Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (LAB): CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

During our discussion in the lecture, part it was already In the image, the plasma or the cell membrane is known to
mentioned how the plasma membrane exhibits a property have a more positive charge in its outer surface. and a
of being selectively permeable — meaning it allows the more negative charge in its inner surface.
passage or the passing through of some but not all
substances. 3. Electrochemical gradient
− Is the combined influence of the previously
GRADIENTS ACROSS THE PLASMA mentioned gradients on the movement of ions
− both the concentration and electrical gradients
The different gradients across the plasma membrane which
MEMBRANE are important to reach an equilibrium
are responsible for maintaining balance in the
whenever substances move across the plasma
movement of the substances through the plasma or the cell
membrane.
membrane.

1. concentration gradient
− Defined as the difference in the concentration
of a chemical from one place to another
▪ Or from the inside to the outside of the
plasma membrane
− Example: sodium ions are more
concentrated outside the cell compared with
potassium ions that are more
concentrated inside (PISO: potassium inside,
sodium outside)

Transport mechanisms

The movement of substances across cellular membranes

may be classified as passive or active depending on the
use of energy.

1. passive processes
2. electrical gradient − Deal with substances that move down or with
− Is defined as the difference in electrical charges its concentration or electrical gradient using
between two regions: inside and the only its own kinetic energy or its
energy of motion
outside of the plasma membrane
▪ Difference in the distribution of positively − There is no processing of energy involved from
and negatively charged ions on either side the cell
of the plasma membrane − Example: Simple diffusion
− membrane potential: term used for the
charge difference (see pic below) 2. active processes
− Deal with the use of energy usually in the form
of ATP to move substances uphill or against its
concentration or electrical gradient
− Example: Active transport

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (LAB): CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

1. simple diffusion
− Simply means that substances move freely
across the membrane without the help of
membrane transport proteins
− Examples: water, urea, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, nitrogen, fatty acids, steroids, and fat
soluble vitamins such as vitamins A, D, E, and K

2. facilitated diffusion
− requires the assistance or help of an integral
membrane protein to be able to pass through
the membrane
PASSIVE PROCESSES: DIFFUSION
− : integral membrane proteins extend
 Involves random mixing of particles in a solution into or through the bilayer and are firmly
due to the kinetic energy or the energy of embedded in it
motion of the particles − Examples: glucose, fructose, galactose, and
 A solute moves down its concentration gradient some vitamins
that is — the solutes move from an area of − Two types:
higher concentration to an area of lower
concentration
 Example: Placing a drop of colored dye or ink in a a. Channel-Mediated Facilitated Diffusion
container filled with water − A solute moves down or with its concentration
▪ The most intense color was seen in the area gradient through the use of membrane
where the drop was first placed because its channels (mostly ion channels: these
concentration was higher there; are integral transmembrane proteins that
▪ but as the dye or ink diffuses down its allow the passage of inorganic ions that
concentration gradient the color becomes cannot pass through the lipid bilayer because
lighter and the dye or ink molecules become of their hydrophilic or water loving nature)
more distributed − TWO TYPES:
thus reaching a. Leaks channels: constantly and
continuously allow the passage of ions
▪ Diffusion the solute b. gated channels: may gate, so it
in this case, the dye limits the movement of ions by opening or
or the ink moved closing the pore through changing its
from an area of shape
higher concentration
to an area of lower
concentration
 two types: Simple Diffusion and Facilitated
Diffusion.

b. Carrier Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

− Makes use of a carrier or a
transporter to move solutes down or
with its concentration gradient
− These carriers undergo shape change
following the shape of the solute in order to
move it across the membrane

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (LAB): CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

− Now, the steepness of the concentration − the greater the distance on which the diffusion
gradient determines how quickly this type of will occur, the longer will be the rate of
facilitated diffusion occurs diffusion
− Exhibits transport maximum and
saturation
▪ Transport maximum is upper limit this PASSIVE PROCESSES: OSMOSIS
means that once all carriers are utilized
already; reached its maximum, fully  Is another example
saturated; and the rate of facilitated of a passive process
diffusion will no longer increase. and a type of
diffusion where there
is a net
movement of
solvent through a
selectively
permeable
membrane
 Solvent: Water
 May be seen in two perspectives:
a. Concentration of water: osmosis
may be defined as the diffusion of water across
a selectively permeable membrane from an
area of higher water concentration to an
area of lower water concentration or;
steepness of the concentration
b. perspective of solutes: diffusion of
gradient
water from an area of lower solute
− The greater or the bigger the difference in the
concentration to an area of higher solute
concentration between the two sides of the
concentration
membrane → the higher or the faster will be
the rate of diffusion so the  During osmosis, the movement of water molecules
through the membrane may be facilitated in two
− Steepness of the concentration gradient and
ways:
the rate of diffusion is directly proportional
a) Simple Diffusion
b) Aquaporins: are integral membrane proteins
Temperature that act as water channels
− considered directly proportional with the
 Osmosis occurs only when a membrane is
rate of diffusion
permeable to water but not to certain solutes
− the higher the temperature the faster will be
the rate of diffusion

mass of the diffusing substance

− inversely or indirectly proportional with
the diffusion rate
− the larger the mass of the diffusing particle, the
slower diffusion rate

surface area
− is considered directly proportional with the This picture is a perfect example to show osmosis.
diffusion rate ▪ Pure water is on the left side of the u-shaped tube
− the greater the membrane surface area ▪ While a solution with a solute that cannot pass
available for diffusion, the faster will be the through the membrane is on the right
diffusion rate ▪ There will be a net movement of water from left to
right because the water concentration is higher on
diffusion distance the left
− is considered indirectly or inversely
proportional with the diffusion rate meaning

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (LAB): CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

▪ And again, one of the definitions of osmosis is the c) Hypotonic

diffusion of water from an area of higher water − used to describe a solution that has lower
concentration to an area of lower water concentration of solutes than the cytosol
concentration inside the cell
▪ This results in the decrease of volume of water in − this may lead to the moving of water
the left side and an increase of volume in the right molecules into the cell, causing cell
▪ two pressures are involved in this example of bursting, rupture, or lysis
osmosis:
a) Hydrostatic Pressure: pressure exerted by
the liquid
b) Osmotic Pressure: is the pressure needed to
stop the movement of water from the left side
to the right
▪ The more the volume on the right increases, the
more pressure it exerts, and this pressure exerted
by the liquid is the hydrostatic pressure
▪ This pressure will then force molecules force water
molecules back into the left side
▪ There is only equilibrium when the molecules
moving from right to left which is due to
hydrostatic pressure is equal to that of those ACTIVE PROCESSES: ACTIVE TRANSPORT
molecules moving from left to right, which is due to
osmosis  The active transport facilitates an uphill movement
▪ Now, osmotic pressure on the other hand is the or they move substances against their
pressure needed to stop the movement of water concentration gradients
from the left side to the right  The active transport it is an example of an active
▪ The higher the solute concentration that cannot process requiring the use of energy for carrier
pass through the membrane the higher will be the proteins to move substances across the plasma
osmotic pressure so they are directly proportional. membrane
 This process also exhibits transport maximum and
saturation
TONICITY  There are two possible sources of energy:
a) energy from the hydrolysis of ATP
 is a measure of the ability of a solution to change which is the source used for primary active
the volume of cells by altering or changing their transport
water content, b) energy stored in an ionic
 three types: concentration gradient which is the
a) Hypertonic source for secondary active transport.
− Is used to describe a solution that has  two types of active transport
higher concentration of solutes than the 1) Primary Active Transport
cytosol or the intracellular fluid inside the − Energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP
cells changes the shape of a carrier protein
− This may lead to the moving out of water which pumps a substance across the
molecules from the cells membrane against its concentration
− This will cause this the cell to shrink or gradient (pumps)
crenation or cell shrinkage − The shape of a carrier protein changes
b) Isotonic through the energy derived from ATP
− is the solution to be used to maintain hydrolysis
the cell's normal shape and size − This change in shape will pump the
− there is same concentration seen in both substance across the membrane against
sides of the membrane, seen intracellularly its concentration gradient
and extracellularly − Now, these pumps refer to carrier
proteins that are involved in the primary
active transport

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (LAB): CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

− An example of a primary active transport

mechanism: sodium-potassium pump Na+-
K+ ATPase pump

▪ From the image, in secondary active transport,

▪ Now, in this pump seen in this picture, three Na carrier protein binds two substances substances at
ions will bind to the Sodium Potassium Pump the same time
▪ This will then trigger the ATP to bind to the ▪ Sabay nagbbind yung two different substances sa
Sodium Potassium Pump as well carrier protein
▪ The ATP will then break down into a DP and ▪ Then, the carrier protein will change its shape —
releases energy so both of the substances can pass through the
▪ This energy will then be used for the change in membrane at the same time
shape in the Sodium Potassium Pump
▪ Once the pump changes its shape, the Na ions ACTIVE PROCESSES: VESICLES
will be transported into the extracellular  Requires energy from ATP
fluid in exchange two potassium ions will bind to  Vesicle is a small spherical sac
the pump  two main processes: Exocytosis and
▪ The phosphate is released from the pump Endocytosis
binding site
▪ The pump will then again undergo shape ENDOCYTOSIS
change from the energy of the released − Materials move into the cell in a vesicle formed
phosphate to transport the potassium ions into the from the plasma membrane
cell − there is an uptake of material where the
▪ Remember the acronym PISO (Potassium In, membrane folds inward to form a vesicle
Sodium Out) containing the materials to be taken inside the
▪ So, two potassium ions in three sodium ions out. cell
− three types of endocytosis:
2) Secondary Active Transport 1) Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
− The energy stored in an ionic − Highly selective; cells take up specific
concentration gradient is used; indirectly ligands which are molecules that
uses energy obtained from the hydrolysis bind to specific receptors
of ATP − Imports materials that are needed by
− uses the energy stored in an ionic cells
concentration gradient
− this type of active transport indirectly use 2) Phagocytosis
energy from the hydrolysis of ATP − Also known as cell eating
− the diffusion of the transported substance − This is where cells engulf large solid
down its concentration gradient provides particles
the energy to transport a second − This process is carried out by special
substance cells known as phagocytes
− SYMPORTERS: move two substances in
the same direction (Ex: Na & Glucose, Na 3) Bulk-Phase or Pinocytosis
& Amino Acid) − known as pinocytosis or cell
− ANTIPORTERS: in opposite directions (Ex: drinking
Na & H, Na & Ca) − this is where much smaller vesicles are
formed and tiny droplets of
extracellular fluid are taken up rather
than large particles

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (LAB): CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

exocytosis force of contractions and strengthening

− Material moves out of the cell by fusion with the force of the heart beat
the plasma membrane of vesicles formed
inside the cell
− Allows the release of materials from the cell by
the fusion of a secretory vesicle which was
formed inside the cell it will fuse with the
plasma membrane
− This is important especially in secretory cells
and nerve cells

c) viruses and receptor-mediated

endocytosis
− An example of a virus that employ
receptor-mediated endocytosis is the HIV
which causes AIDS
− HIV virus attaches to a receptor called the
cd4 which is present in the plasma
membrane of a type of white blood cell
known as the helper t cell
− The HIV enters the cell via this mechanism,
the receptor-mediated endocytosis
cellular pathophysiology
 diseases that may occur in connection with the
transport mechanism
a) tonicity in relation to our RBC
− Red blood cells are easily destroyed when
exposed to hypertonic or hypotonic
solutions
− That is why most IV solutions or
intravenous solutions infused in the blood
are isotonic
− Hypertonic Solutions: manitol is
used to treat patients with cerebral edema d) cystic fibrosis or cf
to relieve the overload of fluid in the brain − Is a genetic disorder characterized by an
− Hypotonic Solutions: are given to abnormality in chloride channels
dehydrated patients so that the water will − Normally as chloride moves out of cells
move into their body cells for rehydration that line body tubes such as respiratory
passages, water follows by osmosis
b) sodium potassium pumps − In patients with cystic fibrosis or CF,
− Digitalis is a drug given to patients chloride does not exit these cells which
with heart failure causes less water to move into the tubes
− The drug has an effect of slowing down − The less water leads to difficulty in getting
the action of sodium potassium pumps rid of mucous
− The sodium potassium pumps let more − Thus, resulting to build up of mucus
sodium accumulate inside the heart muscle
cells
− This really this results in a decreased
sodium concentration gradient across the
plasma membrane which causes the
sodium calcium antiporters to slow down
− This leads to more calcium staying in the
heart muscle cells thereby increasing the

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 Human Anatomy and Physiology Mod 2 (LAB): CELL TRANSPORT MECHANISM

e) Emphysema
− Is a lung disease characterized by damage
to the walls of the alveoli or air sacs of
our lungs
− The alveoli have a large membrane
surface to allow for the diffusion of
oxygen from the air that we breathe into
our blood
− Remember, that surface area is one of
the factors that affect the rate of diffusion
− People with this lung disease since they
have damaged alveoli, they have reduced
surface area for diffusion to occur
− Therefore, the diffusion rate of oxygen
becomes slower and there is difficulty
breathing (DOB) for people with
emphysema

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