some, the de-
mise of the USSR was caused by strong US policies, such as increased
defense expenditures and the Strategic Defense Initiative, which caused
Soviet leaders to realize they could no longer compete with the United

127. It follows from the same reasoning that we may underestimate the consequences of our
actions on nations that are not the intended target of our influence.

139
States. The US news media played this story for several weeks, interview-
ing many people—some experts, some not—on why the Soviet Union
collapsed. Most serious students understood that there were many rea-
sons for the Soviet collapse, the most important of which were internal
problems caused by the nature of the Soviet system.
People and governments also tend to overestimate their own impor-
tance as the target of others’ actions. They are sensitive to the impact that
others’ actions have on them, and they generally assume that people and
governments intend to do what they do and intend it to have the effect
that it has. They are much less aware of, and consequently tend to down-
grade the importance of, other causes or results of the action.
In analyzing the reasons why others act the way they do, it is com-
mon to ask, “What goals are the person or government pursuing?” But
goals are generally inferred from the effects of behavior, and the effects
that are best known and often seem most important are the effects upon
ourselves. Thus actions that hurt us are commonly interpreted as inten-
tional expressions of hostility directed at ourselves. Of course, this will
often be an accurate interpretation, but people sometimes fail to recog-
nize that actions that seem directed at them are actually the unintended
consequence of decisions made for other reasons.

Illusory Correlation
At the start of this chapter, covariation was cited as one basis for
inferring causality. It was noted that covariation may either be observed
intuitively or measured statistically. This section examines the extent to
which the intuitive perception of covariation deviates from the statistical
measurement of covariation.
Statistical measurement of covariation is known as correlation. Two
events are correlated when the existence of one event implies the exis-
tence of the other. Variables are correlated when a change in one variable
implies a similar degree of change in another. Correlation alone does
not necessarily imply causation. For example, two events might co-oc-
cur because they have a common cause, rather than because one causes
the other. But when two events or changes do co-occur, and the time
sequence is such that one always follows the other, people often infer that
the first caused the second. Thus, inaccurate perception of correlation
leads to inaccurate perception of cause and effect.

140
 Judgments about correlation are fundamental to all intelligence
analysis. For example, assumptions that worsening economic conditions
lead to increased political support for an opposition party, that domes-
tic problems may lead to foreign adventurism, that military government
leads to unraveling of democratic institutions, or that negotiations are
more successful when conducted from a position of strength are all based
on intuitive judgments of correlation between these variables. In many
cases these assumptions are correct, but they are seldom tested by system-
atic observation and statistical analysis.
Much intelligence analysis is based on common-sense assumptions
about how people and governments normally behave. The problem is
that people possess a great facility for invoking contradictory “laws” of
behavior to explain, predict, or justify different actions occurring under
similar circumstances. “Haste makes waste” and “He who hesitates is
lost” are examples of inconsistent explanations and admonitions. They
make great sense when used alone and leave us looking foolish when
presented together. “Appeasement invites aggression” and “agreement is
based upon compromise” are similarly contradictory expressions.
When confronted with such apparent contradictions, the natural de-
fense is that “it all depends on. . . .” Recognizing the need for such quali-
fying statements is one of the differences between subconscious informa-
tion processing and systematic, self-conscious analysis. Knowledgeable
analysis might be identified by the ability to fill in the qualification; care-
ful analysis by the frequency with which one remembers to do so.128
Illusory correlation occurs when people perceive a relationship that
does not in fact exist. In looking at a series of cases, it seems that people
often focus on instances that support the existence of a relationship but
ignore those cases that fail to support it. Several experiments have dem-
onstrated that people do not have an intuitive understanding of what
information is really needed to assess the relationship between two events
or two variables. There appears to be nothing in people’s intuitive under-
standing that corresponds with the statistical concept of correlation.
Nurses were tested on their ability to learn through experience to
judge the relationship, or correlation, between a symptom and the di-

128. This paragraph draws heavily from the ideas and phraseology of Baruch Fischhoff, “For
Those Condemned to Study the Past: Reflections on Historical Judgment,” in R. A. Shweder
and D. W. Fiske, eds., New Directions for Methodology of Behavioral Science: Fallible Judgment in
Behavioral Research (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980).

141
agnosis of illness.129 The nurses were each shown 100 cards; every card
ostensibly represented one patient. The cards had a row of four letters at
the top representing various symptoms and another row of four letters at
the bottom representing diagnoses. The nurses were instructed to focus
on just one letter (A) representing one symptom and one letter (F) rep-
resenting one diagnosis, and then to judge whether the symptom A was
related to the diagnosis F. In other words, on the basis of experience with
these 100 “patients,” does the presence of symptom A help to diagnose
the presence of illness F? The experiment was run a number of times us-
ing different degrees of relationship between A and F.
Put yourself briefly in the position of a test subject. You have gone
through the cards and noticed that on about 25 of them, or a quarter
of the cases, the symptom and the disease, A and F, are both present.
Would you say there is a relationship? Why? Is it appropriate to make a
judgment solely on the basis of the frequency of cases which support the
hypothesis of a relationship between A and F? What else do you need
to know? Would it be helpful to have the number of cases in which the
symptom (A) was present without the disease (F)? Let us say this was also
true on 25 cards, so that out of the 100 cards, 50 had A and 25 of those
cards with A also had F. In other words, the disease was present in half the
cases in which the symptom was observed. Is this sufficient to establish
a relationship, or is it also necessary to know the number of times the
disease was present without the symptom?
Actually, to determine the existence of such a relationship, one needs
information to fill all four cells of a 2 x 2 contingency table. Figure 16
shows such a table for one test run of this experiment. The table shows
the number of cases of patients having each of four possible combina-
tions of symptom and disease.
Eighteen of 19 test subjects given the 100 cards representing this
particular combination of A and F thought there was at least a weak re-
lationship, and several thought there was a strong relationship, when in
fact, there is no correlation at all. More than half the test subjects based
their judgment solely on the frequency of cases in which both A and F
were present. This is the upper left cell of the table. These subjects were
trying to determine if there was a relationship between A and F. When
looking through the cards, 25 percent of the cases they looked at were

129. Jan Smedslund, “The Concept of Correlation in Adults,” Scandinavian Journal of

Psychology, Vol. 4 (1963), 165-73.

142
consistent with the belief that symptom and diagnosis were perfectly cor-
related; this appears to be a lot of evidence to support the hypothesized
relationship. Another smaller group of test subjects used somewhat more
sophisticated reasoning. They looked at the total number of A cases and
then asked in how many of these cases F was also present. This is the left
side of the table in Figure 16. A third group resisted the basic concept of
making a statistical generalization. When asked to describe their reason-
ing, they said that sometimes a relationship was present while in other
cases it was not.
Of the 86 test subjects involved in several runnings of this experi-
ment, not a single one showed any intuitive understanding of the concept
of correlation. That is, no one understood that to make a proper judg-
ment about the existence of a relationship, one must have information
on all four cells of the table. Statistical correlation in its most elementary
form is based on the ratio of the sums of the frequencies in the diagonal
cells of a 2 x 2 table. In other words, a predominance of entries along
either diagonal represents a strong statistical relationship between the
two variables.
Let us now consider a similar question of correlation on a topic
of interest to intelligence analysts. What are the characteristics of stra-
tegic deception and how can analysts detect it? In studying deception,
one of the important questions is: what are the correlates of deception?
Historically, when analysts study instances of deception, what else do
they see that goes along with it, that is somehow related to deception,
and that might be interpret as an indicator of deception? Are there cer-
tain practices relating to deception, or circumstances under which decep-
tion is most likely to occur, that permit one to say, that, because we have
seen x or y or z, this most likely means a deception plan is under way?
This would be comparable to a doctor observing certain symptoms and

143
concluding that a given disease may be present. This is essentially a prob-
lem of correlation. If one could identify several correlates of deception,
this would significantly aid efforts to detect it.
The hypothesis has been advanced that deception is most likely when
the stakes are exceptionally high.130 If this hypothesis is correct, analysts
should be especially alert for deception in such instances. One can cite
prominent examples to support the hypothesis, such as Pearl Harbor, the
Normandy landings, and the German invasion of the Soviet Union. It
seems as though the hypothesis has considerable support, given that it
is so easy to recall examples of high stakes situations in which deception
was employed. But consider what it would take to prove, empirically,
that such a relationship actually exists. Figure 17 sets up the problem as
a 2 x 2 contingency table.

Barton Whaley researched 68 cases in which surprise or deception

was present in strategic military operations between 1914 and 1968.131
Let us assume that some form of deception, as well as surprise, was pres-
ent in all 68 cases and put this number in the upper left cell of the table.
How many cases are there with high stakes when deception was not used?
That is a lot harder to think about and to find out about; researchers sel-
dom devote much effort to documenting negative cases, when something
did not occur. Fortunately, Whaley did make a rough estimate that both
deception and surprise were absent in one-third to one-half of the cases
of “grand strategy” during this period, which is the basis for putting the
number 35 in the lower left cell of Figure 17.

130. Robert Axelrod, “The Rational Timing of Surprise,” World Politics, XXXI (January 1979),
pp. 228-246.
131. Barton Whaley, Stratagem: Deception and Surprise in War, (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, unpublished manuscript, 1969), p. 247.

144
 How common is deception when the stakes are not high? This is
the upper right cell of Figure 17. Entries for this cell and the lower right
cell are difficult to estimate; they require defining a universe of cases that
includes low-stakes situations. What is a low-stakes situation in this con-
text? High-stakes situations are definable, but there is an almost infinite
number and variety of low-stakes situations. Because of this difficulty, it
may not be feasible to use the full 2 x 2 table to analyze the relationship
between deception and high stakes.
Perhaps it is necessary to be content with only the left side of the
Figure 17 table. But then we cannot demonstrate empirically that one
should be more alert to deception in high-stakes situations, because there
is no basis for comparing high-stakes and low-stakes cases. If deception is
even more common in tactical situations than it is in high stakes strategic
situations, then analysts should not be more inclined to suspect decep-
tion when the stakes are high.
It is not really clear whether there is a relationship between de-
ception and high-stakes situations, because there are not enough data.
Intuitively, your gut feeling may tell you there is, and this feeling may
well be correct. But you may have this feeling mainly because you are
inclined to focus only on those cases in the upper left cell that do suggest
such a relationship. People tend to overlook cases where the relationship
does not exist, inasmuch as these are much less salient.
The lesson to be learned is not that analysts should do a statistical
analysis of every relationship. They usually will not have the data, time,
or interest for that. But analysts should have a general understanding of
what it takes to know whether a relationship exists. This understanding
is definitely not a part of people’s intuitive knowledge. It does not come
naturally. It has to be learned. When dealing with such issues, analysts
have to force themselves to think about all four cells of the table and the
data that would be required to fill each cell.
Even if analysts follow these admonitions, there are several factors
that distort judgment when one does not follow rigorous scientific proce-
dures in making and recording observations. These are factors that influ-
ence a person’s ability to recall examples that fit into the four cells. For
example, people remember occurrences more readily than non-occur-
rences. “History is, by and large, a record of what people did, not what
they failed to do.”132

132. E. H. Carr, What is History? (London: Macmillan, 1961), p. 126, cited by Fischhoff, op.
cit.

145
 Thus, instances in which deception occurred are easier to recall than
instances in which it did not. Analysts remember occurrences that sup-
port the relationship they are examining better than those that do not.
To the extent that perception is influenced by expectations, analysts may
have missed or discounted the contrary instances. People also have a
better memory for recent events, events in which they were personally
involved, events that had important consequences, and so forth. These
factors have a significant influence on perceptions of correlation when
analysts make a gut judgment without consciously trying to think of all
four cells of the table.
Many erroneous theories are perpetuated because they seem plau-
sible and because people record their experience in a way that supports
rather than refutes them. Ross describes this process as follows:

. . .the intuitive observer selectively codes those data poten-

tially relevant to the relationship between X and Y. Data points
that fit his hypotheses and predictions are accepted as reliable,
valid, representative, and free of error or “third-variable influ-
ences.” Such data points are seen as reflective of the “real”. .
.relationship between X and Y. By contrast, data points that
deviate markedly from the intuitive . . . expectations or theory
are unlikely to be given great weight and tend to be dismissed
as unreliable, erroneous, unrepresentative, or the product of
contaminating third-variable influences. Thus the intuitive
scientist who believes that fat men are jolly, or more specifi-
cally that fatness causes jolliness, will see particular fat and jolly
men as strong evidence for this theory; he will not entertain the
hypothesis that an individual’s jollity is mere pretense or the
product of a particularly happy home life rather than obesity.
By contrast, fat and morose individuals will be examined very
carefully before gaining admission to that scientist’s store of rel-
evant data. He might, for instance, seek to determine whether
the individual’s moroseness on the day in question is atypical,
or the result of a nagging cold or a disappointing day, rather
than the reflection of some stable attribute. It need hardly be
emphasized that even a randomly generated [set of data] can
yield a relatively high correlation if coded in the manner just
outlined.133

133. Ross, op. cit., pp. 208-209.

146
 Chapter 12
Biases in Estimating Probabilities
In making rough probability judgments, people commonly depend upon
one of several simplified rules of thumb that greatly ease the burden of deci-
sion. Using the “availability” rule, people judge the probability of an event by
the ease with which they can imagine relevant instances of similar events or
the number of such events that they can easily remember. With the “anchor-
ing” strategy, people pick some natural starting point for a first approxima-
tion and then adjust this figure based on the results of additional information
or analysis. Typically, they do not adjust the initial judgment enough.
Expressions of probability, such as possible and probable, are a common
source of ambiguity that make it easier for a reader to interpret a report as
consistent with the reader’s own preconceptions. The probability of a scenario
is often miscalculated. Data on “prior probabilities” are commonly ignored
unless they illuminate causal relationships.
*******************

Availability Rule
One simplified rule of thumb commonly used in making probabili-
ty estimates is known as the availability rule. In this context, “availability”
refers to imaginability or retrievability from memory. Psychologists have
shown that two cues people use unconsciously in judging the probability
of an event are the ease with which they can imagine relevant instances of
the event and the number or frequency of such events that they can eas-
ily remember.134 People are using the availability rule of thumb whenever
they estimate frequency or probability on the basis of how easily they can
recall or imagine instances of whatever it is they are trying to estimate.

134. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency
and Probability,” Cognitive Psychology, 5 (1973), pp. 207-232.

147
 Normally this works quite well. If one thing actually occurs more
frequently than another and is therefore more probable, we probably can
recall more instances of it. Events that are likely to occur usually are easier
to imagine than unlikely events. People are constantly making inferences
based on these assumptions. For example, we estimate our chances for
promotion by recalling instances of promotion among our colleagues in
similar positions and with similar experience. We estimate the probabil-
ity that a politician will lose an election by imagining ways in which he
may lose popular support.
Although this often works well, people are frequently led astray
when the ease with which things come to mind is influenced by factors
unrelated to their probability. The ability to recall instances of an event is
influenced by how recently the event occurred, whether we were person-
ally involved, whether there were vivid and memorable details associated
with the event, and how important it seemed at the time. These and
other factors that influence judgment are unrelated to the true probabil-
ity of an event.
Consider two people who are smokers. One had a father who died
of lung cancer, whereas the other does not know anyone who ever had
lung cancer. The one whose father died of lung cancer will normally
perceive a greater probability of adverse health consequences associated
with smoking, even though one more case of lung cancer is statistically
insignificant when weighing such risk. How about two CIA officers, one
of whom knew Aldrich Ames and the other who did not personally know
anyone who had ever turned out to be a traitor? Which one is likely to
perceive the greatest risk of insider betrayal?
It was difficult to imagine the breakup of the Soviet Union because
such an event was so foreign to our experience of the previous 50 years.
How difficult is it now to imagine a return to a Communist regime in
Russia? Not so difficult, in part because we still have vivid memories
of the old Soviet Union. But is that a sound basis for estimating the
likelihood of its happening? When analysts make quick, gut judgments
without really analyzing the situation, they are likely to be influenced by
the availability bias. The more a prospective scenario accords with one’s
experience, the easier it is to imagine and the more likely it seems.
Intelligence analysts may be less influenced than others by the avail-
ability bias. Analysts are evaluating all available information, not making
quick and easy inferences. On the other hand, policymakers and journal-

148
ists who lack the time or access to evidence to go into details must neces-
sarily take shortcuts. The obvious shortcut is to use the availability rule
of thumb for making inferences about probability.
Many events of concern to intelligence analysts
. . .are perceived as so unique that past history does not seem
relevant to the evaluation of their likelihood. In thinking of
such events we often construct scenarios, i.e., stories that lead
from the present situation to the target event. The plausibility
of the scenarios that come to mind, or the difficulty of produc-
ing them, serve as clues to the likelihood of the event. If no
reasonable scenario comes to mind, the event is deemed im-
possible or highly unlikely. If several scenarios come easily to
mind, or if one scenario is particularly compelling, the event in
question appears probable.135

US policymakers in the early years of our involvement in Vietnam

had to imagine scenarios for what might happen if they did or did not
commit US troops to the defense of South Vietnam. In judging the
probability of alternative outcomes, our senior leaders were strongly in-
fluenced by the ready availability of two seemingly comparable scenari-
os—the failure of appeasement prior to World War II and the successful
intervention in Korea.
Many extraneous factors influence the imaginability of scenarios
for future events, just as they influence the retrievability of events from
memory. Curiously, one of these is the act of analysis itself. The act of
constructing a detailed scenario for a possible future event makes that
event more readily imaginable and, therefore, increases its perceived
probability. This is the experience of CIA analysts who have used vari-
ous tradecraft tools that require, or are especially suited to, the analysis
of unlikely but nonetheless possible and important hypotheses. (Such
techniques were discussed in Chapter 6, “Keeping an Open Mind” and
Chapter 8, “Analysis of Competing Hypotheses.”) The analysis usual-
ly results in the “unlikely” scenario being taken a little more seriously.
This phenomenon has also been demonstrated in psychological experi-
ments.136

135. Ibid., p. 229.

136. John S. Carroll, “The Effect of Imagining an Event on Expectations for the Event: An
Interpretation in Terms of the Availability Heuristic”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
14 (1978), pp. 88-96.

149
 In sum, the availability rule of thumb is often used to make judg-
ments about likelihood or frequency. People would be hard put to do
otherwise, inasmuch as it is such a timesaver in the many instances when
more detailed analysis is not warranted or not feasible. Intelligence ana-
lysts, however, need to be aware when they are taking shortcuts. They
must know the strengths and weaknesses of these procedures, and be able
to identify when they are most likely to be led astray. For intelligence
analysts, recognition that they are employing the availability rule should
raise a caution flag. Serious analysis of probability requires identification
and assessment of the strength and interaction of the many variables that
will determine the outcome of a situation.

Anchoring
Another strategy people seem to use intuitively and unconsciously
to simplify the task of making judgments is called anchoring. Some natu-
ral starting point, perhaps from a previous analysis of the same subject
or from some partial calculation, is used as a first approximation to the
desired judgment. This starting point is then adjusted, based on the re-
sults of additional information or analysis. Typically, however, the start-
ing point serves as an anchor or drag that reduces the amount of adjust-
ment, so the final estimate remains closer to the starting point than it
ought to be.
Anchoring can be demonstrated very simply in a classroom exercise
by asking a group of students to estimate one or more known quantities,
such as the percentage of member countries in the United Nations that
are located in Africa. Give half the students a low-percentage number
and half a high-percentage number. Ask them to start with this number
as an estimated answer, then, as they think about the problem, to adjust
this number until they get as close as possible to what they believe is the
correct answer. When this was done in one experiment that used this
question, those starting with an anchor of 10 percent produced adjusted
estimates that averaged 25 percent. Those who started with an anchor of
65 percent produced adjusted estimates that averaged 45 percent.137
Because of insufficient adjustment, those who started out with an
estimate that was too high ended with significantly higher estimates than

137. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, “Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and
Biases,” Science, Vol. 185, Sept. 27, 1974, pp. 1124-1131.

150
those who began with an estimate that was too low. Even the totally
arbitrary starting points acted as anchors, causing drag or inertia that
inhibited fulladjustment of estimates.
Whenever analysts move into a new analytical area and take over
responsibility for updating a series of judgments or estimates made by
their predecessors, the previous judgments may have such an anchoring
effect. Even when analysts make their own initial judgment, and then
attempt to revise this judgment on the basis of new information or fur-
ther analysis, there is much evidence to suggest that they usually do not
change the judgment enough.
Anchoring provides a partial explanation of experiments showing
that analysts tend to be overly sure of themselves in setting confidence
ranges. A military analyst who estimates future missile or tank produc-
tion is often unable to give a specific figure as a point estimate. The
analyst may, therefore, set a range from high to low, and estimate that
there is, say, a 75-percent chance that the actual production figure will
fall within this range. If a number of such estimates are made that reflect
an appropriate degree of confidence, the true figure should fall within the
estimated range 75 percent of the time and outside this range 25 percent
of the time. In experimental situations, however, most participants are
overconfident. The true figure falls outside the estimated range a much
larger percentage of the time.138
If the estimated range is based on relatively hard information con-
cerning the upper and lower limits, the estimate is likely to be accurate.
If, however, the range is determined by starting with a single best estimate
that is simply adjusted up and down to arrive at estimated maximum and
minimum values, then anchoring comes into play, and the adjustment is
likely to be insufficient.
Reasons for the anchoring phenomenon are not well understood.
The initial estimate serves as a hook on which people hang their first im-
pressions or the results of earlier calculations. In recalculating, they take
this as a starting point rather than starting over from scratch, but why
this should limit the range of subsequent reasoning is not clear.

138. Experiments using a 98-percent confidence range found that the true value fell outside
the estimated range 40 to 50 percent of the time. Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman,
“Anchoring and Calibration in the Assessment of Uncertain Quantities,” (Oregon Research
Institute Research Bulletin, 1972, Nov. 12, No. 5), and M. Alpert and H. Raiffa, “A Progress
Report on The Training of Probability Assessors,” Unpublished manuscript, Harvard University,
1968.

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 There is some evidence that awareness of the anchoring problem is
not an adequate antidote.139 This is a common finding in experiments
dealing with cognitive biases. The biases persist even after test subjects
are informed of them and instructed to try to avoid them or compensate
for them.
One technique for avoiding the anchoring bias, to weigh anchor so
to speak, may be to ignore one’s own or others’ earlier judgments and
rethink a problem from scratch. In other words, consciously avoid any
prior judgment as a starting point. There is no experimental evidence to
show that this is possible or that it will work, but it seems worth trying.
Alternatively, it is sometimes possible to avoid human error by employing
formal statistical procedures. Bayesian statistical analysis, for example,
can be used to revise prior judgments on the basis of new information in
a way that avoids anchoring bias.140

Expression of Uncertainty
Probabilities may be expressed in two ways. Statistical probabilities
are based on empirical evidence concerning relative frequencies. Most
intelligence judgments deal with one-of-a-kind situations for which it
is impossible to assign a statistical probability. Another approach com-
monly used in intelligence analysis is to make a “subjective probability”
or “personal probability” judgment. Such a judgment is an expression
of the analyst’s personal belief that a certain explanation or estimate is
correct. It is comparable to a judgment that a horse has a three-to-one
chance of winning a race.
Verbal expressions of uncertainty—such as “possible,” “probable,”
“unlikely,” “may,” and “could”—are a form of subjective probability judg-
ment, but they have long been recognized as sources of ambiguity and
misunderstanding. To say that something could happen or is possible

139. Alpert and Raiffa, ibid.

140. Nicholas Schweitzer, “Bayesian Analysis: Estimating the Probability of Middle East
Conflict,” in Richards J. Heuer, Jr., ed., Quantitative Approaches to Political Intelligence: The
CIA Experience (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1979). Jack Zlotnick, “Bayes’ Theorem for
Intelligence Analysis,” Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Spring 1972). Charles E. Fisk,
“The Sino-Soviet Border Dispute: A Comparison of the Conventional and Bayesian Methods
for Intelligence Warning”, Studies in Intelligence, vol. 16, no. 2 (Spring 1972), originally
classified Secret, now declassified. Both the Zlotnick and Fisk articles were republished in H.
Bradford Westerfield, Inside CIA’s Private World: Declassified Articles from the Agency’s Internal
Journal, 1955-1992, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).

152
may refer to anything from a 1-percent to a 99-percent probability. To
express themselves clearly, analysts must learn to routinely communicate
uncertainty using the language of numerical probability or odds ratios.
As explained in Chapter 2 on “Perception,” people tend to see what
they expect to see, and new information is typically assimilated to exist-
ing beliefs. This is especially true when dealing with verbal expressions
of uncertainty. By themselves, these expressions have no clear meaning.
They are empty shells. The reader or listener fills them with meaning
through the context in which they are used and what is already in the
reader’s or listener’s mind about that context.
When intelligence conclusions are couched in ambiguous terms, a
reader’s interpretation of the conclusions will be biased in favor of con-
sistency with what the reader already believes. This may be one reason
why many intelligence consumers say they do not learn much from intel-
ligence reports.141
It is easy to demonstrate this phenomenon in training courses for
analysts. Give students a short intelligence report, have them underline
all expressions of uncertainty, then have them express their understand-
ing of the report by writing above each expression of uncertainty the
numerical probability they believe was intended by the writer of the re-
port. This is an excellent learning experience, as the differences among
students in how they understand the report are typically so great as to be
quite memorable.
In one experiment, an intelligence analyst was asked to substitute
numerical probability estimates for the verbal qualifiers in one of his
own earlier articles. The first statement was: “The cease-fire is holding
but could be broken within a week.” The analyst said he meant there was
about a 30-percent chance the cease-fire would be broken within a week.
Another analyst who had helped this analyst prepare the article said she
thought there was about an 80-percent chance that the cease-fire would
be broken. Yet, when working together on the report, both analysts had
believed they were in agreement about what could happen.142 Obviously,
the analysts had not even communicated effectively with each other, let
alone with the readers of their report.

141. For another interpretation of this phenomenon, see Chapter 13, “Hindsight Biases in
Evaluation of Intelligence Reporting.”
142. Scott Barclay et al, Handbook for Decision Analysis. (McLean, VA: Decisions and Designs,
Inc. 1977), p. 66.

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 Sherman Kent, the first director of CIA’s Office of National
Estimates, was one of the first to recognize problems of communication
caused by imprecise statements of uncertainty. Unfortunately, several de-
cades after Kent was first jolted by how policymakers interpreted the
term “serious possibility” in a national estimate, this miscommunication
between analysts and policymakers, and between analysts, is still a com-
mon occurrence.143
I personally recall an ongoing debate with a colleague over the bona
fides of a very important source. I argued he was probably bona fide. My
colleague contended that the source was probably under hostile control.
After several months of periodic disagreement, I finally asked my col-
league to put a number on it. He said there was at least a 51-percent
chance of the source being under hostile control. I said there was at least
a 51-percent chance of his being bona fide. Obviously, we agreed that
there was a great deal of uncertainty. That stopped our disagreement. The
problem was not a major difference of opinion, but the ambiguity of the
term probable.
The table in Figure 18 shows the results of an experiment with 23
NATO military officers accustomed to reading intelligence reports. They
were given a number of sentences such as: “It is highly unlikely that. . .
.” All the sentences were the same except that the verbal expressions of
probability changed. The officers were asked what percentage probability
they would attribute to each statement if they read it in an intelligence
report. Each dot in the table represents one officer’s probability assign-
ment.144 While there was broad consensus about the meaning of “better
than even,” there was a wide disparity in interpretation of other probabil-
ity expressions. The shaded areas in the table show the ranges proposed
by Kent.145
The main point is that an intelligence report may have no impact on
the reader if it is couched in such ambiguous language that the reader can
easily interpret it as consistent with his or her own preconceptions. This

143. Sherman Kent, “Words of Estimated Probability,” in Donald P. Steury, ed., Sherman Kent
and the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays (CIA, Center for the Study of Intelligence,
1994).
144. Scott Barclay et al, p. 76-68.
145. Probability ranges attributed to Kent in this table are slightly different from those in
Sherman Kent, “Words of Estimated Probability,” in Donald P. Steury, ed., Sherman Kent and
the Board of National Estimates: Collected Essays (CIA, Center for the Study of Intelligence,
1994).

154
155
ambiguity can be especially troubling when dealing with low-probabil-
ity, high-impact dangers against which policymakers may wish to make
contingency plans.
Consider, for example, a report that there is little chance of a ter-
rorist attack against the American Embassy in Cairo at this time. If the
Ambassador’s preconception is that there is no more than a one-in-a-
hundred chance, he may elect to not do very much. If the Ambassador’s
preconception is that there may be as much as a one-in-four chance of an
attack, he may decide to do quite a bit. The term “little chance” is con-
sistent with either of those interpretations, and there is no way to know
what the report writer meant.
Another potential ambiguity is the phrase “at this time.” Shortening
the time frame for prediction lowers the probability, but may not de-
crease the need for preventive measures or contingency planning. An
event for which the timing is unpredictable may “at this time” have only
a 5-percent probability of occurring during the coming month, but a 60-
percent probability if the time frame is extended to one year (5 percent
per month for 12 months).
How can analysts express uncertainty without being unclear about
how certain they are? Putting a numerical qualifier in parentheses after
the phrase expressing degree of uncertainty is an appropriate means of
avoiding misinterpretation. This may be an odds ratio (less than a one-
in-four chance) or a percentage range (5 to 20 percent) or (less than 20
percent). Odds ratios are often preferable, as most people have a better
intuitive understanding of odds than of percentages.

Assessing Probability of a Scenario

Intelligence analysts sometimes present judgments in the form of
a scenario—a series of events leading to an anticipated outcome. There
is evidence that judgments concerning the probability of a scenario are
influenced by amount and nature of detail in the scenario in a way that
is unrelated to actual likelihood of the scenario.
A scenario consists of several events linked together in a narrative
description. To calculate mathematically the probability of a scenario,
the proper procedure is to multiply the probabilities of each individual
event. Thus, for a scenario with three events, each of which will probably
(70 percent certainty) occur, the probability of the scenario is .70 x .70

156
x .70 or slightly over 34 percent. Adding a fourth probable (70 percent)
event to the scenario would reduce its probability to 24 percent.
Most people do not have a good intuitive grasp of probabilistic rea-
soning. One approach to simplifying such problems is to assume (or
think as though) one or more probable events have already occurred.
This eliminates some of the uncertainty from the judgment. Another way
to simplify the problem is to base judgment on a rough average of the
probabilities of each event. In the above example, the averaging proce-
dure gives an estimated probability of 70 percent for the entire scenario.
Thus, the scenario appears far more likely than is in fact the case.
When the averaging strategy is employed, highly probable events in
the scenario tend to offset less probable events. This violates the principle
that a chain cannot be stronger than its weakest link. Mathematically,
the least probable event in a scenario sets the upper limit on the prob-
ability of the scenario as a whole. If the averaging strategy is employed,
additional details may be added to the scenario that are so plausible they
increase the perceived probability of the scenario, while, mathematically,
additional events must necessarily reduce its probability.146

Base-Rate Fallacy
In assessing a situation, an analyst sometimes has two kinds of evi-
dence available—specific evidence about the individual case at hand, and
numerical data that summarize information about many similar cases.
This type of numerical information is called a base rate or prior prob-
ability. The base-rate fallacy is that the numerical data are commonly
ignored unless they illuminate a causal relationship. This is illustrated by
the following experiment.147
During the Vietnam War, a fighter plane made a non-fatal strafing
attack on a US aerial reconnaissance mission at twilight. Both Cambodian
and Vietnamese jets operate in the area. You know the following facts:
(a) Specific case information: The US pilot identified the fighter
as Cambodian. The pilot’s aircraft recognition capabilities were tested
under appropriate visibility and flight conditions. When presented

146. Paul Slovic, Baruch Fischhoff, and Sarah Lichtenstein, “Cognitive Processes and Societal
Risk Taking,” in J. S. Carroll and J.W. Payne, eds., Cognition and Social Behavior (Potomac,
MD: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1976), pp. 177-78.
147. This is a modified version, developed by Frank J. Stech, of the blue and green taxicab
question used by Kahneman and Tversky, “On Prediction and Judgment,” Oregon Research
Institute Research Bulletin, 12, 14, 1972.

157
with a sample of fighters (half with Vietnamese markings and half with
Cambodian) the pilot made correct identifications 80 percent of the time
and erred 20 percent of the time.
(b) Base rate data: 85 percent of the jet fighters in that area are
Vietnamese; 15 percent are Cambodian.
Question: What is the probability that the fighter was Cambodian
rather than Vietnamese?
A common procedure in answering this question is to reason as fol-
lows: We know the pilot identified the aircraft as Cambodian. We also
know the pilot’s identifications are correct 80 percent of the time; there-
fore, there is an 80 percent probability the fighter was Cambodian. This
reasoning appears plausible but is incorrect. It ignores the base rate—that
85 percent of the fighters in that area are Vietnamese. The base rate, or
prior probability, is what you can say about any hostile fighter in that
area before you learn anything about the specific sighting.
It is actually more likely that the plane was Vietnamese than
Cambodian despite the pilot’s “probably correct” identification. Readers
who are unfamiliar with probabilistic reasoning and do not grasp this
point should imagine 100 cases in which the pilot has a similar encoun-
ter. Based on paragraph (a), we know that 80 percent or 68 of the 85
Vietnamese aircraft will be correctly identified as Vietnamese, while 20
percent or 17 will be incorrectly identified as Cambodian. Based on para-
graph (b), we know that 85 of these encounters will be with Vietnamese
aircraft, 15 with Cambodian.
Similarly, 80 percent or 12 of the 15 Cambodian aircraft will be
correctly identified as Cambodian, while 20 percent or three will be in-
correctly identified as Vietnamese. This makes a total of 71 Vietnamese
and 29 Cambodian sightings, of which only 12 of the 29 Cambodian
sightings are correct; the other 17 are incorrect sightings of Vietnamese
aircraft. Therefore, when the pilot claims the attack was by a Cambodian
fighter, the probability that the craft was actually Cambodian is only
12/29ths or 41 percent, despite the fact that the pilot’s identifications are
correct 80 percent of the time.
This may seem like a mathematical trick, but it is not. The differ-
ence stems from the strong prior probability of the pilot observing a
Vietnamese aircraft. The difficulty in understanding this arises because
untrained intuitive judgment does not incorporate some of the basic sta-
tistical principles of probabilistic reasoning. Most people do not incor-

158
porate the prior probability into their reasoning because it does not seem
relevant. It does not seem relevant because there is no causal relationship
between the background information on the percentages of jet fighters
in the area and the pilot’s observation.148 The fact that 85 percent of the
fighters in the area were Vietnamese and 15 percent Cambodian did not
cause the attack to be made by a Cambodian rather than a Vietnamese.
To appreciate the different impact made by causally relevant back-
ground information, consider this alternative formulation of the same
problem. In paragraph (b) of the problem, substitute the following:
(b) Although the fighter forces of the two countries are roughly equal
in number in this area, 85 percent of all harassment incidents involve
Vietnamese fighters, while 15 percent involve Cambodian fighters.
The problem remains mathematically and structurally the same.
Experiments with many test subjects, however, show it is quite different
psychologically because it readily elicits a causal explanation relating the
prior probabilities to the pilot’s observation. If the Vietnamese have a
propensity to harass and the Cambodians do not, the prior probability
that Vietnamese harassment is more likely than Cambodian is no longer
ignored. Linking the prior probability to a cause and effect relationship
immediately raises the possibility that the pilot’s observation was in er-
ror.
With this revised formulation of the problem, most people are likely
to reason as follows: We know from past experience in cases such as this
that the harassment is usually done by Vietnamese aircraft. Yet, we have
a fairly reliable report from our pilot that it was a Cambodian fighter.
These two conflicting pieces of evidence cancel each other out. Therefore,
we do not know—it is roughly 50-50 whether it was Cambodian or
Vietnamese. In employing this reasoning, we use the prior probability
information, integrate it with the case-specific information, and arrive at
a conclusion that is about as close to the optimal answer (still 41 percent)
as one is going to get without doing a mathematical calculation.
There are, of course, few problems in which base rates are given as
explicitly as in the Vietnamese/Cambodian aircraft example. When base

148. Maya Bar-Hillel, “The Base-Rate Fallacy in Probability Judgments,” Acta Psychologica,
1980.

159
rates are not well known but must be inferred or researched, they are
even less likely to be used.149
The so-called planning fallacy, to which I personally plead guilty, is
an example of a problem in which base rates are not given in numerical
terms but must be abstracted from experience. In planning a research
project, I may estimate being able to complete it in four weeks. This esti-
mate is based on relevant case-specific evidence: desired length of report,
availability of source materials, difficulty of the subject matter, allowance
for both predictable and unforeseeable interruptions, and so on. I also
possess a body of experience with similar estimates I have made in the
past. Like many others, I almost never complete a research project within
the initially estimated time frame! But I am seduced by the immediacy
and persuasiveness of the case-specific evidence. All the causally relevant
evidence about the project indicates I should be able to complete the
work in the time allotted for it. Even though I know from experience
that this never happens, I do not learn from this experience. I continue
to ignore the non-causal, probabilistic evidence based on many similar
projects in the past, and to estimate completion dates that I hardly ever
meet. (Preparation of this book took twice as long as I had anticipated.
These biases are, indeed, difficult to avoid!)

149. Many examples from everyday life are cited in Robyn M. Dawes, Rational Choice in an
Uncertain World (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, 1988), Chapter 5.

160
 Chapter 13
Hindsight Biases in Evaluation of Intelligence
Reporting
Evaluations of intelligence analysis—analysts’ own evaluations of their
judgments as well as others’ evaluations of intelligence products—are dis-
torted by systematic biases. As a result, analysts overestimate the quality of
their analytical performance, and others underestimate the value and quality
of their efforts. These biases are not simply the product of self-interest and lack
of objectivity. They stem from the nature of human mental processes and are
difficult and perhaps impossible to overcome.150
*******************
Hindsight biases influence the evaluation of intelligence reporting
in three ways:

• Analysts normally overestimate the accuracy of their past judg-

ments.

• Intelligence consumers normally underestimate how much they

learned from intelligence reports.

• Overseers of intelligence production who conduct postmortem

analyses of an intelligence failure normally judge that events were
more readily foreseeable than was in fact the case.

None of the biases is surprising. Analysts have observed these ten-

dencies in others, although probably not in themselves. What may be

150. This chapter was first published as an unclassified article in Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 22,
No. 2 (Summer 1978), under the title “Cognitive Biases: Problems in Hindsight Analysis.” It
was later published in H. Bradford Westerfield, editor, Inside CIA’s Private World: Declassified
Articles from the Agency’s Internal Journal, 1955-1992 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995.)

161
unexpected is that these biases are not only the product of self-interest
and lack of objectivity. They are examples of a broader phenomenon that
is built into human mental processes and that cannot be overcome by the
simple admonition to be more objective.
Psychologists who conducted the experiments described below tried
to teach test subjects to overcome these biases. Experimental subjects
with no vested interest in the results were briefed on the biases and en-
couraged to avoid them or compensate for them, but could not do so.
Like optical illusions, cognitive biases remain compelling even after we
become aware of them.
The analyst, consumer, and overseer evaluating analytical perfor-
mance all have one thing in common. They are exercising hindsight.
They take their current state of knowledge and compare it with what
they or others did or could or should have known before the current
knowledge was received. This is in sharp contrast with intelligence esti-
mation, which is an exercise in foresight, and it is the difference between
these two modes of thought—hindsight and foresight—that seems to be
a source of bias.
The amount of good information that is available obviously is greater
in hindsight than in foresight. There are several possible explanations of
how this affects mental processes. One is that the additional information
available for hindsight changes perceptions of a situation so naturally and
so immediately that people are largely unaware of the change. When new
information is received, it is immediately and unconsciously assimilated
into our pre-existing knowledge. If this new information adds signifi-
cantly to our knowledge—that is, if it tells the outcome of a situation or
the answer to a question about which we were previously uncertain—our
mental images are restructured to take the new information into account.
With the benefit of hindsight, for example, factors previously considered
relevant may become irrelevant, and factors previously thought to have
little relevance may be seen as determinative.
After a view has been restructured to assimilate the new informa-
tion, there is virtually no way to accurately reconstruct the pre-existing
mental set. Once the bell has rung, it cannot be unrung. A person may
remember his or her previous judgments if not much time has elapsed and
the judgments were precisely articulated, but apparently people cannot
accurately reconstruct their previous thinking. The effort to reconstruct
what we previously thought about a given situation, or what we would

162
have thought about it, is inevitably influenced by our current thought
patterns. Knowing the outcome of a situation makes it harder to imagine
other outcomes that might have been considered. Unfortunately, simply
understanding that the mind works in this fashion does little to help
overcome the limitation.
The overall message to be learned from an understanding of these
biases, as shown in the experiments described below, is that an analyst’s
intelligence judgments are not as good as analysts think they are, or as
bad as others seem to believe. Because the biases generally cannot be
overcome, they would appear to be facts of life that analysts need to take
into account in evaluating their own performance and in determining
what evaluations to expect from others. This suggests the need for a more
systematic effort to:

• Define what should be expected from intelligence analysts.

• Develop an institutionalized procedure for comparing intelli-

gence judgments and estimates with actual outcomes.

• Measure how well analysts live up to the defined expectations.

The discussion now turns to the experimental evidence demonstrat-

ing these biases from the perspective of the analyst, consumer, and over-
seer of intelligence.

The Analyst’s Perspective

Analysts interested in improving their own performance need to
evaluate their past estimates in the light of subsequent developments.
To do this, analysts must either remember (or be able to refer to) their
past estimates or must reconstruct their past estimates on the basis of
what they remember having known about the situation at the time the
estimates were made. The effectiveness of the evaluation process, and of
the learning process to which it gives impetus, depends in part upon the
accuracy of these remembered or reconstructed estimates.

163
 Experimental evidence suggests a systematic tendency toward faulty
memory of past estimates.151 That is, when events occur, people tend to
overestimate the extent to which they had previously expected them to
occur. And conversely, when events do not occur, people tend to under-
estimate the probability they had previously assigned to their occurrence.
In short, events generally seem less surprising than they should on the
basis of past estimates. This experimental evidence accords with analysts’
intuitive experience. Analysts rarely appear—or allow themselves to ap-
pear—very surprised by the course of events they are following.
In experiments to test the bias in memory of past estimates, 119
subjects were asked to estimate the probability that a number of events
would or would not occur during President Nixon’s trips to Peking and
Moscow in 1972. Fifteen possible outcomes were identified for each trip,
and each subject assigned a probability to each of these outcomes. The
outcomes were selected to cover the range of possible developments and
to elicit a wide range of probability values.
At varying time periods after the trips, the same subjects were asked
to remember or reconstruct their own predictions as accurately as pos-
sible. (No mention was made of the memory task at the time of the origi-
nal prediction.) Then the subjects were asked to indicate whether they
thought each event had or had not occurred during these trips.
When three to six months were allowed to elapse between the sub-
jects’ estimates and their recollection of these estimates, 84 percent of
the subjects exhibited the bias when dealing with events they believed
actually did happen. That is, the probabilities they remembered having
estimated were higher than their actual estimates of events they believed
actually did occur. Similarly, for events they believed did not occur, the
probabilities they remembered having estimated were lower than their
actual estimates, although here the bias was not as great. For both kinds
of events, the bias was more pronounced after three to six months had
elapsed than when subjects were asked to recall estimates they had given
only two weeks earlier.
In summary, knowledge of the outcomes somehow affected most
test subjects’ memory of their previous estimates of these outcomes, and
the more time that was allowed for memories to fade, the greater the

151. This section is based on research reported by Baruch Fischoff and Ruth Beyth in “I Knew
It Would Happen: Remembered Probabilities of Once-Future Things,” Organizational Behavior
and Human Performance, 13 (1975), pp. 1-16.

164
effect of the bias. The developments during the President’s trips were
perceived as less surprising than they would have been if actual estimates
were compared with actual outcomes. For the 84 percent of subjects who
showed the anticipated bias, their retrospective evaluation of their esti-
mative performance was clearly more favorable than warranted by the
facts.

The Consumer’s Perspective

When consumers of intelligence reports evaluate the quality of the
intelligence product, they ask themselves the question: “How much did I
learn from these reports that I did not already know?” In answering this
question, there is a consistent tendency for most people to underestimate
the contribution made by new information. This “I knew it all along”
bias causes consumers to undervalue the intelligence product.152
That people do in fact commonly react to new information in this
manner was tested in a series of experiments involving some 320 people,
each of whom answered the same set of 75 factual questions taken from
almanacs and encyclopedias. As a measure of their confidence in their
answers, the subjects assigned to each question a number ranging from
50 percent to 100 percent, indicating their estimate of the probability
that they had chosen the correct answer.
As a second step in the experiment, subjects were divided into three
groups. The first group was given 25 of the previously asked questions
and instructed to respond to them exactly as they had previously. This
simply tested the subjects’ ability to remember their previous answers.
The second group was given the same set of 25 questions but with the
correct answers circled “for your [the subjects’] general information.”
They, too, were asked to respond by reproducing their previous answers.
This tested the extent to which learning the correct answers distorted the
subjects’ memories of their own previous answers, thus measuring the
same bias in recollection of previous estimates that was discussed above
from the analyst’s perspective.
The third group was given a different set of 25 questions they had
not previously seen, but which were of similar difficulty so that results

152. Experiments described in this section are reported in Baruch Fischhoff, The Perceived
Informativeness of Factual Information, Technical Report DDI- I (Eugene, OR: Oregon Research
Institute, 1976).

165
would be comparable with the other two groups. The correct answers
were marked on the questionnaire, and the subjects were asked to re-
spond to the questions as they would have responded had they not been
told the answer. This tested their ability to recall accurately how much
they had known before they learned the correct answer. The situation is
comparable to that of intelligence consumers who are asked to evaluate
how much they learned from a report, and who can do this only by trying
to recollect the extent of their knowledge before they read the report.
The most significant results came from this third group of subjects.
The group clearly overestimated what they had known originally and un-
derestimated how much they learned from having been told the answer.
For 19 of 25 items in one running of the experiment and 20 of 25 items
in another running, this group assigned higher probabilities to the cor-
rect alternatives than it is reasonable to expect they would have assigned
had they not already known the correct answers.
In summary, the experiment confirmed the results of the previous
experiment showing that people exposed to an answer tend to remember
having known more than they actually did. It also demonstrates that
people have an even greater tendency to exaggerate the likelihood that
they would have known the correct answer if they had not been informed
of it. In other words, people tend to underestimate both how much they
learn from new information and the extent to which new information
permits them to make correct judgments with greater confidence. To the
extent that intelligence consumers manifest these same biases, they will
tend to underrate the value to them of intelligence reporting.

The Overseer’s Perspective

An overseer, as the term is used here, is one who investigates in-
telligence performance by conducting apostmortemexamination of a
high-profile intelligence failure. Such investigations are carried out by
Congress, the Intelligence Community staff, and CIA or DI manage-
ment. For those outside the executive branch who do not regularly read
the intelligence product, this sort of retrospective evaluation of known
intelligence failures is a principal basis for judgments about the quality
of intelligence analysis.
A fundamental question posed in anypostmorteminvestigation of
intelligence failure is this: Given the information that was available at the

166
time, should analysts have been able to foresee what was going to hap-
pen? Unbiased evaluation of intelligence performance depends upon the
ability to provide an unbiased answer to this question.153
Unfortunately, once an event has occurred, it is impossible to erase
from our mind the knowledge of that event and reconstruct what our
thought processes would have been at an earlier point in time. In re-
constructing the past, there is a tendency toward determinism, toward
thinking that what occurred was inevitable under the circumstances and
therefore predictable. In short, there is a tendency to believe analysts
should have foreseen events that were, in fact, unforeseeable on the basis
of the information available at the time.
The experiments reported in the following paragraphs tested the hy-
potheses that knowledge of an outcome increases the perceived inevita-
bility of that outcome, and that people who are informed of the outcome
are largely unaware that this information has changed their perceptions
in this manner.
A series of sub-experiments used brief (150-word) summaries of sev-
eral events for which four possible outcomes were identified. One of these
events was the struggle between the British and the Gurkhas in India in
1814. The four possible outcomes for this event were 1) British victory,
2) Gurkha victory, 3) military stalemate with no peace settlement, and
4) military stalemate with a peace settlement. Five groups of 20 subjects
each participated in each sub-experiment. One group received the 150-
word description of the struggle between the British and the Gurkhas
with no indication of the outcome. The other four groups received the
identical description but with one sentence added to indicate the out-
come of the struggle—a different outcome for each group.
The subjects in all five groups were asked to estimate the likelihood
of each of the four possible outcomes and to evaluate the relevance to
their judgment of each datum in the event description. Those subjects
who were informed of an outcome were placed in the same position as an
overseer of intelligence analysis preparing a postmortem analysis of an in-
telligence failure. This person tries to assess the probability of an outcome

153. Experiments described in this section are reported in Baruch Fischhoff, “Hindsight does
not equal Foresight: The Effect of Outcome Knowledge on Judgment Under Uncertainty,”
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 1, 3 (1975), pp. 288-
299.

167
based only on the information available before the outcome was known.
The results are shown in Figure 18.
The group not informed of any outcome judged the probability of
Outcome 1 as 33.8 percent, while the group told that Outcome 1 was
the actual outcome perceived the probability of this outcome as 57.2 per-
cent. The estimated probability was clearly influenced by knowledge of
the outcome. Similarly, the control group with no outcome knowledge
estimated the probability of Outcome 2 as 21.3 percent, while those in-
formed that Outcome 2 was the actual outcome perceived it as having a
38.4 percent probability.
An average of all estimated outcomes in six sub-experiments (a total
of 2,188 estimates by 547 subjects) indicates that the knowledge or belief
that one of four possible outcomes has occurred approximately doubles
the perceived probability of that outcome as judged with hindsight as
compared with foresight.
The relevance that subjects attributed to any datum was also strong-
ly influenced by which outcome, if any, they had been told was true. As
Roberta Wohlstetter has written, “It is much easier after the fact to sort
the relevant from the irrelevant signals. After the event, of course, a signal
is always crystal clear. We can now see what disaster it was signaling since

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the disaster has occurred, but before the event it is obscure and preg-
nant with conflicting meanings.”154 The fact that outcome knowledge
automatically restructures a person’s judgments about the relevance of
available data is probably one reason it is so difficult to reconstruct how
our thought processes were or would have been without this outcome
knowledge.
In several variations of this experiment, subjects were asked to re-
spond as though they did not know the outcome, or as others would
respond if they did not know the outcome. The results were little dif-
ferent, indicating that subjects were largely unaware of how knowledge
of the outcome affected their own perceptions. The experiment showed
that subjects were unable to empathize with how others would judge
these situations. Estimates of how others would interpret the data with-
out knowing the outcome were virtually the same as the test subjects’
own retrospective interpretations.
These results indicate that overseers conducting postmortemevalu-
ations of what analysts should have been able to foresee, given the avail-
able information, will tend to perceive the outcome of that situation as
having been more predictable than was, in fact, the case. Because they are
unable to reconstruct a state of mind that views the situation only with
foresight, not hindsight, overseers will tend to be more critical of intel-
ligence performance than is warranted.

Discussion of Experiments
Experiments that demonstrated these biases and their resistance to
corrective action were conducted as part of a research program in deci-
sion analysis funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.
Unfortunately, the experimental subjects were students, not members of
the Intelligence Community. There is, nonetheless, reason to believe the
results can be generalized to apply to the Intelligence Community. The
experiments deal with basic human mental processes, and the results do
seem consistent with personal experience in the Intelligence Community.
In similar kinds of psychological tests, in which experts, including intel-
ligence analysts, were used as test subjects, the experts showed the same
pattern of responses as students.

154. Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision (Stanford, CA: Stanford
University Press, 1962), p. 387. Cited by Fischhoff.

169
 My own imperfect effort to replicate one of these experiments using
intelligence analysts also supports the validity of the previous findings.
To test the assertion that intelligence analysts normally overestimate the
accuracy of their past judgments, there are two necessary preconditions.
First, analysts must make a series of estimates in quantitative terms—that
is, they must say not just that a given occurrence is probable, but that
there is, for example, a 75-percent chance of its occurrence. Second, it
must be possible to make an unambiguous determination whether the
estimated event did or did not occur. When these two preconditions are
present, one can go back and check the analysts’ recollections of their ear-
lier estimates. Because CIA estimates are rarely stated in terms of quan-
titative probabilities, and because the occurrence of an estimated event
within a specified time period often cannot be determined unambigu-
ously, these preconditions are seldom met.
I did, however, identify several analysts who, on two widely differ-
ing subjects, had made quantitative estimates of the likelihood of events
for which the subsequent outcome was clearly known. I went to these
analysts and asked them to recall their earlier estimates. The conditions
for this mini-experiment were far from ideal and the results were not
clear-cut, but they did tend to support the conclusions drawn from the
more extensive and systematic experiments described above.
All this leads to the conclusion that the three biases are found in
Intelligence Community personnel as well as in the specific test subjects.
In fact, one would expect the biases to be even greater in foreign affairs
professionals whose careers and self-esteem depend upon the presumed
accuracy of their judgments.

Can We Overcome These Biases?

Analysts tend to blame biased evaluations of intelligence perfor-
mance at best on ignorance and at worst on self-interest and lack of
objectivity. Both these factors may also be at work, but the experiments
suggest the nature of human mental processes is also a principal culprit.
This is a more intractable cause than either ignorance or lack of objectiv-
ity.
The self-interest of the experimental subjects was not at stake, yet
they showed the same kinds of bias with which analysts are familiar.
Moreover, in these experimental situations the biases were highly resis-

170
tant to efforts to overcome them. Subjects were instructed to make esti-
mates as if they did not already know the answer, but they were unable to
do so. One set of test subjects was briefed specifically on the bias, citing
the results of previous experiments. This group was instructed to try to
compensate for the bias, but it was unable to do so. Despite maximum
information and the best of intentions, the bias persisted.
This intractability suggests the bias does indeed have its roots in the
nature of our mental processes. Analysts who try to recall a previous es-
timate after learning the actual outcome of events, consumers who think
about how much a report has added to their knowledge, and overseers
who judge whether analysts should have been able to avoid an intel-
ligence failure, all have one thing in common. They are engaged in a
mental process involving hindsight. They are trying to erase the impact
of knowledge, so as to remember, reconstruct, or imagine the uncertain-
ties they had or would have had about a subject prior to receipt of more
or less definitive information.
It appears, however, that the receipt of what is accepted as definitive
or authoritative information causes an immediate but unconscious re-
structuring of a person’s mental images to make them consistent with the
new information. Once past perceptions have been restructured, it seems
very difficult, if not impossible, to reconstruct accurately what one’s
thought processes were or would have been before this restructuring.
There is one procedure that may help to overcome these biases. It is
to pose such questions as the following: Analysts should ask themselves,
“If the opposite outcome had occurred, would I have been surprised?”
Consumers should ask, “If this report had told me the opposite, would
I have believed it?” And overseers should ask, “If the opposite outcome
had occurred, would it have been predictable given the information that
was available?” These questions may help one recall or reconstruct the
uncertainty that existed prior to learning the content of a report or the
outcome of a situation.
This method of overcoming the bias can be tested by readers of this
chapter, especially those who believe it failed to tell them much they
had not already known. If this chapter had reported that psychological
experiments show no consistent pattern of analysts overestimating the
accuracy of their estimates, or of consumers underestimating the value
of our product, would you have believed it? (Answer: Probably not.) If
it had reported that psychological experiments show these biases to be

171
caused only by self-interest and lack of objectivity, would you have be-
lieved this? (Answer: Probably yes.) And would you have believed it if
this chapter had reported these biases can be overcome by a conscientious
effort at objective evaluation? (Answer: Probably yes.)
These questions may lead you, the reader, to recall the state of your
knowledge or beliefs before reading this chapter. If so, the questions will
highlight what you learned here—namely, that significant biases in the
evaluation of intelligence estimates are attributable to the nature of hu-
man mental processes, not just to self-interest and lack of objectivity, and
that they are, therefore, exceedingly difficult to overcome.

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 PART IV—CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 14
Improving Intelligence Analysis
This chapter offers a checklist for analysts—a summary of tips on how
to navigate the minefield of problems identified in previous chapters. It also
identifies steps that managers of intelligence analysis can take to help create
an environment in which analytical excellence can flourish.
*******************
How can intelligence analysis be improved? That is the challenge. A
variety of traditional approaches are used in pursuing this goal: collect-
ing more and better information for analysts to work with, changing the
management of the analytical process, increasing the number of analysts,
providing language and area studies to improve analysts’ substantive ex-
pertise, revising employee selection and retention criteria, improving
report-writing skills, fine-tuning the relationship between intelligence
analysts and intelligence consumers, and modifying the types of analyti-
cal products.
Any of these measures may play an important role, but analysis is,
above all, a mental process. Traditionally, analysts at all levels devote little
attention to improving how they think. To penetrate the heart and soul
of the problem of improving analysis, it is necessary to better understand,
influence, and guide the mental processes of analysts themselves.

Checklist for Analysts

This checklist for analysts summarizes guidelines for maneuvering
through the minefields encountered while proceeding through the ana-
lytical process. Following the guidelines will help analysts protect them-
selves from avoidable error and improve their chances of making the
right calls. The discussion is organized around six key steps in the ana-
lytical process: defining the problem, generating hypotheses, collecting
information, evaluating hypotheses, selecting the most likely hypothesis,
and the ongoing monitoring of new information.

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Defining the Problem
Start out by making certain you are asking—or being asked—the
right questions. Do not hesitate to go back up the chain of command
with a suggestion for doing something a little different from what was
asked for. The policymaker who originated the requirement may not have
thought through his or her needs, or the requirement may be somewhat
garbled as it passes down through several echelons of management. You
may have a better understanding than the policymaker of what he or she
needs, or should have, or what is possible to do. At the outset, also be
sure your supervisor is aware of any tradeoff between quality of analysis
and what you can accomplish within a specified time deadline.

Generating Hypotheses
Identify all the plausible hypotheses that need to be considered.
Make a list of as many ideas as possible by consulting colleagues and
outside experts. Do this in a brainstorming mode, suspending judgment
for as long as possible until all the ideas are out on the table.
Then whittle the list down to a workable number of hypotheses
for more detailed analysis. Frequently, one of these will be a deception
hypothesis—that another country or group is engaging in denial and
deception to influence US perceptions or actions.
At this stage, do not screen out reasonable hypotheses only because
there is no evidence to support them. This applies in particular to the
deception hypothesis. If another country is concealing its intent through
denial and deception, you should probably not expect to see evidence of
it without completing a very careful analysis of this possibility. The de-
ception hypothesis and other plausible hypotheses for which there may
be no immediate evidence should be carried forward to the next stage
of analysis until they can be carefully considered and, if appropriate, re-
jected with good cause.

Collecting Information
Relying only on information that is automatically delivered to you
will probably not solve all your analytical problems. To do the job right,
it will probably be necessary to look elsewhere and dig for more infor-
mation. Contact with the collectors, other Directorate of Operations
personnel, or first-cut analysts often yields additional information. Also
check academic specialists, foreign newspapers, and specialized journals.

174
 Collect information to evaluate all the reasonable hypotheses, not
just the one that seems most likely. Exploring alternative hypotheses that
have not been seriously considered before often leads an analyst into un-
expected and unfamiliar territory. For example, evaluating the possibility
of deception requires evaluating another country’s or group’s motives,
opportunities, and means for denial and deception. This, in turn, may
require understanding the strengths and weaknesses of US human and
technical collection capabilities.
It is important to suspend judgment while information is being as-
sembled on each of the hypotheses. It is easy to form impressions about
a hypothesis on the basis of very little information, but hard to change
an impression once it has taken root. If you find yourself thinking you
already know the answer, ask yourself what would cause you to change
your mind; then look for that information.
Try to develop alternative hypotheses in order to determine if some
alternative—when given a fair chance—might not be as compelling as
your own preconceived view. Systematic development of an alternative
hypothesis usually increases the perceived likelihood of that hypothesis.
“A willingness to play with material from different angles and in the con-
text of unpopular as well as popular hypotheses is an essential ingredient
of a good detective, whether the end is the solution of a crime or an intel-
ligence estimate.”155

Evaluating Hypotheses
Do not be misled by the fact that so much evidence supports your
preconceived idea of which is the most likely hypothesis. That same evi-
dence may be consistent with several different hypotheses. Focus on de-
veloping arguments against each hypothesis rather than trying to confirm
hypotheses. In other words, pay particular attention to evidence or as-
sumptions that suggest one or more hypotheses are less likely than the
others.
Recognize that your conclusions may be driven by assumptions that
determine how you interpret the evidence rather than by the evidence
itself. Especially critical are assumptions about what is in another coun-
try’s national interest and how things are usually done in that country.
Assumptions are fine as long as they are made explicit in your analysis

155. Roberta Wohlstetter, Pearl Harbor: Warning and Decision (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1962), p. 302.

175
and you analyze the sensitivity of your conclusions to those assumptions.
Ask yourself, would different assumptions lead to a different interpreta-
tion of the evidence and different conclusions?
Consider using the matrix format discussed in Chapter 8, “Analysis
of Competing Hypotheses,” to keep track of the evidence and how it
relates to the various hypotheses.
Guard against the various cognitive biases. Especially dangerous are
those biases that occur when you lack sufficient understanding of how a
situation appears from another country’s point of view. Do not fill gaps
in your knowledge by assuming that the other side is likely to act in a
certain way because that is how the US Government would act, or other
Americans would act, under similar circumstances.
Recognize that the US perception of another country’s national in-
terest and decisionmaking processes often differs from how that country
perceives its own interests and how decisions are actually made in that
country. In 1989–90, for example, many analysts of Middle Eastern af-
fairs clearly assumed that Iraq would demobilize part of its armed forces
after the lengthy Iran-Iraq war so as to help rehabilitate the Iraqi econo-
my. They also believed Baghdad would see that attacking a neighboring
Arab country would not be in Iraq’s best interest. We now know they
were wrong.
When making a judgment about what another country is likely to
do, invest whatever time and effort are needed to consult with whichever
experts have the best understanding of what that country’s government is
actually thinking and how the decision is likely to be made.
Do not assume that every foreign government action is based on a
rational decision in pursuit of identified goals. Recognize that govern-
ment actions are sometimes best explained as a product of bargaining
among semi-independent bureaucratic entities, following standard oper-
ating procedures under inappropriate circumstances, unintended conse-
quences, failure to follow orders, confusion, accident, or coincidence.

Selecting the Most Likely Hypothesis

Proceed by trying to reject hypotheses rather than confirm them.
The most likely hypothesis is usually the one with the least evidence
against it, not the one with the most evidence for it.
In presenting your conclusions, note all the reasonable hypotheses
that were considered. Cite the arguments and evidence supporting your

176
judgment, but also justify briefly why other alternatives were rejected or
considered less likely. To avoid ambiguity, insert an odds ratio or prob-
ability range in parentheses after expressions of uncertainty in key judg-
ments.

Ongoing Monitoring
In a rapidly changing, probabilistic world, analytical conclusions are
always tentative. The situation may change, or it may remain unchanged
while you receive new information that alters your understanding of it.
Specify things to look for that, if observed, would suggest a significant
change in the probabilities.
Pay particular attention to any feeling of surprise when new infor-
mation does not fit your prior understanding. Consider whether this
surprising information is consistent with an alternative hypothesis. A
surprise or two, however small, may be the first clue that your under-
standing of what is happening requires some adjustment, is at best in-
complete, or may be quite wrong.

Management of Analysis
The cognitive problems described in this book have implications
for the management as well as the conduct of intelligence analysis. This
concluding section looks at what managers of intelligence analysis can
do to help create an organizational environment in which analytical ex-
cellence flourishes. These measures fall into four general categories: re-
search, training, exposure to alternative mind-sets, and guiding analytical
products.

Support for Research

Management should support research to gain a better understand-
ing of the cognitive processes involved in making intelligence judgments.
There is a need for better understanding of the thinking skills involved in
intelligence analysis, how to test job applicants for these skills, and how
to train analysts to improve these skills. Analysts also need a fuller under-
standing of how cognitive limitations affect intelligence analysis and how
to minimize their impact. They need simple tools and techniques to help
protect themselves from avoidable error. There is so much research to be
done that it is difficult to know where to start.

177
 Scholars selected for tours of duty in the Intelligence Community
should include cognitive psychologists or other scholars of various back-
grounds who are interested in studying the thinking processes of intel-
ligence analysts. There should also be post-doctoral fellowships for prom-
ising scholars who could be encouraged to make a career of research in
this field. Over time, this would contribute to building a better base of
knowledge about how analysts do and/or should make analytical judg-
ments and what tools or techniques can help them.
Management should also support research on the mind-sets and im-
plicit mental models of intelligence analysts. Because these mind-sets or
models serve as a “screen” or “lens” through which analysts perceive for-
eign developments, research to determine the nature of this “lens” may
contribute as much to accurate judgments as does research focused more
directly on the foreign areas themselves.156

Training
Most training of intelligence analysts is focused on organizational
procedures, writing style, and methodological techniques. Analysts who
write clearly are assumed to be thinking clearly. Yet it is quite possible to
follow a faulty analytical process and write a clear and persuasive argu-
ment in support of an erroneous judgment.
More training time should be devoted to the thinking and reason-
ing processes involved in making intelligence judgments, and to the tools
of the trade that are available to alleviate or compensate for the known
cognitive problems encountered in analysis. This book is intended to
support such training.
Training will be more effective if supplemented with ongoing ad-
vice and assistance. An experienced coach who can monitor and guide
ongoing performance is a valuable supplement to classroom instruction

156. Graham Allison’s work on the Cuban missile crisis (Essence of Decision, Little, Brown &
Co., 1971) is an example of what I have in mind. Allison identified three alternative assump-
tions about how governments work--the rational actor model, organizational process model,
and bureaucratic politics model. He then showed how an analystÍs implicit assumptions about
the most appropriate model for analyzing a foreign government’s behavior cause him or her
to focus on different evidence and arrive at different conclusions. Another example is my own
analysis of five alternative paths for making counterintelligence judgments in the contro-
versial case of KGB defector Yuriy Nosenko. Richards J. Heuer, Jr., “Nosenko: Five Paths to
Judgment,” Studies in Intelligence, Vol. 31, No. 3 (Fall 1987), originally classified Secret but de-
classified and published in H. Bradford Westerfield, ed., Inside CIA’s Private World: Declassified
Articles from the Agency Internal Journal 1955-1992 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995).

178
in many fields, probably including intelligence analysis. This is supposed
to be the job of the branch chief or senior analyst, but these officers are
often too busy responding to other pressing demands on their time.
It would be worthwhile to consider how an analytical coaching staff
might be formed to mentor new analysts or consult with analysts working
particularly difficult issues. One possible model is the SCORE organiza-
tion that exists in many communities. SCORE stands for Senior Corps
of Retired Executives. It is a national organization of retired executives
who volunteer their time to counsel young entrepreneurs starting their
own businesses. It should be possible to form a small group of retired
analysts who possess the skills and values that should be imparted to new
analysts, and who would be willing to volunteer (or be hired) to come in
several days a week to counsel junior analysts.
New analysts could be required to read a specified set of books or ar-
ticles relating to analysis, and to attend a half-day meeting once a month
to discuss the reading and other experiences related to their development
as analysts. A comparable voluntary program could be conducted for ex-
perienced analysts. This would help make analysts more conscious of the
procedures they use in doing analysis. In addition to their educational
value, the required readings and discussion would give analysts a com-
mon experience and vocabulary for communicating with each other, and
with management, about the problems of doing analysis.
My suggestions for writings that would qualify for a mandatory
reading program include: Robert Jervis’ Perception and Misperception in
International Politics (Princeton University Press, 1977); Graham Allison’s
Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis (Little, Brown,
1971); Ernest May’s “Lessons” of the Past: The Use and Misuse of History
in American Foreign Policy (Oxford University Press, 1973); Ephraim
Kam’s, Surprise Attack (Harvard University Press, 1988); Richard Betts’
“Analysis, War and Decision: Why Intelligence Failures Are Inevitable,”
World Politics, Vol. 31, No. 1 (October 1978); Thomas Kuhn’s The
Structure of Scientific Revolutions (University of Chicago Press, 1970); and
Robin Hogarth’s Judgement and Choice (John Wiley, 1980). Although
these were all written many years ago, they are classics of permanent
value. Current analysts will doubtless have other works to recommend.
CIA and Intelligence Community postmortem analyses of intelligence
failure should also be part of the reading program.

179
 To facilitate institutional memory and learning, thorough postmor-
tem analyses should be conducted on all significant intelligence failures.
Analytical (as distinct from collection) successes should also be studied.
These analyses should be collated and maintained in a central location,
available for review to identify the common characteristics of analytical
failure and success. A meta-analysis of the causes and consequences of
analytical success and failure should be widely distributed and used in
training programs to heighten awareness of analytical problems.
To encourage learning from experience, even in the absence of a
high-profile failure, management should require more frequent and sys-
tematic retrospective evaluation of analytical performance. One ought
not generalize from any single instance of a correct or incorrect judg-
ment, but a series of related judgments that are, or are not, borne out by
subsequent events can reveal the accuracy or inaccuracy of the analyst’s
mental model. Obtaining systematic feedback on the accuracy of past
judgments is frequently difficult or impossible, especially in the political
intelligence field. Political judgments are normally couched in imprecise
terms and are generally conditional upon other developments. Even in
retrospect, there are no objective criteria for evaluating the accuracy of
most political intelligence judgments as they are presently written.
In the economic and military fields, however, where estimates are
frequently concerned with numerical quantities, systematic feedback
on analytical performance is feasible. Retrospective evaluation should
be standard procedure in those fields in which estimates are routinely
updated at periodic intervals. The goal of learning from retrospective
evaluation is achieved, however, only if it is accomplished as part of an
objective search for improved understanding, not to identify scapegoats
or assess blame. This requirement suggests that retrospective evaluation
should be done routinely within the organizational unit that prepared
the report, even at the cost of some loss of objectivity.

Exposure to Alternative Mind-Sets

The realities of bureaucratic life produce strong pressures for confor-
mity. Management needs to make conscious efforts to ensure that well-
reasoned competing views have the opportunity to surface within the
Intelligence Community. Analysts need to enjoy a sense of security, so
that partially developed new ideas may be expressed and bounced off

180
others as sounding boards with minimal fear of criticism for deviating
from established orthodoxy.
Much of this book has dealt with ways of helping analysts remain
more open to alternative views. Management can help by promoting
the kinds of activities that confront analysts with alternative perspec-
tives—consultation with outside experts, analytical debates, competitive
analysis, devil’s advocates, gaming, and interdisciplinary brainstorming.
Consultation with outside experts is especially important as a means
of avoiding what Adm. David Jeremiah called the “everybody-thinks-
like-us mindset” when making significant judgments that depend upon
knowledge of a foreign culture. Intelligence analysts have often spent less
time living in and absorbing the culture of the countries they are working
on than outside experts on those countries. If analysts fail to understand
the foreign culture, they will not see issues as the foreign government sees
them. Instead, they may be inclined to mirror-image—that is, to assume
that the other country’s leaders think like we do. The analyst assumes that
the other country will do what we would do if we were in their shoes.
Mirror-imaging is a common source of analytical error, and one
that reportedly played a role in the Intelligence Community failure to
warn of imminent Indian nuclear weapons testing in 1998. After lead-
ing a US Government team that analyzed this episode, Adm. Jeremiah
recommended more systematic use of outside expertise whenever there
is a major transition that may lead to policy changes, such as the Hindu
nationalists’ 1998 election victory and ascension to power in India.157
Pre-publication review of analytical reports offers another opportu-
nity to bring alternative perspectives to bear on an issue. Review proce-
dures should explicitly question the mental model employed by the ana-
lyst in searching for and examining evidence. What assumptions has the
analyst made that are not discussed in the draft itself, but that underlie
the principal judgments? What alternative hypotheses have been consid-
ered but rejected, and for what reason? What could cause the analyst to
change his or her mind?
Ideally, the review process should include analysts from other ar-
eas who are not specialists in the subject matter of the report. Analysts
within the same branch or division often share a similar mind-set. Past
experience with review by analysts from other divisions or offices indi-

157. Transcript of Adm. David Jeremiah’s news conference at CIA, 2 June 1998.

181
cates that critical thinkers whose expertise is in other areas make a signifi-
cant contribution. They often see things or ask questions that the author
has not seen or asked. Because they are not so absorbed in the substance,
they are better able to identify the assumptions and assess the argumenta-
tion, internal consistency, logic, and relationship of the evidence to the
conclusion. The reviewers also profit from the experience by learning
standards for good analysis that are independent of the subject matter of
the analysis.

Guiding Analytical Products

On key issues, management should reject most single-outcome
analysis—that is, the single-minded focus on what the analyst believes
is probably happening or most likely will happen. When we cannot af-
ford to get it wrong, or when deception is a serious possibility, manage-
ment should consider mandating a systematic analytical process such as
the one described in Chapter 8, “Analysis of Competing Hypotheses.”
Analysts should be required to identify alternatives that were considered,
justify why the alternatives are deemed less likely, and clearly express the
degree of likelihood that events may not turn out as expected.
Even if the analyst firmly believes the odds are, say, three-to-one
against something happening, that leaves a 25-percent chance that it will
occur. Making this explicit helps to better define the problem for the
policymaker. Does that 25-percent chance merit some form of contin-
gency planning?
If the less likely hypothesis happens to be, for example, that a new
Indian Government will actually follow through on its election cam-
paign promise to conduct nuclear weapons testing, as recently occurred,
even a 25-percent chance might be sufficient to put technical collection
systems on increased alert.
Verbal expressions of uncertainty—such as possible, probable, un-
likely, may, and could—have long been recognized as sources of ambi-
guity and misunderstanding. By themselves, most verbal expressions of
uncertainty are empty shells. The reader or listener fills them with mean-
ing through the context in which they are used and what is already in the
reader’s or listener’s mind about that subject. An intelligence consumer’s
interpretation of imprecise probability judgments will always be biased
in favor of consistency with what the reader already believes. That means
the intelligence reports will be undervalued and have little impact on the

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consumer’s judgment. This ambiguity can be especially troubling when
dealing with low-probability, high-impact dangers against which policy-
makers may wish to make contingency plans.
Managers of intelligence analysis need to convey to analysts that it is
okay to be uncertain, as long as they clearly inform readers of the degree
of uncertainty, sources of uncertainty, and what milestones to watch for
that might clarify the situation. Inserting odds ratios or numerical prob-
ability ranges in parentheses to clarify key points of an analysis should be
standard practice.
The likelihood of future surprises can be reduced if management
assigns more resources to monitoring and analyzing seemingly low-prob-
ability events that will have a significant impact on US policy if they do
occur. Analysts are often reluctant, on their own initiative, to devote time
to studying things they do not believe will happen. This usually does not
further an analyst’s career, although it can ruin a career when the unex-
pected does happen. Given the day-to-day pressures of current events, it
is necessary for managers and analysts to clearly identify which unlikely
but high-impact events need to be analyzed and to allocate the resources
to cover them.
One guideline for identifying unlikely events that merit the specific
allocation of resources is to ask the following question: Are the chances
of this happening, however small, sufficient that if policymakers fully
understood the risks, they might want to make contingency plans or
take some form of preventive or preemptive action? If the answer is yes,
resources should be committed to analyze even what appears to be an
unlikely outcome.
Managers of intelligence should support analyses that periodically
re-examine key problems from the ground up in order to avoid the pit-
falls of the incremental approach. Receipt of information in small incre-
ments over time facilitates assimilation of this information to the analyst’s
existing views. No one item of information may be sufficient to prompt
the analyst to change a previous view. The cumulative message inherent
in many pieces of information may be significant but is attenuated when
this information is not examined as a whole.
Finally, management should educate consumers concerning the
limitations as well as the capabilities of intelligence analysis and should
define a set of realistic expectations as a standard against which to judge
analytical performance.

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The Bottom Line
Analysis can be improved! None of the measures discussed in this
book will guarantee that accurate conclusions will be drawn from the in-
complete and ambiguous information that intelligence analysts typically
work with. Occasional intelligence failures must be expected. Collectively,
however, the measures discussed here can certainly improve the odds in
the analysts’ favor.

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