Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

Lesson 2: Methods of Philosophizing

In today’s society, we encounter a lot of information from various sources such as the media and our
interactions with friends, family, and members of the community. Most of the information we receive is helpful,
but some may mislead us or may even be utterly false. These kinds of information often have a negative impact
on our lives. For instance, many people have been misled by claims of "miracle drugs” which were eventually
proven to have no significant effects on health or may have harmful effects for some people. In addition,
“news” on the Internet and social media sites often relies on sensational headlines which often twist and distort
the truth. These often result in heated online debates and feuds. In some cases, innocent individuals become
targets of harassment because of false claims and testimonials issued online. Every day we are confronted with
news, claims and announcements from our peers, family members, figures of authority, the government, and
media. How do we know if they are telling the truth?

Philosophers often grapple with the concept of truth. Truth lies at the heart of any inquiry. Knowledge
must be truthful to gain validity and acceptance. However, the concept of truth remains a highly debated and
much discussed topic among philosophers. Philosophers consider truth as a kind of quality or value. For
example, when we answer a "True or False” test, we judge if the statements we read are true or false. This
means that statements may have truth or may not have truth. Statements about the world or reality are called
propositions and these propositions may or may not carry truth. Propositions are usually stated as short
statements or sentences.

What is truth and why is it important?

Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify knowledge, since it is through knowing that we are able to
determine what is true. Knowledge is the clear awareness and understanding of something, It is the product of
questions that allow for clear answers provided by facts. Our knowledge is comprised of ideas and beliefs that
we know to be true.

Let's explore your knowledge by completing the following statements:

I know that...

I know why...

I know how...
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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

These statements correspond to one important aspect of knowledge that it is based on reality. This
simply means that what we know is what is observable or evident in the real world. For example, we say that 'I
know that fish live in water' because fish do live in water. Propositions or statements which are observed to be
reel or truthful are considered facts.

There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to be true. For example, we
can say that 'l know that my school is the best school in the city. This statement, however, cannot be taken as
true since it is simply not immediately evident. This statement is a claim, and further examination is required to
establish whether it is true or false.Youmayknowwhyreadingisabetteracdvitythanplayingbasketball, but the
truth of your statement will be contested by other people.

Truthful statements, therefore, can be considered as based on facts. Science considers truth as
something observable and empirical. This means that any claim can be proven by verification and
experimentation. Philosophy has various views which can help us tackle the concepts of knowing the truth, and
arrive at a reasonable assessment if a statement, idea, or event is believable.

How do we know if something is true?

There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers emphasize the importance of belief as a basis for
determining truth. But what kind of belief is truthful? How do we know that what we believe is true?

Ancient Greek philosophers approached the problem of truth by looking at the nature of knowledge and
how we know what we know. We assume that everything We know about this World is true. But philosophers
who pondered upon the origins of knowledge doubted everything that there is to know about themselves and
the world. in doing so, they were able to better understand the means by which humans gain knowledge and
determine the truth about everything. It is said that there are instances when we have to unlearn something so
that we may learn anew. Philosophers questioned what they knew and even analyzed their methods of knowing
in order to understand themselves and the world much better.

Let’s embark on our own investigation on the nature of knowledge. Let's start by stating the very obvious
things we know about ourselves.

I am alive.

I have a body.
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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

I can breathe.

Do you believe that these statements apply to you?

"But of course!” you will say.

But remember, as philosophers, we do not assume that every statement is true. Doubt has a very
important purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to discover truth. In philosophy, systematic doubt is
employed to help determine truth. This means that every statement, claim, evidence, and experience is
scrutinized and analyzed. Nothing is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and evidence to prove that it
is indeed me. Let's assume, therefore, that the truthfulness of these statements have yet to be determined. .

Using doubt as our starting point, let’s revise the statements to make them easier to scrutinize and
analyze. Let’s rewrite the statements as questions so we can review and examine them further.

Am I alive?

Do I have a body?

Can I breathe?

Now, how will you figure out the answers to these questions? The obvious answer would be to examine
yourself to determine if indeed you are alive, that you have a body, and you can breathe. Do you have a pulse?
Can you feel your heartbeat? Do you have hands, arms, legs, feet, and a head? Try to take a deep breath, then
exhale. Were you able to do it? If you answered “yes" to all these questions, then you can conclude with
certainty that the previous statements about yourself are true. You can now say:

I am alive!

I have a body!

I can breathe!

This is one perspective on truth that a belief is true if it can be justified or proven through the use of one's
senses.

Now, let's tackle another statement and see how philosophy can help us determine if it is true.

I am a Filipino.

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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

Now let's apply systematic doubt and revise the statement for further examination.

Am I a Filipino?

Are our senses sufficient means to determine the truth of the statement? If not, what other means can we use to
determine its truth?

We can use facts to guide us in our search for truth. If you look up the word “Filipino” in a dictionary, you will
come across the following definitions:

Filipino (noun)-

1- a native of the Philippine Islands

2- a citizen of the Republic of the Philippines

3- the Tagalog-based official language of the Republic of the Philippines

Which of these definitions applies to you? Definitions 1 and 2 are the ones that best apply to you, since
they refer to Filipinos as persons. Based on the definitions outlined, you can say that you and everyone in your
community are Filipinos because 1) you, your classmates, your teachers, your family members, and other
people in your community were born in the Philippines and are thus natives; and 2) you are all citizens of the
Republic of the Philippines, which means you were born of Filipino parents and are recognized as citizens by
the government. Definition 3 cannot be used in this case since it refers to the Filipino language and not to
Filipinos as persons.

This is another basis for determining truth: a belief or statement is true if it is based on facts. We applied
this perspective when we looked up the meaning of the word “Filipino" in a dictionary. We assumed that what
is stated in the definition is the actual meaning of the word.

Are you now convinced that you can call yourself a Filipino? If not, what additional proof should you
look for to prove, without a doubt, that you are a Filipino? You can try doing the following:

1. Ask your parents and other relatives.

2. Look for official documents that prove you are a Filipino.

When you survey your family regarding your question, all of them may answer with a resounding
"Yes!" Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common belief is another way of determining what is
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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

true. But this approach has certain limitations. Getting everyone to agree on something may not make that
belief true. For example, if you can get your classmates to agree that you do not need to study to become
successful in life, it does not make that belief true. Also, if one of your family members says “No” to your
inquiries, it would frustrate your efforts to find the truth. Therefore, you have to use other means to really
answer the question. Looking at official documents, particularly a birth certificate, is one recommended way of
proving that you are a Filipino. Your birth certificate shows factual information regarding your birth. Since it is
issued by an institution that has authority such as the government, you are sure that the document and the facts
it bears are truthful. Reliance on evidence and facts, however, also has a limitation. Evidence, especially
documents, can be forged or falsified. Even the content of a genuine document may be doubtful if there are
mistakes in the information. A person may be issued an official birth certificate but it may contain wrong
information or typographical errors. If your name is misspelled in your birth certificate, does your identity
change?

Let us imagine, however, that in your search to figure out if you are a Filipino, you find out the following:

1. All your parents and relatives agree that you are Filipino.

2. Your birth certificate proves that you were born in the Philippines.

With these facts in mind, you can now be confident in calling yourself a true Filipino. You can now proudly
say:

I am a Filipino!

Finally, let us explore the following statements about what you can do:

I can play basketball.

I can fry an egg.

I understand the lesson.

Let's revise the statements so we can analyze them further.

Can I play basketball?

Can l fry an egg?

Do you understand the lesson?

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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

How can philosophy guide us in distinguishing truth from Opinion?

Logic is the branch of Philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments. Arguments are given
great importance since these are used to convey ideas that influence the thinking, actions, and behavior of
people. It can lead people to either right or wrong decision and action. Thus we need to be very careful when
we listen to arguments since not all arguments are truthful. In addition, not all arguments have the same merit
because some are better presented and substantiated than others. It is also possible that claims and arguments
are given by persons who have ill intentions and wish to twist or manipulate facts to suit their own purposes.
As we analyze what is presented to us, we must always keep in mind the standards of critical thinking.

What should we consider when looking at arguments or opinions?

Arguments often take the form of statements that are either claims of facts and are phrased in such a way that
they seem reasonable. However, a number of arguments may be based on faulty reasoning. These kinds of
arguments are called fallacies. Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the person making the claim is
desperate to convince You to accept his or her argument. The following are examples of fallacies.

Fallacy Characteristics Example

ad hominem attacking the person presenting the “Of course he believes that the
argument instead of the argument government is flawed, he is a rebel
itself. and a Communist!”

"If this peace agreement will not be

appeal to force using the threat of force or an
signed by the government, then we
undesirable event to advance an
will have no recourse but to go to
argument
war.”

“All these charges are baseless;

Using emotions such as pity or this is just plain harassment- can’t
Appeal to emotion
sympathy you see how this is affecting may
family?

The idea is presented as acceptable “Every boy your age already has a
Appeal to th4e popular
because a lot of people accept it girlfriend, you should find one!”

“Marriage should be between a

man and a woman. It has been so
The idea is acceptable because it
Appeal to tradition long a long time in this country; it
has been true for a long time
should remain so today and in the
future.”

Begging the Question Assuming the thing or idea to be “I have the right to free speech,
proven is true; also known as therefore you cannot stop me from
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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

“circular argument” talking.”

Assuming a “cause-and-effect” “Ever since you bought that

relationship between unrelated sweater, everything has been going
Cause-and-effect
events. wrong in your life. You should get
rid of it.”

Assuming that what is true of a part “These cases of robbery in this

is true for the whole district have convinced me that the
Fallacy of composition
city has become a den of thieves
and criminals.”

Assuming that what is true for the “You come from a family of
Fallacy of division whole is true for its parts. doctors and intellectuals! Surely
you can do better in this course!”

When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the personal views of the person presenting. Biases are not
necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or influences which affect the views of people. Bias
cannot be avoided in any discussion or debate. What is important is that the people engaging in the discussion
are aware of their personal biases and have an open but critical attitude toward other views which conflict with
their own.

The most common biases are enumerated below.

Bias Characteristics Example

tendency to judge a person’s personality by “These soldiers who fought in the

correspondence bias or
his or her actions, without regard for external war are all bloodthirsty
attribution
factors or influences. murderers”

tendency to look for and readily accept “How can I accept his view that
information which fits one’s own beliefs or there is no God? I am a
confirmation bias
views and to reject ideas or views that go Christian!”
against it

focusing on a certain aspect of a problem “Preliminary evidence has still not

while ignoring other aspects pointed out the actual cause of the
framing plane crash, but investigators are
currently focusing on the
possibility of pilot error.”

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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person by Roberto D. Abella, M.Div., D.Min.

the tendency to see past events as predictable, “Magellan’s assault on Mactan

or to ascribe a pattern to historical events Island was a foolhardy venture,
hindsight made by an overconfident, careless
man who underestimated the valor
of the native Filipinos.”

a person or group is connected to or has “As the daughter of the accused, I

vested interest in the issue being discussed believe I have the right to express
Conflict of interest
my opinion on the issue of his
alleged corrupt practices.”

analyzing an event or issue based on the “I do not agree with this Western
one’s cultural standards practice of placing aged parents in
Cultural bias
retirement homes. We Filipinos
take care of our family members.”