Atomic Structure

1. Atomic Model

1.1 Thomson Atom Model:

It is the first model of atom structure. After the discovery of electron in 1898 J. J. Thomson proposed the
simplest classical model of an atom. The main features of Thomson atomic model is are as follows:
1. The atom is spherical in shape
2. The atom is positively charged sphere. The negatively charged particle known as the electron is
distributed over the positively charged atom.
3. The total number of positive charge is equal to the total number of negative charge. That’s why the atom
is electrically neutral.
4. The positively charged particle is evenly distributed over the whole mass of the atom.
5. Simple physical and chemical phenomena like kinetic theory of matter, gas laws etc can successfully be
explained by the Thomson atomic model.
Thomson’s so called plum-pudding model of the atom is sketched in fig-1.

Figure-1: Thomson’s model of the atom.

1.2 Rutherford Atom model

Rutherford discovered nucleus by the alpha particle scattering experiment. He proposed that an atom consists of
a positively charged nucleus at its centre and the negatively charged electrons revolved round the circular orbits
of the nucleus.

1.2.1 Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

Atomic model of Ernest Rutherford is also known as nuclear atom or planetary model of the atom. This
description of atomic structure was proposed in 1911 by renowned physicist Ernest Rutherford. His atomic
theory stated that atom is a tiny and dense particle. A positively charged core is called nucleus, in which all the
mass is concentrated. Around the nucleus, electrons circulated at some distance.

Rutherford’s gold foil experiment: –

 In this experiment, Rutherford bombarded alpha particles on a gold foil.
 A source which is going through alpha decay is placed in a lead box. The lead box had a small hole in it.
 Alpha particles that hit the inside of the box are stopped by the box.
 Particles which pass through the opening can escape. These particles follow a straight line and hit the
gold foil.
Observations of gold foil experiment: –
 Most of the alpha particles follow the straight line and hot the gold foil.
 Some particles get deflected.
 A few alpha particles bounced of the foil and back to the left.

Conclusions: –
 Atom is 99.99% empty space.
 The nucleus has a positive charge and nearly all the mass of atom is concentrated in nucleus.
 The atom is approximately 100,000 times bigger than the nucleus.

1.2.1 Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Atomic Model:

1. As per Rutherford’s model, electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular path. But according to
Maxwell’s electrostatic theory, particles that are in motion on a circular path would undergo acceleration,
and acceleration causes radiation of energy by charged particles. Eventually, electrons should lose energy
and fall into the nucleus. And this points to the instability of atom. But this is not possible because atoms are
stable. Hence, Rutherford failed to give an explanation on account of this.
2. If the electrons emit energy continuously, continuous spectrum should be formed. But in practical line
spectrum is observed.
1.3 Bohr’s Model of Atom:
In 1913 Neil’s Bohr proposed a model of atomic structure. The basic postulates of Bohr’s atomic model are as
follows:

1. Postulates of Stationary states

An atom consists of a positively charged nucleus at the center. The negatively charged electrons revolve
round the nucleus in certain definite orbits known as stationary energy levels. The angular momentum for
different permissible energy levels is the integral multiple of h/2. That is , where n = 1, 2,
3, 4, ......... etc. The electrons don’t emit or absorb any energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation
when revolving in stationary energy level.

2. The Postulates of Frequency

 Energy is emitted by an atom when an electron jumps from an orbit of higher energy to another of lower
energy or absorbed when the electron moves in a reverse direction.
i. When electron jumps from lower energy level to higher energy level, it absorbs of energy.
ii. When an electron jumps from higher energy level to lower energy level, it releases energy.

Note that the electron can absorb or emit only that much amount energy which is equal to energy difference
between two levels. The energy emitted or absorbed, E = Eh - El = h; where  is the frequency of radiation, Eh
= energy of higher orbit and El = energy of lower orbit.
Again, if the electron jumps from lower orbit to higher orbit the energy absorbed following the law
E = El - Eh = h =

Problem 3:
Calculate the energy of a particle which has 20000 Hz frequency

Electron Proton Neutron Nucleus

J.J. Thomson (1897) Rutherford (1919) Chadwick (1932) Rutherford(1911)
Symbol: Symbol: Symbol:
Mass= mp+mn
-31 -27 -27
Mass: 9.11× 10 Kg Mass: 1.67× 10 Kg Mass: 1.67× 10 Kg
Positively Charged
Charge: -1.67×10-19 C Charge: 1.67×10-19 C Charge less
Size: 10-18 m Size: 10-15 m Size: 10-15 m Size: 10-14 m
`
2. Expression for Radius of the Hydrogen Atom According to the Bohr Model
Consider an electron rotating at velocity v on its orbit which radius r. So the centripetal force

(1)

Again, the electrostatic force between electron and proton

(2)
Thus the electrostatic force of atom is raised due to centripetal force, so

(3)
√

Now consider the velocity of electron for n-th orbit

(4)
√
The angular momentum of a particle of mass m with respect to a chosen origin is given by
(5)
Hence Liner momentum p = mvn

Again, from Bohr’s 2nd postulates on atomic structure, the angular momentum may be stated as

(6)
From equation (5) and (6), we can write that,

Now substitute the value of from equation (4) to above equation, we get

(7)
√
Now square both side of above equation, we get

When, n = 1, then

This is the required expression for the radius of Hydrogen atom

Radius of different orbits

When, n = 1, then ; which is radius of first orbit

When, n = 1, then which is radius of second orbit

When, n = 3, then which is radius of third orbit

Problem 4:
Calculate the radius of 1st orbit of Hydrogen atom

Solution:
When, n = 1, then which is radius of first orbit
( )
( )
3. X-rays (1895 W. K. Roentgen)
If very fast moving electrons hit a metal then rays with highly penetrating power but of unknown nature are
produced. These rays are called X-rays or Roentgen rays.

Production of X-ray

A current is applied through the cathode filament, a small increase in the filament voltage results in a large
increase in tube current which heats up and accelerates electrons to releases via thermionic emission. The
accelerated high speed electrons from the very high temperature filament negative cathode within a vacuum,
moves to the positive tungsten target anode. This anode rotates to waste heat generated. X-rays are generated
within the tungsten anode and an X-ray beam is directed towards the patient.
.

Properties of X-Rays
1) X-rays travel in a straight line.
2) X-rays have high penetrating power.
3) X-rays are electromagnetic wave.
4) Their wavelength is very small about 10-10m.
5) X-rays have effect on photographic plate.
6) X-rays are electrically neutral.
7) X-rays travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.

Photoelectric Effect: 1905

When light of suitable and high frequency is incident on metal surface electrons are emitted from that surface,
this phenomenon is known as photoelectric effect. The electrons emitted from the metal surface are called
photoelectrons.

Mechanism
Not every electromagnetic wave will cause the photoelectric effect, only radiation of a certain frequency or
higher will cause the effect. The minimum frequency needed is called the cutoff frequency or threshold
frequency. The cutoff frequency is used to find the work function, Φo, which is the amount of energy holding
the electron to the metal surface. If a frequency of light strikes the metal surface that is greater than the cutoff
frequency, then the emitted electron will have some kinetic energy. This process of knocking inner shell
electrons is called Photoelectric Effect, note that this photon is totally absorbed in the process. The energy of
a photon causing the photoelectric effect is found through
E = hυ= KE + Φo, (1)
34
where h is Planck's constant, 6.626X10- Js, f is the frequency of the electromagnetic wave, KE is the kinetic
energy of the photoelectron and w is the work function for the metal. If the photon has a lot of energy, Compton
scattering (~thousands of eV) or pair production(~millions of eV) may take place. The intensity of the light
does not cause ejection of electrons, only light of the cut off frequency or higher can do that. However
increasing the intensity of light will increase the number of electrons being emitted, so long as the frequency is
above the cut off frequency.

Compton Effect

If a photon strikes the outer shell electrons it may not be totally absorbed but part of its energy is transfered to
that outer shell electron. In doing so we have a photon whose energy is reduced and a free electrons. Since
energy of photon is reduced we have a change in the wavelength of that photon. This process is
called Compton Scattering or Compton Effect. A target electron in atomic orbit collides by external source
like incident photon or x-ray. After the collision between orbital electron and external photon, the electron
become accelerated and scattered as recoil electron at ϕ angle. As the electron displaced by external force, an
energy is radiated called scattered photon and having the properties of x-ray but in different wavelength. The
wavelength of scattered x-ray is longer than that of incident x-ray as a result the frequency is low which
provides less energy than incident x-ray. The shift of wavelength with scattering angle according to Compton
formula:
Difference between Photoelectric Effect and Compton Effect

Photoelectric Effect Compton Effect

A low energy phenomenon A mid-energy phenomenon
Photon delivers its total amount of energy to a single The photon transfers part of its energy to a single
electron electron
The photon disappears after the interaction The wavelength of the scattered photon is higher than
that of the incident photon.

Photon
The emission of energy or light from an object is not continuous. Energy or radiation is discrete. Light or any
radiation is the sum of infinite number of radiation quantum. This particle or packet or quantum is called
photon.

Properties of photon
1) In vacuum photon travels with the speed of light.
2) The rest mass of photon is zero.
3) Every photon has fixed energy and momentum.
4) Energy of a photon is E=hυ
5) Momentum of a photon , p=h/λ
6) Photon can collide with the particles of matter.

Problem 5:
Find the frequency and wavelength of a 100MeV photon
We know, Here,
E=hυ Energy, E =100 MeV=100×106 eV
=100×106×1.6×10-19 J
Frequency, υ=?
Wavelength, λ=?
Velocity of light, c= 3×108 ms-1
Planck’s constant, h= 6.63×10-34 Js

Again, c=υλ
Problem 6:
What is the energy of a photon of wavelength 6650×10-10 m.

Matter waves: de-Broglie Concept (1924)

In 1924, Lewis de-Broglie proposed that matter has dual characteristic just like radiation. His concept about the
dual nature of matter was based on the following observations:-
(a) The whole universe is composed of matter and electromagnetic radiations. Since both are forms of energy
so can be transformed into each other.
(b) The matter loves symmetry. As the radiation has dual nature, matter should also possess dual character.
According to the de Broglie concept of matter waves, the matter has dual nature. It means when the matter is
moving it shows the wave properties (like interference, diffraction etc.) are associated with it and when it is in
the state of rest then it shows particle properties. Thus the matter has dual nature. The waves associated with
moving particles are matter waves or de-Broglie waves.

Wavelength of de-Broglie Waves

Consider a photon whose energy is given by

(1)
If a photon possesses mass (rest mass is zero), then according to the theory of relatively its energy is given by

E=mc2 (2)

From (1) and (2) ,we have, Mass of photon m= h/cλ

Therefore Momentum of photon

or, (3)

Problem 7:
Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron.

Solution:
We know
But momentum P = mc = 9.1x10-31 kg x 3x108 ms-1 = 27.3 x 10-24 kgms-1

Problem 8:
A particle of mass 1g moving with a velocity 2000 ms-1. Calculate the wavelength of the wave associated
with the particle.