THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD

MODULE 1: GLOBALIZATION: CONCEPTS AND DIMENSIONS

GLOBAL − For example, Netflix is not allowed to stream in some

− Something that pertains to the whole world. countries like China and Crimea, where the said online video
− Has a far, wider-coverage, and influence since it involves streaming site is banned; this scenario could not be
the whole world rather than the term “international”. answered by an economic or political perspective alone. It is
− Tokyo Olympics is a global sporting event participated by therefore imperative to consider various aspects and
athletes coming from the various countries across the world. utilization of different lenses of social sciences to explain or
− NBA is also a global sport because the players and the fans understand this phenomenon.
are all coming from the various continents across the world.

THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF GLOBALIZATION

− Scholars differ in how they view and define Globalization

WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION? WHAT ARE THE MAJOR
and its impact on the world's transformation. Nevertheless,
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PHENOMENON? there is an evident overlap as to the thematic qualities of
− In the late 20th century, you could watch a movie at home Globalization (Steger, 2003).
by renting an original VHS or VCD through video rental − Claudio and Abinales (2018) cited the best description of
stores like ACA video and Video City (some probably owned Globalization based on the work of Manfred Steger, who
a loyalty card for discounts). These VCDs had a maximum states that Globalization is "the expansion, intensification,
number of days for you to watch and return the same at the and accelerations of social (economic, political, cultural)
store or else it will incur a penalty fee. By analogy, you may relations and consciousness across world time and
borrow books at your library using your card and return the world space.”
same on the date indicated on your receipt; otherwise, you
have to pay a fine, the same goes for renting a video STEGER (2003) DISCUSSED THE DISTINCTIVE QUALITIES
compact disc or VCD before. Given the tremendous number
OF GLOBALIZATION WITH THE FOLLOWING KEY
of innovative ICT (Information and Communication
Technology) infrastructures of the world brought by an CONCEPTS:
increase in free trade agreements, this is not the case in our
current generation. a) Expansionism Principle
− You can binge-watch movies or series you like using your
internet browser or any video streaming application like − Creation of social networks. It’s all about
Netflix at your home’s comfort. connections/relationships/interconnectedness.
− It reduced the process of traveling to any video rental store − Expansion refers to the creation of connections (social
and consuming an hour or two of your time from choosing a networks). This occurs on various occasions from your
movie and queueing at the cashier to pay the rental fee. The simple student organizations to larger and university-
number of films and TV series that you can watch is also wide associations. As two or more organizations come
significantly increasing. It includes the number of different together to advocate a social cause, for example, could
shows fromvarious countries and nationalities. You can view further create a new form of organization among them.
some Spanish TV series like Money Heist to a Korean TV In politics, for instance, there are established political
series like Crash Landing on You. These are all accessible parties related and connected to national or
without forcing yourself to leave your house. international networks or groups. Most of the time, this
connection will form into new, multiple, and bigger
associations of people who have the same ideology or
motivation.
 These networks are not limited to connections between
people. We also talk about connections between countries,
markets (amazon, shopee, lazada), and cultures.
 Through social media, we get to see how everyone else is
connected. There is this concept/theory which is the Six
− Following this scenario, it is hard to identify a one-size-fits- Degrees of Separation. It only goes to show that every
all definition of Globalization. Many scholars believe that this person in the world is connected to each other.
phenomenon must be studied using multi-disciplinary − Using our sample scenario, the video streaming site –
approaches and various significant concepts of social Netflix. Through the expansionism concept,
sciences (Banda, 2019; Robertson, 1996; Steger, 2003). globalization enables Netflix, Inc. to stream and earn a
− Watching one movie or subscribing to a video streaming site profit from over 190 countries. For instance, this trade
does not merely entail free trade agreement or its economic relation of Netflix is made feasible with the US and
perspective; it could also be a question of morals, political, Philippines Free Trade relations which can be further
or cultural standards of one community. developed to form other connections or trade relations
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later on. Netflix revenue will also depend on these awareness/consciousness of the world as a single place,
trade relations thus Netflix and its trading partners will with no boundaries.
become more interdependent to create more profit. o Third, it is an ideology (from economic to socio-cultural,
also known as Globalism), which in this case, is the
b) Intensification and Acceleration Human social consciousness or awareness that
− Quality and speed of connectivity. globalization processes affect our beliefs and
 This is made possible because of the advancements in perceptions towards the world's social order. It is a
technology and communication (eg. Introduction of 5G) system of ideas which embraces global economic
 All these developments brought about by globalization can integration and free trade and is a kind of philosophy that
be seen in our surroundings. We have seen the rise of the somehow adheres to the idea that globalization is
urban cities, the introduction of gadgets to construction of cell something good and beneficial (eg. The integration of
sites, roads, airports, and etc. markets, free trade).
− The best example of this is the ICTs, such as the − Abinales and Claudio (2003), posit the idea of Manfred
internet, that could transmit information in a matter of Steger that there is a belief among the elite class of the
seconds. In a jiffy, you can receive and send messages society, that global integration of economy is advantageous
or share information from distant places. In the Netflix for everyone because it promotes democracy and freedom,
sample scenario, you can scan and watch your favorite this ideology is named Globalism (Steger, 2003). This
movie or TV series at no time. The power of technology perspective of Steger lies in his analysis that
and the other ICTs play a vital role in making all these the people advocating for global integration (the Globalists)
exchanges possible and faster than ever before. view freedom, free markets, free trade, and democracy as
synonymous and interrelated concepts. That one cannot
c) Human awareness of social interdependence invoke democracy without the presence of the free-market
− Has something to do with subjectivity. system as an economic policy.
 This means, globalization does not only take place outside in − Thus, we can infer that the term Globalization is not merely
our surrounding s but it also happens within ourselves. a noun that represents our social condition (Globality) but
also an action that pertains to the process of social
 And because of this awareness, we can readily and easily transformation, and an ideology (Globalism) of people
sympathize with foreigners who are experiencing a calamity, towards the political and economic benefits of this
and any other. phenomenon.
 So as individuals, we also feel and recognize that there is
this connection that connects us all. GLOBALIZATION DIMENSIONS
− Affects people's individual and collective identities in
the world. Manfred Steger (2003) added that Human WHAT ARE THE DIMENSIONS OF GLOBALIZATION? HOW
consciousness plays a significant role in Globalization DO THEY VIEW GLOBALIZATIONS?
as people have a 'keen sense' of becoming part of the
global whole. Hence it influences their behavior and
perceptions in the contemporary world.
− To return with our example, many people, generally,
watch quality movies or TV series on Netflix regardless
of its language or culture, and as it reinforces the same,
it gradually changes and affects our individual or
collective identities and views (Robertson, 1996;
Steger, 2003).

 Given all the distinct qualities presented above, we can

deduce that Globalization refers to a process, condition,
and ideology of intensified interdependence of economic,
technological, political, and socio-cultural relations of the The globalization scholars and the elephant by Kenneth Panfilio and Ryan Canney
world that compresses time and geographic boundaries
through a massive and innovative transformation (Giddens, − Globalization is a broad concept.
2017; Held & McGrew, 2002; Jameson, Frederic, and − The ancient Buddhist parable of Blind Men and the
Miyoshi, 1998; Mittelman, 2014; Robertson, 1996; Steger, Elephant is analogous to scholars and academicians’
2003). diverse perspectives on Globalization (the Elephant). The
parable started when the blind men touched a particular part
of the Elephant's body that they never encountered before.
THREE ESSENTIAL TERMS
The blind men begin to describe the animal based on their
o First, it is a process that pertains to social developments perspective, one who touched the side of the Elephant said
of the world’s transformation such as the spread of it is a wall, the other man, who felt the tail argued, it's a rope,
culture elements and the movement of the people. And so on. The blind men are likened to the scholars of
o Second is the term condition, which for Steger (2003), Globalization, who hold on to their perspectives on what
constitutes this phenomenon.
he referred to as Globality, that represents a secular
o This explains why the approach in our study of
state and is transformed into global economic, political,
globalization is interdisciplinary.
cultural interconnections that extinguishes or eliminates
any existing boundaries. And is an
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[CW] GLOBALIZATION: CONCEPTS AND DIMENSIONS

− Many scholars agree that economic forces are the root of of the world, including the increasing influence of global
Globalization. While others believe that it is more of a institutions like the United Nations, and World Health
political or cultural concern (Steger, 2003). Organizations.
− Nonetheless, scholars like Steger assert that there are clear
interrelationships of these perspectives. c) Socio-cultural Dimension
− Global Trends in social media, UNESCO, International
So for us to learn their interrelationship, we have to answer the
Sporting Events, Glocalization
following questions;
− The creation of a “global village”, a single community
o What are the main dimensions of Globalization?
linked by telecommunications; a threat to local culture.
o How does each dimension describe Globalization, and;
 In this perspective, we view globalization as the process in
o do they influence one another?
which the world is transformed into a global village or a world
without cultural boundaries.
THREE PRIMARY DIMENSIONS/AREA OF GLOBALIZATION
 Glocalization is a combination of global and local. We are
adding our own elements, that is why the global becomes
local. It is when a society would adapt a cultural element from
another country and try to integrate its local culture to create
something similar but something unique.
− Sociologist Anthony Giddens (2017), referred to this
phenomenon as the 'event at distant' or the
intensified social relations in a global sphere influenced
by the event from distant places to various localities
and from local events to the international arena.
Individuals are more exposed to geographically distant
activities, and with global and local problems which are
a) Economic Dimension (Techno-economic) more intertwined than before. He argued that this
− World Bank, IMF, E-Commerce, and Trading 'event' is brought by the fast convergence of people,
− For the economist, Roshi (2009), specifically viewed through the aid of technology, hence creating
Globalization as the tremendous increase of economic a new set of norms or expected behavior that affects
integration and intensified movement of goods, our identity.
services, technologies, and capital across borders.
“WE ARE ALL MIGRANTS NOW” - Professor Lord Anthony
 For an economist, globalization is all about free trade and
Giddens
market integration. The establishment of this connection
between markets and economists led to the creation of − Gidden's views of Globalization are further justified by the
financial institutions. contemporary anthropologist and globalization
theorist Arjun Appadurai's (1990) ideas, who stated that
 To look at globalization from the economic perspective, is
Globalization refers to the intensified and expanded global
to focus on the flow of money, goods and services. And to cultural flows. Appadurai explains that one's culture
look at it in terms of the integration of markets. intersects and overlaps with another on a worldwide scale; it
− The exponential growth of the current global economy influences each other in various ways.
vis-à-vis world's GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is − Arjun Appadurai’s global cultural flow theory uses a
drastically increased in percentage from 42.1% in 1980 framework called “Five Scapes of Culture”, where all
to 62.1% in 2007. This remarkable development in the dimensions of globalization presented above are
world's economy, through the help of technology, interconnected and could influence each other;
interests many financial experts and economists
toward globalization’s potential. Thus many experts FIVE SCAPES OF CULTURE/GLOBALIZATION
believe that globalization is an economic concern more
than any other dimension like politics and culture
(Claudio and Abinales, 2018).

b) Political Dimension
− EU, WHO, UN Security Council
 For a political scientist, globalization is all about the
formation of alliances between states and countries.
 When you see globalization in terms of cooperation, world
peace, and the creation of international laws and judicial
entities, then that is looking at it from the political point of
view.
− Political scientists, on the other hand, describe
Globalization as the expansion of the political structure,
for Thompson et al., (2008) "Political globalization is
about the expansion of a global political system, and its
institutions, in which inter-regional transactions a) Financescapes
(including, but not limited to, trade) are managed." It − Pertain to the rapid flow of money or capital around the
resulted in the alliance of various countries and regions globe. Appadurai explains that there are observable
accelerated movements of money from stock
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[CW] GLOBALIZATION: CONCEPTS AND DIMENSIONS

exchanges, currency markets, and money transfers. FINANCESCAPES

This resulted in the emergence of more businesses
and trades on a global scale. (Economic Dimension)
− The flow of MONEY across political borders.
− Ex. Global Stock Trading, Cryptocurrencies

b) Ideoscapes
− Refer to the meaning of symbols or a set of beliefs
spreading around the world. Appadurai pointed out that
this Scape is directly related to politics and various
principles of states like a liberal democracy. (Political
Dimension)
− The flow of IDEAS
− Ex. Evangelization, Environmental Advocacies, Human
Rights Movements − In 2019, YouTube earned $15 billion in advertisements
(Duffy, 2019). More than 50% of Small to large enterprises
c) Technoscapes and its marketers around the globe choose to invest in
− Is the advanced capabilities of technologies at an YouTube ads as it draws more attention than television ads
unprecedented rate across borders. (Techno-economic) (Moshin, 2020). The flow of capital and revenues worldwide,
− The spread of TECHNOLOGY in the case of the "YouTubers or Vloggers" alone who
− Ex. Vaccines, Electric Vehicles, Renewable Energy, earned from this scheme, can be greatly observed.
Space Tourism, and NFT Gaming like AXIE Infinity
IDEOSCAPES
d) Mediascape
− YouTube can advance various political standpoints from the
− Refers to the visual representations of culture or far-right to the left. Political campaigns, government videos,
realities that influence or shape people's perception of election participants, terrorist video materials can be
events, ideas, and experiences. It was made feasible uploaded anytime and anywhere. And it all affects people's
by the electronic media or mass media from print, perceptions of different socio-political issues. There is an
broadcast, and digital media. (Socio-Cultural apparent influence of YouTube on Global politics, and
Dimension) scholars referred to it as a "YouTube effect" (Stoilova, 2016).
− The flow of MEDIA (information and culture) across
borders. TECHNOSCAPES
− Ex. Streaming services, Youtube, Social Media, − We can say that YouTube is a powerful breakthrough in
Podcasts Information and Communication Technology, but it doesn't
stop there. Numerous technologies and tools are being
e) Ethnoscape invented because of its inception as complementary goods.
− Is the increasing movement of people around the globe. From "YouTubers" starter kit like cameras with optical image
The prominent examples of this are a large number of stabilization to YouTube's artificial intelligence responsible to
immigrants, tourists, and refugees migrating from one flag down objectionable content like violent extremism and
place to another. Our OFWs, exchange students other violations of their community policy (Meyer, 2018).
abroad, or someone visiting places for leisure or
business are a few examples of this scape. (Socio- MEDIASCAPES
Cultural Dimension) − YouTube, like other social media, influences one's culture
− The movement of PEOPLE across boundaries. because of its accessibility across countries. For example,
− Ex. Labor migrants or refugees, Filipino nurses moving Baek (2014) study shows that Kpop music videos are
abroad widely consumed and embraced across a variety of cultures,
which are shown and played a million or even a billion times
To talk about globalization requires us to identify first “What is on YouTube like the "Oppa Gangnam Style" music video,
being globalized?”. which hit the first billion views in 2012.

 Using the five (5) scapes, we can apply and find how the ETHNOSCAPES
various dimensions of globalization overlap and intersect with − Have you ever watched a travel vlog on YouTube? Or
one another in all aspects of life. To put Appadurai's scapes should we ask how many times have you viewed travel
(F.I.T. M.E.) into perspective, let's use how YouTube, the videos on YouTube? Mora (n.d.) from U.N. Migration shared
biggest video streaming site in the world, can be applied in that one characteristic of YouTubers is that most of them are
'migrants.' The vloggers or YouTubers not only manifest the
the said framework.
concept of ethnoscapes of being a tourist but also influence
or attract many people to travel and be migrants as well.

 YouTube is one of the thousands of the world's phenomena

where you can apply the critical concepts of Appadurai's
global cultural flows. Hence, if we want to have a better
understanding of Globalization we cannot skip studying and
considering each dimension and how it directly or indirectly
affects the various aspects of our life.
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CONCLUSION
− Scholars and theorists may lay down a multitude of
perspectives about our world today, but one thing is certain,
Globalization is right in front of us, and it is happening and
will continue to exist. The only question is, what's next? Or
how are you going to adapt to this multifaceted and fast-
changing world?
− Arjun Appadurai laid down the various types of
globalization that the world is simultaneously experiencing,
from global financial flows of capital and investment up to
the cultural flows and influences. He primarily synthesizes
the very meaning of Globalization regardless of the
differences of perspectives of scholars that one must accept
the fact that we can't understand the whole essence of this
phenomenon without using all overlapping dimensions of
Globalization through the different lenses of various
disciplines.

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 THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
MODULE 2: THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

BASIC CONCEPTS OF ECONOMICS Stages of the Fourth Industrial Revolution

− According to ____ 2009, he defined Economics as the
study of how people choose to use our resources to produce 1. First Industrial Revolution1780-1820
various commodities and how to distribute this goods to
− Companies used steam in making goods and services.
consumers for their consumption.
o This means we are having limited resources.
2. Second Industrial Revolution (1820-1920)
o Having this scarcity of resources, we should know how
− Electricity is used in mass production
to produce goods/services efficiently so that we may
able to satisfy the needs and wants of our customers.
3. Third Industrial Revolution (1900s)
− Economic System refers to the established order of one’s
− Also known as the Computing Stage or the Digital
economy on how the things(???) are regarded and treated.
Stage
o It also gives emphasis on the basic questions of
− Computers and Internet are used
economics on how will it produce and who will get what
is produced? 4. Fourth Industrial Revolution (Today)
− Industry 4.0
WHAT IS ECONOMIC GLOBALIZATION? − Stage of Intelligence; Artificial Intelligence
− Economic Globalization refers to the growing
interdependence of the world economies manifested by the  IMF further explains that Economic Globalization is known for
ever-increasing flows of capital, technologies, and
the movement of goods, people (pertains to the workforce),
communication through a common economic system
(Shangquan, 2000; Steger et al., 2014). and knowledge (specifically in technology). This movement
o Automotive Industry (Car Manufacturers) like: helps global market growth at an unprecedented rate.
Toyota, Honda, Mitsubishi, Ford, etc.  The expansion of the global market is felt by all types of
− They were able to have this growing interdependence economies, whether in a capitalist or socialist society (IMF,
of the world economy in order for them to increase their 2005). The major far-left countries, for example, like China
capital and through the help of technology, they are and Russia, are now engaged in a free market economy. The
able to communicate well on how to produce things infographic below shows how these two countries are leaning
efficiently. towards market capitalism where low or less government
− The International Monetary Fund or IMF (2008) attributed
the integration of the global economy to a historical regulation, less tariff, privatization, and foreign ownership are
process as the result of the following; increasingly observed.
o Human Innovation
− refers to the higher productivity of people as it
produces goods, services, and capital, making it
available in all parts of the world;
− eg.Steve Jobs; the founder of Apple
o Technological Progress
− refers to the innovative methods of producing goods
and services more efficiently. This type of development
raised the overall people's productivity.
− eg. Automotive Industry; they use automation in the
production of cars, Banking Industry; they have
Automated Teller Machines.

Human Innovation and Technological Progress can be seen in

human history. One of the major manifestations of this
development was the Period of the First Industrial Revolution
of the 18th century to the Fourth Industrial Revolution
(Industry 4.0) we are now experiencing. Basic examples of
today’s Fourth Industrial Revolution (FIRe) are the automation in
vehicles such as Tesla cars and the Artificial Intelligence (AI)
embedded in a number of applications like the Plagiarism checker
or text similarity detection such as Turnitin.

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[CW] THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

goods as they pleased, both in domestic and foreign

markets, at a cheaper rate than what they can provide at
home-country.
− Smith in his 1776 book The Wealth of Nations, explained
that “It is the maxim of every prudent master of a family
never to attempt to make at home what it will cost home
more to make than to buy. The tailor does not attempt
does not attempt to make his own shoes, but buys them
of the shoemaker. The shoemaker does not attempt to
make his own clothes, but employs a tailor.”
o In short, you have this freedom of making a choice as
long as you know you are going to benefit from it.
− For a British political economist, David Ricardo (1820/2001),
In dissecting the Economic dimension of globalization, we could who further expounded Smith’s principle and introduced the
find the figure shown below as the interrelated concepts. Let’s comparative advantage concept, emphasizes that the
find out the meaning and purpose of these concepts and how countries should do what they do better while also giving up
they evolved into what we know today as the economic the least (Opportunity cost). He posits the idea of focusing
integration and flows of capital, technology, and communication of on the core competencies (specializations) which provide
ideas through a common economic system. countries with a comparative advantage.
− In Politics, Free Trade was justified through the philosophy
of Economic liberalism. Proponents of economic liberalism
believe that there should be less government intervention in
Trade, lower taxes, and privatization of government-owned
utilities and financial institutions to better off the world's
economy. This philosophy was heavily lifted from the theory
of Classical liberalism (Zafirovski, 2007).

 In a nutshell, the Classical Liberalists subscribed to the idea

of free will and limited to "no" government intervention to
achieve the economic prosperity of human beings. But critics
of this philosophy commonly argued that classical Liberalism,
 As more and more countries are involved and participating in in practice, made ordinary people and their environment
the global market, Free Trade and Economic exposed to exploitation and abuses. Individuals who own the
liberalization are at the forefront of different means of productions like the capitalists (the business class)
state policies and a major player of state economic treaties or the owners of large corporations can make more workers
or Free Trade Agreements (FTAs). These FTAs bound suffer in longer hours of work and lower wages.
countries to impose imports and export duties for purposes of
mitigating or reducing trade barriers like tariffs.  For instance, the concept of Free market in the classical
 Thus, it is with utmost importance to understand what and liberalist perspective where the exchanges must be based on
why Free Trade and Economic Liberalism became the widely mere voluntary acts between or among the parties involved
used economic policy and philosophy. We have to examine (consumers and producers) without a robust government
the very concept of these two accessible and maintained mechanism in place can result in unfair trade practices.
economic perspectives before digging into the major There are specific markets that could maximize their
concepts of Economic Globalization. revenues by haggling down the supplier's prices while
charging their consumers at a higher cost.
WHAT IS CLASSICAL LIBERALISM?
− Classical Liberalism is a political philosophy and ideology  For example, Spotify, a music streaming provider, charges
belonging to liberalism in which primary emphasis is placed their U.S. Premium subscribers between $4.99 to $9.99 per
on securing the freedom of the individual by limiting the
month, at the same time, paying their music artists (suppliers)
power of the government.
− Focused on the individual freedom. an average of $0.0032 per stream in June 2019 (Blum, 2020).
− In here, there is what we call Free Market and Free Trade. So, if you played your favorite TikTok song on Spotify
hundred times, the artist will get approximately US$0.32 or
WHAT IS FREE MARKET? Php16.00 only. The PHP 16.00 will further split up to the
− This means that this is an economic system in which the producers, artists, and songwriters, among others. Although
prices of foods and services are determined by the buyer there is some competition, large companies can dominate
and sellers. specific industries where they can dictate unfair terms to the
suppliers. It is the reason why some groups called for a
WHAT IS FREE TRADE? Federal standard rate or government intervention on these
− A policy by which a government does not discriminate digital services to protect the artists.
against imports or interfere with exports by applying tariffs or
taxes (to imports) or subsidies (to exports).  Now, imagine if we have the same scenario in all aspects of
− Adam Smith, the father of economics, emphasizes that
our society from education to banking institutions without an
countries must free up their citizens to produce and buy
apparent involvement of our government institutions that
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[CW] THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

would regulate and hold those organizations directly − It is in consonance to the previous number but focuses
accountable. Many of these institutions will leave people with on the fundamental obligation of the state to ensure
no option but to accept these greedy terms of companies “law and order”, socio-economic needs for the people,
and safeguarding the market order.
without immediate consequences (and yes, it could be worse
o Protection of Private Property or Ownership
than the services we received from our internet providers in
− It gives a certain sense of autonomy for every person
the country). Hence, critics of these liberalist ideals resulted (natural person or juridical entity; eg. corporation) to
in empowering the government that will set socio-economic own and secure a property without any invasion from
rules and enforces it (Nijs, 2016). the state.

Are we then going to adopt a more stringent type of economy like COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS
the Command economy or communism?

 German sociologist and economist Alexander Rüstow, who

popularized the concept of "Free Economy, Strong State,"
believed that there must be free-market capitalism together
with social policies that will bring a fair competition while
supporting people's welfare (Nijs, 2016).

 In the 1930s, Rüstow coined the term Neoliberalism, as the

middle ground between Liberalism and some ideology of
Paleo-liberalism to meet the socio-economic and political
needs of the populace (Nijs, 2016; Turner, 2008). Paleo-
liberalism (old Liberalism) upholds tradition, culture, liberty,
and free-market that is governed by the rules based on the
covenant (contract) agreed by the society which restricts
specific behavior. Therefore, Neoliberalism, for Rüstow,
promotes Liberalism (free market) and socialism (for the  Neoliberalism in government policies,
mere reason that it has a political or government intervention). however, never existed nor adopted until the 1980s. It
However, the purpose of state or government power in started gaining popularity among politicians when some of
Neoliberalism is merely to ensure the efficiency of the market the economists began to blame the state interventionism
activities based on its defined and agreed boundaries (its (Keynesianism), piloted by the economist John Maynard
contract/covenant) and would not limit its purpose in general Keynes, as the cause of economic recession in 1973 .
(or the free-market system) (Nijs, 2016).  American President Ronald Reagan and U.K. Prime
Minister Margaret Thatcher campaigned for Neoliberal
WHAT IS NEOLIBERALISM? ideologies and realized them into state policies and
− Neoliberalism (neo means new) is both a political and programs of their governments. It was also known as
economic ideology, modified laissez-faire economics that the First Wave of Neoliberalism (Steger & Roy, 2019).
imposes less government regulation towards businesses  Reagan and Thatcher intentionally associate Globalization to
(both domestic and foreign) under a "strong state" that could economic liberalism. Moreover, the call for
promote economic cooperation. Further, the government
a Neoliberal economy further strengthens with
must limit its expenses through fiscal austerity and
privatization of government-owned corporations with a the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union countries
progressive type of taxation for the general welfare (Nijs, (Russia, Armenia, Georgia, etc.) in the late 20th century
2016; Stahl, 2019; Steger & Roy, 2019; Turner, 2008). (Steger, 2015). Hence, the global market leads to
the integration and cooperation of
Rachel Turner (2008), in her book entitled “Neoliberal Ideology”, various economies since then, also known as Economic
identified the following four (4) primary Principles of
Globalization today.
Neoliberalism:

o Free Market WHAT ARE THE MAJOR ELEMENTS OF ECONOMIC

− It is based on the notion that voluntary exchanges will GLOBALIZATION?
protect individual freedom while efficiently allocating The following are the significant elements of Economic
economic resources. Globalization;
o Rule of Law or Legal State (“Strong State” Principle)
− It is related to the maxim that “we are government of a) INTERNATIONALIZATION OF TRADE AND FINANCE
laws and not of men”, that in terms of conflict, among (Steger, 2005; Stiglitz, 2003)
free individuals in a free-market economy, we will be
− In 2018, the world's trade value of goods exported across
governed, equally, in accordance with the promulgated
the globe was at an astounding US$19.5 Trillion from
laws.
US$61.8 Billion in 1950 (O'Connell, 2019).
o Public Interest through a ‘constitutionally’ limited
state power

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[CW] THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

b) MOVEMENT OF LABOR (Sitglitz, 2003)

− Another element is the mobility of international labor or
workforce. It refers to less regulated flows of the workforce
to a particular economy or between economies. Overseas
Filipino engineers, medical technologists, and nurses,
among others, are a few examples of this primary element of
economic Globalization. It is a significant factor of
productions, not merely to the developing countries, but in
all types of economy.
o The growing number of nurses, for instance, in the
Philippines, affects its general supply, and as the labor
demand is relatively static, it can substantially decrease
its minimum wage rates. It would be a hindrance for a
− The growth of world trade has been attributed to the regional capitalist economy to increase their wages if there is a
and international market liberalization agreements. Two surplus of workers.
primary examples of this are the North American Free o It can also be applied to those developed countries like
Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and General Agreements on the USA and the United Kingdom, where they
Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
outsourced their businesses to developing countries
o NAFTA, as a trilateral trade agreement in North America
such as the Philippines and India to acquire more
(Canada, USA, & Mexico), created to reduce and
workers who can be paid less than their people. But it
eliminate barriers in trade and investment (Macdonald,
has an adverse effect on the human resources of
2017). The results of this agreement have been the
countries such as but not limited to loss of jobs or
subject of debate and discussions from unemployment,
unemployment and lower wages since they outsourced
environmental concerns, and economic growth.
their services in other countries.
o GATT, on the other hand, is a multilateral agreement
aimed to prevent trade wars and was able to liberalize
c) DIFFUSION OF TECHNOLOGY (Stiglits, 2003)
international trade. However, GATT failed to address
 Technology has become a powerful and game-changer tool
global investment and intellectual property issues,
of economic policies of different governments and financial
among others. Thus, the World Trade Organization
institutions. It facilitated the flow of ideas, money-capital,
(WTO) was formally established to replace GATT and
stocks, and other commercial transactions of the world.
address its inefficiency and to provide better
 The advancement of technology affects people's political
transparency and accountability (Hira & Cohn, 2003).
and economic diasporas. It creates individuals who support
− Some national economies were better off because of free
trade, such as increased productivity, competition, democracy and free-market systems since it gives them
specializations, and the spread of technology (Steger, 2005). individual freedom to choose and live.
− However, studies have shown overwhelming drawbacks and − Economist Banda (2019), emphasizes that the world we
criticisms on Free Trade over the past decades. The primary live in became more interconnected because of information
examples of these growing concerns are the following and technology, communication, travel and
(Ketover, 2001); transportations, and other innovations and advancement in
o The increasing gap between poor and rich sciences. The spread of technology is part of neoliberal
o Lowering Global Labor standards and Loss of Jobs (due policies to bring all aspects of society (socio-economic and
to Outsourcing); politics) into free-market capitalism.
 Next is the Internationalization of Finance, also known as
MAJOR INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS
Financial Liberalization. It is vital for any trade transaction.
 In the 1940s, shortly after World War II, countries were
Some of the related studies on trade and Finance have a
looking to re-strategize the world’s economy, resulting in a
separate empirical assessment on its impact on the world's
more peaceful relationship among them. One of the
economy. However, we have to understand that these two
objectives was to fight Trade protectionism or a policy that
elements must work hand in hand to deliver efficient
safeguards domestic products through imposing higher tariffs,
transactions with accuracy and enough accountability.
quotas, and other restrictions against any foreign industry or
− Steger (2003) explains that liberalizing Finance means three
(3) things; market. Trade protectionism is one of the causes of the great
o First, it is to deregulate interest rates or reduction of depression in the 1920s to 1930s and eventually led to World
governmental powers on a certain industry to create War II (Cohn, 2012).
more competition.  In 1944, the United Nations Monetary and Financial
o Second, to remove credit controls over financial or Conference was held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire,
commercial institutions to provide their clients with U.S.A. The conference was attended by 44 countries and all
more flexible regulations and expand their business, country representatives agreed to establish international
such as extending loans and other financial services. economic institutions, namely the IMF and World Bank, or
o Third, the privatization of government-owned banks the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
and financial institutions. It will create fewer (IBRD).
restrictions and better investment opportunities for
the various commercial and banking institutions.

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[CW] THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

 And to facilitate an expanded global integration, the more − Hence, reinvigorating one's economy is very crucial in the
informal institution called General Agreement on Tariffs next months or even in the next few years. The primary
and Trade (GATT), also known as WTO, was established. function of IMF is to lend money through what it
called Emergency Financing to its member country like the
 This post-world war II new economic order is later called
Philippines (member since 1945). Yet, the functions of these
the Bretton Woods System, spearheaded by the economic institutions are not limited to lending. It does a
economist John Maynard Keynes. According to Keynes, the whole lot more, which can influence the economic
government has a significant and direct role in managing the mechanisms of various countries.
economy, as opposed to classical liberalism or laissez-faire  What are the other primary functions of the IMF?
economics, particularly if there is an economic downturn or  Are there any other benefits of being a member of the IMF?
crisis through massive spending by the government (Steger  How could the IMF influence various economies of the world?
& Roy, 2019).
 Yet the Bretton Woods system collapsed in the early 1970s, b) WORLD BANK
due to the economic recession and Oil crisis. The imposed − The World Bank is initially known as the International Bank
prohibition and discontinued oil shipments to the USA, UK, of Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and helped
and other allied countries by the Arab-member countries or postwar reconstruction after World War II in Europe.
− The World Bank shifted its mission from rebuilding Europe in
the OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).
1944 to helping various nations to fight poverty and other
It quadrupled the prices of oil and caused stagflation primary functions.
(Stagnant economy and inflation) to the affected countries
(Steger & Roy, 2019). c) WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION
− The Oil Crisis in 1973 became the opportunity − WTO, as discussed in the Internationalization of Trade and
for neoliberals to make the world’s economy to be more Finance born out from the GATT, aimed to reduce trade
integrated and cooperative with one another. This policy barriers. Like other economic institutions such as the IMF
of neoliberalism is later called the Washington Consensus. and World Bank, it promotes free and fair trade among
The three major economic institutions of the world had countries. It functions as the governing body of global
adopted this policy and using it as their measure in providing trading and transactions of its 164 member-countries. Its
terms and agreements to their borrowing countries (Steger & member-nations must adopt the rules on trade promulgated
Roy, 2019) by the WTO.

What are the primary International Economic Institutions of the SUMMARY / CONCLUSION
world, and how they influence the global economy?
 The wax and wane of the world's economy were presented in
− Globalization scholar Manfred Steger (2003) named the
following three (3) fundamental institutions that facilitate this lesson through a variety of analyses of its perspectives.
the globalization of the economy: You were given an opportunity to research and understand
o International Monetary Fund (IMF) the complexities of economic integration and the growing
o World Bank (WB) or International Bank for interdependence of the global market together with its
Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and; concepts. One could infer from this lesson that after all,
o World Trade Organization (WTO) having a globalized economy does not necessarily mean we
will be in a 'utopian' society. It posits the picture of growing
HOW THE THREE ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS OPERATE AND inequalities, environmental degradation, racial discrimination,
AFFECT THE WORLD’S ECONOMY and exploitation of workers, among others.
 Nevertheless, other globalization dimensions cannot exist
a) INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND and intensify without the economic Globalization since
− The primary function is to lend money through what is called culture is being transmitted through convenient exchanges of
Emergency Financing to its member country like the goods and services where one can acquire others' cultural
Philippines (member since 1945) aspects like fashions, food, news, movies, and language.
− The Covid-19 global pandemic causes many countries' Political Globalization is likewise dependent on the trade
economies to shrink and slow down. According to the latest
relations and treaties among countries brought by the
World's GDP report from the IMF, the global economy will
shrink as much as 3% in 2020. integration of the global economy. Thus, one can agree that
economic Globalization is irreversible (Shangquan, 2000)
and inevitably caused by rapid and overwhelming changes in
our global market economy (Friedman, 2005).

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 THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
MODULE 3: POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

Before we look into Political Globalization, let us first review what − Realism refers to the world without a global
globalization has to do with politics. Remember, during the government or any political organization that could impose
discussion in module 1, we defined globalization as a process, or enforce rules against any independent state. It viewed the
state as the most significant and only entity in the world, and
condition, and ideology of intensified interdependence of
there is no legitimate power beyond it. Thus, Realists
economic, technological, political, and socio-cultural relation of believe that the state's power and security or their
the world that compresses time and geographic boundaries 'national' (self) interest are the main concerns in global
through a massive and innovative transformation. politics (Mansback & Taylor, 2018). The State has to
empower itself to survive the anarchical world and uphold its
It is important to study political or international relations as one best interest by defending the same against any enemy at
aspect of globalization because states or government are the key all costs. This realism perspective was prevalent during
the Cold War in 1947 between and among the US and West
drivers of global processes.
European political leaders (Wilkinson, 2007).
o In this theory, states are concerned with how much
WHAT IS POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION
power they have and how much power they have
− The study of global politics and interactions of
relative to other states.
the states and non-state actors, including its people, are
the realms of International relations (Griffiths et al., − However, this political ideology and perception of global
2008). In studying the political dimension of globalization, politics are also prevalent in our current situation with the
therefore, we have to understand the major foundations of Covid-19 Pandemic as noted by some scholars of
international politics. Through this, we could easily identify International relations. Kliem (2020) claimed that we are
the underlying principle of the political phenomenon witnessing an “Us First” mentality of every nation as they
occurring in today’s world. made their way in mitigating the impact of the Pandemic in
o States: each countries’ governments their country.
o Some countries doesn’t want to share their vaccine
o Non-state actors: Multinational Corporation, Non-
supply, to the point that they ban vaccine exports to
Governmental Organizations (NGOs), International Non-
other countries. This is very common in the US during
Governmental Organizations (INGOs)
the Trump era.
− The expansion of a global political system, and its
institutions, in which inter-regional transactions (including,
but not limited to, trade) are managed (Thompson et al., b) LIBERALISM
2008) − Liberalism theory, on the other hand, recognized that the
o This resulted in the alliance or cooperation of numerous world is anarchic but believes that it can be solved through
countries and regions of the world including the creation political interdependence both by the state and non-state
of global institutions like United Nations, World Health actors. It criticizes Realism's view that the state is the only
significant entity in global politics.
Organizations, which are highly influential into this
− Main difference with Realism is that Liberalists consider
contemporary society. non-state actors such as multinational corporations (MNCs),
o In studying the political aspect of globalization, we need international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), and
to understand first the major political theories in the establishment of global government to promote and
international relations. And how these theories influence strengthens cooperation; thus, it may overcome political
the nature and meaning of the political dimension of anarchy in international politics (Mansback & Taylor, 2018;
globalization. Wilkinson, 2007).

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF REALISM AND LIBERALISM

BEFORE POLITICAL INTEGRATION
− Global politics, before the development of political
integration, was viewed and observed as Anarchic – a FUNDAMENTAL
REALISM LIBERALISM
condition where there is no authority or government COMPONENTS
beyond the state or nation that regulates power Struggle for power, International
relations. Political anarchy is likened to individuals without Political
Conflict cooperation,
any rules that governed them, in which the means of survival Philosophy
Interdependence
is 'self-help'. Moreover, it does not subscribe to the idea of
interdependence since the people they considered friends States States and Non-
today could be their enemies tomorrow. states such as
o Imagine the world without the United Nations where Primary Actors INGOs, MNCS,
there is no intervention that resolves dispute between International
countries. That is an example of anarchic society. organization
Self-interest of No international
TWO MAJOR POLITICAL THEORIES IN Major cause of
states regulations,
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS conflict
cooperation
Solution to States should Create a global
a) REALISM eradicate balance the power cooperation and
− The most influential ideology that employs anarchy to conflicts by making alliance interdependence
describe international politics is political Realism.
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[CW] POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

with another state/s (power of dialogue) decipher the critical attributes of states and how
(with the same globalization directly affects them.
beliefs) − Further, the increasing interdependence among the states,
reduces occurrence of conflict and war.
Militarization International law and
Means (military power), institutions, Free &
Diplomatic relations Fair Trade

Table explanation:

I. Political Philosophy
a) Realists: their struggle for power is absolute, which means
that they consider themselves to be the highest authority
and do not recognize a higher power among them and they
will use force when necessary to maintain that power. Figure 1. Theories of international relations and their assumptions on States

b) Liberalists: the complete opposite; they value human rights

 What is State? How does it differ from the concept of a
and they believe that they can share many interests and
Nation? Is Nation-state a more politically correct term?
therefore engaged cooperation with other states.
− If you have noticed, state was always mentioned as
the primary actor of international relations. It is also a
II. Major cause of conflict commonality in realism and liberalism perspective,
a) Realists: self-interest due to their struggle for absolute although they have a different perspective towards the
power condition of this primary actor. It is therefore significant
b) Liberalists: absence of non-consensus to international for us to discuss the crucial attributes of a state and
regulations and cooperation how globalization directly affects it. It will also be
differentiated from the term “nation”.
 How do these theories influence the nature and meaning WHAT IS STATE?
of the political dimension of globalization? − Let's first unlock the definition and concept of 'State' vis-a-
− Between the two political theories in international vis 'Nation'. In a simple comparison, State is a political and
relations, Liberalism became legal concept, while Nation is a racial, ethnic, and cultural
the dominant principle adopted by many political concept. The widely used definition of state among Filipino
leaders and countries around the world. In which the legal and political science luminaries is the following;
creation and maintenance of world peace and security − "State is a community of persons, more or less numerous,
entails the establishment of global governance permanently occupying a definite portion
(Coronacion & Calilung, 2018). of territory, independent of external control and
possessing a government to which a great body of
In the contemporary global politics and inhabitants render habitual obedience" (Nachura, 2014).
primarily liberal perspective, then, what do we mean by political − The said definition, however, was introduced by the
globalization? American Political Science Professor James Garner in
the 1900s and used in the Philippine Jurisprudence in the
POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION case of C.I.R. vs. Campos Rueda (42 SCRA 23) in 1971.
− Political globalization is the
increasing interdependence of political ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF A STATE
institutions, state interrelations, and having a global  People or Citizens –refers to the inhabitants, who will
political system (Steger, 2003; Thompson et al., 2008). govern (lead/ruler) and be governed (subjects) by the state.
− The said definition can be observed by the emergence of  Territory – refers to the fixed surface of the earth inhabited
different regional, inter-regional and global political
organizations: by the people/citizens.
o European Union  Government – is the instrument of the state to enforce its
o Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) will and aspirations.
o Organization for Economic Cooperation and  Sovereignty – most important; pertains to the supreme
Development (OECD) power of the State to command and impose obedience to its
o Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) jurisdiction without interference or control by any other
o United Nations and alike. entity or another state.
− States play a vital role in this intensified political Two kinds/aspects of Sovereignty:
interdependence of the world and a significant component of o Internal – refers to the ultimate authority or the power to
global developments (Claudio & Abinales, 2018). rule within the state.
Furthermore, looking at the common ground between − When we say Internal Sovereignty, it means that no
Realism and Liberalism perspectives, they both individuals or groups can operate in a given national
recognized the state as the actor of international politics territory by ignoring the state. For example, groups like
(Figure 1). Though they have different perspectives towards churches, civil society organizations and corporation,
the condition of this primary actor of international relations, and the other entities have to follow the laws of the
they have valid viewpoints depending on the lenses we are state where they establish their parishes, offices, or
going to consider. It is, therefore, imperative for us to headquarters.

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[CW] POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

o External – a.k.a. Independence, or state’s ability to act connection – our identity, which binds us together
as an autonomous entity (Heywood, 2013) and makes us a nation (Anderson, 2006).
− When we say External Sovereignty, this means that a − Furthermore, Anderson believes that nation is ‘limited’
state policies are independent of the interventions of because it has certain finite boundaries, unlike a
other states. For example, China cannot make or pass religious membership where anyone can be baptized
laws for the Philippines, and also vice versa. or converted. While for nation, one cannot easily
become a citizen (member) of a particular nation, for
− The 4 essential elements of states were first identified and instance, from being a Filipino to a Korean. You cannot
used in the Montevideo Convention on States' Rights simply proceed to the Korean Embassy and be a
and Duties, signed in 1933; naturalized Korean citizen. A nation is also ‘sovereign’
− All of those elements ‘must’ be present for a state to exist. In because it has its authority or legitimacy established by
the absence of one of the elements, there can be no State. the people (Anderson, 2006).
− Hence, Nation, following the perspectives of Anderson,
is an essential factor to form a state. How? The
NATION
national identity or nationalism makes people clamor
− In contrast, Nation is a primarily socio-cultural and historical for their sovereignty or independence, which is one of
association of people in a given territory (Heywood, 2013). the essential elements of a state. In the Philippines, for
And for the Nation to exist, it does not need the essential instance, Filipinos are known for establishing
elements of the state. progressive organizations to uphold their nationalist
− There is, however, a long debate as to whether a Nation is a sentiments. During the time of Dr. Jose Rizal and Gat
natural (communities) based on historical change, or an Andres Bonifacio, there were propaganda and
invented (communities) in the minds of people belonging to revolutionary movements clamored for Filipinos
a specific community, or the sense of connectedness. For political rights and identity, such as La Liga Filipina and
the Political scientist Benedict Anderson (1983), in his Katipunan. In the course of global politics in the past,
book “Imagined Communities”, he defined Nation as the majority of nations aspire for independence or
the “imagined political community”; and imagined as become a state. It is, for this reason, the term nation-
both inherently limited and sovereign”. But, what does state is formulated and widely accepted, and defined
Anderson mean by ‘Imagined Community?’ And how does it as “a form of political organization and political
relate to the concept of a nation? ideal” (Heywood, 2013).
o Calling it “imagined” does not mean that the nation is − From this concept of the nation-state, Independence or
made up. Rather, the nation allows one to feel a sovereignty is obviously the state's most essential
connection with the community of people even if he/she element. Nevertheless, globalization, or the notion of
will never meet all of them in his/her lifetime. political interdependence, poses as a nation-state
o For example, when you cheer for a Filipino athlete in the problem where it can limit the state’s sovereignty in
olympics, it is not because you personally know the determining and enacting its legislation. The common
issue of a state’s sovereignty (external) is with regard
athlete rather you imagine your connection as both
to the formulation and implementation of economic
members of the same Filipino community. policies. For example, taking current international trade
− It is limited because it does not go beyond given “official pressures, like multinational corporations, for lowering
boundary”. the country’s labor costs and cutting tax liabilities to
− Rights and responsibilities are mainly the privilege and create a more competitive domestic market may
concern of the citizens of the nations. jeopardize the concept of state sovereignty. Another
example is the influence of international non-
 REMEMBER: Not all states are nations, not all nations governmental organizations (INGOs) such as Amnesty
are states: International, who are investigating and pressuring the
− The nation of Scotland has its own flag and national state to fight human rights violations, which some
culture, but still belongs to a state called the United consider it to be interfering with their sovereignty.
Kingdom (this state has four nations: Scotland, Ireland,
England, and Wales which are still part of one HOW THE CONCEPT OF INTERSTATE RELATIONS
government which is the state of the UK). DEVELOPED?
− The nation of Korea is divided into two states, North − The Sovereignty principle of the state was born in
Korea and South Korea (because North Korea and 17th Century Europe through the Westphalian System
South Korea two different governments that feed its or Westphalian Treaty, signed in 1648. The Treaty was
citizens). used to conclude the Thirty Years Religious War
between the Catholic and Protestant nation-states
 What are the other fundamental characteristics of a following the Protestant Reformation (Held & McGrew,
Nation for Anderson? And how it related to the concept 2002; Steger, 2003).
of Nation-state? − Westphalian Treaty signified that all states, big or small,
have an equal right, including the right to self-
− It is interesting to
note that for determination – the principle of free and independent
Anderson, as government. Hence, all States are obliged not to intervene
members of a in the affairs of another State. This Westphalian system
community, we created a political order called the modern nation-state
perceive that we system or Interstate system in Europe. However, this
are related to one structure was not part of the international order until the late
another or has an 20th century, when America, the Soviet Union, Europe, and
image of our other nations eventually joined the community of states as

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[CW] POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

independent and separate political entities (Held & McGrew, European socialist labor party called Socialist
2002). International.
o The Westphalian System, which started during the 17th − After the Russian revolution, a fundamental socialist
Century Europe is a very concept in today’s global movement emerged under the name of the Union of
politics. For example, in the ASEAN, they have this Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
principle of the non-interference principle which is − However, after the collapse of the USSR in the 1990s,
socialist internationalism was limited only to selected
requiring the ASEAN members state’s to refrain from European countries and cannot be regarded as a
interfering in each other’s internal affairs. significant player in international relations (Claudio &
Abinales, 2018).
− Key proponents of this principle are the following political
thinkers;
o Marx and Engels – Alter the economy in favor of the
workers (proletariat). Advocates that the working class of
the world must unite and identify themselves to their
fellow workers and not by the capitalists. “Workers of
the World, Unite”- Communist Manifesto (Marx &
Engels). Main argument of the Communist Manifesto is
that creating one class of people will end the problem of
continuous class struggles and cycles of revolution
between the working class (‘di ko maintindihan) and the
middle class (bourgeoisie).
o Vladimir Lenin (Russia) – who believed that the
− The most prominent political leader who advanced the problems of workers are an international concern. He led
principle of Self-determination was US President Woodrow the revolution against capitalist society by any means
Wilson. He believes that nation-states that are free, possible. Under Lenin, USSR and Communist
sovereign, and democratic will result in the creation International (Comintern) were established. Comintern
of political interdependence based on is an international organization that advocated world
mutual respect and cooperation (Heywood, 2013). This communism controlled by the Soviet Union.
principle was outlined on President Wilson’s “Fourteen
o Joseph Stalin – who advocated for greater cooperation
Points” – submitted to the Paris Peace Conference that
ended World War I through the Treaty of Versailles signed in among nation-states to adopt a socialist concept of
1919. common ownership of the means of production in total
economic and social equality among its citizens that
In the 19th century, the interstate system was further intensified to would eventually lead to communism.
improve cooperation and cohesion between nation-states. Thus,
the concept of Internationalism was developed by nation-states b) LIBERAL INTERNATIONALISM
to make global political cooperation.
− Focused on economic interdependence, the rule
of law, cooperation between nation-states, and arbitration
WHAT IS INTERNATIONALISM? (through diplomacy, mediation, negotiation) of disputes.
− The principle of Internationalism can be divided into two (2) − Key proponents of this principle are the following political
Major Factions (Figure 2); thinkers with their ideals;
o Immanuel Kant – who believed in the creation of global
government and world citizenship. He also argued that
without the form of world government (where nation’s
states comes together) the world will be chaotic.
o Jeremy Bentham – advanced the idea of the creation of
international law that would regulate interstate relations.
o Giuseppe Mazzini – 19th Century Italian Patriot;
promoted the idea that independent and stable nation-
states would form the basis of global cooperation.
o Woodrow Wilson – advocated for the establishment of
the League of Nations (LON) that eventually restructured
to what is now known as the United Nations.
Figure 2. Internationalism and its major factions
− Liberal internationalism emerged as the prevailing and
a) SOCIALIST INTERNATIONALISM generally accepted principle in international relations and
− Advocated for the solidarity among the working class resulted in the founding of the United Nations.
(proletariat), and sought to abolish the capitalist system − The United Nations (UN) is the most potent
controlled by the bourgeoisie (French word which means manifestation of the ascendancy of Liberal
“middle class”). internationalism in contemporary global politics. The
− This echoes one criticism against the capitalist society primary duty of the United Nations is to preserve and
where the “rich get richer and the poor get poorer.” It establish peace, stability, and cooperation among nations
upholds the political and economic ideology of Karl (Art. 1, Chapter 1 of the UN Charter).
Marx and Friedrich Engels and was realized by the
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[CW] POLITICAL GLOBALIZATION

− The UN established six principal organs, according to the CONCLUSION

Art. 7, Chapter III of its Charter, and they are the following;  Global politics, characterized by the increased
interdependence of states, is one of the fundamental
1. General Assembly (GA)
structures of globalization. The movement of people,
− The General Assembly is the main deliberative, policy goods, and services are viable with the prevailing global
making, and representative organ of the UN. All Member norms and policies adopted by these states, which
States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly,
sometimes compromises each other's best interest and
making it the only UN body with universal representation.
− Each year in September, usually, the UN meets in the Sovereignty.
General Assembly where they discuss decisions on  The interstate system may somehow promote greater
important questions or matters such us those in peace and cooperation among nation-states, but most of the time, it
security, admission of new members, and budgetary matters sacrifices each sovereignty and independence through the
or concerns. economic pressures of the outside forces. Unlike
economically stable nation-states, these forces are faced by
2. Security Council (SC)
small nations or developing countries. It is the reason many
− The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the of the so-called ‘Hyperglobalizers’ believe that the
UN Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and
Political dimension is merely a secondary phenomenon,
security. The Security Council takes the lead in determining
the existence of a threat to the peace or act of aggression. It and hence Techno-Economic dimension is the most
calls upon the parties to a dispute to settle it by peaceful fundamental structure of globalization (Steger, 2003).
means and recommends methods of adjustment or terms of  Global politics does not equal globalization. Although, it is
settlement. a major part of globalization. As explained and as discussed
− Some significant issues that were tackled in the UN Security in the introduction, globalization encompasses the multitude
Council were terrorist related issues and the accessions of
of connections and interactions that cannot be reduced to the
weapons of North Korea.
ties between governments. But, nevertheless, it is important
3. Economic & Social Council (ECOSOC) to study international relation as one facet of globalization
because states and government are the drivers(??? ‘di ko
− The Economic and Social Council is the principal body for
coordination, policy review, policy dialogue and alam) of global processes.
recommendations on economic, social and environmental
issues, as well as implementation of internationally agreed
development goals.
− The ECOSOC is the high level political forum which reviews
the implementation and discussion of the sustainable
development goals (SDGs).

4. International Court of Justice (ICJ)

− The International Court of Justice is the principal judicial
organ of the UN. The Court’s goal is to settle, in accordance
with international law, legal disputes submitted to it by
member states.
− One significant issue in Asia regarding ICJ is the Rohingya
Genocide Case in Myanmar.

5. Trusteeship Council
− Provides international supervision for Trust Territories and
endure that adequate steps were taken to prepare the
Territories for self-government and independence.
− This is not (as of this moment) operational because there
are no more Trust Territories or what we call the Colonial
Territories that were taken from countries defeated in war.

6. Secretariat
− The Secretariat comprises the Secretary-General and tens
of thousands of international UN staff members who carry
out the day-to-day work of the UN as mandated by the
General Assembly and the Organization’s other principal
bodies.
− The important role of the UN’s Secretariat is that it sets up
agendas for the decision-making bodies of the UN.
− This also houses the Secretary-General who is appointed by
the General Assembly as the head of the Secretariat.

LAPUZ, C.A. | BSMT-2E