BIOLOGY

HUMAN EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

SUBMITTED BY,
PANBARASI.S
XII-A

Table of content
INTRODUCTION
Human embryonic development, or human embryogenesis,
refers to the development and formation of the human embryo.
It is characterised by the processes of cell division and cellular
differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages
of development. In biological terms, the development of the
human body entails growth from a one-celled zygote to an
adult human being. Fertilisation occurs when the sperm
cell successfully enters and fuses with an egg cell (ovum). The
genetic material of the sperm and egg then combine to form a
single cell called a zygote and the germinal stage of
development commences. Embryonic development in the
human, covers the first eight weeks of development; at the
beginning of the ninth week the embryo is termed
a feotus. Human embryology is the study of this development
during the first eight weeks after fertilisation. The normal period
of gestation (pregnancy) is about nine months or 40 weeks
The germinal stage refers to the time from fertilization through
the development of the early embryo until implantation is
completed in the uterus. The germinal stage takes around 10
days. During this stage, the zygote begins to divide, in a
process called cleavage. A blastocyst is then formed and
implanted in the uterus. Embryogenesis continues with the next
stage of gastrulation, when the three germ layers of the embryo
form in a process called histogenesis, and the processes
of neurulation and organogenesis follow.
In comparison to the embryo, the feotus has more recognizable
external features and a more complete set of developing
organs. The entire process of embryogenesis involves
coordinated spatial and temporal changes in gene
expression, cell growth and cellular differentiation. A nearly
identical process occurs in other species, especially
among chordates.

GERMINAL STAGE :-
 FERTILIZATION

Fertilization takes place when the spermatozoon has

successfully entered the ovum and the two sets of genetic
material carried by the gametes fuse together, resulting in the
zygote (a single diploid cell). This usually takes place in the
ampulla of one of the fallopian tubes. The zygote contains the
combined genetic material carried by both the male and female
gametes which consists of the 23 chromosomes from the
nucleus of the ovum and the 23 chromosomes from the nucleus
of the sperm. The 46 chromosomes undergo changes prior to
the mitotic division which leads to the formation of the embryo
having two cells.
Successful fertilization is enabled by three processes, which
also act as controls to ensure species-specificity. The first is
that of chemotaxis which directs the movement of the sperm
towards the ovum. Secondly there is an adhesive compatibility
between the sperm and the egg. With the sperm adhered to the
ovum, the third process of acrosomal reaction takes place; the
front part of the spermatozoan head is capped by
an acrosome which contains digestive enzymes to break down
the zona pellucida and allow its entry. The entry of the sperm
causes calcium to be released which blocks entry to other
sperm cells. A parallel reaction takes place in the ovum called
the zona reaction. This sees the release of cortical
granules that release enzymes which digest sperm receptor
proteins, thus preventing polyspermy. The granules also fuse
with the plasma membrane and modify the zona pellucida in
such a way as to prevent further sperm entry.
 CLEAVAGE

The beginning of the cleavage process is marked when the

zygote divides through mitosis into two cells. This mitosis
continues and the first two cells divide into four cells, then into
eight cells and so on. Each division takes from 12 to 24 hours.
The zygote is large compared to any other cell and undergoes
cleavage without any overall increase in size. This means that
with each successive subdivision, the ratio of nuclear to
cytoplasmic material increases. Initially the dividing cells,
called blastomeres  are undifferentiated and aggregated into a
sphere enclosed within the membrane of glycoproteins (termed
the zona pellucida) of the ovum. When eight blastomeres have
formed they begin to develop gap junctions, enabling them to
develop in an integrated way and co-ordinate their response to
physiological signals and environmental cues..When the cells
number around sixteen the solid sphere of cells within the zona
pellucida is referred to as a morula.At this stage the cells start
to bind firmly together in a process called compaction, and
cleavage continues as cellular differentiation.

BLASTOCYST

Cleavage itself is the first stage in blastulation, the process of

forming the blastocyst. Cells differentiate into an outer layer of
cells ( the trophoblast) and an inner cell mass. With further
compaction the individual outer blastomeres, the trophoblasts,
become indistinguishable. They are still enclosed within
the zona pellucida. This compaction serves to make the
structure watertight, containing the fluid that the cells will later
secrete. The inner mass of cells differentiate to
become embryoblasts and polarise at one end. They close
together and form gap junctions, which facilitate cellular
communication. This polarisation leaves a cavity,
the blastocoel, creating a structure that is now termed the
blastocyst. The trophoblasts secrete fluid into the blastocoel.
The resulting increase in size of the blastocyst causes it
to hatch through the zona pellucida, which then disintegrates.
The inner cell mass will give rise to the pre-embryo,
the amnion, yolk sac and allantois, while the feotal part of
the placenta will form from the outer trophoblast layer. The
embryo plus its membranes is called the conceptus, and by this
stage the conceptus has reached the uterus. The zona
pellucida ultimately disappears completely, and the now
exposed cells of the trophoblast allow the blastocyst to attach
itself to the endometrium, where it will implant. The formation of
the hypoblast and epiblast, which are the two main layers of the
bilaminar germ disc, occurs at the beginning of the second
week] Either the embryoblast or the trophoblast will turn into
two sub-layers. The inner cells will turn into the hypoblast layer,
which will surround the other layer, called the epiblast, and
these layers will form the embryonic disc that will develop into
the embryo. The trophoblast will also develop two sub-layers:
the cytotrophoblast, which is in front of the syncytiotrophoblast,
which in turn lies within the endometrium. Next, another layer
called the haeusers membrane will appear and surround the
cytotrophoblast, as well as the primitive yolk sac. The
syncytiotrophoblast will grow and will enter a phase called
lacunar stage, in which some vacuoles will appear and be filled
by blood in the following days. The development of the yolk sac
starts with the hypoblastic flat cells that form the exocoelomic
membrane, which will coat the inner part of the cytotrophoblast
to form the primitive yolk sac. An erosion of the endothelial
lining of the maternal capillaries by the syncytiotrophoblastic
cells of the sinusoids will form where the blood will begin to
penetrate and flow through the trophoblast to give rise to the
uteroplacental circulation. Subsequently new cells derived from
yolk sac will be established between trophoblast and
exocelomic membrane and will give rise to extra-
embryonic mesoderm, which will form the chorionic cavity. At
the end of the second week of development, some cells of the
trophoblast penetrate and form rounded columns into the
syncytiotrophoblast. These columns are known as primary villi.
At the same time, other migrating cells form into the exocelomic
cavity a new cavity named the secondary or definitive yolk sac,
smaller than the primitive yolk sac.
 IMPLANTATION

After ovulation, the endometrial lining becomes transformed

into a secretory lining in preparation of accepting the embryo. It
becomes thickened, with its secretory glands becoming
elongated, and is increasingly vascular. This lining of the
uterine cavity is now known as the decidua, and it produces a
great number of large decidual cells in its increased
interglandular tissue. The blastomeres in the blastocyst are
arranged into an outer layer called the trophoblast. The
trophoblast then differentiates into an inner layer,
the cytotrophoblast, and an outer layer, the syncytiotrophoblast.
The cytotrophoblast contains cuboidal epithelial cells and is the
source of dividing cells, and the syncytiotrophoblast is
a syncytial layer without cell boundaries.The
syncytiotrophoblast implants the blastocyst in the
decidual epithelium by projections of chorionic villi, forming the
embryonic part of the placenta. The placenta develops once the
blastocyst is implanted, connecting the embryo to the uterine
wall. The decidua here is termed the decidua basalis; it lies
between the blastocyst and the myometrium and forms the
maternal part of the placenta. The implantation is assisted
by hydrolytic enzymes that erode the epithelium.
The syncytiotrophoblast also produces human chorionic
gonadotropin, a hormone that stimulates the release
of progesterone from the corpus luteum. Progesterone enriches
the uterus with a thick lining of blood vessels and capillaries so
that it can oxygenate and sustain the developing embryo. The
uterus liberates sugar from stored glycogen from its cells to
nourish the embryo.]The villi begin to branch and contain blood
vessels of the embryo. Other villi, called terminal or free villi,
exchange nutrients. The embryo is joined to the trophoblastic
shell by a narrow connecting stalk that develops into the
umbilical cord to attach the placenta to the embryo. Arteries in
the decidua are remodelled to increase the maternal blood flow
into the intervillous spaces of the placenta, allowing gas
exchange and the transfer of nutrients to the embryo. Waste
products from the embryo will diffuse across the placenta.
As the syncytiotrophoblast starts to penetrate the uterine wall,
the inner cell mass (embryoblast) also develops. The inner cell
mass is the source of embryonic stem cells, which
are pluripotent and can develop into any one of the three germ
layer cells, and which have the potency to give rise to all the
tissues and organs.

EMBRYONIC DISC
The embryoblast forms an embryonic disc, which is a bilaminar
disc of two layers, an upper layer calledthe epiblast  and a
lower layer called the hypoblast  The disc is stretched between
what will become the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac. The
epiblast is adjacent to the trophoblast and made of columnar
cells; the hypoblast is closest to the blastocyst cavity and made
of cuboidal cells. The epiblast migrates away from the
trophoblast downwards, forming the amniotic cavity, the lining
of which is formed from amnioblasts developed from the
epiblast. The hypoblast is pushed down and forms the yolk sac
(exocoelomic cavity) lining. Some hypoblast cells migrate along
the inner cytotrophoblast lining of the blastocoel, secreting
an extracellular matrix along the way. These hypoblast cells
and extracellular matrix are called Heuser's membrane and
they cover the blastocoel to form the yolk sac Cells of the
hypoblast migrate along the outer edges of this reticulum and
form the extraembryonic mesoderm; this disrupts the
extraembryonic reticulum. Soon pockets form in the reticulum,
which ultimately coalesce to form the chorionic
cavity (extraembryonic coelom).
 GASTRULATION

The primitive streak, a linear band of cells formed by the

migrating epiblast, appears, and this marks the beginning
of gastrulation, which takes place around the seventeenth day
(week 3) after fertilisation. The process of gastrulation
reorganises the two-layer embryo into a three-layer embryo,
and also gives the embryo its specific head-to-tail, and front-to-
back orientation, by way of the primitive streak which
establishes bilateral symmetry. A primitive node (or primitive
knot) forms in front of the primitive streak which is the organiser
of neurulation. A primitive pit forms as a depression in the
centre of the primitive node which connects to
the notochord which lies directly underneath. The node has
arisen from epiblasts of the amniotic cavity floor, and it is this
node that induces the formation of the neural plate which
serves as the basis for the nervous system. The neural plate
will form opposite the primitive streak from ectodermal tissue
which thickens and flattens into the neural plate. The epiblast in
that region moves down into the streak at the location of the
primitive pit where the process called ingression, which leads to
the formation of the mesoderm takes place. This ingression
sees the cells from the epiblast move into the primitive streak in
an epithelial-mesenchymal transition; epithelial cells become
mesenchymal stem cells, multipotent stromal cells that
can differentiate into various cell types. The hypoblast is
pushed out of the way and goes on to form the amnion. The
epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the
mesoderm. The epiblast has now differentiated into the
three germ layers of the embryo, so that the bilaminar disc is
now a trilaminar disc, the gastrula.
The three germ layers are
the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm, and are formed as
three overlapping flat discs. It is from these three layers that all
the structures and organs of the body will be derived through
the processes
of somitogenesis, histogenesis and organogenesis The
embryonic endoderm is formed by invagination of epiblastic
cells that migrate to the hypoblast, while the mesoderm is
formed by the cells that develop between the epiblast and
endoderm. In general, all germ layers will derive from the
epiblast. The upper layer of ectoderm will give rise to the
outermost layer of skin, central and peripheral nervous
systems, eyes, inner ear, and many connective tissues.[16] The
middle layer of mesoderm will give rise to the heart and the
beginning of the circulatory system as well as
the bones, muscles and kidneys. The inner layer of endoderm
will serve as the starting point for the development of
the lungs, intestine, thyroid, pancreas and bladder.
Following ingression, a blastopore develops where the cells
have ingressed, in one side of the embryo and it deepens to
become the archenteron, the first formative stage of the gut. As
in all deuterostomes, the blastopore becomes the anus whilst
the gut tunnels through the embryo to the other side where the
opening becomes the mouth. With a functioning digestive tube,
gastrulation is now completed and the next stage
of neurulation can begin.
 NEURLATION

Following gastrulation, the ectoderm gives rise to epithelial

and neural tissue, and the gastrula is now referred to as
the neurula. The neural plate that has formed as a thickened
plate from the ectoderm, continues to broaden and its ends
start to fold upwards as neural folds. Neurulation refers to this
folding process whereby the neural plate is transformed into
the neural tube, and this takes place during the fourth week.
They fold, along a shallow neural groove which has formed as
a dividing median line in the neural plate. This deepens as the
folds continue to gain height, when they will meet and close
together at the neural crest. The cells that migrate through the
most cranial part of the primitive line form the paraxial
mesoderm, which will give rise to the somitomeres that in the
process of somitogenesis will differentiate into somites that will
form the sclerotomes, the syndetomes,[17] the myotomes and
the dermatomes toform cartilage and bone, tendons, dermis (sk
in), and muscle. The intermediate mesoderm gives rise to
the urogenital tract and consists of cells that migrate from the
middle region of the primitive line. Other cells migrate through
the caudal part of the primitive line and form the lateral
mesoderm, and those cells migrating by the most caudal part
contribute to the extraembryonic mesoderm. The embryonic
disc begins flat and round, but eventually elongates to have a
wider cephalic part and narrow-shaped caudal end. At the
beginning, the primitive line extends in cephalic direction and
18 days after fertilization returns caudally until it disappears. In
the cephalic portion, the germ layer shows specific
differentiation at the beginning of the 4th week, while in the
caudal portion it occurs at the end of the 4th week. Cranial and
caudal neuropores become progressively smaller until they
close completely (by day 26) forming the neural tube.
 DEVELOPMENT OF ORGAN
SYSTEMS
Organogenesis is the development of the organs that begins
during the third to eighth week, and continues until birth.
Sometimes full development, as in the lungs, continues after
birth. Different organs take part in the development of the
many organ systems of the body.

BLOOD
Haematopoietic stem cells that give rise to all the blood
cells develop from the mesoderm. The development of blood
formation takes place in clusters of blood cells, known as blood
islands, in the yolk sac. Blood islands develop outside the
embryo, on the umbilical vesicle, allantois, connecting stalk,
and chorion, from mesodermal hemangioblasts.
In the centre of a blood island, hemangioblasts form the
haematopoietic stem cells that are the precursor to all types of
blood cell. In the periphery of a blood island the
hemangioblasts differentiate into angioblasts the precursors to
the blood vessels.
HEART AND CIRCULATION SYSTEM
The heart is the first functional organ to develop and starts to
beat and pump blood at around
22days. Cardiac myoblasts and blood islands in
the splanchnopleuric mesenchyme on each side of the neural
plate, give rise to the cardiogenic region. This is a horseshoe-
shaped area near to the head of the embryo. By day 19,
following cell signalling, two strands begin to form as tubes in
this region, as a lumen develops within them. These
two endocardial tubes grow and by day 21 have migrated
towards each other and fused to form a single primitive heart
tube, the tubular heart. This is enabled by the folding of the
embryo which pushes the tubes into the thoracic cavity.
Also at the same time that the endocardial tubes are
forming, vasculogenesis (the development of the circulatory
system) has begun. This starts on day 18 with cells in the
splanchnopleuric mesoderm differentiating into angioblasts that
develop into flattened endothelial cells. These join to form small
vesicles called angiocysts which join up to form long vessels
called angioblastic cords. These cords develop into a pervasive
network of plexuses in the formation of the vascular network.
This network grows by the additional budding and sprouting of
new vessels in the process of angiogenesis.[21] Following
vasculogenesis and the development of an early vasculature, a
stage of vascular remodelling takes place.The tubular heart
quickly forms five distinct regions. From head to tail, these are
the infundibulum, bulbus cordis, primitive ventricle, primitive
atrium, and the sinus venosus. Initially, all venous blood flows
into the sinus venosus, and is propelled from tail to head to
the truncus arteriosus. This will divide to form
the aorta and pulmonary artery; the bulbus cordis will develop
into the right (primitive) ventricle; the primitive ventricle will form
the left ventricle; the primitive atrium will become the front parts
of the left and right atria and their appendages, and the sinus
venosus will develop into the posterior part of the right atrium,
the sinoatrial node and the coronary sinus. Cardiac looping
begins to shape the heart as one of the processes
of morphogenesis, and this completes by the end of the fourth
week. Programmed cell death (apoptosis) at the joining
surfaces enables fusion to take place.]In the middle of the
fourth week, the sinus venosus receives blood from the three
major veins: the vitelline, the umbilical and the common
cardinal veins.During the first two months of development,
the interatrial septum begins to form. This septum divides
the primitive atrium into a right and a left atrium. Firstly it starts
as a crescent-shaped piece of tissue which grows downwards
as the septum primum. The crescent shape prevents the
complete closure of the atria allowing blood to be shunted from
the right to the left atrium through the opening known as
the ostium primum. This closes with further development of the
system but before it does, a second opening (the ostium
secundum) begins to form in the upper atrium enabling the
continued shunting of blood. A second septum (the septum
secundum) begins to form to the right of the septum primum.
This also leaves a small opening, the foramen ovale which is
continuous with the previous opening of the ostium secundum.
The septum primum is reduced to a small flap that acts as the
valve of the foramen ovale and this remains until its closure at
birth. Between the ventricles the septum inferius also forms
which develops into the muscular interventricular septum.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system starts to develop from the third week and
by the twelfth week, the organs have correctly positioned
themselves.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system develops from the lung bud, which
appears in the ventral wall of the foregut about four weeks into
development. The lung bud forms the trachea and two lateral
growths known as the bronchial buds, which enlarge at the
beginning of the fifth week to form the left and right
main bronchi. These bronchi in turn form secondary (lobar)
bronchi; three on the right and two on the left (reflecting the
number of lung lobes). Tertiary bronchi form from secondary
bronchi. While the internal lining of the larynx originates from
the lung bud, its cartilages and muscles originate from the
fourth and sixth pharyngeal arches.
KIDNEY
Three different kidney systems form in the developing embryo:
the pronephros, the mesonephros and the metanephros. Only
the metanephros develops into the permanent kidney. All three
are derived from the intermediate mesoderm.
INTEGUMENTRY SYSTEM
The superficial layer of the skin, the epidermis, is derived from
the ectoderm. The deeper layer, the dermis, is derived
from mesenchyme.
The formation of the epidermis begins in the second month of
development and it acquires its definitive arrangement at the
end of the fourth month. The ectoderm divides to form a flat
layer of cells on the surface known as the periderm. Further
division forms the individual layers of the epidermis.
The mesenchyme that will form the dermis is derived from three
sources:

# mesenchyme that forms the dermis in the limbs and body wall
derives from the lateral plate mesoderm

# The mesenchyme that forms the dermis in the back derives

from paraxial mesoderm

# The mesenchyme that forms the dermis in the face and neck
derives from neural crest cells

NERVOUS SYSTEM

Late in the fourth week, the superior part of the neural tube
bends ventrally as the cephalic flexure at the level of the
future midbrain—the mesencephalon. Above the
mesencephalon is the prosencephalon (future forebrain) and
beneath it is the rhombencephalon (future hindbrain).
Cranial neural crest cells migrate to the pharyngeal
arches as neural stem cells, where they develop in the process
of neurogenesis into neurons.
The optical vesicle (which eventually becomes the optic
nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the
prosencephalon. The alar plate of the prosencephalon expands
to form the cerebral hemispheres (the telencephalon) whilst
its basal plate becomes the diencephalon. Finally, the optic
vesicle grows to form an optic outgrowth.
 DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL
FEATURES

FACE AND NECK

From the third to the eighth week the face and neck develop.
EARS
The inner ear, middle ear and outer ear have distinct
embryological origins.
At about 22 days into development, the ectoderm on each side
of the rhombencephalon thickens to form otic placodes. These
placodes invaginate to form otic pits, and then otic vesicles.
The optic vesicles then form ventral and dorsal components.
The ventral component forms the saccule and the cochlear
duct. In the sixth week of development the cochlear duct
emerges and penetrates the surrounding mesenchyme,
travelling in a spiral shape until it forms 2.5 turns by the end of
the eighth week. The saccule is the remaining part of the
ventral component. It remains connected to the cochlear duct
via the narrow ductus reuniens.
The dorsal component forms the utricle and semicircular
canals.
The tympanic cavity and eustachian tube are derived from
the first pharyngeal pouch (a cavity lined by endoderm). The
distal part of the cleft, the tubotympanic recess, widens to
create the tympanic cavity. The proximal part of the cleft
remains narrow and creates the eustachian tube.
The external auditory meatus develops from the dorsal portion
of the first pharyngeal cleft. Six auricular hillocks, which are
mesenchymal proliferations at the dorsal aspects of the first
and second pharyngeal arches, form the auricle of the ear.
EYES
The eyes begin to develop from the third week to the tenth
week.
LIMBS
At the end of the fourth week limb development begins. Limb
buds appear on the ventrolateral aspect of the body. They
consist of an outer layer of ectoderm and an inner part
consisting of mesenchyme which is derived from the parietal
layer of lateral plate mesoderm. Ectodermal cells at the distal
end of the buds form the apical ectodermal ridge, which creates
an area of rapidly proliferating mesenchymal cells known as
the progress zone. Cartilage (some of which ultimately
becomes bone) and muscle develop from the mesenchyme.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

S.NO CONTEXT PG NO
1 introduction
Germinal stage
2 fertilization
3 cleavage
4 blastocyst
5 implantation
6 Embryonic disc
7 gastrulation
8 neurulation
9 Development of
organ systems
10 Development of
physical
features
11 bibliography