Principles of PHYSICS- II

Grade XII

Rajendra Pd. Koirala Prajjwal Khanal

Assistant Professor Lecturer of Physics
Central Department of Physics
Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu
PRINCIPLES OF
PH YSI CS - II

Edition: First 2018

Reprint 2019
Reprint 2020

©Authors
Publishers: Asmita Books Publishers and Distributors (P) Ltd.
Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel. 01-4168216/4168274
website: www.asmitapublication.com.np
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email: [email protected]

Distributors: Kasthamandap Pustak Pasal

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Price: Rs. 825/-

ISBN: 978-9937-615-29-7
Printed in: Kathmandu, Nepal
 Preface
There are a number of textbooks of +2 levels in the market. So, obviously, a natural question arises, why
another one again? The major reason is that most of the textbooks tend to be dry and formal and hence
often difficult or complex for the students. It was thus essential to develop a textbook that could touch
the pulse of students hence, this textbook is developed with a new approach. Our approach is to
recognize that physics is a description of reality starting each topic with concrete observations and
experiences to enable students directly related to it. Not only does this book make the material more
interesting and easier to understand but also it is closer to the way that physics is actually practiced
worldwide.
This book entitled "Principles of Physics- II" covers the latest syllabus of class XII. The main objectives
of this book are two folds: to provide the student with a clear and logical presentation of the basic
concepts and principles of physics, and to strengthen an understanding of the concepts and principles
through a broad range of interesting applications to the real world.
This book is an end product of our uninterrupted two decade long teaching experience. We have tried to
solve all the difficulties of the students through this book. The basic parts presented in this book are
explanation of theory, mathematical formulae, related figures, answers to the short questions, worked
out examples and adequate self practice questions. In some observational facts, reliable reference books
are mentioned to avoid the confusion for the reader. In the numerical portions, 'ALP' refers to Advanced
Level Physics and 'UP' refers to University Physics. SI system of unit is used throughout the book.
We wish to acknowledge our indebtedness to the many international books which have been
consummated. We would like to express our profound and sincere gratitude to our family, colleagues,
students, readers, etc. from different part of the country who have adopted this book and sent us their
compliments and valuable suggestions through available means. In this regard, special mention goes to
Mr. Prakash Pantha, Mr. Akash Pokhrel, Mr. Shesh Nath Chaudhary, Sanjaya K. Sharma, Diwash Dahal,
Bipin Bhattarai, Roshan Shrestha, Laxman Aryal and all of our students.
Last but not least, Mr. Manoj Kumar Sharma, managing director of Asmita Books Publishers &
Distributors (P) Ltd. deserves our acclaim for meticulous efforts and suggestions to present this
collective effort to carry out these matters in this form. We are also very much thankful to Mr. Bipin
Kumar Acharya for his valuable advice and suggestions in preparing the book. Mr. Niraj Bhattarai
deserves thanks and appreciation for his outstanding type settings and layout for this book.
Humbly, we would like to request our esteemed readers to kindly send us the valuable suggestions for
the improvement of the book and to notify of any errors they might come across while going through it.
By which both will be thankfully acknowledged and incorporated in the next edition.
Finally, we would like to thank almighty for this endless blessings and kindness.

June 2018
Authors
Teaching hours: 150T +50P
Syllabus Full marks: 100 (75T + 25 P)
Nature of course: Theory +Practical Pass Marks: 27T + 8P

Course Contents

Unit-1 Waves and Optics TH 40

Waves TH 23
1. Wave Motion- Wave motion; Longitudinal and transverse waves; Progressive and stationary
waves; Mathematical description of a wave. LH4
2. Mechanical Waves- Speed of wave motion; Velocity of sound in solid and liquid; Velocity of
sound in gas; Laplace’s correction; Effect of temperature, pressure, humidity on velocity of
sound. LH5
3. Wave in Pipes and Strings- Stationery waves in closed and open pipes; Harmonics and
overtones in closed and open organ pipes; End correction in pipes; Resonance Tube
experiment; Velocity of transverse waves along a stretched string; Vibration of string and
overtones; Laws of vibration of fixed string. LH6
4. Acoustic Phenomena- Sound waves: Pressure amplitude; Characteristics of sound:
Intensity; loudness, quality and pitch; Beats; Doppler’s effect; Infrasonic and ultrasonic
waves; Noise pollution: Sources, health hazard and control. LH8
Physical Optics TH 17
1. Nature and Propagation of Light- Nature and sources of light; Electromagnetic spectrum;
Huygen’s principle, Reflection and Refraction according to wave theory; Velocity of light:
Foucault’s method; Michelson’s method. LH6
2. Interference- Phenomenon of Interferences; Coherent sources; Young’s two slit experiment;
Newton’s ring LH4
3. Diffraction- Diffraction from a single slit; Diffraction pattern of image; Diffraction grating;
Resolving power of optical instruments LH4
4. Polarization- Phenomenon of polarization; Brewster’s law; transverse nature of light; Polaroid LH3

Unit-2 Electricity and Magnetism TH 55

Current Electricity TH 20
1. D.C. Circuit- Electric Currents; Drift velocity and its relation with current; Ohm’s law;
Electrical Resistance; Resistivity; Conductivity; Super conductors; Perfect Conductors;
Current-voltage relations; Ohmic and Non-Ohmic resistance; Resistances in series and
parallel, Potential Divider, Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter and ammeter,
Ohmmeter; Electromotive force: Emf of a source, internal resistance; Work and power in
electrical circuits; Joule’s law and its verification. LH9
2. Electrical Circuits- Kirchhoffs laws; Wheatstone bridge circuit; P.O.Box, Meter Bridge;
Potentiometer; Comparison of e.m.f’s., measurement of internal resistance of a cell. LH7
3. Thermoelectric Effect- Seebeck Effect; Thermocouples, Peltier effect: Variation of
thermoelectric emf with temperature, Thermopile, Thomson effects. LH2
4. Chemical Effect of Current- Faraday’s laws of electrolysis; Faraday’s constant, Verification
of Faraday laws of electrolysis. LH2
Magnetic Field of Current TH 35
1. Magnetic Field- Magnetic field lines and magnetic flux; Oersted’s experiment; Force on
moving charge, Force on Conductor; Force and Torque on rectangular coil, Moving coil
galvanometer; Hall effect; Magnetic field of a moving charge; Biot and Savart law and its
application to (i) a circular coil (ii)a long straight conductor (iii) a long solenoid; Ampere’s law
and its application to (i)a long straight conductor (ii) a straight solenoid (iii) a toroidal
solenoid; Forces between two parallel conductors carrying current- definition of ampere. LH14
2. Magnetic Properties of Materials- Elements of earth magnetism and their variation; Dip and
Dip circle; Flux density in magnetic material; Relative permeability; Susceptibility; Hysteresis,
Dia,-Para- and Ferro-magnetic materials. LH5
3. Electromagnetic Induction- Faraday’s laws; Induced electric fields; Lenz’s law, Motional
electromotive force; AC generators; eddy currents; Self inductance and Mutual inductance;
Energy stored in an inductor; Transformer. LH8
4. Alternating Currents- Peak and RMS Value of AC current and Voltages, AC through resistor,
capacitor and inductor; Phasor diagram, Series circuits containing combination of resistor,
capacitor and inductor; Series Resonance, Quality factor; Power in AC circuits: Power factor;
choke coil. LH 8

Unit-3 Modern Physics TH 55

1. Electrons and Photons- Electrons: Milikan’s oil drop experiment, Gaseous discharge at
various pressure; Cathode rays, Motion of electron beam in electric and magnetic fields;
Thomson’s experiment to determine specific charge of electrons. Photons: Quantum nature of
radiation; Einstein’s photoelectric equation; Stopping potential; Measurement of Plank’s
constant, Milikan’s experiment LH 10
2. Solids and Semiconductor Devices- Structure of solids; Energy bands in solids (qualitative
ideas only); Difference between metals, insulators and semi-conductors using band theory;
Intrinsic and extrinsic semi-conductors; P-N Junction; Semiconductor diode: Characteristics
in forward and reverse bias; Full wave rectification; Filter circuit; Zener diode; Transistor:
Common emitter characteristics, Logic gates; NOT, OR, AND, NAND and NOR.,
Nanotechnology (introductory idea) LH 11
3. Quantization of Energy- Bohr’s theory of hydrogen atom; Spectral series; Excitation and
ionization potentials; Energy level; Emission and absorption spectra, De Broglie Theory;
Duality; Uncertainly principle. Lasers: He- Ne laser, Nature and production, properties and
uses. X-rays: Nature and production; uses: X-rays, X-rays diffraction, Bragg’s law. LH9
4. Nuclear Physics- Nucleus: Discovery of nucleus; Nuclear density; Mass number; Atomic
number; Atomic mass; Isotopes; Einstein’s mass-energy relation, Mass Defect; Binding
energy; Fission and fusion. LH6
5. Radioactivity- Alpha-particles; Beta-particles, Gamma rays; Laws of radioactive
disintegration; Half-life and decay constant; Geiger-Muller Tube; Radio carbon dating;
Medical use of nuclear radiation; Health hazards and safety precautions. LH7
6. Nuclear Energy and Other Sources of Energy- Sources of energy; Conservation and
degradation of energy; Transformation of energy. Nuclear energy: Energy released from fission
and fusion; Thermal and Hydroelectric power; Wind energy; Biofuels; Solar energy; Solar
constant; Solar devices; Global energy consumption pattern and demands; Energy use in
Nepal. Fuels and pollution: Global Warming; Acid rain. LH9
7. Particle Physics and Cosmology- Particles and antiparticles, Quarks and Leptons, baryons,
mesons. Universe- Hubble law; Big Bang; Critical density; Dark matter LH3
 Contents
Unit-1: Waves and Optics

1. Wave Motion
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Wave Motion 2
1.3 Graphical Representation of Waves 7
1.4 Basic Terminologies of Wave 8
1.5 Progressive Wave 10
1.6 Differential Form of Wave Equation 12
1.7 Interference of Sound 13
1.8 Stationary Wave 15
1.9 Stationary Waves in Boundary 17
 Tips for MCQs 20
 Worked Out Problems 21
 Challenging Problems 23
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 24
 Exercises 26
 Multiple Choice Questions 28
 Hints to Challenging Problems 29

2. Mechanical Waves
2.1 Introduction 33
2.2 Speed of Mechanical Wave 36
2.3 Speed of Sound in Gaseous Medium 38
2.4 Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound in a Gas 40
 Tips for MCQs 42
 Worked Out Problems 43
 Challenging Problems 46
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 47
 Exercises 50
 Multiple Choice Questions 52
 Hints to Challenging Problems 53

3. Waves in Pipes and Strings

3.1 Tone, Note, Harmonics and Overtones 57
3.2 Organ Pipes 58
3.3 Open Organ Pipe 60
3.4 End Correction of Organ Pipe 63
3.5 Forced and Damped Oscillation 64
3.6 Resonance 64
3.7 Resonance Tube Apparatus 66
3.8 Waves in String 68
3.9 Modes of Vibration of a Stretched String 70
3.10 Verification of Laws of Vibrating Strings 74
 Tips for MCQs 76
  Worked Out Problems 78
 Challenging Problems 81
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 83
 Exercises 87
 Multiple Choice Questions 90
 Hints to Challenging Problems 91

4. Acoustic Phenomena
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Pressure Amplitude 95
4.3 Characteristics of Sound 97
4.4 Relations of Intensity and Amplitude of Wave 99
4.5 Intensity Level 102
4.6 Infrasonics, Audible, Ultrasonics and Supersonics 104
4.7 Beats 105
4.8 Doppler’s Effect 110
4.9 Noise, Noise Pollution and its Control 119
 Tips for MCQs 120
 Worked Out Problems 121
 Challenging Problems 125
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 126
 Exercises 130
 Multiple Choice Questions 133
 Hints to Challenging Problems 133

5. Speed of Light
5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Foucault's Method 137
5.3 Importance of measuring speed of light 141
 Tips for MCQs 142
 Worked Out Problems 142
 Challenging Problems 143
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 144
 Exercises 145
 Multiple Choice Questions 146
 Hints to Challenging Problems 147

6. Physical Optics
6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Electromagnetic Waves 150
6.3 Wavefronts and Wavelets 152
6.4 Wave Theory of Light 154
6.5 Laws of Reflection of Light from Wave Theory 155
6.6 Laws of Refraction of Light from Wave Theory 156
 Tips for MCQs 158
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 158
 Exercises 160
 Multiple Choice Questions 160
7. Interference of Light
7.1 Introduction 163
7.2 Coherent Sources 163
7.3 Analytical Treatment of Interference of Light 166
7.4 Young’s Double Slit Experiment 171
7.5 Theory of interference 172
7.6 Interference in a thin film 176
7.7 Newton's Ring 177
 Tips for MCQs 181
 Worked Out Problems 181
 Challenging Problems 184
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 185
 Exercises 188
 Multiple Choice Questions 190
 Hints to Challenging Problems 192

8. Diffraction of Light
8.1 Introduction 195
8.2 Classification of Diffraction 196
8.3 Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit 197
8.4 Diffraction Grating 202
8.5 Resolving Power of Optical Instruments 204
 Tips for MCQs 205
 Worked Out Problems 206
 Challenging Problems 208
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 209
 Exercises 211
 Multiple Choice Questions 213
 Hints to Challenging Problems 214

9. Polarization of Light
9.1 Introduction 217
9.2 Polarization of waves 217
9.3 Polarization Methods 219
9.4 Poloroids 219
9.5 Experimental Demonstration of Transverse Nature of Light 220
9.6 Malus' law 221
9.7 Polarization by Reflection 222
9.8 Brewster's law 223
 Tips for MCQs 223
 Worked Out Problems 224
 Challenging Problems 224
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 225
 Exercises 226
 Multiple Choice Questions 227
 Hints to Challenging Problems 228
 Unit-2: Electricity and Magnetism
10. Direct Current Circuit
10.1 Introduction 229
10.2 Electric Circuit 229
10.3 Electric Current 230
10.4 Metallic Conduction 233
10.5 Ohm's Law 234
10.6 Resistance and Resistivity 236
10.7 Colour Code for Resistors 240
10.8 Combinations of Resistors 241
10.9 Voltage Divider Circuit 244
10.10 Current Divider 244
10.11 Superconductivity 245
10.12 Electrical Devices 247
 Tips for MCQs 250
 Worked Out Problems 252
 Challenging Problems 258
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 259
 Exercises 264
 Multiple Choice Questions 268
 Hints to Challenging Problems 270

11. Heating Effect of Current

11.1 Introduction 273
11.2 Joules Law of Heating 273
11.3 Electric Energy and Power 275
11.4 Electromotive Force 276
11.5 Terminal Potential Difference 277
11.6 Internal Resistance of a Cell 277
11.7 Relation of emf, Terminal Potential Difference and Internal Resistance of a Cell 278
11.8 Combination of Cells 279
 Tips for MCQs 281
 Worked Out Problems 282
 Challenging Problems 286
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 288
 Exercises 291
 Multiple Choice Questions 293
 Hints to Challenging Problems 294

12. Electric Circuit

12.1 Introduction 299
12.2 Kirchhoff's Laws 299
12.3 Wheat Stone Bridge 302
12.4 Meter Bridge 303
12.5 Post office box (P.O. Box) 305
 12.6 Potentiometer 306
12.7 Comparison of Emfs of two cell 307
12.8 Measurement of internal Resistance of the cell 308
 Tips for MCQs 309
 Worked Out Problems 310
 Challenging Problems 312
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 314
 Exercises 315
 Multiple Choice Questions 317
 Hints to Challenging Problems 318

13. Thermoelectricity
13.1 Introduction 321
13.2 Thermoelectric Effect 321
13.3 Seebeck Effect 322
13.4 Variation of Thermo-emf (E) with Temperature () 322
13.5 Peltier Effect 324
13.6 Thomson's Effect 325
13.7 Thermopile 326
 Tips for MCQs 327
 Worked Out Problems 327
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 328
 Exercises 330
 Multiple Choice Questions 331

14. Chemical Effect of Current

14.1 Introduction 333
14.2 Electrolysis 334
14.3 Faraday's Law of Electrolysis 335
14.4 Faraday's Constant 337
 Tips for MCQs 338
 Worked Out Problems 339
 Challenging Problems 340
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 341
 Exercises 342
 Multiple Choice Questions 343
 Hints to Challenging Problems 344

15. Magnetic Effect of Current

15.1 Introduction 345
15.2 Oersted Discovery 345
15.3 Rules of Finding the Direction of Magnetic Field 345
15.4 Lorentz Force 347
15.5 Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor 347
15.6 Torque on Rectangular Current Loop and Magnetic Moment 349
15.7 Magnetic Moment 350
 15.8 Moving Coil Galvanometer 351
15.9 Biot-Savart Law 353
15.10 Applications of Biot-Savart's Law 354
15.11 Statement of Ampere's Circuital Law 363
15.12 Application of Ampere's circuital law 363
15.13 Force between two conductors carrying current 366
15.14 Magnetic force between two parallel conductors 366
15.15 Hall Effect 369
 Tips for MCQs 370
 Worked Out Problems 372
 Challenging Problems 377
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 378
 Exercises 382
 Multiple Choice Questions 385
 Hints to Challenging Problems 387

16. Magnetism
16.1 Introduction 391
16.2 Geographical Meridian and Magnetic Meridian 392
16.3 Magnetic Elements of the Earth 392
16.4 Apparent Dip 394
16.5 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism 396
16.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials 396
16.7 Magnetic Substances 399
16.8 Magnetic Hysteresis 401
 Tips for MCQs 403
 Worked Out Problems 404
 Challenging Problems 405
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 405
 Exercises 408
 Multiple Choice Questions 409
 Hints to Challenging Problems 409

17. Electromagnetic Induction

17.1 Introduction 411
17.2 Electromagnetic Induction 411
17.3 Magnetic Flux and Induction Explained 412
17.4 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction 413
17.5 Lenz law and direction of induced emf 415
17.6 Motional emf 417
17.7 Emf induced in a rotating coil in uniform magnetic field 418
17.8 Inductor and Inductance 420
17.9 Self inductance 420
17.10 Energy stored in an inductor 421
17.11 Mutual Induction 423
17.12 A.C. Generator 426
17.13 Transformer 427
 Tips for MCQs 430
  Worked Out Problems 431
 Challenging Problems 434
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 436
 Exercises 439
 Multiple Choice Questions 441
 Hints to Challenging Problems 442

Unit-3: Modern Physics

18. Alternating Currents
18.1 Introduction 445
18.2 Alternating Current 445
18.3 RMS Value of A.C. 448
18.4 Phasors 449
18.5 A.C. Through Resistor 450
18.6 A.C. Through Inductor 451
18.7 A.C. Through Capacitor 453
18.8 A.C. Through R–L Series Circuit 454
18.9 A.C. Through R-C Circuit 456
18.10 L-C-R Series Circuit in A.C. 457
18.11 Power in LCR Circuit 459
18.12 Q Factor in LCR Circuit 461
18.13 Wattless Current 461
18.14 Choke Coil 462
 Tips for MCQs 462
 Worked Out Problems 464
 Challenging Problems 468
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 470
 Exercises 472
 Multiple Choice Questions 475
 Hints to Challenging Problems 476

19. Electrons
19.1 Introduction 481
19.2 Particle Nature of Electricity 481
19.3 Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment 482
19.4 Motion of Electron in Uniform Electric Field 484
19.5 Motion of Electron in Uniform Magnetic Field 486
19.6 Specific Charge of Electron 489
19.7 Determination of Specific Charge (e/m) of an Electron by J.J. Thomson's Experiment 489
19.8 Conduction Through Gases 491
19.9 Discharging Mechanism 493
19.10 Cathode Rays and Their Production 494
 Tips for MCQs 496
 Worked Out Problems 497
 Challenging Problems 501
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 502
  Exercises 505
 Multiple Choice Questions 508
 Hints to Challenging Problems 508

20. Photons
20.1 Introduction 511
20.2 Quantum Nature of Light 511
20.3 Photoelectric Effect 512
20.4 Einstein's Equation of Photoelectric Effect 513
20.5 Laws of Photoelectric Emission 515
20.6 Millikan's Verification of Einstein's Equation of Photoelectric Effect 517
20.7 Photocell 518
 Tips for MCQs 519
 Worked Out Problems 520
 Challenging Problems 522
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 523
 Exercises 527
 Multiple Choice Questions 529
 Hints to Challenging Problems 531

21. Semiconductor
21.1 Introduction 533
21.2 Band Theory of Solids 533
21.3 Semiconductors 535
21.4 Charge Carriers in Semiconductor 536
21.5 Types of Semiconductor 536
21.6 P-type semiconductor 537
21.7 P-N Junction Diode (Semiconductor diode) 539
21.8 Working of a P-N Junction Diode 540
21.9 Diode Characteristics and Its Study 541
21.10 Semiconductor Diode as Rectifier 542
21.11 Filter Circuits 544
21.12 Zener Diode 544
21.13 Transistors 545
21.14 Working of a Transistor 546
21.15 Transistor Configuration 547
21.16 Transistor as an Amplifier 549
21.17 Logic Gate 551
21.18 Nanotechnology 553
 Tips for MCQs 554
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 556
 Exercises 561
 Multiple Choice Questions 562
22. Atomic Models
22.1 Introduction 565
22.2 Rutherford's Atomic Model 565
22.3 Bohr's Atomic Model 566
22.4 Energy of Electron 569
22.5 Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom 573
22.6 Heinsenberg Uncertainty Principle 577
22.7 Excitation Energy and Excitation Potential 580
22.8 Ionization Energy and Ionization Potential 580
22.9 Emission and Absorption Spectra 581
22.10 Laser 583
 Tips for MCQs 587
 Worked Out Problems 589
 Challenging Problems 592
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 593
 Exercises 598
 Multiple Choice Questions 601
 Hints to Challenging Problems 603

23. X-rays
23.1 Introduction 607
23.2 Production of X-Rays 607
23.3 X-ray Spectra 610
23.4 X-rays Diffraction 612
23.5 Bragg's Law 613
 Tips for MCQs 615
 Challenging Problems 618
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 618
 Exercises 621
 Hints to Challenging Problems 622

24. Nuclear Physics

24.1 Introduction 625
24.2 Nucleus of an Atom 625
24.3 Constituents of a Nucleus 626
24.4 Nuclear Density 626
24.5 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass 627
24.6 Representation of a Nucleus of an Atom 627
24.7 Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones 627
24.8 Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation 628
24.9 Units of Energy 629
24.10 Atomic Mass Unit 629
24.11 Mass Defect 630
24.12 Packing Fraction 631
 24.13 Binding Energy 631
24.14 Nuclear Reaction 632
24.15 Nuclear Fusion Reaction 636
 Tips for MCQs 637
 Worked Out Problems 639
 Challenging Problems 642
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 642
 Exercises 646
 Multiple Choice Questions 648
 Hints to Challenging Problems 649

25. Radioactivity
25.1 Introduction 651
25.2 Radioactive Decay 652
25.3 Stability of Nucleus and Radioactive Isotopes 652
25.4 Nature of Radioactivity 653
25.5 Alpha Rays (-rays) 653
25.6 Beta Rays (-rays) 654
25.7 Gamma rays (-rays) 655
25.8 Laws of Radioactive Transformation 656
25.9 Radioactive Decay Law 657
25.10 Number of Atoms Left After nth Half Lives 659
25.11 Kinetic Energy of Emitted -particle from nucleus 660
25.12 Uses of Radioactive Nuclei 661
25.13 Geiger Muller Counter: A Radiation Detector 662
25.14 Radiation Hazard 664
 Tips for MCQs 666
 Worked Out Problems 666
 Challenging Problems 669
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 670
 Exercises 673
 Multiple Choice Questions 675
 Hints to Challenging Problems 676

26. Nuclear Energy and Other Sources of Energy

26.1 Introduction 679
26.2 Energy and Energy Sources 679
26.3 Conservation of Energy and Degradation of Energy 680
26.4 Global Energy Consumption Pattern 681
26.5 Energy use in Nepal 682
26.6 Nuclear Energy 682
26.7 Renewable Energy and Nonrenewable Energy 684
26.8 Pollution 687
26.9 Air Pollution 688
 26.10 Water Pollution 689
26.11 Ozone Layer 690
26.12 Green House Effect 691
26.13 Acid Rain 692
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 693
 Exercises 695

27. Particle Physics

27.1 Introduction 697
27.2 History of Elementary Particles 697
27.3 Particles and antiparticles 698
27.4 Annihilation 699
27.5 Pair Production 699
27.6 Concept of Spin 699
27.7 Classification of Elementary Particles 700
27.8 Fermions 700
27.9 Leptons 700
27.10 Quarks 701
27.11 Bosons 702
27.12 Hadrons 702
27.13 Mesons 703
27.14 Baryons 704
27.15 Three Generations of Quarks and Leptons 705
 Tips for MCQs 706
 Conceptual Question Answer 706
 Exercises 708
 Multiple Choice Questions 708

28. Cosmology
28.1 Introduction 709
28.2 The Universe 709
28.3 Evolution of Star 712
28.4 Big Bang 715
28.5 Expanding of Universe 716
28.6 Hubble's Law 717
28.7 Critical Density 718
28.8 Dark Matter and Dark Energy 719
 Tips for MCQs 720
 Worked Out Problems 720
 Conceptual Questions with Answers 721
 Exercises 722
 Multiple Choice Questions 723

 Bibliography 724
 Appendix (Including Model Questions) 725
 WAVE MOTION

1.1 Introduction
When we throw a stone in a quiet pond, nice
circular ripples emerge on the surface of water
that move in a concentric pattern outward from
the point of disturbance as shown in Fig. 1.1.
These ripples are the waves or more precisely
surface waves. Though the spreading pattern of
these surface waves seem nice and simple, the
physics behind it is quite complex.
Actually, the stone displaces the water molecules
at the point of impact from their equilibrium
positions. These molecules execute a back and
forth vibration and in doing so, all other
neighbouring molecules through out the surface
are forced to do the same about their mean
Fig. 1.1: Ripples in a pond
positions. So, a kind of disturbance seems to
propagate from the point of impact in radially outward direction. This disturbance travelling from
one point to another point is called a wave in motion. During wave motion, the particles though
displaced from their mean position, do not actually travel from one point to another. Rather, they
transfer their energies to neighbouring molecules during the vibration and it is the energy that is
being transported from one point to another. Thus, we can say that wave motion is a mode of energy
transfer from one point to another point.
As an analogy, following example is relevant to
understand the wave motion. When a person
standing at last of a very long queue pushes
another person in front of him, he loses his balance
and all other person ahead in the queue receive a
gentle push and hence lose balance to some extent
as shown in Fig. 1.2. However, all of them in the
line manage to return back to their initial position.
Therefore, the disturbance in the form of push Fig. 1.2: Queue in front of temple
2 Principles of Physics - II

created at the end of a queue travelled throughout the queue to the front. But, there is no actual
displacement of the person in the queue from end to front. This is the real way of wave motion in a
material medium. On contrary, a running stream of water carries energy with itself as it moves along.
This is not the way of energy transfer in discussion for our present situation.

1.2 Wave Motion

We can define a wave as an activity that transmits energy from one point to another point without
actual transfer of matter. The most common waves that we come through in our daily life are sound
waves, water ripples, light waves, etc. It might appear in water ripples that, the water has moved
along the wave from its initial position; however it is not the case. In fact, at the onset of water
ripples the water molecules vibrate up and down and transfer its energy to the neighbouring water
molecules and thus, a chain of energy transfer is created without transfer of molecules from its mean
position.

Characteristics of Wave Motion

i. Wave motion is a disturbance propagating in a medium.
ii. It transfers energy as well as momentum from one point to another.
iii. It has finite and fixed speed depending on the nature of the medium and is given by v = f.
iv. When it travels in a medium, there is a continuous phase difference among the successive
medium particles.
v. The vibrating particles of the medium posses a kinetic as well as potential energy.
vi. The phenomena such as reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction are shown by all
types of waves but polarization is shown only by transverse wave.

Types of Wave Motion

There are three ways of energy transfer by waves and hence there are three types of wave motion.
i. Electromagnetic wave
ii. Mechanical wave
iii. Matter wave
i. Electromagnetic wave: The wave which does not require medium for its propagation is called
electromagnetic wave. For example, light, heat, radio waves. The magnitude of electromagnetic
field varies during propagation of electromagnetic wave. All electromagnetic waves such as -
rays, X-rays, microwaves etc. are non-mechanical waves.
ii. Mechanical wave: The wave which requires medium for its propagation is called mechanical wave. For
example, waves on springs and strings, water waves, sound waves, seismic waves etc. are
mechanical waves. For the propagation of a mechanical wave, the medium should have two
properties: elasticity, and inertia. Due to elastic property of a medium, the mechanical wave is
also called an elastic wave. The medium must be continuous to propagate such wave.
iii. Matter wave: The waves associated with the microscopic particles such as electrons, protons, neutrons,
atoms and molecules, when they are in motion are called matter waves. The concept of matter wave
was first introduced by de Broglie, so it is also called de Broglie waves. Although, these waves
can be generalized to the large mass objects, they are not detectable. Matter waves are very
important for the quantum mechanical description of matters. Electronic waves (i.e. matter
waves) are used to visualize the very small particles in electron microscope.
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  3

Types of Mechanical Waves

There are two types of a mechanical wave based on the direction of vibration of medium particles or
the fields.
i. Transverse wave
ii. Longitudinal wave

i. Transverse wave
If the particles of a medium vibrate perpendicularly to the propagation of the wave, then the wave is called
transverse wave. These waves travel in the form of crests and troughs as shown in Fig. 1.3. For
example, waves on strings, water ripples etc.
Displacement→
Particle

C C

Time→
O
C = Crest
T = Trough
T

Fig. 1.3: Transverse wave

Propagation of Transverse Wave

Wave transports energy from one point to another. In transverse wave, the direction of oscillation of
particles in a medium and direction of propagation of wave are perpendicular to each other. To
study the propagation of transverse wave, consider nine points on a medium in which every point
T
lies in phase difference of 8 , where T is the time period of oscillation of particles. It means, the
T
disturbance of every preceding point transfers it to succeeding point after the time period 8 . The
process of wave propagation is described below.
i. When t = 0, the particle 1 remains at rest as shown in Fig 1.4 (i), the displacement of the particle
is determined by,
y(t = 0) = a sin t = a sin 0 = 0
T
ii. When t = 8 , the particle 1 executes simple harmonic motion (SHM) with displacement,

T T 2 T a
yt = 8  = a sin  8 = a sin T  8 =
  2
At the same instant, the particle 2 just starts SHM as shown in Fig 1.4 (ii)
2T
iii. When t = 8 , the particle 1 executes SHM with displacement

2T 2T 2 2T
y t = 8  = a sin  8 = a sin T  8 = a
 
In this condition, the particle displaces with maximum amplitude in positive direction.
a
At that instant, particle 2 is displaced by and particle 3 just starts SHM as shown in
2
Fig 1.4 (iii).
4 Principles of Physics - II

3T
iv. When t = 8 , the particle 1 executes SHM with displacement

3T 3T 2 3T a
y t = 8  = a sin  8 = a sin T  8 =
  2
a
At the same instant, particle 2 has maximum displacement, particle 3 is displaced by and
2
particle 4 starts executing SHM as shown in Fig 1.4 (iv).
4T
v. When t = 8 , the particle 1 executes SHM with displacement

4T 4T 2 4T
y t = 8  = a sin  8 = a sin T  8 = 0
 
a a
Particle 1 returns to the mean position, particles 2, 3, and 4 have displacements , a,
2 2
respectively. Particle 5 starts executing SHM as shown in Fig 1.4 (v)
Similarly, the displacement of particle 1 executes SHM in next half cycle making the
displacement as shown in Fig. 1.4 (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix).
5T 5T 2 5T a
vi. When t = 8 , y t = 8  = a sin T  8 = –
  2
6T 6T 2 6T
vii. When t = 8 , y t = 8  = a sin T  8 = – a
 
7T 7T 2 7T a
viii. When t = 8 , y t = 8  = a sin T  8 = –
  2
8T 2
ix. When t = 8 = T, y (t = T) = a sin T  T = 0

Thus, the transverse wave propagates in a medium. The process of formation of a complete
transverse wave is shown in Fig 1.4.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
t=0 (i)

T
t=8 (ii)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2T
t= 8 (iii)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3T
t= 8 (iv)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  5

4T
t= 8 (v)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

5T 2
t= 8 (vi)
1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

6T 3
t= 8 (vii)
1 2 4 5 6 7 8 9

7T 4
t= 8 (viii)
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9

8T 2 5
t= 8 (ix)
1 3 4 6 7 8 9

Fig. 1.4: Propagation of transverse wave

ii. Longitudinal wave

If the particles of a medium vibrate along the direction of propagation of the wave,
the wave is called longitudinal wave. These waves travel in the form of
compressions and rarefactions as shown in Fig. 1.5. During compressions
and rarefactions, the pressure of the medium changes. That is why, they are C R C R
also called pressure or compression waves. For example, waves on springs
Fig 1.5: Propagation of
along length, sound waves in air etc. Whenever, a wave propagates in a
longitudinal wave
medium, there is transfer of energy from one point to the another but, the
net displacement of the particle is zero. So, when a particle in an elastic medium is disturbed from its
mean position, a restoring force (property of elastic medium) acts in it; as a result it executes SHM.
But, the disturbance in the form of energy is transferred to the surrounding particles and this
disturbance forms a pattern of propagation known as wave propagation. The graphical
representation of longitudinal wave is shown in Fig. 1.6.
Propagation of Longitudinal Wave
Consider an elastic medium in which the particles of the medium have to and fro motion (i.e. simple
harmonic motion). Consider nine particles 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 arranged linearly. At t = 0, all the
particles occupy their mean position. When the particle at 1 is disturbed, then the disturbance is
transferred to all other particle continuously. The transfer of disturbance can be explained below.
6 Principles of Physics - II

i. When t = 0, particle 1 is set into vibration.

Density→
T C C
ii. When t = 8 , particle 1 sends the
disturbance to particle 2. So, particle 2 is
set into vibration. Time→
O
2T
iii. When t = 8 , particle 1 reaches to C = Compression
R = Rarefaction
R
extreme position, particle 2 sends the
disturbance to particle 3 and hence,
Fig. 1.6: Wave form of longitudinal wave
particle 3 is set into vibration.
3T
iv. When t = 8 , particle 1 starts returning back to the left. Particle 2 reaches to extreme position.
Particle 3 sends the disturbance to the particle 4 and is set into vibration.
4T
v. When t = 8 , particle 1 returns backs to its mean position. Particle 2 starts returning back to the
left. Particle 3 reaches to extreme position. Particle 4 sends disturbance to particle 5.
Similarly, the disturbance travels to particles 6, 7, 8 and 9. Then, particle 1 starts oscillating in
8T
the opposite direction. Hence, the one cycle of oscillation is completed at time t = T = 8 . Thus,
the longitudinal wave transfers energy (disturbance) in an elastic medium. The formation of
complete longitudinal wave is shown in Fig. 1.7.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

T
8
2T
8
3T
8
4T
8
5T
8
6T
8
7T
8

T
C R C

Fig. 1.7: Propagation of longitudinal wave

Difference between Longitudinal Wave and Transverse Wave

Longitudinal Wave Transverse Wave
1. The particles of the medium vibrate along 1. The particles of the medium vibrate at
the direction of propagation of waves. right angle to the direction of propagation
of wave.
2. In this type of wave motion, a series of 2. In this type of wave motion, compressions
compressions and rarefactions are formed. and rarefactions are not formed. One crest
One compression and one rarefaction and one trough constitute one wave.
constitute one wave.
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  7

3. Sound waves in air and water medium 3. Light waves are transverse in nature.
travel as longitudinal wave.
4. It can travel in all types of media, solid, 4. It can travel in solid and in liquid at lower
liquid and gas. depth from the surface but not in gases.
5. The pressure and density vary and are 5. The pressure and density remain the same
maximum at the compression region and through out any region.
minimum at rarefaction region.
6. If a wave is longitudinal it is mechanical, 6. If a wave is non-mechanical, it is
but if a wave is mechanical it may or may transverse, but if a wave is transverse it
not be longitudinal. may or may not be non-mechanical.

1.3 Graphical Representation of Waves

When a disturbance is created at a point of a medium, the particles in the medium get displaced
from their mean position. This displacement of the particles imparts disturbances to the
neighbouring particles. Thus, the disturbance travels to the surroundings forming a regular pattern
of vibration of particles in the medium, which is called wave. The direction of displacement of the
particles may be parallel or perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave. The net
displacement of particle is zero, although the disturbance travels long distance away. In this process,
the particles execute simple harmonic motion (SHM). Therefore, the displacement of particles in a
medium can be written in terms of equation of SHM, when wave travels,
2 
y = a sin t – x . . . (1.1)
  
Physically, this equation implies that, the particle displacement (y) depends on two variables; the
distance of wave propagation (x) from the mean position, and instantaneous time of oscillation (t) of
a particular particle. They are explained as follows:
i. Displacement versus distance graph: If the displacement of a particle is taken along y-axis and
distance of wave propagation along x-axis, the graph so drawn is called displacement versus
distance graph as shown in Fig. 1.8. In transverse wave, the displacement of particles and
distance of wave propagation are perpendicular to each other. So, it is easier to visualize the
graph. But, in case of longitudinal wave, the direction of particle displacement (y) is parallel to
the direction of wave propagation. Nevertheless, the graphical representation can be visualized
by taking the displacement of particles (y) perpendicular to the direction of propagation of
wave. Therefore, the nature of graph is shown in the Fig. 1.8.
Y
Displacement

amplitude

O X
Distance

Wavelength

Fig. 1.8: Displacement-distance graph for a wave

8 Principles of Physics - II

Displacement
a

O Time
Time
period

Fig. 1.9: Displacement-time graph for a wave

ii. Displacement versus time graph: If the displacement of particle is taken along y-axis and time
of oscillation of a particle is taken along x-axis, the graph so drawn is known as displacement
versus time graph. The nature of the graph is shown in Fig. 1.9.

1.4 Basic Terminologies of Wave

Compression (C): The region at which the particles in the medium come 
closer is known as compression region. In this region, the particles in a
medium come closer and hence density and pressure increase as
shown in Fig. 1.10.
Rarefaction (R): The region at which the particles in the medium C R C R
move away from each other is called rarefaction region. In this region,
Fig 1.10: Longitudinal wave
the particles in a medium move away from each other and hence
density and pressure decrease as shown in Fig. 1.10.
Crest: The position of maximum positive displacement i.e. the upper-most point of the transverse
wave is called crest. In Fig. 1.11, C symbolizes the crest.
Trough: The position of maximum negative displacement i.e. the lowest point of the transverse wave
is called trough. In Fig. 1.11, T symbolizes the trough.
Wavelength: The distance travelled by a wave in one complete cycle is called wavelength. It is
denoted by . It is the distance between, either any two nearest crests or troughs in case of transverse
waves (or any two rarefactions or compressions in case of longitudinal waves).
Y
C 

a
O Time

T 
Fig 1.11: Wave motion
The wavelength can also be defined as the separation between any two nearest points which are in
the same phase.
Amplitude: The maximum displacement of the particles in a medium about their mean position is
known as amplitude. It is denoted by 'a' or 'A'.
Time period: The time in which a particle of medium completes one vibration about its mean
position is known as time period of wave. It is denoted by 'T'.
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  9
Frequency: The number of oscillations per second is called frequency. It is denoted by 'f'. It can also
be defined as the number of waves passing through a point per unit time. For N number of complete
waves, the frequency is,
N N 1
 f = t = NT = T

It is measured in cycle/s which is also called hertz.

 1 Hz = 1 cycle/s.
Wave speed: The linear distance covered by a wave per unit time in its direction of propagation is
called its wave speed.
Distance along propagation of wave
Wave speed (v) = Time taken
As we know, the wave travels distance '' in time period T. So,
Wave length ()
v = Time period (T)

1
v =T

v = f . . . (1.2)
i.e., wave speed = frequency × wave length
Equation (1.2) is an important relation between the speed of a wave, its frequency and wave length.
This relation is valid for all kinds of waves including mechanical and electromagnetic waves.

Particle Speed
The longitudinal wave propagates due to the oscillation of molecules of an elastic medium. The speed
of particle when it oscillates to transfer the energy from one particle to another is known as particle speed. The
displacement of a particle from its mean position is written as,
y = a sin (t – )
dy
dt = a cos (t – )
dy
 Speed of particles, v = dt = a cos (t – )

The velocity of oscillating particles depends on its phase, varying from zero to maximum. The
maximum value of speed of particle is,
vmax = a … (1.3)

Phase of a Wave
The position of an oscillating particle during time 't' can be described in terms of angular
displacement from its mean position. This angular displacement of the oscillating particle in a
medium which describes its location is known as phase or phase angle of a wave. The wave equation
for simple harmonic motion is,
y = a sin t
The angular term 't' gives the phase of a wave.
When one wave is ahead of another by some angle, the difference of angle between them is
represented by phase difference (). Then, the phase of oscillation is represented by (t – ) or
(t + ).
10 Principles of Physics - II

Therefore, the wave equation of SHM is,

y = a sin (t – )
For a wave, moving opposite to the above condition,
y = a sin (t + )

Relation between Phase Difference and Path Difference

The path refers the linear displacement and phase refers the angular displacement of two points in
wave propagating medium. Therefore, the linear displacement of two points in a medium is called
path difference of these points of the wave. It is denoted by x. Similarly, the angular displacement of
two points in a wave is called their phase difference. It is denoted by .
Consider a OA wave travelling along x-direction as shown in Fig. 1.12. Let us take a point P in the x-
axis at distance x from the origin O. The relation between phase difference () and path difference (x)
of two points O and P are as follows: As we know, for path difference , the phase difference is 2.
For path difference , the corresponding phase difference is 2.

2 Y
For path difference 1, the corresponding phase difference is .
 A
O
2 x P
For, path difference x, the corresponding phase difference is x. X


Therefore,
Fig. 1.12: A complete cycle of wave
2
Phase difference () = x . . . (1.4)

2
i.e. phase difference () = × path difference (x)
wavelength ()
This is the relation between path difference and phase difference.
The waves are said to be in the same phase if they have a phase difference of even integral multiples
of . Similarly, the waves are said to be out of phase (opposite phase), if they have a phase difference
of odd integral multiples of .

1.5 Progressive Wave

A wave which travels forward in a medium with maximum transfer of energy from one particle to another
particle is called progressive wave. Progressive wave is also called travelling wave. For example, water
wave, light wave, sound wave, etc. are progressive waves.

Progressive Wave Equation

Consider a progressive wave travelling along x-direction from a reference origin O with speed v. The
displacement time graph for the progressive wave is shown in Fig. 1.13.
The particles in the medium execute simple harmonic motion, while the progressive wave travels
from one point to another. The wave equation for such condition is written as,
y = a sin (t – ) . . . (1.5)
Where, y = displacement of a particle in a medium
a = amplitude
 = angular velocity
 = phase difference
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  11

Fig. 1.13 : Progressive wave

Also, the phase difference is related to the path difference. So,
2
= x

Putting this value of  in equation (1.5), we get,
2 
y = a sint – x . . . (1.6)
  
2
Now, taking  = T in equation (1.6), we get,

2 2 
y = a sin  T t – x
  
t x
y = a sin 2  T –  . . . (1.7)
 
v
Also,  = 2f = 2 , v is the wave velocity. So, equation (1.6) can also be written as,

2vt 2 
y = a sin  – x
   
2
 y = a sin (vt – x) . . . (1.8)

2 2
The term is called propagation constant or wave vector denoted by k i.e. k = . So, equation(1.6)
 
can be written as,
y = a sin (t – kx) . . . (1.9)
Equations (1.6), (1.7), (1.8) and (1.9) are the progressive wave equations written in several alternative
forms.
If the wave travels in opposite direction i.e. along negative X-axis, the equation (1.9) becomes,
y = a sin (t + kx) . . . (1.10)
Hence, the general progressive wave equation is given by,
y = a sin (t ± kx) . . . (1.11)
12 Principles of Physics - II

Characteristics of a Progressive Wave

i. Every particle of a medium executes periodic motion.
ii. The amplitude of each particle of the medium is same, but there exists phase difference between
them.
iii. The distance between two successive crests of a transverse wave and distance between a
compression and rarefaction is wavelength.
iv. The change in pressure and density of a medium is similar in case of progressive waves.
v. A progressive wave travels forward, undamped and unobstructed.
vi. No particle remains permanently at rest.
vii. Energy is transferred across every plane along the direction of propagation.
viii. The progressive wave may be longitudinal or transverse.

1.6 Differential Form of Wave Equation

The general wave equation is
y = a sin (t – kx) . . . (1.12)
Differentiating equation (1.12) with respect to 't',
dy
dt = a cos (t – kx)
Again, differentiating,
d2 y
dt2 = –a sin (t – kx)
2

= –2y
1 d2y
 y = – 2 dt2 . . . (1.13)

Now, differentiating (1.12) with respect to 'x',
dy
dx = –ak cos (t – kx)
Again, differentiating,
d2 y
dx2 = –ak sin (t – kx)
2

= –k2y
1 d2y
 y = –k2 dx2 . . . (1.14)

Equating (1.13) with (1.14), we get,

1 d2y 1 d2y
– 2 dt2 = –k2 dx2

k2 d2y d2y
=
2 dt2 dx2
1 d2y d2y ... k = 4 / 1 1
= 
2 2 2

v2 dt2 = dx2  2 42f2

=
f22 v2
d2y 1 d2y
 dx2 – v2 dt2 = 0 . . . (1.15)

Equation (1.15) is the differential form of wave equation.

 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  13

Principle of Superposition of Waves

When two or more waves meet simultaneously at a point of a medium, the particles in the medium
oscillate with new displacement so that a new wave pattern is formed. This phenomenon of
formation of new wave by mixing of two or more waves is known as superposition of wave.
The principle of superposition of waves states that the resultant displacement of the particle is equal to the
vector sum of individual displacements due to different waves. If y be the resultant displacement of a
particle and y1, y2, . . . are displacements due to individual waves, then according to the principle of
superposition of waves, we have
y = y1 ± y2 ± . . . . . . (1.16)

1.7 Interference of Sound

The phenomenon of redistribution of energy in the resultant sound wave formed by the superposition of two
sound waves having same frequency (or wavelength) and constant phase difference when travelling in same
direction is called interference of sound wave. There are two types of interference of a wave.
i. Constructive interference
ii. Destructive interference
The amplitude becomes maximum in the constructive interference and hence intensity of sound
becomes maximum. In the destructive interference, amplitude and intensity becomes minimum.
In the process of interference, there is only transference of energy from one part to another. The
energy missing at one point re-appears at another point. There is only redistribution of energy
without any destruction or creation of energy, and so the law of conservation of energy is fully
obeyed. Interference occurs in both transverse and longitudinal waves.

Expression of Interference of Two Waves

Let y1 and y2 be the displacements of particles in a medium due to waves of same angular frequency
. Let a1 and a2 be the arbitrary amplitudes of these waves when travelling in the same direction
with phase difference . The wave equations for these waves are,
y1 = a1 sin (t – kx) . . . (1.17)
y2 = a2 sin (t – kx + ) . . . (1.18)
2
Where, k = , called wave vector

Applying superposition principle,
y = y1 + y2 . . . (1.19)
Using (1.17) and (1.18) in (1.19), we get,
y = a1 sin (t – kx) + a2 sin (t – kx + )
= a1 sin (t – kx) + a2 sin (t – kx) cos  + a2 cos (t – kx) sin 
= (a1 + a2 cos ) sin (t – kx) + (a2 sin ) cos (t – kx)
Putting,
a1 + a2 cos  = A cos  . . . (1.20)
a2 sin  = A sin  . . . (1.21)
Where, A is the amplitude of resultant wave and  is the phase angle.
14 Principles of Physics - II

Therefore,
y = A cos  sin (t – kx) + A sin  cos (t – kx)
y = A sin (t – kx + ) . . . (1.22)
The equation (1.22) gives the wave equation of a harmonic wave.
To find the amplitude of resultant wave, the equations (1.20) and (1.21) can be squared and added,
A2 cos2 + A2 sin2  = (a1 + a2 cos )2 + (a2 sin )2
A2 (cos2 + sin2) = a21 + 2a1a2 cos  + a22 cos2  + a22 sin2 
A2 = a21 + 2a1a2 cos  + a22
A = a21 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos  . . . (1.23)
To find the phase angle, dividing (1.21) by (1.20), we get,
A sin  a2 sin 
=
A cos  a1 + a2 cos 
a2 sin 
tan  =
a1 + a2 cos 
a2 sin  
  = tan–1  . . . (1.24)
a1 + a2 cos 
Cases:
i. When original waves overlap in phase, i.e.  = 0.
A = a1 + a 2
For, a1 = a2 = a A = 2a, (maximum amplitude)
This interference is called constructive interference. In Fig.1.14, two waves (represented by
dotted lines) moving along the same positive x direction with same frequency and phase
superimpose to form a single wave (represented by a solid line) which has same frequency but,
has maximum amplitude (constructive interference).
Y

a2
Amax a1
X


Fig.1.14: Constructive interference of two waves

ii. When original waves overlap out of phase,  = 180º
A = a1 – a2
For a1 = a2 A = 0 (minimum amplitude)
This interference is called destructive interference. In Fig. 1.15, two waves (represented by
dotted lines) moving along the same +ve x-direction with same frequency but opposite phase
superimpose to form a single wave (represented by solid line) which has same frequency but
has minimum amplitude (destructive interference).
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  15
Y

a1

Amin
X

a2 

Fig 1.15: Destructive interference of two waves (a1 > a2)

1.8 Stationary Wave

When two progressive waves of same amplitude and frequency travel in a medium in exactly the opposite
direction, a resultant wave is formed. This resultant wave is called stationary wave. It is also called standing
wave. No energy is transferred from a particle to surrounding
particles while stationary wave is formed in a medium. Each
particle has its own characteristics of vibration. Hence, the
amplitude of vibration of the different particles are different,
ranging from zero to some maximum value. The position of
particle at the zero displacement is called node (N) and the
position of particle at which the maximum displacement takes
place is called antinode (AN). The formation of stationary wave
in a string is explained below:
Consider a rope tied to a rigid support of pole at one end, the
next end being held by our hand. Now let us give a gentle up
and down jerk to the free end so that a pulse travels along the
length of string which reaches the next end until it is reflected Fig. 1.16: Formation of stationary wave
back by the rigid pole. After reflection, the pulse again travels along the length of string but changes
its direction.
Thus, the reflected pulse (wave) travel back to our hand and hence we have now two waves which
are traveling in the opposite directions and they combine to produce a resultant wave which appears
to be stationary wave Fig. 1.16. We cannot see the original wave and reflected wave separately, only
a stationary wave is visible.
The frequency of the progressive wave and the stationary wave is the same. When stationary waves
are formed, the amplitude becomes maximum and strain becomes minimum at certain points. At
other certain points, the amplitude becomes minimum and strain becomes maximum. The points,
where the amplitude is maximum and strain is minimum, are called antinodes (A.N.) and the points,
where the amplitude is minimum and strain is maximum are called nodes (N). Antinodes and nodes
are formed alternately in the standing wave. Thus, the wave in which antinodes and nodes are
formed alternately is called a stationary wave.

Stationary Wave Equation

Let y1 and y2 be the displacements of two progressive waves of same amplitude a and wave length 
travelling in opposite direction simultaneously with the same velocity v. The equations of these
waves may be expressed as follows,
16 Principles of Physics - II

y1 = a sin (t – kx) . . . (1.25)

y2 = a sin (t + kx) . . . (1.26)
Thus, the resultant displacement of the particle of medium due to both the waves will be determined
from the principle of superposition,
= y1 + y2
= a sin (t – kx) + a sin (t + kx)
= a [sin (t – kx) + a sin (t + kx)]
 y = 2a cos kx. sin t
y = A sin t . . . (1.27)
Equation (1.27) represents a simple harmonic wave whose amplitude is A = 2a cos kx. It is evident
that, for different values of x, the amplitude will have different values. Obviously, the frequency of
stationary wave is equal to the interfering waves i.e. there is no change in frequency.

Condition for maximum amplitude

The amplitude A = 2 a cos kx will be maximum if, A = ± 2a
So, 2a cos kx = ± 2a
cos kx =  1
2x
cos =1

2x
cos = cos n , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

2x
or, = n

n
or, x= 2 . . . (1.28)

The equation (1.28) is the condition for antinode formation,


For n = 0, x0 = 0, For n = 1, x1 = 2

2 3
For n = 2, x2 = 2 For n = 3, x3 = 2

Hence, the antinodes occurs at the positions where,

Phase difference () = 0, , 2, 3, . . . n, and
 2 3 n
Path difference (x) = 0, 2  2  2 . . ., 2

Therefore, the condition of antinode is,

 3 n
x = 0, 2 , , 2 , …, 2

n (n  1) 
The distance between two consecutive antinodes = 2 – 2 = 2.

Condition for minimum amplitude

The amplitude A = 2a cos kx will be minimum if, A = 0
So, 2a cos kx = 0
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  17
cos kx = 0
2x
cos =0

2x 
cos = cos (2n + 1) 2 , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

2x 
or, = (2n + 1) 2


or, x = (2n + 1) 4 . . . (1.29)

The equation (1.29) is the condition for node formation.

 3
For n = 0, x0 = 4 For n = 1, x1 = 4

5 7
For n = 2, x2 = 4 For n = 3, x3 = 4

9  3 
For n = 4, x4 = 4 Similarly, x = 4  4 . . . , (2n + 1)4 .

Hence, the nodes occur at the positions where,

 3 
Phase difference () = 2  2 , . . . (2n + 1) 2

 3 
Path difference (x) = 4  4 , . . . , (2n + 1) 4

  
The distance between two consecutive nodes = (2n + 1) 4 – {2(n  1) + 1} 4 = 2 , which is equal to
the distance between two consecutive antinodes.
 n 
The distance between any consecutive node and antinode = (2n + 1) 4 – 2 = 4 .

1.9 Stationary Waves in Boundary

During the propagation of sound wave in air, the nodes are formed both at rarefactions and
compressions but the antinodes are formed in between these rarefactions and compressions. At
compression, a cross section is found in which the neighbouring molecules exert pushing force of
equal and opposite direction so that this cross section becomes stationary (rest). Similarly at
rarefaction, a cross section is found in which the neighbouring molecules exert pulling force equal
and opposite direction so that this cross section is also at rest. The wave pattern for stationary wave
depends on the type of boundary (the position from which the wave reflects). There are two types of
boundaries viz., open boundary and closed boundary.
i. Stationary wave in open boundary: Open boundary is that boundary from which the waves
are reflected but the particles are not reflected rather they move along in forward direction.
Such boundaries do not have rigid surfaces to reflect the wave. From such boundaries,
compressions are reflected as rarefactions and vice-versa. The equation of stationary wave in
equation (1.27) is determined considering the open boundary. The vibration pattern of particles
and wave form in this boundary is as shown in Fig. 1.17.
18 Principles of Physics - II
Particles pile up Particles pull apart

y AN (i)
N
x

(ii)

Fig 1.17: (i) Vibration pattern of particles, (ii) Stationary wave in open boundary.

At the boundary, for x = 0

A = 2a cos kx = 2a = Amax i.e. antinode is formed.
ii. Stationary wave in closed boundary: Closed boundary is such boundary from which both
waves and particles reflect back. Such boundaries have rigid surface to reflect the wave. From
these boundaries rarefactions are reflected as rarefactions and compressions are reflected as
compressions. However, the incident particles reflect with phase reversal of . So, the
displacement equation of particles which are incident on the boundary and reflected from the
boundary can be respectively written in the following forms.
 y1 = a sin (t – kx) . . . (1.30)
y2 = a sin (t + kx + ) . . . (1.31)
 From superposition principle,
y = y1 + y2 . . . (1.32)
Using (1.30) and (1.31) in (1.32)
y = a sin (t – kx) + a sin (t + kx + )
= a sin (t – kx) + a sin ( + (t + kx))
= a sin (t – kx) – a sin (t + kx)
= a [sin (t – kx) – sin (t + kx)]
t – kx – t – kx t – kx + t + kx
= a 2 sin cos
 2 2 
= –2a sin kx cos t
= A cos t . . . (1.33)
where, amplitude of resultant wave is
A = –2a sin kx
At the boundary x = 0, A = 0
The vibration pattern of particles and wave form at the closed boundary is shown in Fig 1.18.
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  19
Particles pile up Particles pull apart

y AN (i)

N
x

(ii)

Fig 1.18: (i) Vibration pattern of particles, (ii) Stationary wave in closed boundary.

Characteristics of a Stationary Wave

i. Only the particles other than those at the nodes executes periodic motion.
ii. The phase difference between particles of the medium is same, but amplitude is different.
iii. In case of stationary wave each particle attains its stationary position twice during one complete
vibration.
iv. In this wave, nodes and antinodes are formed alternately and the separation between any two
consecutive nodes or antinodes is /2.
v. The amplitude is minimum at nodes and maximum at antinodes.
vi. In the stationary wave, the change in pressure and density of the medium is not uniform. It is
maximum at the nodes and minimum at antinodes.
vii. The sound is heard more intense at nodes but less at antinodes. This is because the sound is
heard due to pressure variation and pressure variation becomes maximum at nodes.
viii. There is energy variation in the standing wave within the limited area where the wave is
confined.
ix. The stationary wave also occurs in light waves, radio waves etc.

Difference between Progressive Wave and Stationary Wave

Progressive Wave Stationary Wave
1. It carries energy in the forward direction. 1. It does not carry any energy.
2. The amplitude of each particle is same but 2. The amplitude of the different particles are
the phase changes continuously. different, ranging from zero at the nodes
to maximum at anti-nodes.
3. There is no formation of nodes and 3. There is formation of nodes and antinodes
antinodes in this wave. in this wave.
4. There is transmission of energy across 4. There is no transmission of energy across
every plane. any plane.
5. No particles is permanently at rest. 5. The particles at the nodes are permanently
at rest.
20 Principles of Physics - II

6. All the particles attain the same velocity 6. All the particles attain their own
when they pass through their mean maximum velocity at the same time when
position. they pass through their mean position.
7. In the case of a longitudinal progressive 7. In the case of a longitudinal stationary
wave all the parts of the medium undergo wave, the variation of density is different
similar variation of density one after the at different points being maximum at the
other. At every point there will be a nodes and zero at the antinodes.
density variation.

Tips for MCQs

1. Wave nature:
i. Waves in string is one dimensional
ii. Wave in water surface is two dimensional and
iii. Waves of sound wave and light waves are three dimensional
2. Relations:
i. v = f ii.  = vT
2 2f  2
iii. k = = v =v iv.  = 2f = T

3. Frequency is the nature of source, so it does not depend on the medium of wave propagation.
4. About particles:
i. Speed of oscillating particles, u =  a2 – y2
ii. Maximum speed of particle, umax = a = akv
iii.Maximum distance travelled by a particle in one complete cycle in transverse wave is four times
of amplitude.
dy
iv. Relation between wave velocity and particle velocity, u = v – dx
 
5. About phase difference and path difference
2
i. Phase difference () = × path difference (x)

2x 2
ii. = = T t = 2ft

iii. For two sources which emit waves of frequencies f1 and f2, the phase difference,
 = 1 – 2 = 2f1t – 2f2t = 2(f1 – f2) t
iv. If an initial phase 0 is taken as for consideration,  = (t – kx) + 0
Wave equation is y = a sin {(t – kx) + 0}
a. In open boundary, 0 = 0, so the equation of reflected wave, yr = a sin (t + kx) (... x  – x)
b. In closed boundary, 0 = , so the equation of reflected wave, yr = a sin (t + kx + )
2
vi. Variation of phase with distance,  = x

2
vii. Variation of phase with time,  = T t
6. The forms of progressive wave equations are
t x
y = a sin (t – ) y = a sin 2  T – 
 
2
y = a sin (t – kx) y = a sin (vt – x)

 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  21
7. The equation of a stationary wave is y = A sin t, where A = 2a cos kx is the amplitude of the
stationary wave.
8. A wave is a propagating disturbance that carries energy as well as momentum but not matter.
9. A wave is characterized by its amplitude, wavelength and speed.

10. Distance between two particles (i) vibrating out of phase is 2 (ii) vibrating phase is .
11. Sound waves can travel in the form of both longitudinal and transverse elastic wave.

Worked Out Problems

1. Radio Nepal Transmission Centre transmits the frequency of 100 MHz in FM service. Find out the
wavelength of the waves transmitted from Radio Nepal.
SOLUTION
Given,
Frequency (f) = 100 MHz = 100 × 106 Hz
We know, velocity (c) = 3 × 108 ms–1
Wavelength () = ?
We know,
c = f
c 3 × 108
 = f = 100 × 106 = 3 m
 Wavelength of the waves is 3 m.
2. A sound wave of frequency 400 Hz is travelling in air at a speed of 320 ms–1. Calculate the difference
in phase between two points on the wave 0.2 m apart in the direction of travel.
SOLUTION
Given, speed of wave (v) = 320 ms–1
Path difference (x) = 0.2 m
Frequency of wave (f) = 400 Hz
Phase difference () = ?
We know,
v 320
Wavelength () = f = 400 = 0.8 m

2 2
Now, phase difference () = x = 0.8 × 0.2 = 1.57 rad
  
3. The equation of motion of a wave is y = 1.2 sin (3.5 t – 0.5 x), where distances and time are expressed
in meter and second respectively. Determine the amplitude, frequency, wavelength and velocity of
the wave. Also, find the maximum speed of particles in that medium. The equation of a wave with
double the amplitude and double the frequency but travelling exactly is the opposite direction.
SOLUTION
The given equation of the wave is, Amplitude (a) = 1.2 m. Also,
y = 1.2 sin (3.5 t – 0.5 x) … (i)  = 3.5
Comparing equation (i) with general equation 2f = 3.5
of progressive wave, 3.5
f = = 0.56 Hz
y = a sin (t – kx) … (ii) 2
We get, To find the wavelength,
a = 1.2 m k = 0.5
 = 3.5 rad s–1 2
= 0.5
k = 0.5 m–1 
22 Principles of Physics - II

2 v 7.04
 = 0.5 = 12.57 m So, the new wavelength (') = f' = 1.12 = 6.29 m
Now, velocity (v) = f  ' = 2f' = 7.04 rad s–1.
= 0.56 × 12.57 = 7.04 ms–1 Now, the equation of wave that is travelled in
The maximum speed of particles, opposite direction including the changed
vmax = a = 1.2 × 3.5 = 4.2 ms–1 amplitude, frequency and wavelength,
Here, new amplitude (a') = 2a 2
y = a' sin 't + x
= 2 × 1.2 = 2.4 m  ' 
New frequency f' = 2f 2
= 2.4 sin 7.04t + 6.29x
= 2 × 0.56  
= 1.12 Hz y = 2.4 sin (7.04t + x)
4. [HSEB 2053] A wave has the equation (x in metres and t in seconds), y = 0.02 sin (30t – 4x)
Find:
i. Its frequency, speed and wave length.
ii. The equation of wave with double amplitude but traveling in the opposite direction.
SOLUTION
Given, 2
The given equation is or, =4

y = 0.02 sin (30t – 4x) 2 
Comparing this equation, with the equation of or,  = 4 = 2
the standard wave, 
2  Wavelength,  = 2 = 1.57 m
y = a sin (ωt – kx), where k = , we have
 and speed, v = ?
ω = 30 We know that,
or, 2f = 30  15
Speed, v = f = 2 × = 7.5 ms–1
30 15 
or, f = = Hence, frequency (f) = 4.77 Hz, speed (v) = 7.5
2 
15 ms–1 and wavelength () = 1. 571 m and the
 Frequency, f = = 4. 77 Hz equation of the wave moving in opposite

direction and double the amplitude is,
k=4m -1
y = 0.04 sin (30t + 4x)

5. A stationary wave is produced due to the superposition of waves given as,

y1 = 0.1 sin (4t – 10x) and y2 = 0.1 sin (4t + 10x)
where, y is measured in cm and x in meter and t in second. Find the displacement of particle at 2 m
away from the origin.
SOLUTION
Given, y1 = 0.1 sin (4t – 10x)
y2 = 0.1 sin (4t + 10x)
Applying the superposition principles, y = 2a cos kx  sin t, we get
y = 2 × 0.1 × cos 10x sin 4t
(Here, a = 0.1 cm and x = 2 m)
Here, resultant amplitude (A) = 0.2 cos (10 × 2) = 0.2 cos 20 = 0.19 cm
6 A stone is dropped into a well and a splash is heard affect 2.6 s. Calculate the depth of the well.
(Velocity of sound = 334 ms1)
SOLUTION
Given, time of stone to reach on water surface after
Total time (t) = 2.6 s dropping (t1) (ii) time for sound to come
Velocity of sound (vs) = 334 ms-1 outside the well (t2)
In the given problem, total time is the sum of (i)
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  23
So, Now, equating (ii) and (iii), we get,
t = t1 + t2 1
334  t2 = 2 gt21 ... (iv)
2.6 = t1 + t2 ... (i)
Also, the distance travelled by stone and sound Using equation (i) in (iv)
is equal. 1
Now, distance travelled by stone (d) is 334  (2.6  t1) = 2  9.8  t21
1 868.4  334 t1 = 4.9 t21
d = ut1 + 2 at21
4.9 t21 + 334 t1  868.4 = 0
1
i.e. d = 0.t1 + 2 gt21 334  (334)2 + 4  4.9  868.4
So, t1 =
1 2 2  4.9
 d=
2 gt1 ... (ii) = 2.508 s
Since t is not taken negative.
Then, distance travelled by sound, So, Using (iii),
d = vs  t2 d = 334 (2.6  2.508)
= 334  t2 ... (iii) = 30.73 m
 The depth of well is 30.73 m.

Challenging Problems
x t
1. [UP] A certain transverse wave is described by y (x, t) = (6.5 mm) cos 2  28.0 cm – 0.0360s .
 
Determine the wave’s
a. nature and direction of propagation b. amplitude
c. wavelength d. frequency
e. speed of propagation
Ans: (b) 6.5 × 10–3 m (c) 28.0 × 10-2 m (d) 27.78 Hz (e) 7.78 m/s
2. [UP] Ultrasound is the name given to frequencies above the human range of hearing, which is above
20,000 Hz. Waves above this frequency, can be used to penetrate the body and to produce images by
reflecting from surfaces. In a typical scan, the waves travel with a speed of 1500 m/s. For a good
detailed image, the wavelength should be no more than 1.0 mm. What frequency is required?
Ans: 1.5 × 106 Hz
3. [UP] The speed of sound in air at 20°C is 344 m/s.
a. What is the wavelength of sound wave with a frequency of 784 Hz, corresponding to a note on a
piano?
b. What is the frequency of a sound wave with a wavelength of 0.0655 mm?
Ans: (a) 0.439 m (b) 5.25 × 106 Hz
4. [UP] Transverse waves on a string have a wave speed 8.00 m/s; only amplitude 0.0700 m,
wavelength 0.320 m. The waves travel in the negative x-direction, and t = 0, the x = 0 and of the string
has its maximum upward displacement.
a. Find the frequency, period and wave number of these waves
b. Write a wave function describing the wave.
c. Find the transverse displacement of a particle at x = 0.360 m at t = 0.150 s.

(0.32x m + 0.0400
Ans: (a) 25 Hz; 0.0400 s; 19.6 rad/ m (b) 0.0400 s; y (x, t) = 0.0700 m cos 2 
t
s)
(c) – 0.0495 m

5. [UP] A fisher man notices that his boat is moving up and down periodically owing to waves on the
surface of water. It takes 2.5 second for the boat to travel from its H 6m
highest point to its lowest, a total distance of 0.62 m. The
fisherman sees that the wave crests are spaced 6 m apart.
0.62m
a. What is the amplitude of wave?
b. How fast are the waves travelling? L
24 Principles of Physics - II

6. [ALP] If the velocity of sound in air is 340 m/s, calculate (i) wavelength when the frequency is 256
Hz, (ii) the frequency when the wavelength is 0.85 m.
7. Provided that the amplitude is sufficiently great, the human ear can respond to longitudinal waves
over a range of frequencies from about 20.0 Hz to above 20,000.0 Hz. Compute the wavelength
corresponding to these frequencies (a) for waves in air (v = 344 m/s). (b) for waves in water (v = 1480
m/s).
8. [ALP] A small piece of cork in a ripple tank oscillates up and down as ripples pass it. If the ripples
travel at 0.20 ms-1, have a wavelength of 15 mm and amplitude of 5.0 mm, what is the maximum
velocity of the cork?
Ans: 0.42 ms-1
9. [ALP] A progressive and a stationary simple harmonic wave each have the same frequency of 250 Hz
and the same velocity of 30 ms-1. Calculate (i) phase difference between two vibrating points on the
progressive wave which are 10 cm apart, (ii) the equation of motion of the progressive wave if its
amplitude is 0.03 meter, (iii) the distance between nodes in the stationary wave.
5
Ans: (i) 3 radian (ii) 0.03 sin2 (250t – 253 x) (iii) 0.06 m
20x
10. [ALP] A plane-progressive wave is represented by the equation y = 0.1 sin 200t – 17  where y is
 
the displacement in millimeters, t is in seconds and x is the distance from a fixed origin O in meters.
Find: (i) the frequency of the wave (ii) its wavelength (iii) its speed, (iv) the phase difference in
radians between a point 0.25 m from O and a point 1.10 m from O (v) the equation of a wave with
double the amplitude and double the frequency but travelling exactly in the opposite direction.
Ans: (i)100 Hz (ii) 1.7 m (iii) 170 ms-1 (iv)  radian (v) 0.2 sin ( 40x
400t + 17 )
11. [ALP] The equation y = a sin (t – kx) represents a plane wave travelling in a medium along X-
direction, y being the displacement at the point x at time t. If a = 1.0 ×10-7 m,  = 6.6 × 103 s-1 and k =
20 m-1, calculate (a) speed of the wave, (b) the maximum speed of a particle of the medium due to the
wave.
Ans: (a) 330 ms–1 (b) 6.6 × 10–4 ms–1
12. [ALP] It is noted that a sharp tap made in front of a flight of stone steps gives rise to a ringing sound.
Explain this and, assuming that each step is 0.25 m deep, estimate the frequency of the sound.
(velocity of sound may be taken to be 340 ms-1). Ans: 680 Hz
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is mechanical wave?
 The wave which transmits energy via material medium is known as mechanical wave. Sound wave is
an example of mechanical wave. It transmits energy and momentum through the limited motion of
the particles of the material medium, while the medium remains un-shifted.
2. What is progressive wave?
 If a disturbance is produced at a point in a medium continuously, the particles in that medium
oscillate continuously. It means, the energy in a medium transmits regularly from a source of
disturbance to its surroundings. This type of continuous energy flow in terms of wave pattern is
known as progressive wave. As we disturb at a point on water surface, ripples are observed
transmitting to the surroundings. This is an example of progressive wave.
3. What is stationary wave?
 When two identical waves travel in a bounded medium with equal speed but in opposite directions,
they superimpose and form a new type of wave which appears stationary in a medium. Such type of
wave is known as stationary wave. The net transfer of energy in stationary wave is zero, hence it is
named so. For example, when a wave is sent along a string, it is reflected from the end of the string
and the incident and reflected wave superimpose to form a stationary wave in the string.
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  25
4. How can you show experimentally that there is a transfer of energy by the wave?
 Suppose a stone is thrown in a pond and a leaf is placed near the surface of water at some distance.
As the disturbance reaches the leaf, the leaf begins to oscillate up and down about its original
position, and the disturbance travels ahead. The oscillation of leaf occurs due to the transfer of
energy from the point of disturbance. Thus, we see that there is the transfer of energy by the wave.
5. In which category, transverse or longitudinal the following waves belong? Ripple on water surface,
sound wave in air, light wave, waves in string.
 The given waves can be categorized as follows:
Longitudinal wave  sound wave in air
Transverse wave  ripple on water surface, light wave, waves in string
6. Two persons cannot talk to each other in the moon, why? [HSEB 2068]
 Sound wave is a mechanical wave. It requires medium to travel from one place to another. There is
no atmosphere on the moon's surface, i.e. there is no material medium to transfer the sound energy.
Therefore, the voice cannot reach from one person to another. Hence, two persons cannot talk to each
other in the moon.
7. What is a harmonic wave?
 The wave in a medium where the particles repeat their path is called harmonic wave. A wave
function described by a sine or a cosine function is called a harmonic function.
8. What is the distance between two consecutive crests in a transverse wave?
 A complete wave is equivalent to the distance between two consecutive crests or two consecutive
trough. Therefore, the length between two consecutive crests is equal to wavelength () of the wave.
Y
C 
O X

T 

9. Can sound be a transverse wave? Explain.

 Yes, sound wave in solid and water surface can be of transverse nature.
In case of solid rod, when it is struck perpendicular to its length, the particles in the rod oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation along the length. Thus, the transverse wave is
obtained. In liquid, the particles on the surface oscillate up and down, however the wave travels
along the horizontal surface.
10. A wave transmits energy. Does it transmit linear momentum?
 The kinetic energy of a particle is related to the linear momentum by the relation i.e. p2 = 2mE, where
p is momentum and E is the kinetic energy of particle. As the energy transfer is non zero, the
momentum is also nonzero. It means, the transfer of momentum is possible if a wave transmits
energy.
11. Why transverse waves cannot be set up in a gas?
 The wave motion depends on two properties of medium: elasticity and inertia. To generate the
transverse wave, modulus of rigidity is essential, but there is no rigidity in gas medium, so
transverse wave is impossible in gas.
12. The distance between two consecutive nodes in a stationary wave is 20 cm. If the speed of the wave
be 330 ms–1, calculate the frequency.

 The distance between two consecutive nodes in a stationary wave is 2 .

So, 2 = 20 cm
 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Speed of wave (v) = 330 ms–1
26 Principles of Physics - II

v 330
So, frequency (f) = = = 825 Hz.
 0.4
13. Why a stationary wave is so named?
 In stationary wave, two identical oppositely moving waves superimpose to each other. So, the energy
transmitted by one wave is exactly reversed by another wave so that no net transfer of energy occurs.
Therefore, it is named stationary.
14. An observer at a sea – coast observes waves reaching the coast. What type of waves does he observe?
 He can see the elliptical wave. The wave on the surface of water is transverse, but the wave just
beneath the surface is longitudinal. The resultant of these waves forms the elliptical wave.
15. Longitudinal waves are also called pressure waves. Why?
 Series of compressions and rarefactions are formed during the propagation of longitudinal wave. At
the position of compression, particles of medium come closer and pressure increases. On the other
hand, the particles move farther in rarefaction and hence the pressure decreases. Thus, the pressure
varies in the medium, while longitudinal wave travels. Therefore, longitudinal wave is also called
pressure waves.
16. Even huge explosions on the other planets are not heard on the earth, why?
 Sound wave is mechanical wave, it requires continuous material medium to travel. As we know,
there is no continuous medium (i.e. vacuum) between other planets and the earth, sound wave
cannot reach on the earth. Hence, we cannot hear such explosions of other planets on the earth.
17. What is the principle of superposition of waves?
 It states that "the displacement due to a number of waves acting simultaneously at a point in a
medium is the sum of the displacement vectors due to each one of them acting separately."
For displacements y1, y2, y3, . . . yn of particles acting at a point, the resultant displacement at that
point is,
y = y1  y2  y3  . . .  yn
18. Where does a person hear loud sound, at node or antinodes? Explain.
 The intensity of sound depends on the pressure amplitude in a medium. The pressure amplitude at
the node is maximum, but minimum at the anti-node. So, the sound is heard louder at the node.
19. What is the phase difference between two consecutive troughs?
 The path difference of two consecutive trough is equal to wavelength . For,
2
Phase difference () = × path difference (x)

2
 = ×  = 2

Therefore, the phase difference of two consecutive trough is 2 radian.
20. Which quantity is the most fundamental in wave motion?
 Frequency of a wave is the most fundamental quantity. It is independent with the nature of medium.
The speed of wave depends on the wavelength. When the sound travels from one medium to
another, wavelength changes and so the speed changes but the frequency remains same.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Distinguish between progressive wave and stationary wave.
2. Sound on the water surface has both longitudinal and transverse characteristics. Can you polarize it?
3. Write down some examples of the combination of longitudinal and transverse wave.
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  27
4. What is the phase difference between two nearest crest?
5. What is the path difference between two nearest crest?
6. If the wavelength of a sound source is reduced by a factor of 2, what happens to its frequency? Its
speed?
7. Give two reasons why circular water waves decreases in amplitude as they travel away from the
source.
8. Why do different objects make different sounds when dropped on a floor?
9. Is it possible for one sound wave to cancel another? Explain.
10. How are compression and rarefaction produced?
11. How does energy transmit through medium although net displacement of particles is zero?
12. Why is progressive wave called so?
13. Define matter waves.
14. How is sound propagation related to simple harmonic motion?
15. Distinguish between phase change and path change. How they are related?
16. If a stone is dropped near a leaf floating on a still water, what will happen in the leaf, move away or
remains at the mean position?
17. Draw the displacement and time graph of a wave.
18. Which types of wave propagate in liquid, explain.
19. Distinguish between light waves and sound waves

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Define longitudinal wave. Describe the mechanism of longitudinal wave motion.
2. Define transverse wave. Describe the mechanism of transverse wave motion.
3. What is progressive wave? Derive an equation for progressive wave.
4. What is stationary wave? Derive an equation for stationary wave.
5. Distinguish between progressive wave and stationary wave.
6. Derive the relation between wave velocity, wavelength and frequency.
7. Write down the different characteristics of progressive wave and stationary wave.
8. State and explain the stationary wave. Obtain the condition for nodes and antinodes of a stationary
wave. [HSEB 2063]
9. Write down the different characteristics of wave motion and classify it with examples.
10. Use the principle of superposition of two waves to find the position of displacement nodes and
antinodes in a standing wave. [HSEB 2061]
11. Define interference of waves. Show that interference of wave obeys the vector addition rule.

Numerical Problems
1. The speed of sound of frequency 200 Hz in air is 340 ms-1. Calculate the wavelength of the wave.
Ans: 170 m
2. The velocity of sound in air on a certain day is 365 ms-1. The frequency of sound heard on a certain
day is 480 Hz. What is the wave length of the sound wave?
Ans: 76 cm
3. A note emitted has a wavelength of 1 m in still air. Calculate the frequency of the note emitted.
(velocity of sound in air = 340 ms-1)
Ans: 340 Hz
4. The equation of transverse wave travelling along a string is y = 2 sin  (0.5x – 200t) where x and y are
in cm and t in sec. Find the amplitude, wavelength, frequency and velocity of propagation.
Ans: 2×10–2 m, 4 ×10–2 m,100 Hz, 4 m/s
5. If the velocity of sound in air is 340
ms-1.Calculate (i) the wavelength when the frequency is 256 Hz,
(ii) the frequency when the wavelength is 0.85 m. Ans: 1.33 m, 400 Hz
28 Principles of Physics - II

6. A wave travelling in the positive x–direction has an amplitude of 2 cm, frequency 75 Hz and velocity
of propagation 45 m/s. Calculate the wave number, the displacement of the particle velocity and
particle acceleration at x = 1.35 m from the origin at t = 3 sec.
Ans: wave number = 1/ = 1.66 × 10–4 m–1, 2 × 10–2 m, 0 ms–1, 4.5 × 103 m/s2
7. A stone dropped from the top of a cliff of height 44.1 m splashes into water in a pond near the base of
the cliff, after 3.126 s. Find the velocity of sound in air?
Ans: 350 m/s
8. A stone is dropped into a well and a splash is heard after 2.6 sec. Calculate the depth of the well.
(Velocity of sound = 334 m/s)
Ans: 30.73 m
9. A travelling wave along positive x-axis has an amplitude of 0.2 m, wavelength of 0.5 m and
frequency of 10 Hz. Find angular wave number period, angular frequency and wave speed.
Ans: 12.6 rad m–1, 0.1 sec, 62.8 rad s–1, 5 m/s–1

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The distance between two particles in a wave motion in the same phase ( = wavelength) is
a. /4 b. /2
c. 3/4 d. 
x
2. A transverse wave is described by the equation y = a sin 2ft – . The maximum particle velocity is
 
equal to four times the wave velocity if
a a
a.  = 4 b.  = 2
c.  = a d.  = 2a
3. A wave of frequency 1000 Hz travels between X and Y, a distance of 600 m in 2 sec. How many
wavelengths are there in distance XY?
a. 3.3 b. 300
c. 180 d. 2000
4. The equation of a traveling wave is y = 60 cos (1800 t – 6x) where y is in microns, t in secs and x in
meter. The ratio of maximum particle velocity to wave velocity is
a. 3.6 × 10–11 b. 3.6 × 10–6
c. 3. 6 × 10 –4 d. 3.6 × 10–2
5. In stationary wave, the particle velocity at the nodal positions is
a. zero. b. maximum and finite.
c. minimum but non-zero. d. infinity.
6. What is the phase change in a travelling wave when reflects from open boundary.

(a)  rad (b) 2 rad


(c) no change (d) 4 rad
7. A travelling wave in a medium is described by the equation, y = a sin (t – kx). What is the
maximum particle velocity?
(a) a (b) a2
(c) a 
2 (d) a22
8. What is the frequency of radio waves transmitted by a station, if the wavelength of these waves is 300
m?
(a) 4 MHz (b) 3 MHz
(c) 2 MHz (d) 1 MHz
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  29
9. Which property of material is responsible to generate transverse wave of sound?
(a) Thermal property (b) Modulus of rigidity
(c) Melting (d) Bulk modulus
10. Where does the energy go from the low intensity position of interference pattern?
(a) Vanishes (b) Shift to high intensity position
(c) Violate conservation property (d) Remains same position but inaudible
11. The relation between frequency f and velocity of propagation v of wave is:
a. f = v b. f = /v
c. f = v/ d. f = v2
12. The reciprocal of wavelength is called:
a. Velocity b. Wave frequency
c. Amplitude d. Wave number
13. The frequency of radio-waves is 15 MHz. What is its wavelength?
a. 20 m b. 15 m
c. 5 m d. 25 m
14. Node has:
a. Maximum displacement and minimum strain
b. Minimum displacement and maximum strain
c. Minimum displacement and minimum strain
d. Maximum displacement and maximum strain

Answers
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (b)

Hints to Challenging Problems

Hint:1 Required formula,
Given equation, v
 f =
x t 
y (x, t) = (6.5 mm) cos228.0 cm – 0.0360 s
  Hint: 3
. . . (i) Given,
a. It is transverse wave moving in positive X-axis. Temperature of air (T) = 20C
The general equation of transverse wave is Speed of sound at 20C (v20) = 344 ms-1
x t
y (x, t) = a cos 2  – T . . . (ii) v20
  a.  = f
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get b f = ? for  = 0.0655 mm
b. a = 6.5 mm = 6.5 × 10–3 m Required formula,
c.  = 28.0cm = 28.0 × 10-2 m v20
1  f =
d. T = 0.0360 s then f = T 
Hint: 4
e. v = f Given,
Hint: 2 Speed of wave (v) = 8.00 m/s
Given, Amplitude (a) = 0.0700 m
Speed of ultrasound (v) = 1500 m/s Wave length () = 0.320 m
Wavelength () = 1 mm = 10–3 m Required formula,
Frequency (f) = ? v 1 2
a. f = , T = f , k=
 
30 Principles of Physics - II

b. The displacement of the travelling wave is the v

function of x and t. So, we can write the  1 = f
1
equation in X-direction as Wavelength for high frequency, 2 = ?
x t v
y (x, t) = a cos 2  – T  2 = f
  2
c. Use x = 0.360 m, t = 0.150 s in equation, b. In water,
x t Wave speed (v) = 1480 m/s
y (x, t) = 0.0700 cos 2  0.32 m – 0.0400 s
  v
Wavelength for low frequency, ' = f
Hint: 5 1

Given, According to questions, v

Wavelength for high frequency, '' = f
2
H is the highest position and L is its lowest
position. Hint: 8
Time taken from H to L = t = 2.5 s Given,
Vertical distance between H and L = 0.62 m Speed of ripple, v = 0.20 ms–1
Distance between two consecutive crests Wave length,  = 15 mm = 15 × 10–3 m.
=6m Amplitude, a = 5 mm = 5 × 10–3 m.
a. Amplitude (a) = ? Maximum velocity of cork (vmax) = ?
Vertical distance between extreme positions = We know that
0.62 m and amplitude is the half of this value so v =  a2 – y2
we can write For maximum velocity, y = 0. So,
0.62 vmax = a
a= 2
= 2 f × a (∵  = 2 f)
b. Distance between two consecutive crests = 6 m
v
 =6m = 2 × a (∵ v = f )

Since, time taken from the highest point to the
Hint: 9
lowest point (t) = 2.5 s
Given,
So, time period of oscillation is double of this
time i.e. T = 2t Frequency (f) = 250 Hz
Speed (v) = 30 ms–1

Hence, speed of wave = f = T i. Phase difference () = ?
Hint: 6 Path difference (x) = 10 cm = 0.10 m
Given, We know that
Velocity of sound in air (v) = 340 ms–1 2
 = .x
Wavelength () = ? 
when frequency (f) = 256 Hz 2
= v .x
v
Required formula,  = f f
Also, ii. Equation of progressive wave = ?
f = ? when  = 0.85 m Amplitude (a) = 0.03 m.
v The general progressive wave equation is given
 f= by

2
Hint: 7 y = a sin (vt – x)

Given,
Low frequency (f1) = 20 Hz According to the question, we can write
v x
High frequency (f2) = 20,000 Hz y = 0.03 sin 2  t – 
a. In air,   
Wave speed (v) = 344 m/s x
= 0.03 sin2 (ft – v × f)
Wave length for low frequency,
1 = ? iii. Distance between two consecutive nodes = ?
As we know that distance between two
 Wave Motion  Chapter 1  31
 2
consecutive nodes is 2 . So, distance between y = a1 sin (vt  (x))
1
 v 2
two nodes = 2 = 2f y = a1 sin (vt + x)
1
Hint:10 v 2x
= a1 sin 2
Given,  1 t + 1 
20x
y = 0.1 sin 200t – 17  . . . (i) = 0.2 sin2f1 t +
2x
   1 
i. The general progressive wave equation is Hint: 11
2x
y = A sin 2ft – . . . (ii) Given,
  Amplitude, a = 1 × 10–7 m
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get Angular speed,  = 6.6 × 103 s–1
200 = 2f k = 20 m–1
20 2 a. Speed of the wave, v = f
ii. 17 =

2
iii. Wave velocity, v = f But  = 2  f and k =

iv. Phase difference () = ?   
Path difference (x) = 1.10 – 0.25 = 0.85 m So, v = × = = k
2 2
We have 
2x
 = b. vmax =  a2 – 0 = a

Hint:12
v. Equation of a wave = ?
Given, each step is 0.25 m deep for giving
Amplitude, a1 = 2a = 2 × 0.1 = 0.2 mm sound, so
Frequency, f1 = 2f = 2 × 100 = 200 Hz Depth of each step = Distance between two cons
v
Wavelength, 1 = f 
1 or 0.25 = 2
The general equation of travelling wave is
or  = 0.50 m
2 Frequency of sound, f = ?
y = a sin (vt – x)

We have
When wave travels in opposite direction, v
 f=



32 Principles of Physics - II
 MECHANICAL WAVES

2.1 Introduction
Sound wave carries energy in a material medium. It is a form of energy like light energy, electric
energy, magnetic energy, etc. It gives the sensation of hearing. It is produced by the vibrations of
sounding body. It requires material medium to travel. For the propagation of sound, the material
medium must be continuous and should possess the elastic and inertial properties. Sound source
does not emit its own particles like photons in an electromagnetic radiation. When a body is vibrated
in a medium, it produces the disturbances to the near-by particles. During this process, energy is
transferred to these neighbouring particles. Further, other particles nearby them also set into
vibration and so on. Thus, the sound wave propagates long distance away from the source. If there is
no medium, i.e. vacuum, in its path, sound wave can not travel ahead.
We do not hear all the vibrations that are produced in a medium. The audible range of sound
basically depends on intensity as well as frequency. The intensity for threshold of hearing is 10–12
Wm–2 and frequency range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz. As the sound travels in the form of wave, it obeys the
wave phenomena like reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. However, it cannot be
polarized which confirms that it is not the transverse wave.

Reflection
The phenomenon in which the sound returns back after falling on a surface is known as reflection of
sound. The reflection of sound obeys the laws as followed by the light. We are familiar with
examples of reflected sound in our daily life. If we speak loudly near a tall buildings or bridges, the
reflectors (tall buildings or bridges) mimic the same voice that we produce. This happens due to the
reflection of sound.
If the reflector is very near to the source, we do not hear the reflected sound. To hear the reflected
sound distinctly, the reflector must be a certain distance away from the source such that the reflected
sound must come back to source at least after 0.10 s. Our hearing sensitivity distinguishes two sound
events only when the time difference is at least 0.10 s. The least distance for the distinct sound to be
heard is determined as follows:
The speed of sound in air at 20ºC is about 340 m/s
i.e. at T = 20ºC, v = 340 ms–1
Our persistence of hearing, t = 0.10 s
34 Principles of Physics - II

So, the total distance travelled by sound in 0.10 s at 20ºC = 340 × 0.10 = 34 m.
In reflection, the sound travels same path two times. So, the minimum distance of reflector from the
34
source must be 2 = 17 m.

The laws of reflection of sound can be verified by an experiment. Suppose a long hollow pipe is bent
and fitted to a rigid support such that each of the bent part is at equal inclination with the horizontal
of rigid support as shown in Fig. 2.1. The end A is fixed while the end B can be rotated at our will.
The sound wave is made to travel through the end A so that its reflected wave can be heard from the
end B. It is found experimentally that, reflected sound has different intensity at different positions of
end B. The reflected sound is heard with maximum intensity when both the ends are at equal
inclination to the horizontal. But the intensity decreases as the end B moves to any other positions
such as C and D. This verifies that angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection of sound.

Fig. 2.1: Reflection of sound

The reflected sound can be categorized into two types: Echo and Reverberation.

Echo
It is the reflected sound that is detected only once after reflection. When the sound source and
reflector are at least 17 m apart, echo can be heard. Many medical devices, like stethoscope,
ultrasound machine depends on the sound echo.

Reverberation
Reverberation is the multiple reflection of sound when the reflector is situated nearer than 17 m from
the sound source. If the reflector lies nearer than 17 m, the reflected sound is not distinctly heard but
it prolongs the original sound. On an auditorium hall, the multiple reflection of sound from the walls
produces the reverberation. To remove the reverberation, sound absorber are kept on the walls of the
hall. Moreover, we hear the rolling sound of thunder due to the reverberation of sound, when
reflects from different layers of cloud.

Refraction
Refraction of sound waves is the change on direction of waves as they pass from one medium to
another. The refraction of wave takes place due to the change in speed and wavelength of sound,
when it travels from one medium to another. If the medium is changed, the speed is also changed.
Thus, waves passing from one medium to another will undergo refraction. Refraction also takes
place in the same medium, if the temperature is different at different points.
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  35
At night, the lower layer of atmosphere is cold and upper layer is relatively hot. So, speed of sound
travelling upward gradually increases and the sound deviates away from the normal on the layer of
air formed on the atmosphere and finally returns downwards from a certain height in the
atmosphere as shown in Fig. 2.2. Therefore, sound is detected louder at night than at day time.
Ultrasound produces the images of internal parts of our body exploiting the reflection and refraction
phenomena of sound.

hot air

Cold air

Fig. 2.2: Refraction of sound

Interference
Interference is a phenomenon in which two or more waves overlap so that a resultant wave is
formed whose amplitude may be greater, smaller or same as the amplitude of original waves. It is a
basic property of sound that exhibits its wave nature. Interference refers to the interaction of waves
that are similar to each other and in fact correlated to each other. This phenomenon can be observed
in all types of waves like light waves, sound waves and matter waves.
The interference effects can be studied using two identical sound sources (having same wavelengths
and certain phase difference). When waves from these sources superimpose to each other, a resultant
wave is formed whose amplitude changes but frequency remains unchanged. In this process, energy
of wave is distributed differently than the original waves. “The phenomenon of redistribution of energy
in the resultant wave formed by the superposition of two waves having same frequency (or wavelength) and
constant phase difference is called interference of waves.”
The term “redistribution of energy” means the shifting of energy from one place to another. When
two sound waves from coherent sources superimpose in such a way that the energy is divided into
definite ways: one in which energy appears at a point and disappears completely at the nearby point.
The point, where the energy appears maximum, is the position in which the waves are in the same
phase while the point, where the energy appears minimum, is the position in which waves are in the
opposite phase. In this way, we see that the energy is only redistributed during interference but total
energy still remains the same. That is why, there is no violation of law of conservation of energy.
i. Constructive interference: The interference, in which similar phase of two waves overlap each other is
called constructive interference. The amplitude becomes maximum in case of constructive
interference and hence intensity of sound also becomes maximum and therefore a loud sound is
heard.
ii. Destructive interference: The interference, in which opposite phases of two waves overlap each other is
called destructive interference. In destructive interference, the amplitude and intensity of resultant
wave become minimum which results in low intensity of sound.
36 Principles of Physics - II

Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending (spreading) of light around the corner (edge) of the obstacle placed in
its path is called diffraction of light. The phenomenon of diffraction is common for all waves. It
occurs when sound (or any wave) is incident on the openings or obstacles but it becomes noticeable
when dimension of openings or obstacles are comparable to wavelength. Diffraction of sound is
easily observed because sound has long wavelength.
Sound waves are diffracted easily from the corners of doors and windows of our home. Due to this,
we can hear the sound if someone calls us from outside. Sound waves can also be diffracted from the
space between the large trees and rocks in the forest. So, many forest animals take advantage of this
diffraction property of sound to communicate with missing members of their groups.

2.2 Speed of Mechanical Wave

Sound wave is a mechanical wave. It requires continuous medium to travel from one point to
another. Two basic properties of medium are essential for the propagation of the mechanical wave;
they are elasticity and inertia. This means the speed of sound depends on the elastic and inertial
properties of the medium. When a point in a medium is disturbed, the energy is readily transferred
to the nearby molecules so that the molecules execute simple harmonic motion. Simple harmonic
motion in the medium is possible only when the medium possesses the property of elasticity. The
density of medium characterises the inertial property of the medium.
1. Elastic property: If two particles of a body are moved apart, they should be pulled to the
original position to prevent from deformation. This behaviour which prevents from
deformation is called elastic property of a body. In wave motion, the supplied force tends to
deform the material medium, but the elastic behavior of medium restores it to its initial
position. Thus, the wave motion is possible, only when the medium possesses the elastic
properly.
2. Property to inertia: Inertia is produced due to the mass in a particle. This property does not let
the displaced particle to stop suddenly. So, the particle oscillates about a mean position. Thus,
the wave is generated in a material medium.
A dimensional method is used to relate the speed of sound with modulus of elasticity (E) and
density () of a medium. So,
v  Ea
and v  b
where, a and b are dimensions of E and  respectively.
 v  Eab
or, v = k Eab . . . (2.1)
Where k is a dimensionless constant and its experimental value is 1, i.e. k = 1.
Now,
The dimension of E, [E] = [ML–1T–2]
The dimension of , [] = [ML–3]
The dimension of v, [v] = [LT–1]
Thus, from equation (18.14) we have,
[LT–1] = [ML–1T–2]a [ML–3]b
or [LT–1] = [Ma+bL–a–3bT –2a]
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  37
Equating the powers of M, L and T, we get,
a + b = 0,
–a –3b = 1
and –2a = –1
 a = ½, b = – ½
Hence, from equation (2.1), we get,
v = k E1/2 –1/2
E
or v=1×

E Modulus of elasticity
 v= = . . . (2.2)
 Density
This is the required expression for speed of sound in a medium.
So, we can write,
Elastic property
v = Inertial property
i. Speed of sound wave in solid : When a wave travels along the rod, Young’s modulus Y is
relevant for modulus of elasticity. Thus,
Y
v = . . . (2.3)

ii. Speed of sound wave in liquid: The wave propagates in all directions, bulk modulus K, is
relevant for modulus of elasticity.
K
v = . . . (2.4)

Note
The speed of sound appears greater in gas than in solid as the density of solid is greater than gas, but it is not
so. In reality, the speed of sound not only depends on density () but also on modulus of elasticity (E). The
E
ratio of modulus of elasticity to density i.e.  is greater in solid than in gas. Hence, sound travels faster in
 
solid than in gas. Moreover, the speed of sound is greater in liquid than in gas.
iii. Speed of transverse wave through a stretched string: Speed of transverse wave through a
stretched string is determined with the formula,
T
v= (2.5)

Where, T is the tension of the string and  is the mass per unit length of the string.
iv. Speed of electromagnetic wave: The speed of electromagnetic (EM) wave is determined with
the formula,
1
v= (2.6)

Where,  and  are the permittivity and permeability of a medium though which EM wave is
propagated.
v. Speed of sound in extended solid: The speed of sound wave in extended solids such as the
crust of the earth is written as,
38 Principles of Physics - II


K + 43
v= (2.7)

Where, K = bulk modulus of elasticity
and  = modulus of rigidity

2.3 Speed of Sound in Gaseous Medium

In our daily life, we hear the sound propagating through gas medium. Although, the sound wave is
generated by solid and liquid, it approaches to our ear through gas. So, determining the speed of
sound in gaseous medium is very important in our life.

Newton’s Formula
Sound wave is also called pressure wave, since the pressure of material medium is changed during
the propagation of sound. Due to the variation of pressure, the temperature is also varied at the
positions of compressions and rarefaction. Newton studied the speed of sound regarding the
variation of pressure and volume in gas while sound wave propagates in it. He assumed that, the
propagation of sound wave is very slow. Hence, it obeys the thermodynamic process, called the
isothermal process. In such process, temperature variation is negligible (ideally zero). There is no any
temperature difference between the region of compression and rarefaction. For a given mass of a gas
at pressure P and volume V, Boyle's law is stated as,
PV = Constant
Differentiating, we get,
d(PV) = 0
or, PdV + VdP = 0
dP
P = – dV . . . (2.8)
V
Here, dP and dV refer the change of pressure and volume in gas.
Also, the bulk modulus of elasticity (K) is the ratio of change of pressure to change of volume in a
medium.
dP
i.e. K = – dV … (2.9)
V
From equations (2.8) and (2.9), we get,
 K=P . . . (2.10)
From the expression of speed of sound in a medium, we have,
K
 v= . . . (2.11)

From equations (2.10) and (2.11), we get,
P
v= . . . (2.12)

This is Newton’s formula for the speed of sound in a gas.
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  39
For air at NTP,
P = 760 mm of Hg,
= 760 × 10–3 × 13600 × 9.8
= 1.013 × 105 Nm–2
and the density,  = 1.29 kgm–3

1.013 × 10   280 m/s.

5
 v=
 1.29 
Experimentally observed value of speed of sound in air at NTP is 332 m/s. Due to this difference
between theoretical and experimental values, it was thought that Newton's formula needed to be
modified with a necessary correction. Later on, Laplace corrected the above relation with necessary
modification.

Laplace’s Correction
Unlike Newton's assumption, Laplace assumed that the propagation of sound wave is very fast so
that heat cannot be shared by compressions and refractions in such very short time. So, the
temperature of gas changes, i.e. the process is adiabatic rather than isothermal. Thus, the relation
between pressure (P) and volume (V) of the gas through which a sound wave is propagating, is
given by the adiabatic equation for a gas, i.e.
PV = Constant
cp
Where  = c is the specific heat ratio.
v

Differentiating, we get,
d(PV) = 0
or P V–1 dV + V dP = 0
Dividing by V – 1, we get,
or P dV + VdP = 0
dP ∵ K = –Change in pressure
or P – dV = K . . . (2.13)
 Volume strain 
V
The speed of sound in a medium is given by,
K
v = . . . (2.14)

From equations (2.13) and (2.14), we get,
P
v= . . . (2.15)

Equation (2.15) is Laplace’s formula for the speed of sound in a gas.
Taking  = 1.41 for air, the speed of sound in air at NTP is calculated as,
P 1.41 × 1.01 × 105
vNTP = = = 331.6 ms–1
 1.29
This value is closely agreed with the experimental value. Hence, Laplace’s formula for the speed of
sound in gaseous medium is correct formula with correct assumptions.
40 Principles of Physics - II

2.4 Factors Affecting the Speed of Sound in a Gas

i. Effect of Temperature: For a gas of mass m in a volume V,
P PV
the speed of sound (v) = =
 V
nRT . .
= m ( . PV = nRT)

nRT . .
= nM ( . m = nM, and M = molar mass of a gas)
RT
= M
Since  and M are constant for a gas,
v T
Let v1 and v2 be the speed of sound at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively in a gas. Then, the
relation of speed and temperature is written as,
v1 T1
v2 = T2 . . . (2.16)

Thus, the speed of sound is directly proportional to the square-root of the absolute temperature
of the gas.
ii. Effect of molar mass: From Laplace correction,
P PV
the speed of sound (v) = =
 V
nRT
= m
nRT
= nM (... M = molar mass of a gas)

RT
= M
For  and T are taken constant,
v M
Let v1 and v2 be the speed of sound in gas with molar masses M1 and M2 respectively. Then, the
relation of speed and molar mass is written as,
v1 M2
v2 = M1 . . . (2.17)

Thus, the speed of sound is inversely proportional to the square-root of the molar mass of the
gas at constant temperature.
iii. Effect of pressure: From the Laplace correction, the speed of sound in gas is,
P
v=

At constant temperature, the product of volume and pressure remains constant for a given mass
of gas, i.e., PV = constant. So,
Pm
= constant

 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  41
P constant
=
 m
P
 = constant (... m is constant)

P
Also, v= 

P
Since both  and are constant for constant temperature,

v = constant
This concludes that, the speed of sound in gas is independent to the variation of pressure at
constant temperature.
iv. Effect of change in density: Consider two different gases at same temperature and pressure
with different densities. The speeds of sound in these gases media are,
1P 2P
v1 = and v2 =
1 2
If we take same atomicity of gas, like diatomic gases, 1 = 2 = 
P P
v1 = and v2 =
1 2
v1 2
so, v2 = 1
Thus, the speed of sound in a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of density of the
gas.
v. Effect of humidity: Humid air contains a large proportion of water vapour i.e. greater
proportion of hydrogen (i.e. H2). However, the dry air contains the greater proportion of
nitrogen. Hence, the density of moist air is less than the density of dry air at constant pressure.
Let m and d are the density of moist air and density of dry air respectively. Then, speed of
sound in these media are,
mP dP
vm = and vd =
m d
Where, vm = speed of sound in moist air
vd = speed of sound in dry air.
Now,
vm mP d
vd = m
×
dP
m d
= ×
d m
Experimental result in humid and dry air shows that
m d
= 0.9 and = 1.6
d m
vm
so, vd = 0.9 × 1.6 = 1.2 > 0
42 Principles of Physics - II

This shows that vm > vd.

Therefore, the speed of sound is greater in humid air than the dry air. Thus, the sound travels
faster in rainy days than on a dry day.
vi. Direction of wind: Consider u and v be the speed of wind and speed of sound wave
respectively. Let the wind blows at an angle  with the line joining the sound source (S) and
sound observer (O) as shown in Fig. 2.3.
u
The resultant speed of sound wave
VR = v + u cos 
 v
i. If the wind blow towards the observer s o
(i.e.  = 0)
VR = v + u cos 0 = v + u (maximum Fig. 2.3: Effect of direction wind on speed of sound
velocity)
ii. If the wind blow in perpendicular direction of source – observer position, ( = 90)
VR = v + u cos 90
= v (no effect)
iii. If the wind blows in opposite direction of observer ( = 180º)
VR = v + u cos 180
= v – u (minimum velocity)
This shows that the speed of sound increases along the direction of wind flow.
vii. Effect of frequency and wavelength: The frequency and wavelength of sound wave are not
involved in the formula regarding the speed of sound. So, the speed of sound is independent of
its frequency and wavelength.
viii. Effect of amplitude: Amplitude of sound is merely independent to the speed of sound,
however, very large amplitude possesses the significantly large oscillation of particles in the
material medium. This ultimately increases the temperature of the medium and then the speed
of sound slightly increases.
ix. Effect of atomicity of gas: Gas molecules remain in different atomic forms: Monoatomic,
diatomic, and triatomic gases. Helium, Fluorine, etc. are monoatomic gases, hydrogen, nitrogen,
oxygen etc. are diatomic gases and carbondioxide, ammonia, etc. are triatomic gases. Thus, they
cp
have different atomicity, which have different values of specific heat ratio   = c  . Hence, the
 v
speed of sound is different in different atomicity of gas.

Tips for MCQs

1. Speed of sound in any medium depends on elasticity and density of medium,
E Elasticity
v= =
 Density
2. Speed of longitudinal wave,
E
i. in solid, v =

 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  43

4
K+ 3
ii. in extended solid such as earth crust, v =

where, K = Bulk modulus of elasticity,  = modulus of rigidity
K
iv. in liquid, v =

P Cp
v. in gas, v = ,=C
 v
3. Factors affecting the speed of sound in gas,
v1 T1
i. Temperature, v  T , so v = T2
2
ii. Pressure, no effect at constant temperature
1 v1 1
iii. density, v  , so v = (for different gases)
 2 2
1 v1 M2
iv. Molar mass, v  , so v = M1
M 2

v. Humidity, vhumid > vdry

3. Temperature coefficient of speed of sound,
vt 273 +    1/2
v0 = 273 = 1 + 273 = 1 + 273
 
 1  
vt = v0 1 + 2 273 + …
 
1 1
vt = v0  1 + 2 273 
   
1
v t = v0 1 + 2   

 
Where,  temperature coefficient of speed of sound
4. Speed of electromagnetic wave,
1
v=

Where,  = permeability of a medium
 = permittivity of the medium
1
In vacuum, v = = 3 × 108 ms–1
00
5. Speed of transverse wave in a stretched string,
T
v= , where T = tension on string and  = mass per unit length


Worked Out Problems

1. Velocity of sound in air at 0ºC is 330 ms–1. Calculate the velocity of sound in air at 27ºC.
Solution
Given, We know,
Initial temperature (T1) = 0ºC = 273 K v2 T2
Initial velocity (v1) = 330 ms–1 v1 = T1
Final temperature (T2) = 27ºC T2
= 27+273=300 K v2 = T1 × v1
Final velocity (v2) = ?
44 Principles of Physics - II

300 Therefore, the velocity of sound at 27ºC is

= 273 × 330 = 345.93 ms .
-1
345.93 ms–1.

2. At what temperature the velocity of sound is double than at the temperature 27ºC?
SOLUTION
Given, (2v)2 T2
Initial temperature (Ti) = 27ºC = 27 + 273 = 300 K v2 = T1
Initial velocity (v1) = v 4T1 = T2
Final velocity (v2) = 2v T2 = 4 × 300
Final temperature (T2) = ? = 1200 K
We know,  T2 = (1200 – 273)ºC
v2 T2 = 927ºC
v1 = T1  The velocity of sound is double at 927ºC than
v22 T2 that of 27ºC.
v12 = T1

3. The velocity of sound in air being 332 ms–1 at 0ºC. Find the change in velocity per degree rise
in temperature.
SOLUTION
Given, 274
Initial velocity (v1) = 332 ms–1 v2 = 273 × 332
suppose, the temperature is raised to 1ºC, = 332.61 ms–1
i.e. T2 = 274 K  Change in velocity per degree rise in
Now, temperature
v2 T2 (v) = v2 – v1
v1 = T1 = 332.61 – 332
Initial temperature (T1) = 0ºC = 273 K = 0.61 ms–1

4. [NEB 2075] At what temperature the speed of sound is increased by 50% than that travels in
27ºC?
SOLUTION
Given, 3
Initial temperature (T1) = 27ºC = 27 + 273 = 300 K 2v T2
or, v = 300
Let initial velocity (v1) = v
Final velocity = v + 50% of v 3 T2
50 or, 2 = 300
= v + 100 × v
9 T2
1 3 or, 4 = 300
=v+2v=2v
9
Final temperature (T2) = ? or, T2 = 4 × 300 = 675 K
We know,  T2 = (675 – 273)ºC = 402ºC
v2 T2 Therefore, at 402ºC, the speed of sound is
v1 = T1 increased by 50% than that of 27ºC.

5. [HSEB 2073] Calculate the bulk modulus of a liquid in which longitudinal waves the
frequency of 250 Hz have the wavelength of 8 m if the density of liquid is 900 kgm–3.
SOLUTION
Given, Frequency of wave (f) = 250 Hz
Wavelength () =8m
and density of liquid () = 900 kgm–3
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  45
Bulk modulus (K) =? K
v2 =
The speed of sound (v) = f 
= 250 × 8 K = v2 
= 2000 ms–1 = (2000)2 × 900 = 3.6 × 109 Nm–2
 The bulk modulus of given liquid is
K
Now, the velocity, v = 3.6× 109 Nm–2.


6. Densities of oxygen and nitrogen are in the ratio of 16:14. At what temperature, the speed of
sound in oxygen will be the same as at 15°C in nitrogen?
SOLUTION
From Laplace formula, we know that R(273 + )
=
P Mo
v=
 Speed of sound in nitrogen at 15°C
From ideal gas equation, we have R(273 + 15)
PV = RT = MN
V RT Since these two speeds are the same so we can
or PM = M write
P RT R(273 + ) R(273 + 15)
or = M , where M is the molar mass of a gas =
 M0 MN
Therefore, 273 +  288
or M0 = MN
RT
v= M M0
or 273 +  = M × 288
N
Let speed of sound in oxygen at °C be the same as
in nitrogen at 15°C. 16
or  = 14 × 288 – 273
Speed of sound in oxygen at °C
  = 56.14°C
7. A source of sound of frequency 550 Hz emits waves of wavelength 600 nm in air at 20°C. What
is the speed of sound in air at this temperature? What would be the wavelength of the sound
from the source in air at 0° C?
SOLUTION
Given, T0
Frequency (f) = 550 Hz or v0 = T20 × v20
Wavelength at 20°C (20) = 600 mm = 0.60 m 273
Speed of sound at 20° C (v20) = ? or v0 = 273 + 20 × 330
Also, we know that
v20 = f × 20 = 550 × 0.60 = 330 ms–1 or v0 =
 273 
 293 × 330
Now, Wavelength of sound at 0° C (0) = ?
or, f0 = 318.50
We know that
318.50 1
v T or, 0 = f = 318.54 × 550
v0 T0  0 = 0.579 m
or v = T20
20

8. A source of sound produces a note of 512 Hz in air at 17 C with wavelength 64.5 cm. Find the
ratio of molar heat capacities at constant pressure to constant volume at NTP. Densities of air
and mercury at NTP are 1.293 kgm–3 and 13600 kgm–3 respectively.
SOLUTION:
Given,
Frequency (f) = 512 Hz
Wavelength () = 64.5 cm
46 Principles of Physics - II

Initial temperature (T1)= 17 C = 17 + 273 Also, the atmospheric pressure at NTP,

= 290 K P = hg
Density (0) = 1.293 kgm–3 h = 760 mm of Hg = 760 × 10–3 m of Hg
Density of mercury (Hg) = 13600 kgm–3 Hg = 13600 kgm–3
The speed of sound at 17 C (v1) = f g = 9.8 ms–2
= 512 × 0.665  P = 760 × 10–3 × 13600 × 9.8
= 340.48 ms–1 = 1.013 × 105 Nm–2
Now, the speed of sound at 0C (v2) = ? Also, speed of sound of NTP
v2 T2 P
We have, v = v2 =
1 T1 a
2
v2 273 v2  = P
340.48 = 290 2
v2  (330.45)2 × 1.293
273  = P = 1.013 × 105
V2 = 290 × 340.48
 = 1.36
= 330.45 ms–1
 The ratio of molar heat capacities,  = 1.36

9. The interval between the flash of lighting and the sound of thunder is 2 seconds, when
temperature is 10 C. How far is the storm if the velocity of sound in air at 0C is 330 ms–1?
SOLUTION
Given, 283
Let time for lighting to reach a point = t1 v10 = 273 × 330 = 336 ms
–1

Time for sound to reach that point = t2 Since the distance travelled by sound and light
Time interval (t) = t2 – t1 = 2 s is equal,
Temperature (T) = 10 C = 10 + 273 = 283 K (vt)sound = (vt)light
Velocity of sound at 0C (va) = 330 C 336 × t2 = 3 × 108 × t1
Distance of source (d) = ? 336 t2 = 3 × 108 (t2 – 2)
We know, speed of light (c) = 3 × 108 ms–1 336 t2 = 3 × 108 t2 – 6 × 108
To find velocity of sound at 10 C, 3 × 108 t2 – 336 t2 = 6 × 108
v10 T10 2.999 × 108 t2 = 6 × 108
v0 = T0 6 × 108
t2 = 2.999 × 108
v10 283
t2 = 2.00067 s
330 = 273
So, the distance (d) = vsound × t2
= 336 × 2.00067 = 672.2 m

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] At a temperature of 27.0C, what is the speed of longitudinal waves in (a) Hydrogen
(molar mass 2.02 g/mol)? (b) Helium (molar mass 4.00 g/mol)? (c) argon (molar mass 39.9
g/mol)? Compare your answers for parts (a), (b) and (c) with the speed in air at the same
temperature. [ for H2 = 1.41,  for He = 1.67,  for Ar = 1.67]
Ans: (a) 1320 ms–1 (b) 1020 ms–1(c) 323 ms–1

2. [UP] A jet airliner is cruising at high altitude at space of 850 km/h. This is equal to 0.85 times
the speed of sound at that altitude. What is the air temperature at this altitude? ( = 1.4, R = 8.31
J/mol.K, Mair = 28.8 × 10–3 kg/mol)
Ans:– 82° C
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  47
3. [UP] The speed of sound in air at 20C was found to be 344 m/s. What is the change in speed
for a 1.0 °C change in air temperature?
Ans: 0.59 ms–1
4. [UP] An 80.0 m long brass rod is struck at one end. A person at the other end hears two sounds
as a result of two longitudinal waves, one traveling in the metal rod and the other traveling in
the air. What is the time interval between the two sounds? (The speed of sound in air is 344
m/s. Y for brass = 9 × 1010 Pa,  for brass = 8.6 ×103 kgm–3)
Ans: 0.208 s
5. [UP] What is the difference between the speed of longitudinal waves in air at 27.0C and their
speed at – 13.0C?
Ans: 24 ms–1
6. [UP] a. In a liquid with density 1300 kg/m3, longitudinal waves with frequency 400 Hz are
found to have wavelength 8.00 m. Calculate the bulk modulus of the liquid.
b. A metal bar with a length of 1.50 m has density 6400 kg/m3. Longitudinal sound waves
take 3.90  10–4 s to travel from one end of the bar to the other. What is Young’s modulus
for this metal?
Ans: (a) 1.33  1010 Nm–2; (b) 6400 = 9.47 × 1010 Nm–2
7. [UP] What must be the stress (F/A) in a stretched wire of a material whose Young’s modulus is
Y for the speed of longitudinal waves to equal 30 times the speed of transverse waves?
Y
Ans: 900

8. [ALP] If a detonator is exploded on a railway line, an observer standing on the rail 2.0 km away
hears two reports. What is the time interval between these reports? (Young modulus for steel
=2.0  1011Nm-2, density of steel = 8.0  103 kgm-3, density of air =1.4 kgm-3, ratio of the molar
heat capacities of air = 1.40, atmospheric pressure = 105 Nm-2). [HSEB 2069]
Ans: 5.92 sec.
9. [ALP] Calculate the speed of sound in air at 27°C.
(density of air at s.t.p.= 1.29 kgm–3; ratio of molar heat capacities = 1.4)
Ans: 348 ms–1
10. [ALP] A man standing at one end of a closed corridor 57 m long blew a short blast on a whistle.
He found that the time from the blast to the sixth echo was two seconds. If the temperature was
17°C, what was the speed of sound at 0°C?
Ans: 331.94 ms-1
11. A sound source of frequency 220 Hz produces sound of wavelength 1.5 m in air at STP.
Calculate the increase in wavelength at 27°C.
Ans: 0.075 m
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Why echo cannot be heard in small room? [NEB 2075]
 Eco is heard after the original sound and it has been reflected from a reflecting surface. To hear the
clear echo, the reflecting surface must be situated 17 m away from source. If the reflecting surface lies
nearer than 17 m, the reflected sound is mixed to original sound and the echo cannot be heard. In a
small room, the walls lie nearer than 17 m, so the echo cannot be heard.
2. We knock the door to inform the person inside the room, why?
 Sound wave is easily reflected from the surface of matter, but very small fraction of sound intensity
gets refracted. If we call a person from outside of door, the voice may not reach inside the easily. But
the vibration produced while knocking the door can reach to the person inside the room. So it is
better to knock the door rather than to call from outside.
48 Principles of Physics - II

3. Velocity of sound in solids is more than that in liquids, Why? [NEB 2074]
 The velocity of sound depends on two factors: modulus of elasticity and density of medium through
which it propagates. The relation is formulated as,
E
v=

E
The ratio for solid is greater than for liquid. Therefore, sound travels faster in solid than that of

liquid.
4. When sound waves travel through a medium, does the temperature at various points remain
constant? Explain. [HSEB 2072]
 When sound waves travel through a medium, it forms compression and rarefaction at different
points. In compression, particles get crowded and collide to each other. So, the temperature increases.
In rarefaction, particles move far away from each other, so the internal energy decreases. As a result,
temperature decreases. That is why, the temperature varies at different points of a medium when
sound travels through it.
5. Why does sound travel faster in metals than in air? [HSEB 2071]
 The speed of sound in a medium is determined
Modulus of elasticity E
v= =
density 
In case of metal, suppose steel,
E = 2 × 1011 Nm–2  = 7800 kgm–3
E 2 × 1011
So, speed of sound (v) = = 7800 = 5063.7 ms
–1

in air, at STP, E = 1.42 × 105 Nm–2
 = 1.29 kg m–3
E 1.42 × 105
v= = 1.29 = 331.7 ms
–1

E
This shows that the ratio for metal is much greater than that of gas,

E E
i.e.  Metal >   gas
   
Hence, the sound travels faster in metal than in gas.
6. The speed of sound in humid air is greater than that in dry air, why?
 Humid air contains a large proportion of water vapour i.e. greater proportion of hydrogen (i.e. H2).
However, the dry air contains the greater proportion of nitrogen. Hence, the density of moist air is
less than the density of dry air.
Let m and d are the density of moist air and density of dry air respectively. Then, speed of sound in
these media are,
mP dP
vm = and vd =
m d
Where, vm = speed of sound in moist air
vd = speed of sound in dry air.
Now,
vm mP d m d
vd = m
×
dP
=
d
×
m
Experimental result in humid and dry air shows that
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  49
m d
= 0.9 and = 1.6
d m
vm
so, v = 0.9 × 1.6 = 1.2 > 0
d

This shows that vm > vd.

Therefore, the speed of sound is greater in humid air than the dry air. For the same reason, the sound
travels faster on a rainy day than on a dry day.
7. Although the density of solid is high, the velocity of solid is greater in solid. Why?
 The speed of sound apparently seems greater in gas than in solid, as the density of solid is greater
than gas, but it is not so. In reality, the speed of sound not only depends on density () but also on
E
modulus of elasticity (E). The ratio of modulus of elasticity to density i.e.  is greater in solid than
 
in gas. Hence, sound travels faster in solid than in gas. Moreover, the speed of sound is greater in
liquid than in gas.
8. Velocity of sound increases on a cloudy day. Why? [HSEB 2066]
 The air contains more moisture in cloudy day than the dry day. As we know, the sound travels faster
in moist air than dry air, velocity of sound increases on a cloudy day.
9. Do sound waves need a medium travel from one point to other point in space? What properties of
the medium are relevant?
 Sound requires continuous medium to travel from one point to another point in space. To travel the
sound, the medium must possess two basic properties: elastic properties and inertial property. The
elastic property is associated with modulus of elasticity and inertial property is associated with mass
(or density) of that medium.
10. Why sound produced at a distance can be heard distinctly at night than in day time?
 The temperature of air nearer the earth's surface is lower than the upper part of atmosphere at night.
So, the sound propagating upward gradually deviates away from the original direction and finally
reflects back to earth surface: i.e. total internal reflection occurs in sound waves. This process
increases the sound intensity nearer the earth's surface at night. So, the sound produced at a distance
can be heard distinctly at night than in day time.
11. The audible frequency range of a human ear is 20 Hz – 20 kHz. Convert this into corresponding
wavelength range. Take the speed of sound in air at ordinary temperature to be 340 ms–1.
 Here, the audible range of human ear is 20 Hz to 20 kHz and the speed of sound in air is 340 ms–1.
v
i. the longest wavelength longest = f
smallest

340
= 20 = 17 m

v
ii. The shortest wavelength, shortest = f
largest

340
= 20 × 1000 = 17 mm

Therefore, the wavelength range for audible sound wave is 17 mm to 17 m.

12. Deduce the velocity of longitudinal waves in a metal rod. Given: modulus of elasticity = 7.5 × 1010
Nm–2 and density = 2.7 × 103 kgm–3.
 Here, the given quantities, Y = 7.5 × 1010 Nm–2
 = 2.7 × 103 kgm–3
Y 7.5 × 1010
The velocity of the wave (v) = = 2.7 × 103 = 5270 ms .
–1

Hence, the velocity of longitudinal waves in given metal rod is 5270 ms–1.
50 Principles of Physics - II

13. Do sound waves undergo reflection, refraction, and polarization phenomena? Explain.
 The reflection and refraction phenomena occur whether the wave is longitudinal or transverse.
Sound wave propagates in longitudinal form in air. So, reflection and refraction occur in sound
wave. But for the polarization of wave, it must be the transverse, which is not possible in sound
wave. Hence, sound wave cannot be polarized.
14. Why is Laplace correction required to determine the velocity of sound?
 Newton assumed the isothermal process in gas medium when sound propagates in it. But in reality
adiabatic process occurs while sound propagates in gas. Laplace assumed the adiabatic process in gas
medium and derived the correct formula.
15. What is the effect of temperature of gas medium on velocity of sound?
 The velocity of sound is directly proportional to the square root of absolute temperature of gas, i.e. v
 T . Therefore, the velocity increases when temperature of gas increases.
16. What is the effect of pressure on the velocity of sound?
 At constant temperature, the variation of pressure and density of gas medium changes simultaneously. So,
the ratio of pressure to density always remains constant for a gas
i.e. P = constant at constant temperature. Hence, pressure of gas is independent on the velocity of
  
sound.
17. Why do we hear rolling sound of thunder?
 When the cloud of different electric potentials come closer, they collide and sound is produced. This
sound gets reflected many times in the different layers of cloud and produces the echo. These
repeated echos are heard as the rolling sound of thunder.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Why do sound refract?
2. Eco has lower intensity than original sound at the point of source, why?
3. We do not hear the echo, if the reflected is situated nearer than 17 m. Give reason.
4. Compare the speed of sound in solid, liquid and gas.
5. How is the speed of sound affected by the direction of wind flow?
6. Write down the Newton's formula for the speed of sound in a gas. Why did his formula give wrong
results?
7. How did Laplace's correct Newton's formula?
8. What is the effect of frequency and amplitude on the speed of sound?
9. Suppose you set your watch by the sound of a distance siren: will it go fast or slow?
10. Why does speed of sound increase with increase in temperature?
11. What is the drawback of Newton's formula for the speed of sound in a gas?
12. How does speed of sound in air change when temperature rises by 10°C?
13. Is it ever, always, or never true to say that the speed of sound at sea level will be greater when the
atmospheric pressure is higher? Explain your answer.
14. What is the effect of humidity of air on the speed of sound?
15. Why does the flash of light reach the earth before than the sound coming from the same thunder?
16. How does speed of sound in air change when temperature rises by 1C?
17. Speed of sound of oxygen is less than that in hydrogen, why?
18. Why is speed of sound independent of pressure in a gas?
19. Why is a given sound louder in a hall than in the open?
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  51

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What are the two fundamental properties of a medium on which speed of sound depends? Derive an
expression of speed of sound in a medium.
2. Discuss the effect of pressure, temperature and density of elastic medium on the speed of sound.
[HSEB 2052]
3. What is Newton’s formula for the speed of sound? What correction was made by Laplace?
[HSEB 2053, 2061, 2067]
4. Describe Newton’s expression for the speed of sound in a gas with Laplace correction.
5. Discuss Laplace’s correction and derive the formula for the speed of sound in a gas. [HSEB 2056]
6. Derive an expression for the speed of sound in a medium by dimensional method. Discuss the effect
of change in pressure and temperature on the speed of sound in air. [HSEB 2060]
7. Explain the significance of Laplace’s correction of Newton’s formula for the speed of sound and
derive the corrected formula. [HSEB 2065]
8. Write down the factors on which the speed of sound in air depends with necessary explanation.
[HSEB 2066]
9. Discuss the effect of pressure, temperature and humidity on the speed of sound? Does wind affect
the speed of sound in air?

Numerical Problems
2
1. At what temperature, the velocity of sound is 3 of the velocity of sound at 127C?
Ans: – 95.22C
2. The velocity of sound in air at 0C is 280 ms–1, calculate the velocity of sound at 819C temperature.
Ans: 560 ms–1
3. A compressional wave of frequency 256 Hz is set up in an iron rod and this later passes from the rod
into air. The speed of the wave in iron is 5120 ms–1 and that in air is 352 ms–1. Calculate the
wavelength of the wave in each medium.
Ans: 20 m, 1.375 m
4. At a pressure of 105 Nm–2, the volume strain of water is 5 × 10–5, calculate the speed of sound in
water.
Ans: 1.414 × 103 ms–1
5. Calculate the velocity of sound in oxygen if the velocity of sound in hydrogen is 1248 ms–1.
Ans: 312 ms–1
6. For air at standard temperature and pressure, the density is 0.001293 gcm–3. Deduce the velocity of
longitudinal wave using (i) Newton's formula (ii) Laplace Formula. Given  = 1.4
Ans: 2.8 × 102 ms–1, 3.3 × 102 ms–1
7. What is the percentage increase in the speed of sound when temperature increases from –5°C to
32°C?
Ans: 6.7%
8. The speed of sound in hydrogen is 1320 m/s. What will be the speed of sound in a mixture of 2 parts
by volume of hydrogen and one part by volume of oxygen?
Ans: 538.58 ms–1
9. The frequency of a tuning fork is 240 Hz. If it is made to vibrate at 27°C, what is the wavelength of
the sound emitted? Speed of sound at 0°C is 330 m/s.
Ans: 1.44 m
10. A body vibrating with a certain frequency sends waves 15 cm long through a medium A and 20 cm
long through a medium B. the velocity of waves in A is 1200 cm/s. Find the velocity in B.
Ans: 16 m/sec
52 Principles of Physics - II

11. Find at what temperature the speed of sound in air is double the speed of sound in air at the
temperature of freezing point of water.
Ans: 819°C
v0
12. Show that the speed of sound in air is given by v = v0 + 546 , where v0 is the speed of sound in air
at 0°C and v at °C.
13. Calculate the speed of sound in air if temperature is increased by 20°C and pressure is doubled. The
speed of sound in air at 20°C is 340 ms–1.
Ans: 351.4 ms–1
14. Show that the speed of sound in a gas for which  = 1.41, is 0.68 c, where c is the root mean square
velocity of the gas molecules.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. At what temperature will the speed of sound be double of its value at 0C?
a. 819 C b. 919 C
c. 1092 C d. 1192 C
2. At what temperature the velocity of sound in oxygen is same as that in hydrogen at 27 c.
a. 4050 C b. 27 C
c. 4527 C d. 4848 C
3. Which thermodynamic process is assumed in Laplace correction?
a. Isothermal b. Adiabatic
c. Isochoric d. Isobaric
4. The ratio of velocity of sound in hydrogen gas ( = 7/5) to that in helium gas ( = 5/3) at the same
temperature is:
a. 21 :5 b. 1 : 1
c. 42 :5 d. 2 : 1
5. Speed of sound is maximum in
a. monoatomic gas. b. diatomic gas.
c. polyatomic gas. d. equal at all.
6. Speed of sound does not depend on
a. temperature. b. humidity.
c. molar mass. d. pressure.
7. Velocity of sound in air isn't dependent on:
a. Pressure b. Temperature
c. Moisture d. Composition of air
8. A man heard the thunder 6 seconds layer he saw a lightning. The temperature of air is 27ºC. How far
was the flash of light from the man? (Velocity of sound in air at 0ºC is 332 m/s)
a. 1822 m b. 2332 m
c. 2088 m d. 2445 m
9. The velocity of sound in air at NTP is 300 m/s. If the pressure is increased to 4 times the atmosphere
pressure, then the velocity of sound will be:
a. 150 ms–1 b. 300 ms–1
c. 600 ms–1 d. 1200 ms–1
10. Laplace's formula for the velocity of sound is:
P P
a. v = b. v =
 
 R
c. v = P d. v = M
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  53
11. The intensity of sound at night increases because of:
a. Low temperature b. Increase in density
c. Decrease in density d. Calmness
12. Velocity of sound at 300 K is V. At what temperature velocity of sound becomes doubled:
a. 300 K b. 600 K
c. 800 K d. 1200 K

Answers
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (a) 11. (c) 12. (d)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 RT
or v2 = M
Given,
Temperature of the gas (T) = 27°C = 300 K v2 M
Molar mass of (H2) = 2.02 g/mol   T=
R
= 2.02  10– 3 kg/mol HINT: 3
Molar mass of (He) = 4 g/mol Given, T1 = 20C
= 4  10– 3 kg/mol v20 = 344 ms–1
Molar mass of argon (Ar) = 39.9 g/mol
Change in speed for a 1°C in air temperature,
= 39.9  10– 3 kg/mol
v =?
For hydrogen,  = 1.41
For helium,  = 1.67 T = 1°C = 1 K
For argon,  = 1.67  New temperature (T2) = (20 + 1) C = 21C
R = 8.31 J/mol K We know that
For a, b, c, use formula RT2
v21 = M
RT
v= M Also,
For air, RT1
Molar mass of air = 28.8  10– 3 kg/mol v20 = M
air = 1.4
v21 T2
RT  v = T1
Find speed of sound in air by, v = M
20

vH2 vHe vAr T2

then find, v , v , v
or v21 = T1  v20
air air air
HINT: 2
Then use,
Given,  v = v21 – v20
HINT: 4
Molar heat ratio () = 1.4
Given,
Universal gas constant (R) = 8.31 J/mol K
Length of brass (l) = 80 m
Molar mass of air (Mair) = 28.8 g
Speed of sound in air (va) = 344 m/s-1
Velocity of jet,
Young's modulus of brass (Y) = 9  1010 Pa
850 × 1000 m
vJet = 850 km/h = 3600 s = 236.11 ms–1 Density of brass () = 8.6  103 kgm–3
Time Interval (ta - tm) = ?
Also, given condition, vjet = 0.85 × v
vjet Now, Time interval = (ta - tm)
  v = 0.85 l l
=v –v
Let T be the required temperature. Now a m

velocity, l l
=v –
RT a Y
v= M 
54 Principles of Physics - II

HINT: 5
Y F
Given, or = 30 × , where  is the mass per
 
T27 = (27 + 273) = 300 K unit length.
Molecular mass of air = 28.8  10– 3 kg/mol Y F
or = 900 ×
For air  = 1.4  
T–13 = (273 – 13) = 260 K Y F mass v × 
or = 900 × (∵ = lengh = l =A×)
 A×
R = 8.31 Jmol-1K1
F Y
By questions; or A = 900
v27 – v–13 = ? HINT: 8
We know that Given,
RT Distance, s = 2 km = 2 × 103 m
v = M Let, ta be the time taken in air and tr in rail.
Therefore, Time interval between two reports = ta – tr = ?
Young modulus of steel, Y = 2 × 1011 Nm–2
RT27 RT–13
v27 – v–13 = Density of steel,  = 8 × 103 kgm–3
M – M
Density of air,  = 1.4 kgm–3
R Ratio of molar heat capacities of air () = 1.40
= M ( T27 – T–13 )
Atmospherics pressure, P = 105 Nm–2
HINT: 6
Now,
Given,
Time interval = ta – tr
Density of liquid (l) = 1300 kg/m3 s s distance (s)
Frequency (f )= 400 Hz = v – v (∵ speed (v) = time (t) )
a r
Wavelength () = 8 m s s P Y
a. Bulk modulus (K) = ? = – (∵ va = and vr = )
P Y  
We know that
 
K HINT: 9
v=
l
Speed of sound in air at 27C, v27 = ?
K Density of air at S.T.P., 0 = 1.29 kgm–3
or (f)2 = (∵ v = f )
l
Ratio of molar heat capacities,  = 1.4
or K = (f)2 × l Normal pressure, P = 1.013 × 105 Nm–2
b. Length of bar (l) = 1.50 m Now,
Density of bar () = 6400 kg/m3 Speed of sound in air at STP,
Time taken (t) = 3.90  10– 4 s. P 1.4 × 1.013 × 105
v0 = =
Young’s modulus (Y) = ? 0 1.29
We know,  v0 = 331.57 ms–1
Y We know that v  T
v=

v0 T0
 v =
l Y distance l
2
or = [∵ v = T27
time = t )
27
 t  HINT: 10
l 2
or Y =  t ×  Given,
  Time for six echoes (t) = 2 s
HINT: 7
Temperature (T17) = 17 + 273 = 290 K
Given, Speed of sound at 0° C (v0) = ?
Stress (F/A) = ?
Speed of longitudinal wave = 30  vt (speed of ∵ Distance for one echo = 57 × 2 m
transverse wave)  Distance for six echoes = (57 × 2) × 6 m
 Mechanical Waves  Chapter 2  55
total distance for six echoes Wavelength at STP, 0 = 1.5 m
v17 = total time taken  Speed of sound at STP,
(2 × 57) × 6 v0 = f 0 = 220 × 1.5 = 330 ms–1
= 2 Let 27 and v27 be the wavelength and speed of
 v17 = 342 ms–1 sound at 27°C respectively. Then,
We know that v27 273 + 27
v T v0 = 273
v0 T0 v27
 v = Then find v27 and use, 27 = f
17 T17
HINT: 11 Finally, increase in wavelength = 27 – 0
Given,
Frequency of source, f = 220 Hz


56 Principles of Physics - II
 WAVES IN PIPES
AND STRINGS

3.1 Tone, Note, Harmonics and Overtones

Tone
The sound of definite frequency is called a tone. A tone is produced when a body of certain length
and mass is vibrated. The sound produced by a tuning fork is an example of a tone. The sound
produced by a string of guitar is also another example of tone. If the length of string is changed, the
frequency of tone is also changed.

Note
Note of sound is the combination of many tones. If the strings of guitar are vibrated pressing
different lengths, tones of different frequencies are produced. A person listening the music of guitar
can not detect single tone, rather he/she listens the combination of tones, which is termed as note of
sound.

Harmonics
A harmonics is a signal or wave whose frequency is an integral multiple of the some reference signal.
For a wave whose fundamental frequency is f, it is called the first harmonic. Then, second harmonic,
third harmonic, fourth harmonic, …, etc are represented by 2f, 3f, 4f, …, etc. respectively. The signal
occurring at frequencies of 2f, 4f, 6f..., etc. are called even harmonics and the signals at frequencies 3f,
5f, 7f, …, etc. are called odd harmonics. Theoretically, a signal can infinitely have many harmonics.

Overtone
An overtone is a musical tone which is a part of the harmonic series above the fundamental tone. If a
sound possesses all possible harmonics f, 2f, 3f, 4f, 5f, etc…, 2f is called first overtone, 3f is called
second overtone and so on. If a sound have odd harmonics, f, 3f, 5f, 7f, … etc, 3f is called first
overtone, 5f is called second overtone, and so on.
Note
The frequency pattern in harmonics and overtones can be studied making an analogy with the energy level of
hydrogen atom in which the harmonics corresponds to principle quantum number (n), the fundamental note
corresponds to ground state energy level and overtone corresponds to excited state. For example, when n = 2, the
hydrogen atom is in the first excited state. Correspondingly, f2 in the second harmonics is the first overtone.
Similarly, f3, f4 are the 2nd and 3rd overtone and so on.
58 Principles of Physics - II

3.2 Organ Pipes

Organ pipes are the musical devices that produce the sound of certain frequency by pressurizing the
air into them. Each pipe is tuned to a specific note of musical scale. Organ pipes are generally made
up of wood or metal and have mainly three different shapes: cylindrical, conical or rectangular. Flute,
horn, whistle, etc. are some examples of organ pipes. The longitudinal waves traveling along the
length of pipe when interfere with the reflected waves from the another end, stationary or standing
waves are produced. Resonance condition occurs into it when the disturbance has the equal
frequency with the natural frequency of air molecules.
Organ pipes are basically categorized into two types: closed end organ pipe (closed organ pipe) and
open end organ pipe (open organ pipe).

Closed Organ Pipe

The organ pipe whose one end is open to air and another end is closed off is closed organ pipe. The
air at the closed end of the pipe does not move, however the air moves freely at the open end. Since
the air is not moving at the closed end, a node (N) is formed at this position. The movement of air is
maximum at the opening, so an anti-node (A) is formed at this end as shown in Fig. 3.1 (ii).

A
N Closed end

(i) (ii)
Fig. 3.1: Closed organ pipe
When the air is set into vibration at the open end, the longitudinal waves (compressions and
rarefactions) travel into the pipe towards the closed boundary. These waves, then reflect back
towards the open end after colliding the air molecules at the closed end. In reflection, compression
reflects back as the rarefaction as the phase reversal. The wave travelling from the open end when
superimposed with the reflected wave from the closed end, stationary (or standing) wave is formed
into the pipe.

Modes of Vibration in Closed Organ Pipe

Different values of frequency of sound can be obtained into the closed end pipe, although the length
is constant. The vibrations that possess the frequency in specific pattern are known as modes of
vibration. There are various modes of vibration into the closed end pipe. The modes of vibration
depends on the number of nodes or anti-nodes formed into the pipe. The mechanism and nature of
some modes of vibration are described below.
l

1 32 53
l= 4 l= 4 l= 4

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 3.2: Modes of vibration of closed organ pipe
i. First mode of vibration: If a node at the closed end and an anti-node at open end are formed in
a pipe, the corresponding mode of vibration is called first mode of vibration. In this mode,
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  59
minimum possible frequency of sound is produced into the pipe, so the mode is called
fundamental mode and corresponding frequency is called fundamental frequency.
Let l be the length of a closed end pipe and 1 be the wavelength of fundamental tone as shown
in Fig. 3.2 (i). Also, consider f1 be the fundamental frequency of vibration in the pipe and v be
the speed of sound in air. Then,
v
f1 = (v is constant in air at constant temperature) … (3.1)
1
One quarter part of a complete wave is formed into the pipe, so,
1
l= 4

 1 = 4l … (3.2)
Therefore, the fundamental frequency of sound in this pipe is,
v
f1 = 4l … (3.3)

It is the lowest frequency of sound produced by the pipe, which is called the first harmonic in
closed organ pipe.
P
In air, v =

1 P
so, f1 = 4l

ii. Second mode of vibration: In this mode of vibration, two nodes and two anti-nodes are formed
in the pipe as shown in Fig. 3.2 (ii). Let l be the length of pipe and 2 be the wavelength of note
produced in this mode of vibration. Then, the corresponding frequency, f2 of the vibration is,
v
f2 = …(3.4)
2
Three quarter part of a complete wave is formed into the pipe, so,
2
l=3 4

4l
 2 = 3 … (3.5)

Therefore, the frequency of sound in this mode is,

v
f2 =
4l
 
3
v
f2 = 3 4l

f2 = 3 f1 … (3.6)
Equation (3.6) gives the frequency of vibration in second mode of vibration. It is called third
harmonic or first overtone. As the frequency of vibration in this mode is three times greater
than the fundamental mode, the harmonic is called third harmonic.
iii. Third mode of vibration: In this mode of vibration, three nodes and three anti-nodes are
formed in the pipe as shown in Fig. 3.2 (iii). Let 3 be the wavelength of note produced in this
mode at velocity v in the pipe of length l, the corresponding frequency, f3 of vibration is written
as,
60 Principles of Physics - II

v
f3 = … (3.7)
3
One complete and one quarter part of a wave is formed in this mode of vibration, so,
1
l = 3 + 4 3

53
l= 4

4l
 3 = 5 … (3.8)

Therefore, the frequency of sound in this mode is,

v
f3 =
4l
 
5
v
f3 = 5 4l

f2 = 5 f1 … (3.9)
Equation (3.9) gives the frequency of sound in third mode of vibration. It is called fifth
harmonic or second overtone. As the frequency of vibration is five times greater than the
fundamental frequency, this is called fifth harmonic. In this way, the pattern of frequency in the
succeeding modes of vibration must be 7f1, 9f1, 11f1, … etc. This concludes that, only odd
multiple of fundamental frequency or odd harmonics are possible in closed organ pipe. In this
pipe, even harmonics are absent, so the sound is imperfect and is not sweet.
Conclusions
i. Only odd harmonics are possible in closed end pipe i.e., frequency ratio is 1 : 3 : 5 and so on.
ii. The even harmonics (2nd, 4th, 6th etc.) are missing and hence sound is not pleasant to ear. That is
why this organ pipe is not generally used as a musical instrument.
iii. The fundamental frequency in case of closed organ pipe is half as compared to that of an open
organ pipe of the same length.
iv. In general, frequency of nth overtone = (2n + 1) times the fundamental frequency, n = 1, 2, 3, 
v. The number of nodes is equal to the number of antinode in each mode.
vi. For (2n – 1)th harmonic, number of nodes or number of antinodes = n
(where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) but only odd harmonics are present.
1
vii. Fundamental frequency (f)  l i.e., frequency increases as the length of pipe is decreased.

viii. Also f  v where v is the speed of sound in air. Also, v  T where T is absolute temperature.
 f  T, i.e., the fundamental frequency is directly proportional to the square root of absolute
temperature.

3.3 Open Organ Pipe

An organ pipe whose both ends are open to air is called open organ pipe. At both ends of this pipe,
air is free to move, so antinodes are formed at these positions as shown in Fig. 3.3. When a vibration
is set up at one end of the pipe, it travels towards the another end in the form of compressions and
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  61
rarefactions. The nature of reflection is quite complicated and depends on how wide or narrow the
pipe is, in comparison with wavelength of sound. In most of the musical instruments, the tube is
comparatively narrow relative to wavelength. In such situation, when compression reaches at open
end, the density of air readily decreases. Hence, the rarefaction travels back to the pipe. Also, when a
rarefaction reaches to the open end, compression reflects back. Finally, the stationary wave is set up
into the pipe due to the superposition of incident wave traveling towards the open end and reflected
wave from that end.
A
A Open end

(i) (ii)
Fig. 3.3: Open organ pipe

Modes of Vibration in Open Organ Pipe

There are various modes of vibration in open organ pipe. The mechanism and nature of some modes
of vibration in open organ pipe are described below:
l

1 l = 2
33
l= 2 l= 2

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 3.4: Modes of vibration of open organ pipe
i. First mode of vibration: In this mode of vibration, two anti-nodes and one node are formed
into the pipe as shown in Fig. 3.4 (i). In this mode, the minimum possible frequency of sound is
produced in the pipe, so it is called fundamental mode and the corresponding frequency is
called fundamental frequency. Let l be the length of open organ pipe, in which a longest
possible wavelength 1 is formed. The frequency f1 of vibration at velocity v in the pipe is,
v
f1 = … (3.10)
1
One half part of a complete wave is formed into the pipe in fundamental mode, so,
1
l= 2

 1 = 2l … (3.11)
Therefore,
v
f1 = 2l … (3.12)

It is the lowest frequency produced by the open pipe, which is called the first harmonic of
sound.
P
In air, v =

1 P
So, f1 = 2l

62 Principles of Physics - II

ii. Second mode of vibration: Three anti-nodes and two nodes are formed in this mode of
vibration as shown in Fig. 3.4 (ii). Let 2 be the wavelength of vibration in the pipe of length l.
Then, the corresponding frequency f2, of vibration at velocity v is,
v
f2 = … (3.13)
2
One complete wave is formed into the pipe so,
l = 2 … (3.14)
Therefore, the frequency of sound in second mode of vibration is,
v
f2 = l

2v
f2 = 2 l

v
f2 = 2 2l
 
 f2 = 2f1 … (3.15)
Equation (3.15) gives the frequency of sound in second mode of vibration. It is called the second
harmonic or first overtone. As the frequency of sound in this mode is double than fundamental
frequency, it is called second harmonic.
ii. Third mode of vibration: Four anti-nodes and three nodes are formed in this mode of vibration
as shown in Fig. 3.4 (iii). Let 3 be the wavelength of vibration in the pipe of length l. Then, the
corresponding frequency f3 of vibration of wave at velocity v is,
v
f3 = … (3.16)
3
One complete and half of one complete wave is formed into the pipe in the third mode of
vibration, so,
1
l = 3 + 2 3

33
l= 2

2l
 3 = 3 …(3.17)

Therefore,
v
f3 =
2l
 
3
v
f2 = 3 3l
 
 f3 = 3f1 … (3.18)
Equation (3.18) gives the frequency of sound in third mode of vibration. It is called the third
harmonic or second overtone. As the frequency of sound in third mode of vibration is three
times greater than the fundamental frequency, it is called third harmonic.
In this way, the pattern of frequency in the succeeding modes of vibration must be 4f1, 5f1, 6f1,
… etc. This shows that open end pipe can produce the sound of frequency in the integer
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  63
multiple of fundamental frequency (i.e. f1, 2f1, 3f1, 4f1, … etc.) Thus, it produces the sound of
both even and odd harmonics. Therefore, the sound produced by open end pipe is sweet.

Conclusions
i. All harmonics are present and hence, the sound is richer in quality.
ii. In general, the frequency of nth overtone = (n + 1) times the fundamental frequency, n = 1,2, 3, 
iii. The frequencies of the various harmonics of open organ pipe are integral multiple of
fundamental frequency. i.e. fn = nf1.
iv. The frequency of fundamental note of an open organ pipe is double than that of closed organ
pipe of same length. Since, in open organ pipe two antinodes are formed at open ends and one
 v v
node at the middle of the pipe, its length, l = 2 , but fo = = 2l . But in case of closed organ

 v v
pipe, there is one antinode at open end and one node at closed end. So l = 4 , but fc = = 4l .


So, fc = 2fo i.e. frequency of fundamental tone of an open organ pipe is twice of that of closed
organ pipe.
v. The frequency ratio is 1 : 2 : 3 and so on. i.e., f1 : f2 : f3 … = 1 : 2 : 3 : …
vi. For nth harmonic, number of nodes equals n and number of antinodes is (n + 1).

3.4 End Correction of Organ Pipe

In the previous study of nature of sound waves in closed and open organ pipes, antinode of wave is
considered exactly at the open end of the pipe. But, the experimental result shows that the antinode
is formed slightly outside the end where the air molecules become completely free for the vibration.
It means, the acoustic length of the pipe is slightly greater than the physical length due to the free
vibration of wave particles outside the end. Therefore, the frequency of sound in different modes of
vibration calculated in the previous discussion is erroneous. Hence, a correction factor has to be
incorporated to the length of pipe. This factor is called end correction of organ pipe. Therefore, the
end correction is defined as the distance of real position of antinode outside the end from end of pipe. It is
denoted by e or c.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 3.5: End correction in (i) closed end pipe; (ii) open end pipe
Lord Rayleigh determined the end correction experimentally, taking the tubes of different diameters
and formulated the result empirically. His formula, regarding the end correction is known as
Rayleigh correction. The Rayleigh correction formula is, e = 0.6R, where R is the radius of the tube.
End correction is measured at an open end, but not at the closed end. So, the end should be corrected
at one end of closed end pipe and at both ends in open end pipe. The end correction in closed end
pipe and open end pipe are shown in Fig. 3.5.
i. For a closed end pipe of physical length l, as shown in Fig. 3.5 (i), the corrected length is given
by l + 0.6R (= l + e)
64 Principles of Physics - II

ii. For an open end pipe of physical length l, as shown in Fig. 3.5 (ii), the corrected length is given
by l + 2 × 0.6R (= l + 2e)

3.5 Forced and Damped Oscillation

The energy of an ideal oscillating system always remains constant. But an oscillator almost always
lies in a resistive medium. Some part of energy is dissipated in overcoming such resistive forces so
that energy continuously decreases and the oscillation dies out. Such oscillations are called damped
oscillations. The displacement time graph for such oscillation is shown in Fig. 3.6 (i).
y E

t
O

(i) Displacement-time graph (ii) Energy-time graph

Fig. 3.6 : Damped oscillation

Every body in this universe has a characteristic tendency to vibrate when external force is applied.
The amplitude and frequency of vibration of the body depends on its shape, size and the elastic
properties. This frequency of vibration is called natural frequency.
When a body is displaced from its mean position, it vibrates under the action of restoring force. If
there are no resistive forces such as friction, viscous force etc, the body keeps on vibrating with its
natural frequency at a constant amplitude. Such vibration is called free oscillation or vibration. The
total mechanical energy of such vibration is always conserved. The displacement-time graph and
energy time graph for such oscillations are as shown below.
y

E Constant energy
t
t
(i) (ii)

Fig 3.7: (i) Displacement-time graph for free oscillation (ii) Energy-time graph

When external periodic force is applied continuously on a damped oscillator, it can have sustained
oscillations. If the energy provided by the external force is equal to the energy lost by dissipative
forces, then the oscillation continues with constant amplitude. Such oscillations are called forced
oscillations.

3.6 Resonance
Resonance is a special case of forced vibration. If an external force is applied to vibrate a system, the
amplitude of vibration of the system is maximum at a specific frequency. To set the system in
maximum amplitude, the frequency of vibration of vibrating system must be equal to its natural
frequency. This phenomenon in which the amplitude of vibration is maximum when the frequency of
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  65
vibrating system is equal to its natural frequency is known as resonance. The corresponding frequency of
vibration is called resonant frequency.
The natural frequency of a body can be understood considering the very familiar example of simple
pendulum. The time period of oscillation of simple pendulum is,
1 l
Time period (T) = f = 2 g
1 l
 f = 2 g
For effective length of 50 cm (0.5 m),
1 0.5
f = 2 9.8 = 1.42
1
 f = 1.42 = 0.70 Hz

It shows that the frequency of oscillation depends

on the effective length (l) of pendulum at a place.
For a constant length, the frequency of oscillation
is constant, whatever distance the pendulum is
Amplitude

displaced from the mean position.

This tells us that if the pendulum is forced with
vibration of frequency of 0.7 Hz, the amplitude of
vibration of the pendulum is maximum. The
variation of amplitude of vibration for a body
when it is given a gradually changing frequency,
f0 = fa Applied frequency
is shown in Fig. 3.8.
Fig. 3.8: Resonant frequency
Where, f0 = natural frequency
fa = frequency of forced vibration

Consequences of Resonance
1. The soldiers are asked to break their marching steps while crossing the bridge. If the frequency
of walking steps of soldiers is equal to the natural frequency of vibration of bridge, the
amplitude of its variation is very large. Thus, the resonance occurs. In this situation, the bridge
suffers large extension and may cross the elastic limit and collapse.
2. When we set the frequency in our radio that matches the frequency broadcasted from station,
the radio produces the sound. For example, if we set the FM radio at 100 MHz in Nepal, we
receive the broadcasting from Radio Nepal.
3. A music expert can produce the musical note that may be matched to the natural frequency of
oscillation of glass tumbler. In this condition, resonance occurs in the vibration of the glass and
it may break. Therefore, it is believed that one of the Nine 'Jewels' of Emperor Akbar, widely
known as Tansen, the king of music was able to break a glass by singing the appropriate note.
4. Resonance can cause great damage in an earthquake. If the natural frequency of a building
matches the frequency of periodic oscillations present within the earth, then resonance occurs
and building vibrates with large amplitude. So, the building may be collapsed. Probably, the
great damage in Sindupalchowk, Gorkha earthquake 2072 occurred due to the resonance of
66 Principles of Physics - II

seismic wave with natural frequency of houses at this location, although it is far from epicenter
at Barpark, Gorkha.

Tuning Fork
A tuning fork is a U-shaped acoustic resonator and is
connected to a common base extended as a metal bar, called
the stem. The U-shaped forks of the tuning forks are called
prongs. The prongs are struck on a rubber pad to produce
pure tone. When the prongs are struck on the pad by holding
on the stem, these prongs move alternately towards and
away from each other. The tone produced from the vibration
of tuning fork is specific, whatever the force you applied to
produce the sound. The frequency of tone depends on mass
and length of prongs as shown in Fig. 3.9.
Tuning fork was invented in 1711 by John Shore, a renowned
musician, instrument maker and trumpeter to the English
Royal Court. Usually a tuning fork of C512, is used to detect Fig. 3.9: Tuning forks (i) greater frequency;
the hearing ability of the patient in ENT department of (ii) smaller frequency

hospitals. It is also used in physics laboratory to perform many experiments regarding resonance
phenomena.
The prongs of tuning fork oscillate in transverse pattern when striked on a rubber pad. Transverse
vibrations superimpose at upper part of the stem and the vibration longitudinally propagates to the
lower end of stem. Hence, the wave does not damp readily although we hold on it.

3.7 Resonance Tube Apparatus

Resonance tube is a metallic tube that works on the principle of resonance of the air column inside it.
Resonance occurs into the tube when natural frequency of air column inside the tube is equal to the
frequency of vibration supplied by tuning forks. In this condition, the air inside the tube vibrates
with maximum amplitude and hence sound is produced. It is an example of closed end pipe.
Resonance tube apparatus consists of a resonance tube, a transparent pipe and a water reservoir with
common base as shown in Fig. 3.10 (i). The resonance tube is opaque metallic tube and the
experiment for the resonance is performed in it. The level of water in the tube can not be visualized
directly, so a transparent pipe is fitted at the common base. The water level in the tube is measured
with the help of this pipe. A meter scale is fixed in the pipe such that variation of water level can
easily be noticed. A water reservoir is used to adjust the water level into the tube.
Resonance tube apparatus is basically used to determine the speed of sound in air and find the end
correction of the tube used for the experiment.

Measurement of Speed of Sound and End Correction of Tube

To start the experiment, a tuning fork is struck on a rubber pad and held over the upper end of
resonance tube. In the beginning, the water level is filled upto the rim of resonance tube. Then, the
level is lowered gradually, until the loud sound is heard into the tube. This is the condition of
resonance and is called first resonance. The length of air column above the water level is called first
resonating length as shown in Fig. 3.10 (ii). In this case, one quarter of a complete wave is formed in
the tube.
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  67

0
1/f
10

20
e e
30

40 l1 4
50
3
l2 4
60

70

80

90

100 l1
e
(ii) (iii)
(iv)

(i)
Fig. 3.10: Resonance tube apparatus
Let l1 be the first resonating length and e be the end correction of the tube. Then, for the condition of
first resonance, we write,

l1 + e = 4 …(3.19)

Where,  is the wavelength of sound produced into the tube

Again, water level is gradually lowered from the position of first resonance. After lowering the water
level more than three times the first resonating length, the tube will resound with high intensity. This
condition is called second resonance and the corresponding length of air column above the water
level is called second resonating length. Let l2 be the second resonating length of air column as
shown in Fig. 3.10 (iii). Then,

l2 + e = 3 4 …(3.20)

Determination of Speed of Sound

The wavelength of sound into the tube is determined in terms of first and second resonating length.
For this, subtracting equation (3.19) from equation (3.20) i.e.
3 
l2 – l1 = 4 – 4


l2 – l1 = 2

  = 2(l2 – l1) … (3.21)

The speed of sound wave,
v = f … (3.22)
where, f is the frequency of tuning fork used to set the air column at resonance.
Substituting the value of  from equation (3.21) to equation (3.22), we get,
v = 2f (l2 – l1) … (3.23)
This is the required expression to determine the speed of sound in air.
68 Principles of Physics - II

Determination of End Correction

Now, multiplying the equation (3.19) by 3 and equating equations (3.19) and (3.20), we get,
l2 + e = 3l1 + 3e
 3e – e = l2 – 3l1
2e = l2 – 3l1
l2 – 3l1
 e= 2 … (3.24)

By measuring the values of l1 and l2, the speed of sound and end correction can be measured. The
value of end correction that is determined from the experiment can be compared to the end
correction determined from Rayleigh formula,
i.e., e = 0.6R
Where, R = radius of resonance tube
Furthermore, the speed of sound can be corrected including the effect of humidity, which is called
the humidity correction. The required formula for the velocity of sound taking account of the
humidity correction is,
P – 0.375f  1 
vSTP = v P 1 – 2  … (3.25)

Where, P = atmospheric pressure

f = saturated vapour pressure at temperature ºC
 = volume coefficient
 = room temperature
It is to be noted that, any type of liquid can be used for the resonance tube experiment. The role of
liquid is merely to produce the closed end pipe with variable length of smooth boundary. Water is
non-toxic, universally available and economically cheap liquid. So, it is usually used in resonance
tube.

3.8 Waves in String

A string is a solid material which is physically very thin, perfectly flexible and has perfectly uniform
diameter throughout the length. It can be vibrated when a jerk is given at a point in its length. In the
musical devices, the string is fixed at two ends and sound is produced giving the disturbance at
different points. Guitar, sitar, harmonium, violin are some examples of musical devices which exploit
to play the music.
Suppose a string is set into vibration from a free end. Then, the wave travels towards the another end.
If the another end is fixed at a rigid support, the propagated wave reflects back towards the free end
making the node at the fixed joint. The transverse wave propagating towards the fixed end and
reflected wave from that end when superimposed along the length of string, standing wave (or
stationary wave) is formed as shown in Fig. 3.11.

A B

Fig. 3.11: Stationary wave in a string

 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  69

Velocity of Transverse Wave along a Stretched Wire

The formula for velocity of transverse wave along stretched string can be deduced by two methods:
i. Dimensional method
ii. Employing centripetal force technique
i. Dimensional method: Let the velocity v depends on the values of tension (T), length (l) and
mass (m) of the string along which wave travels. So, we can write,
v  Ta, v  lb and v  m c
Combining these relations, we get,
v  Ta lb m c … (3.26)
or, v=k Ta lb mc . . . (3.27)
where a, b and c are numbers and k is a dimensionless constant whose experimental value is
one. Writing dimension of each term, we get,
[L T –1] = [M L T –2]a [L]b [M]c
 [L T –1] = [Ma+c La+b T –2a]
Equating the indices of M, L, T on both sides, we get,
For M, a + c = 0,
For L, a + b = 1,
For T, –2a = –1
1
 a = ½, b = ½ and c = – 2

Putting these values in (3.27), we get,

v = k T1/2 l1/2 m –1/2
Tl T
 v=k m =k m/l
T
 v=k . . . (3.28)

m F
where,  = l is mass per unit length of
the string or linear density of the A
T cos    T cos 
string, and k = 1.
T T
ii. Employing centripetal force T sin 
technique: Consider a string, fixed at T sin 
M N
two ends M and N. The mid-point A of
string is plucked up and left to
oscillate. The oscillation of string
produces the transverse wave. Let T be
the tension at mid point of string due
to the plucking. Tension T is directed
tangentially out in both sides of the  
point as shown in Fig. 3.12. Also  be
O
the angle made by tangent with its
horizontal component. The point 'O' is Fig. 3.12: Transverse vibration of string

the center of curvature of the arc 'MAN' of the string.

70 Principles of Physics - II

Here, horizontal components of tension are equal and opposite in a line so they cancel to each other.
However, vertical components are directed linearly towards the centre O of curvature. Let R be
the radius of curvature of the string.
Here, the tension along the centre of curvature is
F = 2 T sin  … (3.29)
For very small angle of , sin   . So,
F = 2T. 
F = T . 2 . . . (3.30)
From the arc MAN,

MAN
2= R
Therefore,

MAN
F=T. R . . . (3.31)

This force provides centripetal force to pull the

string towards the centre of curvature, hence,
mv2
F'= R

Where, 'm' is the total mass of vibrating string.

Also,

m =  . MAN
Here,  = mass per unit length of string.
 v2
F ' =  MAN R . . . (3.32)

Equation (3.31) and (3.32),

F=F'

MAN  v2
T. R =  MAN R
 T = v2
T
v2 =

T
v= . . . (3.33)


3.9 Modes of Vibration of a Stretched String

Consider a string, fixed at two end points A and B. If the string is plucked at a point, transverse
waves are set up and travel towards the fixed ends. These waves reflect back from the fixed ends. As
a result, the incident wave from the point of disturbance superimposes with reflected wave and
hence, produce the stationary wave as shown in Fig. 3.13.
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  71
1 2 3 3
2 2

A B A B A B

l l l
(i) (ii) (iii)
Fig. 3.13: Modes of vibration of stretched string
In the vibration of string, both ends are fixed, so no particle oscillates at these points. Therefore,
nodes are formed at the fixed ends. The formation of waves in the string can be studied in different
modes of vibration.
i. First mode of vibration: If the two ends are fixed and the string is plucked from the centre and
left to oscillate, a half part of one complete wave is produced along the total length of string as
shown in Fig. 3.13 (i). This oscillation produces the lowest possible frequency produced by the
string. So, it is called fundamental frequency. Let l be the length of string and 1 be the longest
possible wavelength that is produced in its vibration.
Then, the frequency of transverse vibration, f1, produced in the vibration of string at speed v,
v
f1 =
1
As the half part of a complete wave is formed, we have,
1
l= 2

 1 = 2l
Then, the fundamental frequency of vibration of the string is,
v
f1 = 2l … (3.34)

It is the lowest possible frequency produced in the transverse vibration of string, which is called
the first harmonic of vibration of string.
T
In string v =

1 T
So, f1 = 2l

ii. Second mode of vibration: If the string is supported tightly at the middle and plucked from
one forth part of its length, a complete wave is formed as shown in Fig. 3.13 (ii). This is the next
consecutive frequency of vibration in the string. Hence, it is called second mode of vibration.
Let 2 be the wavelength of standing wave produced by the string in second mode of vibration.
Then, the frequency of vibration, f2 produced in this mode is,
v
f2 =
2
Since a complete wave is formed in the total length of string,
l = 2
Therefore, the frequency of vibration in the string is,
v
 f2 = l
72 Principles of Physics - II

2v
f2 = 2 l
v
f2 = 2  2l …(3.35)
f2 = 2f1
Equation (3.35) gives the frequency of sound produced by string in second mode of vibration. It
is called the second harmonic or first overtone. As the frequency of sound in this mode is
double than the frequency of fundamental mode, it is called second harmonic.
iii. Third mode of vibration: If the string is supported rigidly at the point one third of its length
and plucked from one sixth of its length, one complete and one-half part of standing wave is
formed as shown in Fig. 3.13 (iii). This mode of vibration is called the third mode of vibration of
string.
Let 3 be the wavelength of sound produced by the transverse vibration of string of length l.
Then, the frequency of vibration is,
v
f3 =
3
Since a complete and one half wave is formed in the total length,
1
l = 3 + 2 3

33
l= 2

2l
 3 = 3

Therefore, the frequency of vibration produced in the string is,

v
 f3 =
2l
 
3
v
f3 = 3 2l
 
f3 = 3f1 … (3.36)
Equation (3.36) gives the frequency of vibration in the string in third mode of vibration. It is
called the third harmonic or second overtone. As the frequency of sound in this mode is three
times greater than the frequency of fundamental mode, it is called third harmonic.

Laws of Transverse Vibration of String

The fundamental frequency of transverse vibration of string is given by,
v
f = 2l

and the speed of transverse vibration,

T
v=

Therefore, the frequency of fundamental tone is,
1 T
f = 2l . . . (3.37)

 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  73
Equation (3.37) shows that, the frequency of vibration of stretched string depends on three factors (i)
resonating length (l), (ii) tension in it (T) and (iii) mass per unit length (). On the basis of these
factors depending on frequency of sound, the laws of transverse vibration of a stretched string are
derived. There are three laws of transverse vibration of a stretched string which are (i) Law of length,
(ii) Law of tension and (iii) Law of mass.
i. Law of length: If tension ‘T’ and linear density ‘’ of a stretched string are taken constant,
frequency ‘f’ of fundamental note is inversely proportional to the resonating length ‘l’ of string,
1
i.e. f  l , when T and  are constant.

ii. Law of tension: If length and linear density of a stretched string are taken constant, frequency
of fundamental note is directly proportional to the square root of the tension of string,
i.e. f  T , when l and  are constant.
iii. Law of mass: If length and tension of stretched string are taken constant, frequency of
fundamental note is inversely proportional to the square root of mass per unit length of string,
1
i.e. f  , when l and T are constant.

mass
Here,  = length (mass per unit length)

volume × density m
or, = length (∵  = V )

V
= l
If d be diameter of string, we have
d 2
Volume =  r2 l =   2  l
 
V d2
 Volume per unit length  l  = 4
 
d2
 Mass per unit length,  = 4 × 

Thus, we have from (3.37)

1 T 1 4T 2 T
f = 2l = = 2ld
d2 2l d2 
4
1 T
= ld . . . (3.38)

Hence, from the law of mass, on the basis of equation (3.38), two more laws are derived which
are (a) Law of diameter and (b) Law of density.
a. Law of diameter: If length, tension and density of the string are taken constant, frequency of
1
fundamental tone is inversely proportional to the diameter of string i.e. f  d , when l, T and 
are constant.
74 Principles of Physics - II

b. Law of density: If length, tension and diameter are taken constant, frequency of the
1
fundamental tone is inversely proportional to the square root of density of the string is, f  ,

when l, T and d are constant.

Sonometer
A sonometer is a device (apparatus) used to study the transverse vibration of stretched strings. It
consists of a hollow wooden rectangular box containing two bridges and a pulley at one end. A wire
is attached to one end of the wooden box,
which runs over the bridges and pulley, and B
A
carries a weight hanging at the free end as C D
shown in Fig. 3.14. There are movable bridges
C and D placed beneath the string. They can B
be moved to adjust the suitable length to
H
achieve the resonance condition.
The usual sonometer is horizontal and the
tension is supplied by the weight of masses
Fig. 3.14: A sonometer
hung on the end of the wires after they pass
over the pulley. Two or more wires can be attached in the sonometer box. It is used for many
purposes: to determine the frequency of tuning fork, to find the density of a wire, to determine the
frequency of a.c. mains, etc.

3.10 Verification of Laws of Vibrating Strings

Law of Length
A sonometer with single string is taken. One end of string is fixed at a
rigid support and another end is free and is passed over a pulley as
shown in Fig. 3.14. A set of tuning forks of different frequencies is
taken. A small piece of paper rider is put on the string. Two wedge f ↑
shaped bridges are kept beneath the stretched string. The segment of
string between the bridges is vibrated using the tuning forks. In this
process, the prongs of the tuning forks are vibrated by hitting them on
O
a rubber pad and the bottom of stem is placed on the wooden surface 1/l

of the sonometer. This process continues to obtain a particular length Fig. 3.15: Law of length
of the wire between the wooden bridge such that the paper rider kept over it flies off the string. This
happens when the vibration of the string is maximum. Then, the lengths between the bridges are
noted. This length of string is called resonating length for the specific frequency. Above process is
repeated for the remaining tuning forks for the same string under constant tension.
After determining the resonating length of string for corresponding frequencies of tuning forks,
1
these parameters are plotted taking reciprocal of length versus frequency (f). The graph between l
and f is found to be a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 3.15. This verifies the
law of length experimentally.
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  75

Law of Tension
To begin with, two identical wires, (having equal diameter and same material), X and Y are stretched
parallel over the length of the sonometer by hanging loads of different magnitudes at their free ends.
Another end of each wire is fixed at the rigid support. A small tension T1 is given to the wire X and
oscillating length is segmented by bridges PQ. A fixed tension T is given to the another wire Y and
bridges RS are placed beneath the wire Y as shown in Fig. 3.16 (i). It is to be noted that, the vibrating
length for wire X and tension on wire Y are taken constant for whole experiment.

P Q
X

Y R S

(i)

Fig. 3.16: (i) Verification of law of tension

The vibrating length of Y is adjusted by sliding the bridges RS. In the experiment, the bridge RS are
moved until the vibration in X and Y became unison (i.e. match exactly). Then, the vibrating length is
determined by sliding the bridges RS in wire Y, achieving the unison in X and Y. Previous steps are
repeated for different values of tension in wire X. Let, l1, l2, l3 .... be the vibrating length of wire Y at
tensions T1, T2, T3, ...... respectively. In the experiment it is found that
1 1 1
l1 : l2 : l3 : ............... = T1 : T2 : T3 ...............

Now, from the verification of law of length,

1 1 1 Y
f1 : f2 : f3 : ................ = l : l : l : ...............
1 2 3

So, the relation of frequency of note and tension of the vibrating wire is,
f
f1 : f2 : f3 : ................ = T1 : T2 : T3
i.e. f  T
If the graph is plotted for f versus T , a straight line is found passing O X
through the origin as shown in Fig. 3.16 (ii). This verifies the law of
T
tension.
Fig. 3.16: (ii) Law of tension

Law of mass
Many experimental wires of different diameters are mounted on a sonometer (the wires may be of
similar or different materials). One end of each wire is fixed at the rigid support and another end is
passed through a pulley as shown in Fig. 3.17 (i). Free end of these wires are given equal tension and
the vibrating lengths are also adjusted equal by using bridges. Another wire, called standard wire, is
taken in the Sonometer which has the same tension as other experimental wires, but the length can
76 Principles of Physics - II

be varied to produce the required pitch of sound. In the experiment, pitch of sound produced by the
experimental wires should be compared with pitch of sound produced by the standard wire.

Fig. 3.17 (i) : Verification of law of mass

To perform the experiment, the length of standard wire is so adjusted that it is unison (same pitch)
with the experimental wires turn by turn. Since the diameters of the wires are different, the sound
produced on oscillating them has different pitch although the length is same. So, the vibrating length
of standard wire should be changed to produce same pitch as that produced by experimental wires.
Let, l1, l2, l3, .......be the vibrating lengths of standard wires which are in unison with the experimental
wires of mass per unit length 1, 2, 3, ...... respectively. From the experiment, it is found that,
l1 : l2 : l3 : ...........  : 2 : 3 Y

Also, the frequency of sound produced by experimental wires are

related with vibrating length as, f

1 1 1
f1 : f2 : f3 : ............... = l : l : l : .....................
1 2 3

Obviously,
1 1 1 O X

f1 : f2 : f3 : .............. = : : : ................. 
1 2 3  
1 Fig. 3.17 (ii) Law of mass
i.e. f 

If a graph is drawn for values of frequencies produced by vibrating wires versus reciprocal of square
root of corresponding mass per unit length, a straight line is found passing through the origin as
shown in Fig. 3.17 (ii). This verifies law of mass.

Tips for MCQs

1. Organ Pipes:
i. Resonance occurs and standing waves are set up into the air of pipe.
ii. Sound wave of definite patterns of frequency are produced, called harmonics.
2. Closed Organ Pipe:
i. Closed end contains a node and opened contains an antinode.
ii. Only odd harmonics are present and even harmonics are missing. So, the sound is relatively
harsh.
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  77
iii. The fundamental frequency is,
v l P 1 RT
f1 = 4l = 4l =
 4l M
iv. Facts for closed organ pipe
Mode of Number of Number of Wave
Harmonic Tone Frequency
vibration anti nodes Nodes length
First or First Fundamental 1 1 v 4l
f1 = 4l
fundamental
Second Third First 2 2 3f1 4l
overtone 3
Third Fifth Second 3 3 5f1 4l
overtone 5
.......... ......... .............. ............ ............ ............ ...........
nth (2n– 1)th (n – 1)th n n (2n – 1)f1 4l
2n – 1
3. Open organ Pipe:
i. Both ends contain antinodes.
ii All harmonics, even and odd, are present. So, the sound produced by this pipe is sweet and
pleasing.
iii. The fundamental frequency is,
v l P 1 RT
f1 = 2l = 2l =
 2l M
iv. Facts for open organ pipe
Mode of Number of Number of Wave
Harmonic Tone Frequency
vibration anti nodes Nodes length
First or First Fundamental 2 1 v 2l
f1 = 2l
fundamental
Second Second First 3 2 2f1 2l
overtone 2
Third Third Second 4 3 3f1 2l
overtone 3
.......... ............ .............. ............ ............ ............ ...........
nth nth (n – 1)th (n + 1) n nf1 2l
n
4. End correction:
l2 – 3l1
i. e = 2 and (ii) e = 0.3d, d = diameter of resonance tube

ii. Fundamental frequency in closed organ pipe,

v
f1 = 4(l + e)

iii. End correction is not observed in string fixed at two ends.

4. Waves in string:
i. Transverse wave is produced in a stretched wire between two rigid support.
ii. Both ends contain nodes.
iii. All harmonics, even and odd, are present.
78 Principles of Physics - II

1 T
iv. The fundamental frequency, f1 = 2l

T
The speed of transverse vibration , v =

d2
v. For a cylindrical wire,  = A. = 4 .

vi. Facts for vibrating strings:

Mode of Number
Number Number Wave
vibration Harmonic Tone of anti Frequency
of loops of Nodes length
nodes
First or First Fundamental 1 1 2 v 2l
f1 = 2l 1
fundamental
Second Second First 2 2 3 2f1 2l
overtone 2
Third Third Second 3 3 4 3f1 2l
overtone 3
.......... ............ .............. ........... … ............ ............ ...........
nth nth (n – 1)th n n n+1 nf1 2l
n

Worked Out Problems

1. [HSEB 2067] An open pipe 30 cm long and a closed pipe 23 cm long both of the same diameter are
each sounding its first overtone and they are in unison. What is the end-correction of these pipes?
SOLUTION
Given, Since the vibrations in both the pipes are
End correction for both pipes of same diameter unison so they should have the same frequency
(e) = ? and wavelength. So, from (i) and (ii), we get,
For the open pipe in first overtone, we can 0 = c
write 4
0 = l0 + 2e . . . (i) or l0 + 2e = 3 (lc + e)
For the closed pipe in first overtone, we can or 3l0 + 6e = 4lc + 4e
write or 6e – 4e = 4lc – 3l0
3c or 2e = 4 × 23 – 3 × 30
4 = lc + e 92 – 90 2
or e= 2 =2
4
or c = 3 (lc + e) . . . (ii)
 e = 1 cm

2. A 1.5 m long rope is stretched between two supports with a tension that makes the speed of
transverse waves 48 m/s (a) what are the wavelength and frequency of the fundamental? (b) What
are the wavelength and frequency of the second overtone?
SOLUTION
Given,
Length of rope, l = 1.5 m
Speed of wave, v = 48 m/s
a. Fundamental frequency (f0) and wavelength (0) = ?
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  79
We know that, b. Frequency (f3) and wavelength (3) in second
v overtone = ?
f0 = 2l We know that,
48 fn = nf0
or f0 = 2 × 1.5 = 16 Hz or f3 = 3 × 16 = 48 Hz
∵ v = f0 0 Also,
v = f33
v 48
 0 = f = 16 = 3 m v 48
0  3 = f = 48 = 1 m
3

3. [HSEB 2056] An organ pipe is turned to a frequency of 440 Hz when the temperature is 27°C. Find
its frequency when the temperature drops to 0°C. Assume both ends of the pipe open.
SOLUTION
Given,
Frequency at 27°C (f1) = 440 Hz Temperature T1) = 27°C = 27 + 273 = 300 K
Frequency at 0°C (f2) = ? Temperature (T2) = 0°C = 0 + 273 = 273 K
For open organ pipe, we have
v1
f1 = 2l … (i)
v2
and f2 = 2l … (ii)

Dividing (ii) and (i) we get,

 v  T 
f2 v2 2l v2 T2  v2 
f1 = 2l × v1 = v1 = T1  v =
T2

 1 T1
273
f2 = 300 × 440  f2 = 419.7 Hz
Hence, the frequency at 0°C is 419.7 Hz.
4. [HSEB 2070] In a resonance tube experiment, the first and the second resonance positions were
observed respectively at 17 cm and 52.6 cm with a tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz at 27°C. Calculate
the velocity of sound in air at 0°C and the end correction of the tube.
SOLUTION
Given,
First resonance length (l1) = 17 cm = 0.17 m Second resonance length (l2) = 52.6 cm = 0.526 m
Velocity of sound at 0°C (vo) = ? Frequency of tunning fork (f) = 512 Hz
We have,
At 27°C
v27 = 2f (l2 – l1)
= 2 × 512 (0.526 – 0.17) = 364.5 m /s.
Now,
vo To 273
v27 = T27 = 273 + 27
273
vo = 300 × 364.5 = 347.75 m/s
l2 – 3l1 0.526 – 3 × 0.17
Again, end correction (e) = 2 = 2 = 0.008 m
80 Principles of Physics - II

5. [HSEB 2053] A wire of diameter 0.040 cm and made of steel of density 8000 kg/m3 is under constant
tension of 80 N. What length of this wire should be plucked to cause it to vibrate with a frequency
of 840 Hz?
SOLUTION
Given,
Diameter of wire (d) = 0.04 cm = 0.04 × 10–2 m
Density of wire () = 8000 kg/m3
Tension (T) = 80 N
Frequency (f) = 840 Hz
Resonating length (l) = ?
We know that
1 T 1 T 1 T
f = 2l = =
 2l A 2l d2
× 4

1 T
or l = fd

1 80
= 840 × 0.04 × 10–2 3.14 × 8000 = 0.168 m
6. A steel wire of length 40 cm and diameter 0.0250 cm vibrates transversely in unison with a tube,
open at each end and effective length 60 cm, when each is sounding its fundamental note. The air
temperature is 270C. Find the tension in the wire. (Assume that the velocity of sound in air at 00 C is
331 ms-1 and the density of steel is 7800 kgm-3).
SOLUTION
Given, 
or 0.6 = 2
Length of wire = 40 cm = 0.40 m
Diameter = 0.0250 cm = 0.00025 m or  = 1.2 m
Effective length of tube = 60 cm = 0.60 m Again,
Temp () = 27°C  v = f
Tension in the wire (T) = ? v
or f =
Since, 
1 T v27
f = 2l or f =
 
mass v× A×l× 273 + 27
∵  = length = l =
1 T l 273 × v0
or f2 = 4l2 =
 d2 1.2
=A× = 4
v 273 + 
or T = 4l2f2  (∵ v =
o 273
d2
= 4l2f2 4 273 + 27
as v  T  v27 = 273 × v0
= d2l2f2. . . (i)
For the tube open at ends, one loop is formed in 1 300
= 1.2 273 × 331 = 289 Hz
which antinodes are at the ends. So,
 Thus from (i) we have
Effective length = 2
T =  × (2.5 × 10–4)2 × (0.40)2 × (289)2 × 7800
= 20.5 N
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  81
7. [HSEB 2055] A piano string has length of 2.0 m and a density of 800 kgm-3. When the tension in the
string produces a string of 1%, the fundamental note obtained from the string in the transverse
vibrations in 170 Hz. Calculate Young's modulus for the material of the string.
SOLUTION
Given, 1 T
f = 2l
Length of string (l) = 2 m 
Density () = 800 kg/m3 1 T
1 or, f = 2l … (ii)
A× 
Strain = 1% = 100
T
Frequency (f) = 170 Hz Putting the value of A from equation (i) in
Young’s Modulus (Y) = ? equation (ii), we get,
Now, we have, 1 Y 1
stress f = 2l 100 × 
Y = strain
1 Y 1
or, stress = Y × strain or, 170 = 2× 2 100 × 800
Tension 1 Y
or, Area = Y × 100 or, 680 = 80000
T Y Y
or, A = 100 … (i) or, 462400 = 80000
Then,  Y = 3.7 × 1010 Nm–2
For fundamental mode of vibration of string; Here, the required value of Young’s Modulus
we have, is 3.7 × 1010 Nm–2.

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] With what tension must a rope with length 2.5 m and mass 0.120 kg be stretched for transverse
waves of frequency 40 Hz to have a wavelength of 0.75 m?
Ans: 43.2 N
2. [UP] One end of a horizontal rope is attached to a prong of an electrically driven tuning fork that
vibrates at 120 Hz. The other end passes over a pulley and supports a mass of 1.5 kg. The linear mass
density of the rope is 0.055 kg/m.
a. What is the speed of a transverse wave on the rope?
b. What is the wavelength?
c. How would your answers to part (a) and (b) change if mass were increased to 3 kg.
Ans: (a) 16.35 m/s (b) 0.136 m (c) 23.12 m/s; 0.193 m
3. [UP] One end of 14 m long rubber tube, with total mass 0.800 kg is fastened to fixed support. A cord
attached to the other end passes over a pulley and supports an object with a mass of 7.50 kg. The tube
is struck a transverse blow at one end. Find the time required for the pulse to reach the other end.
Ans: 0.390 s

4. [UP] A simple harmonic oscillator at the point x = 0 generates a wave on a rope. The oscillator
operates at a frequency of 40 Hz and with an amplitude of 3 cm. The rope has a linear mass density
50 g/m and is stretched with a tension of 5 N.
a. Determine the speed of the wave.
b. Find the wavelength.
c. Write the wave function y(x, t) for the wave.
Ans: (a) 10 m/s (b) 0.25 m (c) y (x, t) = (0.03 m) cos (8 x – 80 t)

5. [UP] Adjacent antinodes of a standing wave on a string are 15 cm apart. A particle at an antinode
oscillates in simple harmonic motion with amplitude 0.85 cm and period 0.075 s. The string lies along
the positive X-axis and is fixed at x = 0.
82 Principles of Physics - II

a. Find the displacement of a point on the string as a function of position and time.
b. Find the speed of propagation of a transverse wave in the string.

Ans: (a) y(x, t) = (0.85) cm  sin ( 2x

0.3 m )  sin ( 2t
0.075 s ) (b) 4 m/s

6. [UP] A wire with a mass of 40.0 g is stretched so that its ends are tied down at points 80.0 cm apart.
The wire vibrates in its fundamental mode with frequency 60.0 Hz and with an amplitude at the
antinodes of 0.3 cm. [HSEB 2072]
a. What is the speed of propagation of transverse wave in the wire?
b. Calculate the tension in the wire.
c. Determine the maximum transverse velocity and acceleration of particles in the wire.
Ans: (a) 96 m/s (b) 416 N (c) 1013 m/s, – 426 m/s 2
7. [UP] A thin, taut string tied at both ends and oscillating in its third harmonic has its shape described
by the equation y (x, t) = (5.6 cm) sin [(0.0340 rad/cm) x]. sin [(50. 0 rad/s)t, where the origin is at the
left end of the string, the X-axis is along the string and the Y-axis is perpendicular to the string.
a. Find the amplitude of the two travelling waves that make up thin standing wave.
b. What is the length of string?
c. Determine the speed of the wave.
Ans: (a) 2.8 cm (b) 227 cm (c) 1471 cms – 1
8. [ALP] A tube is closed at one end and closed at the other by a vibrating diaphragm may be assumed to
be a displacement node. It is found that when the frequency of the diaphragm is 2000 Hz a stationary
wave pattern is set up in the tube and the distance between adjacent nodes is then 8.0 cm. When the
frequency is gradually reduced the stationary wave pattern disappears but another stationary wave
pattern reappears at a frequency of 1600 Hz. Calculate (i) the speed of sound in air (ii) the distance
between adjacent modes of a frequency of 1600 Hz, (iii) the length of the tube between the diaphragm
and the closed end, (iv) the next lower frequency at which a stationary wave pattern will be obtained.
Ans: i. 320 ms – 1 ; ii. 10 cm; iii. 0.4 m ; iv. 1200 Hz
9. [ALP] A string fixed at both ends is vibrating in the lowest mode of vibration for which a point a
quarter of its length from one end is a point of maximum vibration. The note emitted has a frequency
of 100 Hz. What will be the frequency emitted when it vibrates in the next mode such that this point
is again a point of maximum vibration?
Ans: 300 Hz
10. [ALP] Write down in terms of wavelength , the distance between (i) Consecutive nodes, (ii) a node
and an adjacent antinode (iii) consecutive antinodes. Find the frequency of the fundamental of a
closed pipe 15 cm long if the velocity of sound in air is 340 ms-1.
Ans: 567 HZ

11. [ALP] Explain the increase in loudness (or resonance) which occurs when a sounding tuning fork is
held near the open end of organ pipe when the length of the pipe has certain values, the other end of
the pipe being closed. Find the shortest length of such a pipe which resonates with a 440 Hz tuning
fork, neglecting end corrections. (velocity of sound in air =350 ms-1)
Ans: 0.199 m
12. [ALP] Neglecting edge effects, find the lengths of (a) closed organ pipe and (b) and open organ pipe,
each of which emits a fundamental note of frequency 256 Hz. [Speed of sound in air = 330 ms–1]
Ans: (a) 0.322 m (b) 0.645 m
13. [ALP] A uniform tube, 60 cm long stands vertically with its lower end dipping into water. When the
length above water is 14.8 cm, and again when it is 48 cm, the tube resounds to a vibrating tuning-
fork of frequency 512 Hz. Find the lowest frequency to which the tube will resound when it is open at
both ends.
Ans: 267 Hz
14. [ALP] A piano string 1.5 m long is made of steel of density 7.7 × 103 kgm-3 and Young’s modulus 2 
1011 Nm-2. It is maintained at a tension which produces an elastic strain of 1% in the string. What is
the fundamental frequency of transverse vibration of the string?
Ans: 170 Hz
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  83
15. [ALP] A sonometer wire is stretched by hanging a metal cylinder of density 8,000 kgm-3 at the end of
the wire. A fundamental note of frequency 256 Hz is sounded when the wire is plucked. Calculate
the frequency of vibration of the same length of wire when a vessel of water is placed so that the
cylinder is totally immersed.
Ans: 239.5 Hz

16. [ALP] A wire whose mass per unit length is 10-3 kgm-1
is stretched by a load of 4 kg over the two
bridges of a sonometer 1 m apart. If it is struck at its middle point, what will be (a) the wavelength if
its subsequent fundamental vibrations, (b) the fundamental frequency of the note emitted?
Ans: (a) 2 m (b) 100 Hz
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. The frequency of a fundamental note of a closed organ pipe and that of an open organ pipe are the
same. What is the ratio of their lengths? [HSEB 2074]
 Let l1 and l2 be the length of closed organ pipe and open organ pipe respectively in which both pipes
produce the same frequency f.
Consider the fundamental frequency for both the pipes.
i. In closed organ pipe,
v
f = 4l . . . (i)
1

ii. In open organ pipe

v
f = 2l . . . (ii)
2

Equating frequency in above equations (i) and (ii), we get,

v v
4l1 = 2l2
l1 1
l2 = 2
l2 = 2l1
Therefore, the ratio of length in closed organ pipe to open organ pipe is 1:2. (open pipe is two times
longer than closed pipe)
2. By what factor does the velocity of transverse wave in the string change when the tension in the
stretched string is increased by four times? [HSEB 2073]
 The velocity of transverse wave in a string is,
T
v=

If the tension is increased by four time,
4T T
v' = = 2
 
 v' = 2v
Therefore, the velocity is doubled than the initial velocity of transverse wave
2v – v
% change = v × 100% = 100%

3. The six strings of a guitar are of the same length and are under nearly the same tension, but have
different thickness. On which string do waves travel the fastest?
 The speed of transverse wave in the string is, for constant length string
84 Principles of Physics - II

T
v' =

1
If T is also taken constant, v  .

1
v
d2
4
1
i.e v  d

This shows that, transverse wave travels fastest in the thinnest string.
4. How does the pitch of an organ pipe change with temperature? [HSEB 2072]
 The frequency of sound produced in organ pipes is directly proportional to the speed of sound, if the
length is taken constant,
i.e. f  v . . . (i)
v v
We know, fundamental frequency of open organ pipe, f = 2l and that of closed organ pipe is, f = 4l

P RT
Also, in gas, v = =
 M
 v  T . . . (ii)
So, from (i) and (ii), we get,
fv T
Therefore, the pitch of an organ pipe increases with increase in temperature.
5. What happens to the frequency of transverse vibration of a stretched string, if its tension is halved
and area of cross – section of the string is doubled? [HSEB 2071]
 The fundamental frequency of transverse vibration of a stretched string is,
1 T 1 T
f = 2l =
 2l A
Where T = Tension on the string
A = Cross-sectional area of string
 = density of material of string
When tension is halved and cross-section is doubled, the new fundamental frequency is,
1 T/2 1  1 T f
f' = 2l = =
2A. 2 2l A 2
f
i.e. f' = 2

It means, the new frequency is half of the original frequency.

6. Explain, with figure, the formation of second overtone of waves in an open organ pipe.
 One and half of a complete wave is formed into the open organ in second overtone. It is also called
the third harmonic. The wave pattern in second overtone of open organ pipe is shown in figure.

3
l= 2

In this mode of vibration,

3
2 =l
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  85
2l
= 3

So, the corresponding frequency of sound,

v v
f = = 32l = 3f,

f = 3f1
The frequency of vibration into the pipe in second overtone is three times greater than the
fundamental frequency.
7. A loud sound is heard in resonance. Why?
 Resonance occurs when supplied frequency to a vibrating object is equal to its natural frequency. In
this condition, the particles in the vibrating medium oscillate with very high amplitudes. As we
know, the intensity of sound is directly proportional to the square of amplitude (i.e. I  a2), greater
amplitude of particle produces the greater intensity. So, a loud sound is heard in resonance.
8. Why are bells made of metal not of wood?
 Metals have high modulus of elasticity. So, the oscillation in metal damps gradually producing the
sound for relatively long time. But the wave produced by wood damps suddenly. Therefore, the bells
are made of metal, not of wood.
9. Why are all string instruments provided with hollow boxes?
 Hollow boxes contain air molecules. When a vibration is set up in the air molecules, they oscillate
with greater amplitudes as the same force produces in solid and liquid. Therefore, to produce the
high intensity of sound from the string instruments, wooden boxes are made up hollow. Actually, the
intensity of sound is directly proportional to the square of amplitude of vibrating particles.
10. One of the 'Nine Jewels' of Emperor Alkbar, widely known as Tansen, the king of music was able to
break a glass by singing the appropriate note. What physical phenomenon could account for this?
 The physical phenomenon, resonance, is relevant for the given condition. When the frequency of tone
produced by the music is equal to the natural frequency of glass, the glass oscillates and may break
the elastic limit. If the amplitude of vibration exceeds the elastic limit of the glass, the glass can be
broken by music.
11. Compare close and open organ pipes.
 Following few points show the comparison between closed and open organ pipes;
i. Fundamental note in closed organ pipe has half the frequency than that produced by open organ
pipe of same length.
ii. Odd harmonics are present in closed organ pipe, whereas all the harmonics are present in open
organ pipe.
iii. The musical sound produced by an open pipe is richer than the musical sound produced by a
closed organ pipe.
12. When are tones called harmonics?
 The tones are called harmonics if the frequencies of the fundamental tone and other overtones
produced by a source of sound are in harmonic series.
13. What is end correction? What are the factors on which it depend?
 The antinode of stationary wave in organ pipe lies outside the open end. It means, the acoustic length
of wave is slightly greater than the physical length of pipe. So, the end for wave should be corrected
to determine the different physical parameters if sound waves produced by the waves. Actually, the
end correction is a distance of antinode from the end of stationary waves produced into the pipe. End
correction is empirically related to diameter of organ pipe i.e. e = 0.3d, where d is the diameter of the
pipe.
The end correction depends on, the diameter of wave producing pipe and the wavelength of the note
used.
86 Principles of Physics - II

14. A flute has several holes in it. Why?

 The frequency of sound produced in pipes depend on their length. For example, the fundamental
frequency of sound that is produced by open pipe is
v
f = 2l

In a medium at constant temperature, v is constant.

1
 f l

The length of flute can be varied by closing various holes in it, which ultimately changes the pitch of
sound produced. To produce the sound of different frequencies, a flute is made with many holes.
15. What will happen on the frequency of the sonometer wire if the load stretching the sonometer wire is
immersed in water?
 Due to the upthrust experienced by the load, the effective weight shall decrease. Then, the tension
shall decrease consequently, the frequency of sound shall decrease.
16. What are the differences between forced vibration and resonance?
 The difference between forced vibration and resonance are as follows:
Forced vibration Resonance
a. If the energy provided by external force is a. The phenomenon in which the amplitude
equal to the energy lost by dissipative of vibration is maximum when the
force in an oscillating object, the frequency of vibrating system is equal to
oscillation continues with constant its natural frequency is known as
amplitude. Such oscillation or vibration is resonance.
called forced vibration.
b. All the forced vibration is not resonance. b. Resonance is a case of forced vibration.
c. The amplitude due to forced vibration can c. The amplitude due to resonance is always
be small or large. maximum for a particular condition.
17. Why are soldiers ordered to break their steps while crossing a bridge?
 During march pass, soldiers step in similar pattern. If the frequency of marching steps of soldier is
equal to the natural frequency of vibration of bridge, the amplitude of its vibration is very large. In
this condition, the bridge suffers large extension, that may cross the elastic limit and finally may have
the possibility of collapses.
18. When water is used in a resonance tube is replaced by oil, how does the frequency change?
 Resonance tube is a type of closed end pipe in which the resonance occurs in space containing air.
Below the air column, the tube is filled with liquid, usually water. The liquid surface acts as closed
boundary. The sound of various frequencies is produced varying the level of liquid, however the
frequency of sound does not depend on what liquid is used to make the boundary. Hence, the
frequency of sound does not change, although you replace water by oil.
19. In mechanics, massless strings are often assumed. Why is this not a good assumption when
discussing waves on strings?
 The speed of wave on strings is extremely sensitive with linear mass density. i.e.,
T
v= , where, T = tension on the sting

 = linear mass density
m
As we know,  = l
If the mass of string is considered zero, i.e.
m = o, then  = 0
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  87

T
This shows that, v = 0
v=
Experimentally, it is impossible. Therefore, the mass of string should not be assumed zero for
meaningful result.
20. How is the wave speed affected if radius of a stretched wire is reduced to half?
 The wave speed in a stretch wire is
1 T
v = 2l

m d2
We know,  = l = 4 . = r2.

r 2 r2 
If the radius is halved, ' =  2  = 4 = 4

 the new speed
1 T 1 T
v' = 2l = 2 2l
 
4
v' = 2v
The speed of wave in wire becomes double if its radius is halved.
21. A resonance tube resonates with a tuning fork of 256 Hz. If the length of the resonated air column are
32 cm and 100 cm, what is the value of end correction? What does it mean?
 The end correction of a tube is,
l2 – 3l1 100 – 3 × 32
e= 2 = 2 = 2 cm.

Therefore, the end correction is 2 cm. It means, the anti-node of standing wave is formed 2 cm above
the geometrical end of the tube.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Define tone and note of sound.
2. Differentiate between tone and note.
3. What do you mean by harmonics and overtones?
4. What happens when tuning fork is made with wood?
5. The sound produced by open organ pipe is more sonorous than that by closed organ pipe, why?
6. If one end of an open organ pipe is closed, how will the fundamental frequency change?
7. What are the differences between forced vibration and resonance?
8. Why are soldiers ordered to break their steps while crossing a bridge?
9. Why is end correction of a pipe needed?
10. The vibrations of a tuning fork stops when its prongs are touched but they do not stop if stem of a
fork is touched. Why?
11. Why is playing of a musical instrument not allowed on a bridge?
12. Why is it possible to tune a radio to a station?
13. Why is the sound produced by telegraphic wires heard more distinctly when we put our ear close to
the telegraph post?
88 Principles of Physics - II

14. If oil is used in place of water in a resonance tube, how does the frequency change?
15. What is the effect of density of materials of string on the frequency of sound produced by sonometer?
16. The sound produced by open pipes sweeter than that from a closed pipe. Why?
17. How are the standing wave formed in a string?
Long-Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the various modes of vibrations of the air column in an organ pipe.
2. Describe the various modes of vibration of the air column in a closed organ pipe.
3. What do you understand by harmonics and overtones in the case of organ pipes? Prove that only
odd harmonics are produced in closed organ pipe. [NEB 2075]
4. Prove that both types of harmonics, odd and even, can be produced in an organ pipe open at both
ends.
5. What are harmonics? Explain the formation of overtones in an open and a closed organ pipe.
[NEB 2075]
6. How are standing waves produced in open pipe?
7. How are standing waves produced in closed pipe?
8. Explain briefly the phase reversal from the closed end and opened end of organ pipe.
9. What is end correction? How can you determine end correction of a closed pipe by resonance
method?
10. Describe a method of resonance to determine the speed of sound in air without end correction.
11. Describe an experiment to verify the laws of vibrations of a stretched string.
12. Discuss transverse vibrations in a stretched string. Derive the formula for the frequency of various
mode of vibration.
13. State the laws of transverse vibrations of string. Using only dimension, show that the speed of
propagation of a transverse wave depends only on tension and mass per unit length. [HSEB 2059]
14. State the laws of transverse vibration of string. Describe an experiment to verify the law of mass, and
law of length. [HSEB 2062]
15. State and explain principle of superposition and formation of stationary waves. Show that the
frequency of the fundamental note of a closed organ pipe is half as compared to that of an open pipe
of the same length. [HSEB 2064]
16. What do you understand by “harmonics” and “overtones” in the case of organ pipe? Also prove that
only odd harmonics are produced in closed ended organ pipe. [HSEB 2065, 2072]
17. Describe an experiment giving the necessary theory by which the speed of sound in air may be
determined using resonance air column method. [HSEB 2067]
18. What is resonance? Explain it with an example.

Numerical Problems
1. Find the fundamental, first overtone and second overtone frequencies of an organ pipe of
length 20 cm speed of sound in air is 340 ms–1. Ans: 850 Hz, 1700 Hz, 2550 Hz
2. If the velocity of sound in air at 0ºC be 332 ms–1, find the shortest wavelength in an open pipe
that will be thrown into resonant vibrations by a tuning fork of frequency 256 Hz when the
temperature of air is 50ºC.
Ans: 0.71 m
3. A pipe 30.0 long is open at both ends. Which harmonic mode of the pipe resonates a 1.1 KHz
source? Will resonance with the same source be observed if one end of the pipe is closed? Take
the speed of sound in air is 330 ms–1.
Ans: 2
4. Two successive resonance frequencies in an open organ pipe are 1944 Hz and 2592 Hz. Find the
length of the tube. The speed of sound in air is 324 ms–1.
Ans: 25 cm
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  89
5. The fist overtone frequency of a closed organ pipe P1 is equal to the fundamental frequency of
an open organ pipe P2. If the length of pipe P1 is 30 cm, what will be the length of P2.
Ans: 20 cm
6. A string of a certain sonometer vibrates 100 times a second. Its length is doubled and its tension
altered until it makes 150 vibrations in a second. Find the ratio of the new tension to the
original.
Ans: 9 : 1
7. A wire of length 50 cm is stretched by a load of 10 kgwt. Find the change in (i) the length of the
wire (ii) the stretching force which will increase the frequency of its fundamental tone by 1%.
Ans: (i) decrease by 0.5 cm (ii) increase by 0.2 kgwt
8. What is the velocity of transverse wave in a wire 30 m long weighing 0.09 kg, when it is under a
tension of 270 N?
Ans: 300 ms – 1
9. Two strings A and B of equal thickness are made of the same material. The length of B is twice
that of A while tension in A is twice that in B. Find ratio of the velocities of the transverse wave
in the two strings.
Ans: 2 : 1
10. A string 10 m long and mass 0.2 kg is stretched with a force of 5 kg wt. How long will the
transverse wave take to travel the length of the string?
Ans: 0.25 sec
11. The mass of wire of length 5 m is 2 kg. What should be the tension in the wire so that the speed
of transverse wave on the wire is 340 m/s?
Ans: 4.62 × 104 N
12. A string is under a tension of 6 N through which a transverse wave travels with a speed of 20
m/s. If the tension is changed to 13.5 N, find the speed of the wave in the string?
Ans: 30 ms – 1
13. A copper wire of length 20 m and a steel wire of length 30 m are connected end to end and
stretched to a tension of 150 N. If the radius of both wires is 0.5 mm, how long does it take a
transverse wave to travel the entire length of the two wires?
Ans: 0.329 sec
14. A cylindrical pipe of length 28 cm closed at one end is found to be at resonance when a tuning
fork of frequency 864 Hz is sounded near the open end. Calculate the end correction when the
speed of sound in air is 340 m/s.
Ans: 1.5 cm
15. A string when attached by a weight of 4 kg gives a note of frequency 256 Hz. What weight will
produce an octave of this note?
Ans. 16 kg
16. A stretched wire under a tension of 1 kg wt is in unison with a fork of frequency 520 Hz. What
change in tension would make the wire vibrate in unison with a fork of frequency 260 Hz?
Ans. 0.7 kg
17. A wire of length 50 cm when stretched by a load of 8 kg vibrates with a frequency of 280
vibrations per second. Find its mass.
Ans. 0.5 gm
18. A wire of linear mass density of 5.0 × 10-1 kgm–1 is stretched between two rigid supports with a
tension of 450 N. The wire resonates at a frequency of 420 Hz. The next higher frequency at
which the same wire resonates is 490 Hz. Find the length of the wire.
Ans. 2.14 m
19. Find the speed of transverse wave in wire if tension of wire is increased by 4%. Calculate the
percentage change in the frequency of wire.
Ans. (i) 600 ms - 1 , (ii) 2%
90 Principles of Physics - II

20. A piano string has a length of 2 m and a density of 8 × 103 kgm–3 when the tension in the string
produces a strain of 1%, the fundamental note obtained from the string in transverse vibration
is 170 Hz. Calculate the young modulus value for the material of the string.
Ans: 3.7 × 10 1 1 Nm – 2
21. Sound waves of frequency 100 Hz fall normally on a smooth wall. At what distances have
(a) maximum (b) minimum amplitude of vibration? (Speed of sound = 340 m/s)
Ans: (a) 0.85, 2.55, 4.25 m . . . from the wall, (b) 1.7, 3.4, 5.1 m . . . from the wall
22. A resonating tube resonated with a tuning fork of 256 Hz. If lengths of resonating columns are
32.5 cm and 99 cm. Find the value of the end correction and velocity of sound.
Ans: 0.75 cm, 340.5 m/s
23. A wire under the tension vibrates with a fundamental frequency of 240 Hz. What would be the
fundamental frequency if the wire were half as long twice as thick and under one fourth of the
tension?
Ans: 120 Hz
24. The tension in a wire of length 1 m is 50 N. Calculate the change in tension required to raise the
pitch over one octave if the length is reduced to 0.8 m.
Ans: 78 N
25. The fundamental frequency of a sonometer wire increases by 5 Hz if its tension is increased by
21%. How will the frequency be affected if its length is increased by 10%?
Ans: 45. 45 Hz

Multiple Choice Questions

1. In a transverse vibration of string with fundamental frequency 256 Hz, the length is made half,
tension increased to 4 times and width is doubled. Then the fundamental frequency of vibration
becomes:
a. 256 Hz b. 512 Hz
c. 1024 Hz d. 626 Hz
2. One open organ pipe of 27 cm and closed organ pipe of length 21 cm sound in unison in their 1st
overtone. Calculate the end correction for both pipes.
a. 1.5 cm b. 0.6 cm
c. 0.9 cm d. 1.2 cm
3. An open organ pipe and a close organ pipe resonate with same tuning fork. The ratio of the lengths
of open pipe to close pipe remains in the ratio.
a. 2 : 1 b. 1 : 2
c. 1 : 4 d. 4 : 1
4. An organ pipe P1 closed at one end and vibrating in its first overtone and another pipe P2 open at
both ends are vibrating in its third overtone are in resonance with a given tuning fork. The ratio of
the length of P1 and P2 is:
8 3
a. 3 b. 8

1 1
c. 2 d. 3

5. The end correction of a resonance tube is 1.0 cm. Then the diameter of tube is nearly
a. 2 cm b. 3.3. cm
c. 1.65 cm d. 6.6. cm
6. The frequency of a vibrating wire is f. When the area of the cross section of a wire is halved and the
tension doubled, the frequency becomes
a. f b. 2f
c. 3f d. 5f
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  91
7. A sonometer wire vibrates with a frequency f. If it is replaced by another wire of three times the
diameter; while the tension and other parameters remain constant, the frequency of vibration of the
wire will be
a. 9 f b. 3 f
c. f/ 3 d. f/ 5
8. When the prongs of the tuning fork are cut, its frequency
a. decreases. b. increases.
c. remains unchanged. d. may increase or decrease.

Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 HINT: 3
Given, Given,
Length of rope, l = 2.5 m Length of rubber, l = 14 m
Mass of rope, m = 0.120 kg Mass of tube, m = 0.800 kg
m 0.80
 Linear density () =  l  = 14 = 5.71 × 10–2
f = 40 Hz
 = 0.75 m  
 Tension produced, T = ? kgm–1
We know that Mass of load (m') = 7.50 kg
T T m'g
v =  Speed of transverse wave v = =
  
T l
or f  =  Time taken to travel the length (t) = v
m
l HINT: 4

T×l Given,
or f22 = m Frequency of oscillator, f = 40 Hz
f2 2 m Amplitude, a = 3 cm = 0.03 m
or T = l Mass per unit,  = 50 g/m = 50 × 10-3 kg/m
Tension, T = 5 N
HINT: 2 T
Given, a. v =

Frequency of fork, f = 120 Hz v
b.  = f
Mass (m) = 1.5 kg
Linear density () = 0.0550 kg/m c. Wave function, y = ?
x t
y (x, t) = a cos 2  – T
a. Speed of transverse wave, v = ?
T mg  
v= = x 1
  or y (x, t) = a cos 2  – tf (∵ f = T )
b. Wavelength,  = ?
 
HINT: 5
v
 = f Given,
Distance between two consecutive antinodes
c. Given,

m = 3 kg v = ? =? = 2 = 15 cm
mg
v = T/ =   = 30 cm = 0.3 m

a = 0.85 cm = 0.0085 m
Then, use, T = 0.075 s
v a. Displacement, y = ?
  = f
92 Principles of Physics - II

For standing wave, we have , 

or f =
y (x, t) = a sin kx. sin t 2
2 2 Also,
or y (x, t) = a sin x. sin T t
 Speed of wave, v = f 
2x 2t
or y(x, t) = (0.85) cm  sin 0.3 m  sin 0.075 s
HINT: 8
    Given,
 frequency of the diaphragm (f) = 2000 Hz
b. Speed of transverse wave, v = f  = T
Distance between two adjacent nodes 
HINT: 6  2
Given, = 8.0 cm = 8 × 10–2 m
Mass of wire, m = 40.0 g = 40 × 10–3 kg or  = 16 × 10-2 m
Resonating length, l = 80 cm = 80 × 10–2 m i. The speed of sound in air,
Frequency, f1 = 60.0 Hz v = f = 2000 × 16 × 10–2
Amplitude, a = 0.3 cm = 0.3 × 10–2 m  v = 320 ms–1
a. Speed of transverse wave, v = f1 × 2l ii. For the second stationary wave,
b. Tension in the wire (T) = ? f = 1600 Hz
T v 320
We have, v =   = f = 1600 = 0.2 m

T 
or v2 = Distance between adjacent nodes = 2

m 0.2
or T = v2 = l × v2 = 2 = 0.1 m = 10 cm
c. Given, a = 0.3 cm = 0.3 × 10–2 m iii. Let l be the length of the tube between
 Maximum particle velocity of vibration, diaphragm and the closed end and n be the
vmax = a = 2f a number of loops or (segments) formed when
Acceleration = – 2a = – (2f)2 a frequency of the diaphragm is 2000 Hz. So
HINT: 7 l=n×8 . . . (i)
Given, (Since distance between adjacent nodes is 8 cm
Number of harmonics, n = 3 so total length of n loops will be 8 × n which is
Amplitude of the two travelling waves, a = ? equal to l)
Length of string, l = ? When the frequency of the diaphragm is 1600
Speed of wave, v = ? Hz, then
The given equation of the standing wave is l = (n – 1) × 10 . . . (ii)
y (x,t) = (5.6 cm) sin [0.034 x] sin [50 t] . . . (i) (Since in this case the distance between two
But the standard equation of standing wave is adjacent nodes is 10 cm)
y (x, t) = 2Asin (kx)  sin t . . . (ii) From (i) and (ii) , we get
Comparing (i) and (ii), we have 8n = (n – 1) 10 = 10n – 10
 2A = 5.6 cm, k = 0.034 rad/cm or n =5
 = 50 rad/s  from (i), we get
a. Since, A = 2a l = n × 8 = 5 × 8 = 40 cm = 0.4 m
A 5.6 iv. For the next lower frequency,
 a = 2 = 2 = 2.8 cm
Number of loops formed = n – 2 = 5 – 2 = 3
2 So, we can write
b. Since, k =
 
(n – 2) 2 = l
2
 = k v
or (5 – 2) f × 2 = l
Now, we know that
 320
l =n× 2 or 3 × f × 2 = 0.4
c. Given, 3 × 320
or f = 2 × 0.4
∵  = 2f
 f = 1200 Hz
 Waves in Pipes and Strings  Chapter 3  93
HINT: 9 v
 l = 4f
Given,
l = 0 l = 31 b. For an open organ pipe,
A B
v
f = 2l
v
Fig. 1 Fig. 2  l = 2f

Fundamental frequency in the first case (f0) HINT: 13

= 100 Hz Length of tube, l = 60 cm = 0.6 m
Frequency in the second case (f1) = ? Frequency of fork, f = 512 Hz
If l be the length of string and v be the speed of First resonating length (l1) = 14.8 cm = 0.148 m
vibration then from Fig. 1, we have Second resonating length (l2) = 48 cm = 0.48 m
l = 0 Lowest frequency (f0) = ?
But, v = f00 = f0 × l We know that
In the second case as shown in Fig. 2, we have v = 2f(l2 – l1)
l = 31 l2 – 3l1
End correction of the pipe, e = 2
or 0 = 31
v v Now, the tube behaves of an open pipe so its
or f = 3 × f lowest frequency (f0) is given
0 1
HINT:10 v
f0 = 2(l + 2e)

i. Distance between consecutive nodes = 2 HINT: 14

ii. Distance between a node and Given,

 Length of string, l = 1.5 m
an adjacent antinode = 4 Density,  = 7.7 × 103 kgm-3
 Young's modulus, Y = 2× 1011 Nm-2
iii. Distance between consecutive antinodes = 2 1
Strain = 1 % in string = 100
Fundamental frequency of a closed pipe, f = ?
Length of pipe, l = 15 cm = 0.15 m f=?
Speed of sound, v = 340 ms-1 The fundamental frequency of transverse
For a closed pipe, we have vibration in the stretched string is given by
v 1 T
f = 4l f = 2l . . . (i)

HINT: 11 Now,
Given, stress
Y = strain
v = 350 ms-1 f = 440 Hz
Shortest length of a closed pipe, l = ? or stress = Y × strain
For the shortest length of the closed pipe, there T
is first mode of vibration so the frequency of or A = Y × strain
first mode is given by; or T = Y × A × strain
v v From (i), we get
f = 4l  l = 4f
1 YA × strain
HINT:12 f = 2l

Given,
1 YA × strain  mass (m) 
Speed of sound in air, v = 330 ms–1
Fundamental frequency, f = 256 Hz
= 2l
A   = length(l) = A
a. For a closed organ pipe, 1 Y × strain
= 2l
v 
f = 4l
94 Principles of Physics - II

HINT: 15 From (i) and (ii), we get

Given, f1 T1
Density of water, () = 103 kg m–3 f2 = T2
Density of metal cylinder, () = 8000 kgm–3
T2
Fundamental frequency of vibration, (f1) = 256 or f2 = T1 × f1
Hz
If V be the volume of cylinder, its weight in air Vg( – )
= × f1
will be mg = Vg. Due to this weight, tension T1 Vg
is developed in the wire. HINT: 16

 T1 = Vg. Given,
If f1 be the frequency in this case, we have Resonating length, l = 1 m
1 Mass, m = 4 kg
f1 = 2l T1/ …(i) Mass per unit length,  = 10–3 kgm–1
When cylinder is immersed in the water, its a. When wire is strucked at the middle, it will
weight (W) decreases due to upthrust (U) so vibrate in one loop. The nodes are formed at
tension (T2) in this case is bridges while antinode is at the middle. Clearly
T2 = W – U 
l = 2
= W – Vg
( U = weight of water displaced by cylinder =   =2m
Vg) b. Now,
= Vg – Vg 1 T
f = 2l
= Vg ( – ) 
If f2 be the frequency of vibration in this case, 1 mg
= 2l
1 T2 
f2 = 2l . . . (ii)



 ACOUSTIC
PHENOMENA

4.1 Introduction
Acoustics is a branch of physics which deals about the production, control, transmission, reception
and effect of sound wave. The term is derived from Greek word "akoustos" which gives the meaning
"hearing". This branch studies all properties of mechanical waves in solids, liquids and gases. The
science of acoustics incorporates many aspects of human society music, medicine, architecture,
industrial production, welfare and many more. In this chapter, we primarily focus on the intensity,
quality, beats and Doppler's effect of sound wave.

4.2 Pressure Amplitude

In chapter one, we have discussed about longitudinal wave in which the displacement of the particle
is parallel to the direction of propagation of wave. The maximum linear displacement of particles from
their mean position is called displacement amplitude of a wave. The displacement equation for a plane
wave travelling in the positive x-axis with angular velocity  can be written as,
y = a sin (t – kx) (4.1)
The simplest form of longitudinal wave in a medium is the sound wave. When sound wave travels
in a medium there is pressure variation at different points of the medium.
The pressure variation in a medium relies on the displacement of the particles. This change of
pressure at different points of the medium occurs due to the parallel oscillation of particles with the
direction of propagation of wave. Therefore, the characteristics of sound propagation can be studied
in terms of pressure variation. The maximum value through which the pressure increases (or decreases) in
the medium as the sound wave travels through it is called the pressure amplitude. It is measured in units of
Pascals (Pa) or Mega Pascals (MPa).
Consider a cylindrical volume of air with cross section A and undisturbed column length x, so that
the original volume is, V = Ax. If sound wave propagates into the cylinder, the particles displace
from their mean position. Let y1 and y2 be the displacement of particles at the left and right ends of
the cylinder, respectively as shown in Fig. 4.1.
The change in volume (V) = A(y2 – y1) = Ay
if y2 > y1, the length of air column expands, and
if y2 < y1, the length of air column is compressed.
96 Principles of Physics - II

V Ay y x
Now, the volume strain = V = = x
Ax x
A
For very small length of cylinder, x i.e. x  0.
V lim y dy
V = x  0 x = dx
y1 y2
dy
 Volume strain = dx
Fig 4.1: Pressure variation in air
 Bulk modulus of elasticity of an elastic medium is
Normal stress (change in pressure)
B = Volume strain
P
= – dy
dx
dy
P = –B dx (4.2)

Where, negative sign indicates that as pressure increases, volume decreases and vice versa.
Now, differentiating equation (4.1) with respect to x, we get,
dy
dx = –ak cos (t – kx)
dy
Putting the value of dx in equation (4.2), we get,
P = Bak cos (t – kx)
B
Also, the longitudinal wave velocity in a medium of bulk elasticity B and density  is, v = , so,

B = v2.
 P = v2ak cos (t – kx)
Obviously, v2ak
is the maximum value of P (i.e. maximum change in pressure) and is called
pressure amplitude P0. Thus,
P = P0 cos (t – kx) (4.3)
Equation (4.3) is the pressure equation of a longitudinal wave. Hence a longitudinal wave, such as
sound wave, may be represented either by a displacement wave equation (4.1) or of a pressure wave
equation (4.3). A comparison of equations (4.1) and (4.3) shows that the displacement wave is 90º out
of phase with the pressure wave. It means that, when the displacement at a point is zero, the change
in pressure is maximum, and vice-versa.
The variation of pressure amplitude and displacement is explained in Fig.4.2, considering the
molecular vibrations of gas in a closed tube. At the compression, particles are piled up and a cross
section is found in which the particles displacement is almost zero, so the node is formed at such
positions. Similarly, at rarefaction, a cross section is found at which the particles are pulled apart in
opposite direction so that net displacement of the particles is again zero and hence, another node is
formed at that position. Hence, in both compressions and rarefaction, nodes are formed at positions
where particles are at rest. The antinodes are formed at the centre between compression and
rarefactions. The comparison of displacement amplitude and pressure amplitude are shown in
Fig.4.2 (i) and (iii). Sound pressure is measured by microphone in air and hydrophone in water.
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  97

Displacement
a
x
–a

(i)

(ii)
Pmax
Pressure

Pmin
(iii)

Fig.4.2: Displacement and pressure amplitude (i) Displacement versus position at t = 0. (ii)
Oscillation pattern of particle in a cylinder. (iii) Pressure fluctuation versus position at t = 0.

4.3 Characteristics of Sound

We hear many kinds of sound in our daily life. The horn of vehicles, the sound of engines, music in
radio and television, warbling of birds, etc. are some examples of sound with which we are familiar
in our day to day life. If we start listening to our favourite music, then we don't want to turn the
radio off. But, if we stay at the traffic chowks of crowded city, we do not like to stay there any more
because of irritating sound. There are various types of sound we hear, but in physics, the sound is
broadly categorized into two types (i) musical sound and (ii) Noise.
i. Musical sound: The sound which is regular, periodic and continuous is called musical sound.
Music is pleasant to hear. Someone may say that s/he does not like the melody of a song, so it is
noise for her/him. But, in physics, the musical sound does not solely depend on personal sense,
rather it is a pattern of sound generation and propagation. If a sound contains regular and
periodic vibration, this sound is certainly a music, though someone likes or dislikes it. In
musical sound, the frequency is generally high.
ii. Noise: The sound wave which is irregular, non-periodic, and very short in duration is called
noise. Noise is unpleasant to us. Sound of engine, horn of vehicles, hammer striking on anvil
are some examples of noise.

Differences between Music and Noise

Music Noise
1. Music has pleasing effect on ears and 1. Noise appears to be irritating and a
mind. nuisance.
2. Music has a combination of frequencies 2. Noise has no such properties.
and their harmonics.
98 Principles of Physics - II

3. Music has high frequency and there are 3. Noise has low frequency and has irregular
recognizable patterns of changes in wavelengths and produces sudden
wavelength and amplitude. changes in amplitude and wavelength.
4. It is periodic and regular. 4. It is non-periodic and irregular.
5. It lasts for long time. 5. It damps in very short duration.

Characteristics of Musical Sound

The musical sound is basically distinguished from its characteristics depending on its frequency,
energy flow and pattern of propagation. On such basis, the characteristics of musical sound are
divided into three types: pitch, intensity and quality.

Pitch
The characteristics of musical sound which is pertaining to frequency is known as pitch. Pitch is
somehow perception, though it depends on frequency. Pitch of sound is a subjective quantity. High
frequency sound is called the high pitch sound. High pitch sound is shriller than the low pitch sound.
Although the frequency of sound produced by a source is constant, its observed frequency may be
different due to the relative motion between the sound source and the observer.
If we compare the sound of mosquito with the roaring of lion, we certainly find that the energy
propagation in the roaring of lion is greater than the sound of mosquito. But, if we compare the pitch
of these sounds, the pitch of sound of mosquito is greater than the roaring of lion (i.e. the sound of
mosquito has greater frequency than the frequency of sound produced in roaring of a lion). Other
many examples that we experience in our daily life are:
1. Voice of female has greater pitch than the voice of male.
2. Voice of child has greater pitch than the voice of adult.
3. The sound produced by thin wire has greater pitch than the thick one.
4. The sound produced by different keys of harmonium has different pitch.
5. The flute produces sound of different pitch when different holes are closed.

Differences between Frequency and Pitch

Frequency Pitch
1. Frequency is observable quantity which 1. Pitch is sensation pertaining to frequency
can be measured accurately. but this is not measured accurately.
2. Frequency is discussed in all forms of 2. Pitch is observed only in sound wave.
waves including electromagnetic waves
and mechanical waves.
3. Frequency is a very well defined quantity. 3. Pitch is not well defined.
4. It can not be zero for a deaf person. 4. It is zero for a deaf person.
5. Frequency is the characteristics of all type 5. Pitch is the characteristics of sound waves
of oscillations and vibrations. only.
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  99

Intensity
Waves transport energy from one place to another. The amount of energy transported by a wave is
explained in terms of intensity. The intensity of sound is defined as the amount of sound energy
propagated per second per unit surface area. It is denoted by I. Its unit is Wm–2 (watt per square
metre).
Let E be the total energy transported through the surface area A in time t. The intensity of sound is,
Energy transported (E)
Intensity (I) = Area (A) × Time (t)
E
I = At

E 1
I = t A
 
P
I =A …(4.4)

E
Where, P = t = power transported

To determine the total energy flow through a surface, a sphere of radius r is sketched around a point
source, the total intensity is written as,
P
I= [... Surface area of sphere = 4r2]
4r2

Quality or Timber
Eventhough the pitch and loudness of two sounds are same, it can be distinguished from our hearing
perception. If one of your friends comes to your home and calls you from outside, and still without
seeing you can recognize from his/her voice. This subjective part of wave which possess its
individual character is called the quality or timber of a sound. It is also called the tone colour. The
sound quality is distinguished from the overtones of sound.

4.4 Relations of Intensity and Amplitude of Wave

Waves carry energy from one point to another. In case of mechanical wave, the disturbance at a point
is spread out in a medium via the oscillation of molecules in that medium. This disturbance is
transported by the molecules in the medium in the form of wave pattern. The wave pattern is in the
form of sine wave. So, the displacement of particle's oscillation is written as,
y = a sin (t – kx) …(4.5)
Where, a = amplitude of particles
 = angular velocity of particles
The total energy transfer is the sum of energy carried by oscillating particles in the medium, which
contains both kinetic energy due to the motion of particles and potential energy due to displacement
of particles from their mean position. So, the total energy transfer is,
E = Kinetic energy (EK) + Potential Energy (EP)
i.e., E = EK + Ep …(4.6)
Applying conservation of energy, when EP = 0, EK is maximum. So, total energy,
E = (EK)max
100 Principles of Physics - II
1 2
E = 2 mvmax …(4.7)

To find the maximum velocity of particles, we differentiate equation (4.5) with respect to time,
dy
 v = dt = a cos(t – kx) …(4.8)

The maximum velocity of particles, in a medium,

vmax = a …(4.9)
Using equation (4.9) in equation (4.7), we get,
1
E = 2 m (a)2

1
E = 2 ma22 …(4.10)

Let V be the volume of the medium of density , influenced by the disturbance so,
m = V
m = Al (... V = Al) …(4.11)
Now, using equation (4.11) in equation (4.10), we get,
1
E = 2 Al a22 …(4.12)

Now, the intensity of sound wave,

E
I = At

1 Ala22 1 l 2 2
= 2 At = 2 t a 

1
= 2 va22

l
Where, v = t = velocity of sound in that medium.

In a medium, , a, and  remains constant so the intensity of sound is directly proportional to the
square of amplitude (i.e. I  a2).
The intensity of sound in terms of frequency of particle oscillation is,
1
I = 2 va2 (2f)2 ( = 2f)

1
= 2 va2 42f2

 I = 22 va2f2 …(4.13)

Relation between pressure amplitude and intensity of sound

The pressure amplitude of sound is,
P = Bak cos (t  kx)
 Pmax = Bak
Squaring both sides, we get,
2
Pmax = B2a2k2 = v42 a2k2
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  101
 2
= v42a2  v  [...  = vk]1
 
= v22 a22
1
= 2v 2 v a22 = 2v (22 va2f2)
 
From equation (4.13), I = 22va2f2
2
Therefore, Pmax = 2vI
2
Pmax
 I=
2v
This expression gives the relation between intensity of sound and the pressure amplitude.
The term v is also called the acoustic impedance of a medium, and is denoted by Z.
(i.e. Z = v)
So, the relation of intensity of sound, pressure amplitude and acoustic impedance of a medium is
written as,
2
Pmax
I = 2Z

Loudness
Loudness refers to the perception of sound wave in our ear. In everyday language, the loudness and
intensity are used interchangeably. In physics, we make distinction between the two. Actually,
loudness is directly proportional to the logarithmic value of intensity which, is given by Weber-
fetches law. It is denoted by L. So,
Loudness (L)  log10I
Loudness (L) = k log10I
The experimental value of k is 1. So,
Loudness (L) = log10I
In this relation, I is taken in numerical value of intensity.
The loudness of sound is measured on an arbitrary scale that corresponds roughly to the sensation of
sound wave with respect to a standard value of intensity.
The perception of loudness of sound on our ear is based on 10n, n = order of power. For example, 100
Wm–2 intensity is perceived just double than the loudness provided by intensity 10 Wm–2.
1. For I = 10 Wm–2, Loudness (L) = log10101 = 1
2. For I = 100 Wm–2, Loudness (L) = log10102 = 2
3. For I = 1000 Wm–2, Loudness (L) = log10103 = 3

Differences between Intensity and Loudness

Intensity Loudness
1. Sound intensity is the property of the 1. Loudness depends on the sound source,
sound source. the medium and the receiver.
2. Sound intensity is measured in watt per 2. Loudness is measured in phon.
square meter (Wm–2).
102 Principles of Physics - II

3. Sound intensity holds a small significance 3. Loudness is very important property to

in problems involving human hearing consider in such problem.
system.
4. It is a measurable physical quantity. 4. It is comparable quantity with a standard
value.
5. There is a fixed relation between intensity 5. There is no direct relation between
and frequency (I  f2). loudness and frequency.

Threshold of Hearing
The minimum loudness of sound that can just be heard by normal ear is known as threshold of
hearing. It is denoted by L0.
 L0 = log10 I0
The corresponding value of intensity for the threshold condition is 10–12 Wm–2. It means, the energy
transfer per unit time per unit surface area is, I0 = 10–12 Wm–2 in a medium. Such minimum value of
intensity is heard by normal ear. If the intensity is smaller than 10–12 Wm–2, the sound is not heard,
and above such value, it is efficiently heard.
The threshold value for different person may be different. In the elder age, in particular, the
threshold value is increased (i.e. you have to speak louder to make the elder person hear). The value
10–12 Wm–2 is the average value for healthy person.

4.5 Intensity Level

The loudness itself does not make any complete sense in physics, however the difference of loudness
of a sound with respect to threshold of hearing makes a perfect sense. Therefore, the relative value of
loudness is taken into practice rather than absolute value of intensity. The loudness of sound is
usually expressed in terms of the ratio to a standard value that is called intensity level. The logarithm
value of ratio of intensity of sound (I) to the standard intensity (I0) is known as intensity level. It is denoted
by .
I
 Intensity level of sound,  = log I
0

It is to be noted that in this chapter logarithm values are taken in base 10 (i.e., log10)
If I and I0 be the sound intensities of two sound notes corresponding to loudness L and threshold of
hearing L0 respectively, the law regarding the loudness of sound, Weber-Fechner's law is written as,
L0 = k log I0 and
L = k log I
Then,
L – L0 = k log I – k log I0
I
= k(log I – log I0) = k log I
0

This value (L – L0) gives the intensity level of sound having loudness L.
I
  = L – L0 = k log I
0

The experimental value of k is 1. So,

I
 = L – L0 = log I (4.14)
0
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  103

Units of Intensity Level: Bel, Decibel

Since, intensity level is the logarithm value of ratio of two intensities, sound intensity level has no
dimension but the unit is assigned. Its unit is bel, in the honour of Alexander Graham Bell, the
inventor of telephone.
I
  = log I (bel)
0

For I = 10 I0
10 I0
 = log I = 1 bel
0

Thus, one bel is defined as the sound intensity level at which the intensity of sound is ten times greater than
the standard intensity. i.e. I = 10 I0.
The unit 'bel' is inconveniently large for daily purposes of our surroundings, therefore the 'decibel'
unit is appropriate in practice. The 'decibel' unit of sound intensity level is one tenth value of bel unit.
1
 1 decibel = 10 bel

I
 We write,  = 10 log I dB.
0

i. If the intensity of sound is equal to the threshold value i.e. I = I0,

I I0
 = 10 log I = 10 log I = 0 dB
0 0

This value of sound intensity level is considered as the threshold value of loudness.
1
ii. If the intensity is equal to 1 Wm–2, the intensity level,  = 10 log 10–12 = 120 dB.
 
The sound intensity level corresponding to 120 dB is painful to ear.

Comparison of sound intensity level

The intensity levels for two sounds of intensities I1 and I2 are:
I1 I2
1 = 10 log I and 2 = 10 log I
0 0

The difference of sound intensity level,

 = 1 – 2
I1 I2
= 10 log I – 10 log I
0 0

= 10 (log I1 – log I0 – log I2 + log I0)

= 10 (log I1 – log I2)
I1
 = 10 log I (4.15)
2

For the intensities of sound I1 and I2 at distance r1 and r2 respectively from a standard source, we
have,
P P
I1 = and I2 =
4r21 4r22
I1 r2 2
= r  (4.16)
I2  1
104 Principles of Physics - II
 Difference of intensity level, from equations (4.15) and (4.16), we have,
I2
r2 2
 = 10 log r 
 1 r2
I1
r2
 = 20 log r  dB S r1
 1
Threshold of Pain
The intensity level of sound wave which produces the irritation in our ear is called threshold of pain.
If the intensity level is greater than the value of threshold of pain, it gradually damages the hearing
capacity of ear. 90 decibel value is considered as the threshold of pain. If children stay longer time
being exposed to such type of sound at high intensity level, they may lose their hearing capacity. In
many traffic chowks of Kathmandu valley, the intensity level of noise is about 100 db (i.e. above the
threshold of pain).

4.6 Infrasonics, Audible, Ultrasonics and Supersonics

Sound waves are categorized in accordance with their frequency (f). Our ear cannot hear very small
and very large frequency of sound. On the basis of frequency, the sound waves are categorized as
follows:
Types Frequency Range Property Source
Infrasonics f < 20 Hz Inaudible Seismic waves, waves of
pendulum oscillation.
Audible 20 Hz  f  20 kHz Audible All sound waves we hear
in our daily life.
Ultrasonics f > 20 kHz Inaudible Piezolectric effect in
quartz crystal.
Supersonics velocity greater not actually Objects move faster than
than sound wave the vibrational wave sound.

Infrasonics
The sound waves which have frequency smaller than the audible range are known as infrasonics.
These waves have the frequency smaller than 20 Hz. These waves are not heard with normal human
ear. Infrasonic waves are produced due to the oscillation of large objects, so the wavelengths are
large enough to generate the frequency below audible range. They are produced in earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, nuclear bomb tests, waterfalls, oscillation of simple pendulum, calving of ice
bergs etc.
Some animals are supposedly assumed to hear infrasonics pertaining to the fact that they behave in
weird way just before earthquakes and tsunamis and are not usually the victim of the devastation
because of this sensing ability. These evidences probably support the belief of infrasonic sensing
ability of animals. It has been believed that the animals sense the infrasonic and get alert for the
eminent natural disasters. Some animals like whales, elephants, hippos, Giraffes, and rhinoceros are
known to use infrasonic waves to communicate long distance away.

Ultrasonics
The sound waves whose frequency lies above the audible range are known as ultrasonics. The
frequency of ultrasonics is greater than 20 kHz. It is inaudible to normal human ear. Ultrasonics are
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  105
used to visualize the internal body parts in human body. Though ultrasonic is not heard by human
beings, it can be defected by many other animals. For example; bat (a mammal), produces ultrasonic
and also receives its echo reflecting from obstacles which guides the bat to fly without clashing.
Ultrasound is artificially produced by pressuring the quartz crystal, called the piezo – electric effect
on quartz crystal. Piezo refers the pressure and electric refers the electricity. So, piezo – electric effect
refers the conversion of pressure into electricity. In radiology department of hospitals, a probe (a part
of ultrasound machine that is run on the human body) produces the ultrasound and propagates into
the human body. Then, it is reflected from various interfaces of organs like kidneys, stomach, liver
etc. because of different acoustic impedance of these organs. The probe also receives the reflected
ultrasound and passes it to the computer CPU. Finally, the internal organs are sketched into the
computer monitor.
The important uses of ultrasound are listed below.
Ultrasound is a sound wave whose frequency is greater than 20 kHz and is inaudible. They can
easily travel into our body. Ultrasound is greatly used in hospitals to detect things into the body.
People named it video X-ray in hospitals, in reality, X-rays are not used, rather the sound wave of
very large frequency is used in ultrasound diagnosis. Some important uses of ultrasound are as
follows:

Applications of Ultrasonic Waves

a. Ultrasound is mainly used to get the image of our internal body parts.
b. Eco method on ultrasound is used to find the depth of sea, rock, etc.
c. A short wavelength ultrasound is used to signal the specific direction.
d. Ultrasound is used to observe the infant growth.
e. The method of echoes is used to detect the existence of tumour inside the brain.
f. Ultrasound echo is used to measure the thickness of a material.
g. A blind man can walk on the road without any fear by using ultrasonic sound.

Supersonics
Supersonics have the speed greater than the speed of audible sound. The body which has the speed
greater than sound wave is known as supersonic body. For example, jet plane flies faster than sound,
so it is supersonic body.
When supersonic body moves in air, it produces energetic waves, that propagates backward in the
form of cone with increasing amplitude. These waves are called shock waves.
The speed of supersonic body is measured in terms of match numbers,
speed of supersonic body
Match number = speed of sound in air
If the match number is greater than 1, the body travels in supersonic speed.

4.7 Beats
When two sound waves of slightly different frequencies propagating along the same direction in a
medium superimpose, a resultant wave is formed. The intensity of resultant wave so formed
fluctuates periodically i.e. its intensity rises and falls alternately in equal interval of time. This
phenomenon of alternate rise and fall of intensity of resultant wave due to superposition of sound waves of
slightly different frequencies is called beat. One rise and one fall produce a beat. The time interval
106 Principles of Physics - II
between two consecutive high or consecutive low intensity is called beat period. The number of beats
per second is called beat frequency.
Mathematically, the beat frequency is equal to the frequency difference between two interfering
waves. For two sound waves of slightly different frequencies f1 and f2, the beat frequency is written
as,
fb = f1 – f2 (for f1 > f2)
and fb = f2 – f1 (for f2 > f1)
Our persistence of hearing is 0.1 sec i.e. if time interval between two sound events is shorter than 0.1
1 1
s, we can't distinguish them as two different events. Therefore, the beat sensation, i.e. fb = T = 0.1 s =
b

10 Hz. This means, we cannot distinguish beat if beat frequency is more than 10 Hz.

Conditions for Formation of Beats

 The amplitude of the two interfering waves should be same.
 The difference between the frequencies of interfering waves should be small. The beats can be
heard only if the frequency difference is less than 10 Hz. (i.e. f < 10 Hz)

Graphical Representation of Beats

We consider two sound waves of slightly different frequencies f1 and f2 propagating in same medium.
When they superimpose, the amplitude of resultant wave varies with time at a point as shown in Fig.
4.3. At a point, when two waves overlap in opposite phase, fading sound is heard. If the point
contains two waves of similar phase, intense sound is heard.
y1
(i)

time

y1
(ii)

time

(iii) y3 Variation of
amplitude

T1 T2 T3 time

Fig. 4.3: Formation of Beats

Analytical Treatment of Beats

Consider two sound waves of slightly different angular velocity 1 (= 2f1) and 2 (= 2f2),
propagating simultaneously in a medium with same initial phase and amplitude. The displacements
of particles when the waves propagate are written as,
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  107
y1 = a sin 1t . . . (4.17)
y2 = a sin 2t . . . (4.18)
After superposition of waves, the displacement of resultant wave y is,
y = y1 + y2 . . . (4.19)
Substituting values from equation (4.17) and (4.18) in equation (4.19), we have,
y = a sin 1t + a sin 2t
 1t + 2t 1t – 2t
= a 2 sin  . cos  
 
2  2  
∵ sin A + sin B = 2 sin A + B . cos A – B 
 2 2 
1 + 2 1 – 2
= 2a sin  2  t × cos  2  t
   
1 – 2 1 + 2
= {2a cos  2  t} sin  2  t
   
1 + 2
y = A sin  2 t . . . (4.20)

This is the expression for resultant wave equation. The amplitude of resultant wave is,
1 – 2
A = 2a cos  2  t . . . (4.21)
 
1 + 2
and angular velocity,  = 2
Equation (4.21) shows that the amplitude of resultant wave depends on time.
Condition for maxima
For resultant amplitude A to be maximum, we have,
A =  2a
1 – 2
or, 2a cos  2  t = ± 2a
 
f1 – f2
or, 2a cos 2 2  t =  2a
 
f1 – f2
or, cos 2 2  t =  1 = cos n where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,. . .
 
or,  (f1 – f2) t = n
n
or, t= f –f . . . (4.22)
1 2

This is the condition for maxima.

For n = 0, t1 = 0 (first maxima),
1
For n = 1, t2 = f – f (Second maxima),
1 2

2
For n = 2, t3 = f – f (Third maxima)
1 2

and so on.
108 Principles of Physics - II
1
The time interval between two successive maxima = f – f seconds. Since, time interval is the
1 2

reciprocal of frequency so,

1
i.e. Tb =f –f
1 2

1 1
or, fb =f –f
1 2

 fb = f1 – f2 . . . (4.23)
Condition for minima
Similarly, for A to be minimum, we have,
A=0
1 – 2
or, 2a cos  2  t = 0
 
f1 – f2
or, 2a cos 2  2  t = 0
 
f1 – f2
or, cos 2  2  t = 0
 
f1 – f2  
or, 2  2  t = (2n – 1) 2 ( ∵ if cos = 0 then  = (2n – 1) 2 )

Where n = 1, 2, 3,. . . , etc.
(2n – 1)
or, t = 2 (f – f ) . . . (4.24)
1 2

This is the condition for minima.

1
For n = 1, t1 = 2(f – f ) , first minima,
1 2

3
For n = 2, t2 = 2(f – f ) , second minima,
1 2

5
For n = 3, t3 = 2(f – f ) , third minima
1 2

and so on.
1
The time interval between two successive minima = (f – f ) seconds.
1 2

1
i.e. Tb =f –f
1 2

1 1
or, fb =f –f
1 2

 f b = f1 – f2 . . . (4.25)
From equations (4.23) and (4.25), we have,
Beat frequency of maxima = f1 – f2 = beat frequency of minima.
Thus, number of maxima or minima per second is (f1 – f2) but one maxima and one minima of sound
constitutes one beat. So, number of beats per second is equal to the difference in frequencies of the
two sound waves i.e. f = f1 – f2.
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  109

Applications of Beats
i. Beats are used for the detection of harmful gases in mines. For this, two identical organ pipes
are taken; one filled with pure air and other filled with air from the mine are blown together. If
there are no beats, then the mine air is pure, but if beats are heard the mine-air is toxic.
ii. Beats are used in tuning musical instruments like sitar, violin, etc. The musical instrument is
sounded with another instrument of known frequency. If the beats are heard, it is slightly
adjusted so that there are no beats. This is called tuning.
iii. In sonometer experiment, beats can be used to adjust the vibrating length between the two
bridges.
iv. Beats are used to find the unknown frequency of tuning fork. To find the unknown value of
frequency produced by a tuning fork, it should be oscillated simultaneously with another
tuning fork of known frequency. This can be done by two methods: (a) loading the fork; (b)
filing the fork.
a. Loading the fork: The frequency of sound produced by a tuning fork decreases when the
prongs are loaded with some extended masses. It is usually done by pasting the wax on
prongs. In the beginning, given tuning fork (let tuning fork B) whose frequency is to be
determined is sounded simultaneously with another tuning fork (A) of known frequency.
During sounding, the beats produced in the superposition of these waves are recorded.
Then, the tuning fork B is loaded with wax and are resounded simultaneously with tuning
fork A. Due to loading, the frequency of B is changed and hence the beat frequency. Then,
the beat frequency for the second condition is also noted.

Analysis
Let fb be the beat frequency before loading fork B with wax. So, the two possible frequency
of tuning fork B are:
f2 = f1 ± fb
Where, f1 = known frequency of tuning fork A
f2 = possible frequency of tuning fork B
Also, fb' be the beat frequency after loading with wax. So, the possible frequency of tuning
fork B are,
f2' = f1 ± fb'
Then, the result is expressed in table below.
Conditions Upper value Lower value
Before loading f2 f1 + fb f1 – fb
After loading f2' f1 + fb' f1 – fb'
As mentioned above, the frequency of tuning fork decreases on loading, so the result is
confirmed as below.
i. If the beat frequency increases after loading, f2 must be f1 – fb.
ii. If the beat frequency decreases after loading, f2 must be f1 + fb.
b. By filing the tuning fork: The filing process reduces the mass of prongs of tuning fork so
that the frequency of vibration increases. The procedure is similar to the above experiment
as done in (a). The result can be explained as below:
i. If the beat frequency increases after filing f2 must be f1 + fb.
ii. If the beat frequency decreases after filling, f2 must be f1 – fb.
110 Principles of Physics - II
Example:
A standard tuning fork 'A' has frequency 280 Hz and it gives 4 beats/sec when sounding
simultaneously with another tuning fork 'B'. If tuning fork B is loaded with wax, the beat
frequency is observed 3 beats/sec when above process is repeated.
SOLUTION
Original frequency of tuning fork A, fA = 280 Hz
Beat frequency before loading, fb = 4 Hz
Beat frequency after loading, fb' = 3 Hz
The possible frequencies of tuning fork B before loading (280  4) Hz i.e. 284 Hz or 276 Hz.
The possible frequencies of tuning fork B after loading, (280  3) Hz i.e. 283 Hz or 277 Hz.
To compare the frequencies:
Before Loading 284 276
After Loading 283 277
Since, the frequency of sound produced by tuning fork decreases on loading with wax, the correct
value of original frequency of tuning fork B must be 284 Hz.
This will be just reverse in case of filing.

4.8 Doppler’s Effect

When source of sound and observer (or listener) are at rest, real (true) frequency of the sound is
heard. But, if there is relative motion between source of sound and observer, the observer will not
hear the sound of the real frequency. The frequency of sound so heard is called apparent frequency.
This phenomenon was first noticed by Austrian physicist Christian Johann Doppler (C.J. Doppler) in
1845 in sound waves and is known as Doppler's effect after his name. Hence, the apparent change in the
frequency of sound heard due to relative motion between source and observer is called Doppler's effect. The
apparent frequency may be higher or lower than the actual frequency depending on how the source
and observer are moving.
The whistle blown by a train is heard shriller when the train approaches a stationary passenger at the
railway platform whereas it is heard smaller when train moves away from it. This is due to Doppler's
effect.
Let us consider a source of sound is at any point A and an observed (listener) is standing at another
point B as shown in Fig. 4.4. If both the source and observer are stationary as shown in Fig 4.4 (i), the
wavelength and hence frequency of sound heard by observer doesn't change. However, if there is
relative motion between the source and observer as shown in Fig. 4.4 (ii), there is apparent change in
frequency of the sound heard by observer. Let us analyze the following different cases.

v B
A
O
S

(i)

v
A' '
B
 vS
O

(ii)

Fig.4.4: (i) Stationary source and stationary observer (ii) Moving source towards the observer
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  111
Note
We consider only that sound which is received by the observer, although sound travels in all directions. So, in
this case, the sound produced by the source is taken only in the direction of observer.

a. Moving source and stationary observer

Let the waves from A take t time to reach at B and at the same time, the source moves from point A
to A'. Therefore, the waves lying between A and B when they were stationary, now has to be
confined within a smaller distance A'B, i.e. the waves are now crowded between the source and
observer in this condition, as shown in Fig. 4.5 (Comparable to the distance between the consecutive
turns of compressed spring). This means the wave length of sound decreases and hence, frequency
increases. On the other hand, if the sound source moves away from the observer O as shown in
Fig.4.6, the waves rarefies between the source and observer (comparable to the distance between the
consequent turns of stretched spring). This means, the wavelength of sound increases and hence,
frequency decreases.
The apparent frequency of sound is determined by
v
f' = (4.26)
'
v  vs
and ' = f (4.27)

Where, v = velocity of sound wave

' = apparent wavelength
vs = velocity of source
f = original frequency of sound
The positive or negative sign are chosen in accordance with the direction of motion of sound source.
Case (i): When source moves towards a stationary observer: In this case, the sound source and
sound wave move in the same direction as shown in Fig. 4.5. Therefore, using the equation (4.27), the
wavelength of sound is,
v
v – vs
' = f (4.28) A A' B
vS
O
Therefore, the apparent frequency,
v
f' =  v – v  f (4.29)
 s  Fig 4.5: Moving source towards the observer
Clearly, f' > f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is greater than the real frequency.
Case (ii): When source moves away from a stationary observer: In this case, the sound source and
sound wave move in the opposite direction to each other as shown in Fig.4.6. Therefore, using
equation (4.27), the wavelength of sound is,
v + vs
' = f (4.30)

Applying equation (4.30) in equation (4.27), the apparent frequency of sound from equation (4.26)
becomes,
v
f' =  v + v  f (4.31)
 s 
112 Principles of Physics - II

v
A' ' A B
vS
O

Fig 4.6: Moving source away from the observer

Clearly, f' < f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is smaller than real frequency.

b. Moving observer and stationary source

Let an observer initially at a position move towards/away from the stationary source. Due to the
relative velocity between the sound wave (produced by the source) and the observer, there is
apparently change in the frequency of sound heard by the observer.
When the observer moves towards a stationary source, the velocity of sound wave and observer are
opposite to each other. So, their velocities add up to give a large resultant velocity. This means the
frequency also increases. And when the observer moves away from stationary source their respective
velocities are in the same direction. So, their velocities add up to give a smaller resultant which
apparently decreases the frequency.
The apparent frequency of sound source, f' is determined by,
v' v  v0
f' = = f (4.32)
  v 
Where, v = velocity of sound wave
' = apparent wavelength
v0 = velocity of observer
f = original frequency of sound
The positive or negative sign are chosen in accordance with the direction of motion of observer.
Case (i) When observer moves towards the stationary source: In this case, sound wave and observer
move in opposite direction as shown in Fig.4.7. Therefore, the relative velocity of sound wave, and
observer is,
v' = v + v0 (4.33)
Now, using appropriate condition in equation (4.32) from equation (4.33) the apparent frequency of
sound is,
v + v0
f' =  v  f (4.34)
 

S v0 O
v

Fig 4.7: Observer is moving towards the stationary source

Clearly, f' > f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is greater than the real frequency.
Case (ii) When observer moves away from the stationary source: In this case, the sound wave and
observer move in the same direction as shown in Fig.4.8. So, the resultant velocity of sound and
observer is,
v' = v – vo (4.35)
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  113
Now, using appropriate condition in equation (4.32) from equation (4.35), the apparent frequency of
sound is,
v – vo
f' =  v  f (4.36)
 

S O vo
v

Fig 4.8: Observer is moving away from the stationary source

Clearly, f' < f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is smaller than the real frequency.

c. Both source and observer in motion

When both the source and observer are in motion, there is apparent change in frequency due to the
relative velocities between sound wave and observer as well as the change in wavelength of the
sound due to motion of source of sound.
When observer is moving relative to the sound the velocity of observer (vo) is added up or subtracted
from the velocity of sound wave (v). If the observer is travelling towards the sources, the direction of
v and vo are in opposite direction. So, the relative velocity will be v + vo. If the observer is travelling
away from the source, the direction of v and vo are same. So, the relative velocity is v  vo. In the
combined form, the relative velocity is
v' = v  vo
If the source is moving relative to the sound wave, the wavelength of sound changes in accordance
with the direction of motion of source. If the source is moving towards the observer, the waves suffer
crowded in between them, hence the wavelength decreases, ' < . If the source is moving away from
the observer, the waves suffer rarefied between them, hence the wave length of sound increases,
i.e., ' > .
In combined form,
v  vS
' = f
In this case, the apparent frequency, f' of sound wave is
v' v  vo
f' = = f (4.37)
'  v  vs 
Where, v = velocity of sound wave
' = apparent wavelength
vs = velocity of source
vo = velocity of observer
f = original frequency of sound
The positive or negative sign are chosen in accordance with the direction of motion of sound source
and observer.
Case (i): When source and the observer move to each other.
In this case, sound and source move in the same direction, while sound wave and observer move in
the opposite direction as shown in Fig.4.9. In such condition, the directions of v and vo are opposite,
so they add up to find the relative velocity.
So, the resultant velocity of sound and observer is,
114 Principles of Physics - II
v' = v + vo (4.38)
As the source is travelling toward the observer the waves are crowded. In such conditon , the
direction of v and vs is same, hence, apparent wavelength,
v – vs
' = f (4.39)

Using appropriate condition in equation (4.37) from (4.38) and (4.39),

v + vo
 Apparent frequency, f ' = v – v .f (4.40)
s

S vS vo O

Fig. 4.9: Observer and source approach each other

Clearly, f' > f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is greater than the real frequency, when
the observer and source approach to each other.
Case (ii): When moving source and moving observer leave each other: In this case, the sound wave
and source move in the opposite direction while the sound and observer move in the same direction
as shown in Fig.4.10. In such condition, the direction of v and vo is same, so vo is subtracted from v to
find the relative velocity. So, the resultant velocity of sound and observer,
v' = v – vo (4.41)
As the source is travelling away from the observer, the waves are rarified. In such condition, v and vs
are in opposite direction, hence apparent wavelength is,
v + vs
' = f (4.42)

Using appropriate condition in equation (4.37) from (4.41) and (4.42)

v – vo
Now, the apparent frequency, f ' = v + v . f
s

vS S O vo
v

Fig. 4.10: Source and observer moving away from each other
Clearly, f' < f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is smaller than the real frequency.
Case (iii) When source is followed by the observer: In this case, the source moves away from the
observer and the observer moves towards the source. In such case, sound wave and source move in
the opposite direction and, the sound wave and observer also move in the opposite direction as
shown in Fig. 4.11. So, the resultant velocity of sound is,
v' = v + vo (4.43)
and the apparent wavelength,
v + vs
' = f (4.44)
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  115
Using appropriate condition in equation (4.37) from equations (4.43) and (4.44)
 The apparent frequency of sound,

f' = v + vo f (4.45)

 v + vs 

vS S vo O
v

Fig. 4.11: Observer follows the moving source

For vo > vs, f' > f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is greater than the real frequency.
For vo < vs, f' < f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is smaller than the real frequency.
Case (iv): When observer is followed by source: In this case, the observer moves away from the
source and the source comes behind it. In such case, the sound wave and source move in same
direction and the sound wave and observer also move in same direction as shown in Fig.4.12. So, the
resultant velocity of sound and observer is,
v' = v– vo (4.46)
and the apparent wave,
v – vs
= f (4.47)

Using appropriate condition in equation (4.37) from (4.46) and (4.47), the apparent frequency of
sound,
v – v0
f' = v – v  f (4.48)
 s 

S vS O vo
v

Fig. 4.12: Observer being followed by source

For vo < vs, f' > f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is greater than the real frequency.
For vo > vs, f' < f. It shows that the apparent frequency of sound is smaller than the real frequency.

Notes
1. With all this understanding, the sign convention to summarize the Doppler's effect is:
v  v0
f' = 
 v  vs  f
Sign conventions:
a. The reference is always the direction of sound i.e., direction of v.
b. For stationary observed vo = 0 and for stationary source vs = 0.
For observer.
i. If observer moves opposite to direction of sound, the relative velocity of sound must decrease. So, we choose +
sign between v and vo.
116 Principles of Physics - II
ii. If observer moves towards the direction of sound, the relative velocity of sound must increase. So, we choose –
sign between v and vo.
For Source
i. If source moves opposite to direction of sound, the relative velocity of sound must decrease. So, we choose +
sign between v and vs. Since, vs affects the denominator term of above equation.
ii. If source moves towards the direction of sound, the relative velocity of sound must increase. So, we choose –
sign between v and vs. Since, vs affects the denominator term of above equation.
With these conventions, for simplicity one may only inspect the direction of observer.
If the observer moves opposite to the direction of sound, one chooses + sign on the numerator and since the
source is moving towards the direction of sound, the denominator would have – sign.
2. The word ‘apparent’ means ‘seeming to be real or to exist’. So, apparent means not real but it only appears
due to certain circumstances. Many terms in Physics are followed by apparent such as ‘apparent depth’,
apparent weight, apparent expansion, apparent frequency etc. Here, the real frequency of source appears
different due to relative motion. The changed frequency i.e. new observed frequency is the apparent frequency.
In fact actual frequency remains constant.
3. One thing to be clear that frequency and intensity of sound are extremely different physical terms, it is
obvious that the intensity (i.e. loudness) increases as the source is company towards the observer. In addition,
the pitch (i.e. frequency of sound increases when the source moves towards the observer).
4. Doppler’s effect is a phenomenon common to all waves. This is applicable only when there is relative velocity
between the source and the observer.

Effect of Motion of the Medium

1. Effect of motion of medium on Doppler's effect
If the medium itself is moving in a direction, the speed of sound wave in that medium changes. This
effect, ultimately changes the frequency of sound while propagating in this medium. Thus, the
apparent frequency is heard different from the original value.
If the medium moves in the direction of propagation of sound wave, the resultant speed of sound
wave is v + vm where v is speed of sound wave in still medium and vm is the speed of medium.
However, if the medium moves in opposite direction, the resultant speed of sound is v – vm. So,
i. If the source, observer and the medium are moving in same direction, the apparent frequency
is,
(v + vm) – v0
f' = (v + v ) – v × f (observer followed by source)
m s

ii. If the medium is moving in the opposite direction of source and observer, the apparent
frequency is,
(v – vm) – v0
f' = (v – v ) – v × f (observer followed by source)
m s

Other situations can be explained using the above conditions as explained in (i) and (ii).

Comparison of Doppler's Effect in Sound Wave and Light Wave

Doppler's effect can also be observed in light wave. The Doppler's effect on light wave is a firm
evidence of expansion of universe. There is a basic difference between the Doppler's effect in sound
wave and light wave. Basically, the relative velocity of light wave with respect to its source and
observer does not alter its net velocity, which eventually changes the situation.
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  117
The change in frequency of sound waves depends upon whether the source is moving with respect
to stationary observer or observer is moving with respect to stationary source. Even if the relative
velocity in the two cases is the same, the change of frequency is different. So, the Doppler's effect in
sound is asymmetric. But, the Doppler's effect in light is symmetric.

Condition of no Doppler's effect

The frequency of sound heard does not change in the following conditions.
1. When both the source and the observer move in the same direction with the same speed.
v  vo v
i.e. f' = f
v  vs S
90°
For vo and vs are equal and directed in the same direction,
f' = f O
2. When either the source or the observer is at the center of a circle
and the other is moving along it with an uniform speed.
Fig. 4.13 A person moving in
3. When both the source and the observer are at rest and the wind a circle around another
alone is blowing.

Shockwave and Sonic Boom

When the speed of a source exceeds the speed of sound (vs > v),
the wavefronts lag behind the source in a cone shaped region
with the source at the vertex as shown in Fig. 4.14. The edge of
the cone forms a supersonic wavefront with an unusually large
amplitude called a shockwave. Shockwaves create a loud sound
like a type of explosion which is called sonic boom. Sonic boom
generates significant amount of sound energy, sounding much
like an explosion to the human ear.
When an aircraft passes through the air, it creates series of
pressure waves in front of and behind it. If the speed of source Fig. 4.14: Formation of shock
wave (vSource > vsound)
(i.e. aircraft) is greater than speed of sound, the waves are forced
together, or compressed, because they can not get out of the way of each other. Finally, they merge
into a single shockwave.

Applications of Doppler’s Effect

i. It is used to detect a moving submarine under water and to estimate its velocity as well.
ii. It is used to detect the airplane in air and to estimate its velocity as well.
iii. It is used to study the movement of stars in the universe.
iv. It is used in thief alarm.
v. Doppler's effect is used to detect the condition of blood flow in ultrasonography.

Doppler's effect on echo

In our common sense, sound comes to us from the original source, but the situation is different in
case of echo. The echo comes from reflector wherever the source is situated. In such condition, the
sound source is always considered behind the reflector as shown in Fig 4.15.
118 Principles of Physics - II
i. If the sound source and observer are moving towards the reflector.
Let S be the original source of sound and O be the observer. In this condition, the source of echo
is considered at equal distance away from the reflector as the mirror reflection. Let S' be the
source of echo. If the original source S travels towards the reflector, S' also comes nearer to the
reflector. The magnitude and direction of speed of sound (v), observer (vo) and source (vs) are
shown in Fig. 4.15.

Fig. 4.15: Doppler's by reflection

Closely analyzing the figure, we get the situation that the source and observer are approaching
to each other. So, the apparent frequency of sound is,
v + v0
f' = v – v × f
s

Where, f is the original frequency of sound if the original source and observer are moving
together, vo = vs.
ii. If the sound source and observer are moving away from the reflector.
In this condition, the source of echo S' is observed moving away from the reflector. The
magnitude and directions of speed of sound (v), source (vs) and observer (vo) are shown in
Fig.4.16.

Fig. 4.16: Doppler's by reflection

It is to be noted that the speed of sound is always directed from reflector to observer. In this
condition, the apparent frequency of sound is,
v – v0
f' = v + v × f
s

If observer and source are moving together, we write vo = vs.

 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  119
iii. If the reflector is moving itself towards the stationary source and observer
Although both source and observer are stationary, Doppler's effect can be observed, if the
reflector itself is moving towards or away from them. To tackle such problem, the condition can
be simplified considering two situations: (a) stationary source and observer moving towards the
source and (b) source moving towards the stationary observer taking the frequency given by (a)
as a original frequency.
a. For stationary source and observer moving towards the source: The apparent frequency is,
v + v0
f' = v ×f
b. Source moving towards the stationary observer taking the frequency and by (i) as original
the apparent frequency is,
v
f'' = v – v × f'
s

v v + v0
so, f'' = v – v × v × f
s

v + v0
f'' = v – v × f
s

4.9 Noise, Noise Pollution and its Control

Noise pollution is defined as any level of nuisance caused by sound that is generally harmful to
environment and creates disturbance in human life, which has an adverse effect on mental and
psychological well being.

Fig. 4.17: Sources of noise pollution

Causes of Noise Pollution

Causes of noise pollution are as follows:
1. Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing large amount of noise.
Industrialization is a major factor causing noise pollution.
120 Principles of Physics - II
2. Noise is at its peak during the social events. Pubs, parties, etc. are the places where people
produce and experience such nuisance.
3. Large number of vehicles on roads, aeroplanes, trains, etc. creates noise. Basically,
transportation is another major factor contributing noise pollution.
4. Different construction activities like mining, construction of bridge, dams, buildings, flyovers,
etc. also contribute to noise pollution.

Remedial Measures for Noise Pollution

In order to reduce noise pollution, we need to take a few things into consideration which are
explained below:
1. Computers, televisions: such type's electronics produce sound that may cause stress on the ears
over a period of time. So, we can turn them off when we are not using them.
2. Control at receiver's end: meaning building the sound proof space in order to cancel the noise
created in the surrounding using furniture and noise cancellation devices is a good option.
3. Suppression of noise at source: Sources like huge machines, noise creating devices should be
monitored on daily basis. Moreover, lubricating, repairing helps reduce noise at its source.
4. Planting of trees: Plants and trees somehow help to absorb the noise created in surrounding
environment.
5. Legislative measures: Effective legislation and law should be implemented in order to reduce
noise level at urban area.

Tips for MCQs

1. Intensity
Power transfer P P2max
i. I = surface area = A = 2a2f2a2v =
2v
2
I 1 r2
ii. I2 = r21 (inverse square law)
iii. Threshold of hearing, L0 = logI0 , I0 = 10 –12 Wm–2
I
iv. Intensity level,  = 10 log I (decibel)
0

r2
v. Comparison,  = 1 – 2 = 20 log r .
 1
Energy transfer
vi. Energy density, U = volume
P 1
viii. Intensity, point source (spherical wave) I = ,a
4r2 r
2. Types of sound:
Types Frequency Range Property Source
Infrasonics f < 20 Hz Inaudible Seismic waves, waves of
pendulum oscillation.
Audible 20 Hz  f  20 kHz Audible All sound waves we hear
in our daily life.
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  121

Ultrasonics f > 20 kHz Inaudible Piezolectric effect in

quartz crystal.
Supersonics velocity greater not actually Objects move faster than
than sound wave the vibrational wave sound.
3. Beats
i. The beat frequency, fb = f1 – f2 (for f1 > f2) and fb = f2 – f1 (for f2 > f1)
ii. Beat of sound may be possible, if more than two sound waves interfere.
4. Doppler's effect
v  v0
i. The general formula for the apparent frequency heard by the observes, f' = f.
v vs
ii. The speed of sound is always directed from source to observer.
iii. All the velocities along the direction of source to observer and taken as negative and all the
speeds along the direction of observer to listener are taken as positive.
iv. When a source goes past a stationary observer, number of beats heard per second is given by
v v 2vvs
fb = v – v f – v + v f = v2 – v 2 f
s s s

v. When a source goes past a stationary source, number of beats heard per second is given by
2v0
fb = v f

vi. Apparent frequency heard by driver moving towards a hill (i.e. reflector)
v + v0
f' = v – v × f
s

vii. Apparent frequency of echo of horn of his car heard by driver moving towards the hill (i.e.
reflector)
v + v0
f' = v – v × f
s

viii. Doppler's effect in light

Apparent frequency of light received by an observer, is
v
f' = 1  c  f
 
Positive sign is chosen when the source and the observer are approaching each other and
negative sign is chosen when the source and the observer are receding away.

Worked Out Problems

1. The intensity level from a loud speaker is 100 dB at a distance of 10 m. What is the intensity level at
distance of 200 m?
SOLUTION:
Given,
Intensity level at first point, 1 = 100 dB
Distance from speaker, r1 = 10 m
Intensity level at next point, 2 = ?
Distance of next point from speaker (r2) = 200 m
The difference of intensity level,  = 1 – 2
122 Principles of Physics - II
r2 200
We know,  = 20 log r  = 20 log  10  = 26 dB.
 1  
Now, to find 2,
1 – 2 = 26
2 = 1 – 26
= 100 – 26 = 74 dB
2. The ratio of the intensities of two interfering waves is 81:1. What is the ratio of the maximum to
minimum intensity?
SOLUTION
Given, Now,
I1 81 Imax= (a1 + a2)2
I2 = 1 and
We know that Imin = (a1 – a2)2
I  a2 So,
I1 a1 2 Imax (a1 + a2)2
or I = a  Imin = (a1 – a2)2
2  2
2
a1 I1 81 9 (9a2 + a2)2 100a2 25
or a = I2 = 1 = 1 = (9a – a )2 =
2
2 2 2 = 16 = 1.56
64a2
 a1 = 9 a2

3. If two tuning forks vibrate with frequencies 440 Hz and 444 Hz respectively, then find the
frequency of resultant wave and beat frequency.
SOLUTION
Given, wave is the mean frequency of the component
f1 = 440 Hz wave frequencies. So, we can write
f2 = 444 Hz f1 + f2 440 + 444
f= 2 = 2 = 442 Hz
frequency of resultant wave, f = ?
beat frequency, f' = ? Also, from beat frequency formula,
As we know that the frequency of resultant f' = f2 – f1 = 444 – 440 = 4 Hz

4. What is the velocity of sound in a gas in which the two waves of wavelength 1.0 m and 1.01 m
produce 4 beats per second?
SOLUTION
Given, v v
or 4 = –
1 = 1.0 m, 2 = 1.01 m 1 2
1 1
or 4 = v 1.0 – 1.01
Beat frequency (f) = 4 beats/s
From beat frequency formula, we know that  
f = f1 – f 2  v = 404 ms–1

5. Two tuning forks A and B produce 4 beats per second. The frequency of A is 103 Hz. When end of
prong of B is loaded with wax, 5 beats per second are heard. Find the frequency of B before and
after loading
SOLUTION
Given,
Frequency of fork A (fA) = 103 Hz
Beat per second (f) = 4 Hz
If fB is the frequency of fork B before loading, then we have
fB = fA ± f = 1000 ± 4 = 996 Hz or 1004 Hz
when the fork B is loaded, the beat frequency is increased from 4 to 5 so the frequency of B will be (fA –
f) = 996 Hz
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  123
After loading,
f = 5 Hz
so, fB = fA – f = 1000 – 5 = 995 Hz .
6. When two open organ pipes are sounded together at 20°C, they produce 42 beats in 5 seconds. If the
temperature is raised to 70°C, how many beats would they produce in the same time?
SOLUTION
Given, v20
f1 = 2l and
T1 = 20°C = 292 K 1

∵ Number of beats in 5 s = 42 v20

f2 = 2l
2
42
 Number of beats in 1 s = 5 From beat frequency formula, we have
42 f = f1 – f2
i.e., beat frequency (f) = 5 beats/s 42 v20 v20 v20  1 1 
or 5 = 2l – 2l = 2
Let l1 and l2 be the lengths of the pipes. Then 1 2  l1 – l2 . . . (i)

we can write f = f 1 – f2
Let n be the number of beats in 5 seconds at 70°C. 42 v20 v20 v20 l l
or, 5 = 2l – 2l = 2 l – l  (ii)
n 1 2  1 2
Then beat frequency = 5
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get
Now, n v70
v70 v70 42 = v20
f' = 2l and f'' = 2l
1 2
n 70 + 273
From beat frequency formula, we can write or 42 = 20 + 273 (∵ v  T)
f = f' – f''
n v70 v70 340
or 5 = 2l – 2l or n = 293 × 42
1 2

n v70  1 1   n = 65 beats
or 5 = 2
 l1 – l2 . . . (i)

7. [HSEB 2059] A note produces 2 beat/s with a tuning fork of frequency 480 Hz and 6 beats/s with a
tuning fork of 472 Hz. Find the frequency of the note.
SOLUTION
Given,
Note produced by a tuning fork of frequency 480 Hz = 2 beat/ s
Note produced by a tuning fork of frequency 472 Hz = 6 beat/ s
Since, the note produces 2 beats with the tuning fork of frequency 480 Hz, the frequency of the note =
480 ± 2 = 482 or 478 Hz.
Also, the note produces 6 beat/s with the tuning fork of 472 Hz, the frequency of the note = 472 ± 6 =
478 or 466 Hz.
As the frequency of 478 is common in both cases, the frequency of the note is 478 Hz.
8. [NEB 2074] A car is approaching towards a cliff at a speed of 20 ms–1. The driver sounds a whistle of
frequency 800 Hz. What will be the frequency of the echo as heard by the car driver? Velocity of
sound in air = 350 ms–1.
SOLUTION
Original frequency (f) = 800 Hz
Speed of car (vc) = 20 ms–1
As the source and observer are at same car,
vo = vs = 20ms–1
Speed of sound = 350 ms–1
This is the case in which the observer receives echo,
so we consider the source behind the cliff.
124 Principles of Physics - II
v + vo
The apparent frequency (f') = v – v × f
s

350 + 20
= 350 – 20 × 800 = 896.97 Hz

9. A source of sound generates sound waves which travel with a speed of 340 ms–1. The frequency of
the source is 500 Hz. Find the frequency of the sound heard if:
i. The source is moving towards the stationary observer with a speed of 30 ms–1.
ii. The observer is moving towards the stationary source with a speed of 30 ms–1.
iii. Both source and observer move with a speed of 30 ms–1 and approach one another.

SOLUTION
Given v + vo
f' = v ×f
Speed of sound (v) = 340 ms–1
Frequency of source (f) = 500 Hz 340 + 30
i. Speed of source (vs) = 30 ms–1 = 340 × 500
Since the source is moving towards stationary = 544.1 Hz
observer, the apparent frequency is, iii. For both source and observer are moving
v with equal speed the and approach to each
f' = v – v × f
s other,
340 v + vo
= 340 – 30 × 500 So, apparent frequency (f') = v – v × f
s
= 548.4 Hz 340 + 30
ii. Speed of observer (vo) = 30 ms–1. = 340 – 30 × 500
Since the observer is moving towards the
= 596.8 Hz
stationary source, the apparent frequency is,
10. [HSEB 2067] An observer traveling with constant velocity of 20 m/s, passes close to a stationary
source of sound and notices that there is a change of frequency of 50 Hz as he passes the source.
What is the frequency of the source? Speed of the sound in air = 340 m/s.
SOLUTION
Given, Again,
Velocity of observer (vo) = 20 m/s When observer passes the source; we have
Velocity of source of sound (vs) = 0 v – vo 340 – 20 320
f2' = v × f = 340 × f = 340 × f
Change of frequency = 50 Hz
Speed of sound in air (v) = 340 m/s 16f
Frequency of the source (f) = ? or, f2' = 17
When observed approaches to stationary Then, change of frequency.
source, 18f 16f
f1' – f2' = 17 – 17
v + vo
f1' = v × f 18f – 16f
or, 50 = 17
340+ 20 360
= 340 × f = 340 × f 2f
or, 17 = 50
18f
or, f1' = 17  f = 425 Hz
Hence, the required frequency is 425Hz
11. [HSEB 2073] A car travelling with a speed of 60 kmhr-1 sounds a horn of frequency 500 Hz. The
sound is heard in another car travelling behind the first car in the same direction with a speed of 80
kmhr-1. What frequencies will the driver of the second car hear before and after overtaking the first
car if the velocity of sound is 340 ms-1?
SOLUTION
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  125
Given,
Here, the first car is the source of sound and the driver of second car is the observer.
Speed of source (vs) = 60 km hr–1 = 16.67 ms–1 Speed of observer (vo) = 80 km hr–1 = 22.22 ms–1
Original frequency (f) = 500 Hz Speed of sound (v) = 340 ms–1
(i) In first case, the observer is approaching towards the moving source,
v + v0 340 + 22.22
 f' = v + v × f = 340 + 16.67 × 500 = 507.8 Hz
s

(ii) In second case, the observer is moving away from the moving source,
v – v0 340 – 22.22
f'' = v – v f = 340 – 16.67 × 500 = 491.4 Hz
s

12. [HSEB 2072] A stationary motion detector sends sound waves of 150 kHz towards a truck approaching
at a speed of 120 km/hr. What is the frequency of wave reflected back to detector? (Velocity of sound
in air = 340 m/s)
SOLUTION
Given,
Frequency of sound (f) = 150 kHz = 150000 Hz
120 × 1000
Velocity of observer (vo) = 120 km/hr = 3600 m/s = 33.33 m/s
Velocity of sound (v) = 340 m/s
Apparent frequency (f') = ?
Here, the reflector is approaching towards the detector. So, the condition is similar to 'source and
observer are approaching to each other.
We have,
v + v0 340 + 33.33
f' = v – v f = 340 – 33.33 × 150000 = 182605.1 Hz = 182.6 kHz
s

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] Two sinusoidal sound waves with frequencies 108 Hz and 112 Hz arrive at your ear
simultaneously. Each wave has the amplitude of 1.5 × 10–8 m. (a) How many beats are heard per sec?
(b) Determine the maximum and minimum amplitude of total sound wave arriving at the ear.
Ans: (a) 4 Hz (b) 3 × 10 - 8 m; 0

2. [UP] A railroad train is travelling at 30 m/s in still air. The frequency of the note emitted by the train
whistle is 262 Hz. What frequency is heard by a passenger on a train moving in the opposite direction
to the first at 18 m/s and (a) approaching the first? (b) receding from the first? (v = 344 m/s)
Ans: a. 302 Hz; b. 228 Hz

3. [UP] For a person with normal hearing, the faintest sound that can be heard at a frequency of 400 Hz
has a pressure amplitude of about 6.0 × 10–5 Pa. Calculate the corresponding intensity and sound
intensity level at 20°C. (Take at 20°C, speed of sound in air = 344 m/s and density of air = 1.2 kg/m3)
Ans: 4.36 × 10 – 1 2 W/m 2 ; 6.4 dB

4. [UP] A baby’s mouth is 30 cm from her father’s ear and 1.50 m from her mother’s ear. What is the
difference between the sound intensity levels heard by the father and by the mother?
Ans: 13.96 dB

5. [UP] A sound wave in air at 20C has a frequency of 150 Hz and a displacement amplitude of 5.00 
10–3 mm. For this sound wave calculate the (a) pressure amplitude (in Pa); (b) intensity (in W/m2); (c)
sound intensity level (in decibels).
[Bulk modulus of air (B) = 1.42  105 Pa; Velocity of sound in air (v) = 344 ms–1,
Density of air at 20C = 1.2 kgm–3]
126 Principles of Physics - II
Ans: (a) 1.95 Pa (b) 4.58  10 – 3 W/m 2 (c) 96.6 dB

6. [UP] On the planet Arrakis a male ornithoid is flying toward his mate at 25.0 m/s while singing at a
frequency of 1200 Hz. If the stationary female hears a tone of 1240 Hz, what is the speed of sound in
the atmosphere of Arrakis? Ans: 775 m/s
7. [UP]
a. A sound source producing 1.00 k Hz waves moves toward a stationary listener at 1/2 the speed
of sound. What frequency will the listener hear?
b. Suppose instead that the source is stationary and the listener moves toward the source at 1/2
the speed of sound. What frequency does the listener hear? (speed of sound = 340 m/s)

Ans: (a) 2,000 Hz (b) 1500 Hz

8. [ALP] A column of air is set into vibration and the note emitted gives 10 beats per second when a
tuning fork of frequency 440 Hz is sounded, the temperature being 200C. The frequency of the beats
decreases when the tuning fork is loaded with a small piece of plasticine. At what temperature will
the unloaded fork and the air column be in unison? (Assume that the wavelength of the note emitted
by the air column remains constant and that the frequency of the fork is independent of
temperature.)
Ans: 33.79ºC
9. [ALP] At a point 20 m from a small source of sound the intensity is 0.5 microwatt cm–2. Find a value
for the rate of emission of sound energy from the source.
Ans: 25 W
10. [ALP] An observer travels with a constant velocity of 30 ms-1 towards a distant source of sound
which has a frequency of 1000 Hz. Calculate the apparent frequency of the sound heard by the
observer. What frequency is heard after passing the source of sound? (Assume velocity of sound =
330 ms-1)
Ans: 1090 Hz; 909 Hz
11. [ALP] An observer travelling with a constant velocity of 20 ms-1, passes close to a stationary source of
sound and notices that there is a change of frequency of 50 Hz as he passes the source. What is the
frequency of the source? (Speed of sound in air = 340 ms-1)
Ans: 425 Hz
12. [ALP] A whistle of frequency 1000 Hz is sounded on a car travelling towards a cliff with a velocity of
18 ms-1, normal to the cliff. Find the apparent frequency of the echo as heard by the car driver.
Ans: 1115.4 Hz
13. [ALP] A car travelling at 10 ms-1 sounds its horn, which has a frequency of 500 Hz, and this is heard
in another car which is travelling behind the first car, in the same direction, with a velocity of 20 ms-1.
The sound can also be heard in the second car by reflection from a bridge head. What frequencies
will the driver of the second car hear? (Speed of sound in air = 340 ms-1)
Ans: 545.5 Hz
14. [ALP] The locomotive of a train approaching a tunnel in a cliff face at 95 kmhr-1 is sounding a whistle
of frequency 1000 Hz. What will be the apparent frequency of the echo from the cliff face heard by
the driver? What would be the apparent frequency of the echo if the train were emerging from the
tunnel at the same speed? (Take the velocity of sound in air as 330 ms-1).
Ans: 852 Hz
[Note: Hints to challenging problem are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is the threshold of hearing? Define one bel. [NEB 2074]
The minimum loudness of sound that can just be heard by normal ear is known as threshold of
hearing. It is denoted by L0.
 The corresponding value of intensity for the threshold condition is 10–12 Wm–2.
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  127
One bel (1 bel) is defined as the sound intensity level at which the intensity of sound is ten times
greater than the standard intensity. i.e. I = 10 Io
2. Whistle of an approaching train is shriller, Why?
 The frequency of sound is apparently changed when source and observer are in relative motion. The
apparent frequency of sound when the source (train)is approaching nearer to the listener, is
v
f' = v – v × f
s

Where, v = speed of sound

vs = speed of source
f = true frequency of sound
Obviously, v > v–vs, So, f' > f.
This shows that apparent frequency of sound is greater than true frequency of sound. Hence, it
appears shriller.
3. If the pressure amplitude of a sound wave is halved, by what factor does the intensity of the wave
change? [HSEB 2072]
 The intensity of sound in terms of pressure amplitude (P0) is
2
P0
I= , where,  = density of medium
2v
v = wave velocity
If the pressure amplitude is halved
2
P0 2
2 1  P0 
I' = =4 
2v 2v
1
i.e. I' = 4 I. This shows that intensity is reduced 4 times.

4. A tuning fork has two prongs. Why? [HSEB 2072]

 A tuning fork is a acoustic resonator. When the prongs are struck on the rubber pad holding on the
stem, these prongs move alternately towards and away from each other. They oscillate in transverse
pattern. Transverse vibrations superimpose at upper part of the stem and the vibration
longitudinally propagates to the lower end of stem. Hence, the wave does not damp readily although
we hold on it. If it does not contain two prongs, the vibration does not sustain more.
5. 'An empty vessel makes much noise.' How would you justify the proverb? [HSEB 2070]
 The intensity of sound wave is directly proportional to the square of amplitude of vibrating particles.
An empty vessel contains air molecules. These molecules oscillate with greater amplitude than the
liquid molecules. Due to the greater amplitude of vibration in air filled vessel, it makes much noise.
6. Bats catch their prey in the dark even when they don't see the prey. How can this happen?
 Bat produces the ultrasound to recognize the things around it. The transmitted ultrasound
propagates around the bat and reflects from the obstacles. It has also the echo receiver senser, which
estimates the shape, size and distance of obstacle around it. Thus, the bat recognizes the prey around
it and catches.
7. Is there a physical difference between intensity and intensity level of a wave? How are these
quantities related? [HSEB 2069]
 Certainly, they have the difference in physical meaning. Intensity is defined as the energy
transmitted per unit area per unit time, however the intensity level is the comparison of loudness
with respect to threshold of hearing. Intensity is dimensional physical quantity, but the intensity
128 Principles of Physics - II
I
level is dimensionless physical quantity. They are related with a formula  = 10 log I , where  is
0
intensity level and I is the intensity.
8. Two notes, one produced by violin and the other by a sitar, may have the same frequency, as we can
distinguish between them, why? [HSEB 2068]
 Although violin and sitar produce the note of same frequency, they can be distinguished by their
sound quality. The quality of sound is different due to the difference of harmonics of two sounds.
Quality is the individual characteristics of sound source.
9. Which has a more direct influence on the loudness of a sound wave: the displacement amplitude or
the pressure amplitude? Explain your reasoning.
 The loudness of sound depends on the pressure amplitude in a medium. In the location, where the
pressure amplitude is high, the molecules of the medium compress and the sound intensity increases.
10. If a child continuously blows a whistle while on a marry go round, Explain what you hear as the
child comes by each time?
 A child in a marry – go – round revolves in a circular path. A person sitting at a point can see the
child coming nearer to him in half circle and moving away in next half circle. When the child comes
v
towards the observer (sitting person), the frequency of sound, f' = v – v f
s

i.e. f' > f. i.e. apparent frequency is larger than true frequency.
v
But in next circle, f' = v + v × f
s

i.e. f' < f i.e. apparent frequency is smaller than true frequency.
It shows that the sound of whistle is gradually shriller in one half circle and blurrer in next half circle
of revolution.
11. Can a person standing at the center of a circle hear apparent change in frequency of sound produced
by a whistle moving in the circle?
 In the given situation, the source of sound is revolving in a circle and the listener stays at the center
of circle. The component of source speed along the center is vc = vs cos 90 and speed of listener vo =
0.
So, apparent frequency of sound,
v  v0 v0
f' = ×f= ×f
v  vs v0
 f' = f
This shows that there is no change in frequency that the listener hears at the center of the circle.
12. Why the bells of colleges and temples are of large size?
 Larger the area of the source of sound, more is the energy transmitted into the medium.
Consequently, the intensity of sound is large and loud sound is heard.
13. The ratio of the amplitudes of two waves is 3:4. What is the ratio of the intensities of two waves.
 The intensity of sound is directly proportional to the square of amplitude, i.e. I  a2.
For the given condition.
2
I1 a1 32
I2 = a2 = 42
2
I1 9
 I2 = 16
Therefore, the ratio of intensities of the waves is 9:16.
14. Define persistence of hearing.
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  129
 It is the duration of the sound for which a syllable's impression remains in the ear. The time of
persistence of hearing is 0.1 s.

15. What is supersonic?

 The term supersonic is used to define a speed of any object that is greater than the speed of sound.
Actually, supersonic is not a type of sound, it is related to the body that has greater speed than
sound. Jet plane can fly faster than sound, so it is supersonic.
16. What is ultrasonic?
 A type of sound wave which has the frequency greater than 20 kHz (i.e. f > 20 kHz) is called
ultrasonics. The speed of ultrasonic is same as the speed of audible sound. Ultrasonics has important
applications in medical field, it is used to take the image of internal parts of our body.
17. What are the uses of ultrasonics?
 There are many uses of ultrasonics. Some of them are written below:
i. In medicine, ultrasonic devices are used to examine internal organs without surgery. It is free
from radiation.
ii. Ultrasonics technology is used extensively for the testing, cleaning, and soldering of electronic
devices.
iii. Ultrasonic whistles, which can not be heard by human beings, are audible to dogs.
iv. Ultrasonics are used to measure the depth of sea and ocean.
18. What is the difference between the sound of mosquito and roaring of lion?
 The pitch of sound of mosquito is greater than the roaring of lion. Pitch is frequency related quantity,
so the frequency of sound of mosquito is greater than the roaring of lion. However, the energy
transfer in roaring of lion is much greater than the sound of mosquito.
19. Differentiate between music and noise.
 Some important differences between music and noise are as follows:
Music Noise
1. Musical sound is continuous, regular, 1. Noise is discontinuous, irregular, and very
and long vibration. short.
2. It is pleasing sound. 2. It is irritating sound.
3. For example: songs, music, etc. 3. For example: horn of engine, sound of
crowded market, etc.
20. What is intensity level? What is its unit?
 The difference of loudness of sound and the threshold value of sound is called intensity level. It is
denoted by . Let L and L0 be the loudness of a sound and threshold of hearing respectively. Then,
the intensity level,  is defined as,
 = L – L0
= log I – log I0
I
 = log I
0

The unit of intensity level is bel or decibel (dB).

1 bel = 10 dB
21. What is beat and beat frequency?
 When two sound waves of nearly equal frequencies propagated simultaneously in a medium, then
the intensity of resultant sound produced by their superposition increases and decreases alternately
with time. The phenomenon of rise and fall in intensity of sound is called beat. The number of times
the intensity of sound rises and falls in one second is called beat frequency (fb). Beat frequency can be
detected only when the frequency difference between superposed waves must be smaller than 10 Hz.
130 Principles of Physics - II
22. What are the differences between interference and beats?
 Some important differences between interference and beats are as follows:
Interference Beats
1. Two interfering waves have exactly same 1. Two interfering waves have slightly different
frequency. frequencies.
2. The phase difference between two waves 2. The phase difference between two waves at a
at a point remains constant. point varies with time.
3. The intensity of sound at every point 3. The intensity of sound at every point changes
remains constant. with time and becomes maximum and
minimum alternately.
23. How is it that one can recognize a friend from his voice without seeing him?
 Even though the pitch and loudness of sound appears same, the quality of sound is different in the
voice of human. The quality of sound is subjective quantity and depends on the overtones of sound.
The quality of voice of every person is different. As we are familiar with the quality of voice of our
friend, we can recognize without seeing him.
24. How does the frequency of echo change when (T) observer and source are moving towards the
reflector (ii) both are moving away from reflector?
i. If the source and observer and moving towards the reflector, the apparent frequency heard by
observer is,
v + v0
f' = v – v × f
s

So, f' > f. The observer hears greater pitch than original.
ii. If the source and observe is moving away from the reflector, the apparent frequency heard by
observer is,
v – v0
f' = v + v × f
s

so, f' < f. The observer hears the lower pitch than the original.
25. The intensity level of sound is 50 dB. What is the intensity of it?
Given, I
log I = 5
Intensity level () = 50 dB 0

We know, threshold intensity (I0) = 10–12 Wm–2 Taking antilog,

Required intensity (I) = ? I
I0 = 10
5
We know,
I I = 105 I0
 = 10 log I = 105 × 10–12
0

I  I = 10–7 Wm–2
50 = 10 log I
0  Required intensity is 10–7 Wm–2.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Differentiate between pressure amplitude and displacement amplitude.
2. What is the difference between the sound of a male and female?
3. Differentiate between musical sound and noise.
4. Why is it harmful to stay in crowded traffic region?
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  131
5. Why is not beat heard above 10 Hz?
6. What happens in the frequency of sound produced by a tuning fork when (i) it is loaded (ii) it is
field?
7. What is the use of beat in laboratory works?
8. Write the relation of pressure amplitude and intensity of a sound.
9. You recognize your friend from his voice too. Which characteristic of sound is relevant?
10. Doppler's effect is not occurred in two uniformly moving source and observer, why?
11. Explain how a musical instrument such as a piano may be tuned using the phenomenon of
beats.
12. An airplane mechanic notices that the sound from a twin-engine aircraft rapidly varies in
loudness when both engines are running. What could be causing this variation from loud to
soft?
13. Name the factors on which Doppler's effect depends.
14. Is it possible that the apparent frequency of the sound heard by a moving listener is the same as
the true frequency? If so give an example.
15. Can we apply Doppler's effect to a source of sound moving faster than the velocity of sound?
16. List out typical sources of noise pollution.
17. What are the impacts of noise?
18. What are the methods to control noise pollution?
19. What are the noise exposure limits in a workspace environment?
20. What are the ambient noise limits?
21. The tone quality of an acoustic guitar is different when the strings are plucked near the bridge
(the lower end of the strings) than when they are plucked near the sound hole (close the center
of the strings). Why?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is pressure amplitude? Derive pressure equation for a longitudinal wave with necessary
figure.
2. What are the characteristics of musical sound? Describe them.
3. What do you mean by intensity and intensity level of sound? Define bel and decibel.
[HSEB 2058]
1
4. Define the intensity of sound and prove that I = 2 va22 where the symbols have their usual
meaning. [HSEB 2071]
5. Define threshold of hearing. Distinguish between intensity and intensity level.
6. What are beats? Prove that the number of beats per second is equal to the difference between
the frequencies of two superposing waves. [HSEB 2060]
7. What beats? Obtain the expression for the beat frequency when beats are produced by
superposing two waves of slightly different frequencies. [HSEB 2067]
8. Discuss the analytical treatment for the formation of beat.

9. Define intensity of sound. Show that the intensity of sound for a given frequency is directly
proportional to the square of amplitude of vibration.
10. What is Doppler’s effect? Derive an expression for the apparent frequency received by a
stationary observer when a source is moving away from him. [HSEB 2057]
132 Principles of Physics - II
11. What is Doppler’s effect? Derive the change in frequency when an observer moves towards a
stationary source.
12. Discuss the phenomenon of Doppler’s effect. Find the change in frequency when a moving
source of sound passes a stationery observer. [HSEB 2062]
13. What is Doppler's effect? Obtain on expression for the apparent pitch when a source moves
away from stationary observer. [NEB 2075]
14. What is Doppler's effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency heard by a listener
due to a source when both are approaching each other. [NEB 2075]

Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the decibel increase if there is a two fold increase in the intensity of a wave?
Ans: 3.01 dB
2. The noise level of classroom in absence of the teacher is 50 dB when 50 students are present.
Assuming that on the average each student outputs same sound energy per second, what will
be the noise level if the number of students is increased to 100?
Ans: 53.01 dB
3. Two sitar strings A and B playing the note 'Dha' are slightly out of tune and produce beats of
frequency 5 Hz. The tension of the string B is slightly increased and the beat frequency is found
to decrease to 3 Hz. What is the original frequency of B if the frequency of A is 427 Hz?
Ans: 422 Hz
4. Two tuning forks A and B are sounded simultaneously in air. The original frequency of A is 512
Hz and B in unknown. In sounding, they produce beat frequency 5 Hz. Now, tuning fork B is
loaded with wax and resounded both. Then the beat frequency is observed 2 Hz. What is the
original frequency of tuning forks?
Ans: 517 Hz
5. When a jet plane is flying on elevation of 1000 m the sound level on the ground is 4.0 dB. What
would be the intensity level on the ground when its elevation is as low as 100 m. [HSEB 2069]
Ans: 24 dB
6. Two observes A and B are provided with source of sound of frequency 500 Hz. A remains
stationary and B moves away from him at a velocity of 1.8 ms–1. How many beats per second
are observed by B, The velocity of sound in air being 330 ms–1? [HSEB 2054]
Ans: 27 beats/s]
7. What is the intensity level in a car when the sound intensity is 0.500 W/m2 [Io = 10-12 W/m2]
Ans: 57 dB
8. Two tuning forks A and B give 6 beats/second. A resounds with closed column of air 15 cm
long and B with an open column 30.5 cm long. Calculate their frequencies.
Ans: 366 Hz and 360 Hz.
9. The prongs of a tuning fork A, originally in unison with a tuning fork a B, are filed. Now the
two tuning forks on being sounded together produce 2 beats/s. What is the frequency of A after
filling, if the frequency of B is 250 cycles/s.
Ans: 252 cycle/sec
10. Two tuning forks A and B when sounded together give 4 beats per second. A is then loaded
with a little wax and the number of beats/s is found to decrease. If the frequency of A is 256 Hz,
find that of B.
Ans: 252 Hz
11. Two sitar strings A and B playing the note Ga are slightly out of tune and produce beats of
frequency 6 Hz. The tension in the string A is slightly reduced and the beat frequency is found
to reduce to 3 Hz. If the original frequency of A is 324 Hz. What is the frequency of B?
Ans: 318 Hz
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  133
12. A tuning fork of frequency 300 Hz is unison with a sonometer wire. How many beats per
second will be heard if the tension of the wire is increased by two percent?
Ans: 3
13. A rain standing at the outer signal of a railway station blows a whistle of 400 Hz in still air.
What is the frequency of the whistle for a platform observer when the train
a. approaches the platform with a speed of 10 ms-1.
b. recedes from the platform with a speed of 10 ms-1?
c. what is the speed of sound in each case (speed of sound in air = 340 ms-1).
Ans: (a) 412.12 Hz (b) 388.87 Hz (c) 340 m/s
14. The pressure amplitude of a sound wave in air is 0.84 N/m2 and displacement amplitude is
5.5×10-6 m. Find the minimum wavelength of the sound.
Ans: 5.81 m

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A car travelling with a velocity equal to one-tenth of the velocity of sound. When it is approaching
towards a siren of frequency 1000 Hz. The frequency appears to the driver 1100 HZ. The velocity of
car is:
a. 17 ms–1 b. 34 ms–1
c. 51 ms–1 d. 68 ms–1
2. A radar sends a signal of frequency 78 × 109/s towards aeroplane moving with certain velocity a
frequency difference of 2.7 × 103/s is reflected from aeroplane. Find the velocity of aeroplane.
a. 1.87 × 102 km/hr b. 2.87 × 102 km/hr
c. 0.87 × 102 km/hr d. 3.74 × 103 km/hr
3. Two tuning forks of frequency 256 and 258 vibrations per sec are sounded together, then the time
interval between two consecutive maxima heard by an observer is:
a. 2 s b. 0.5 s
c. 250 s d. 2.52 s
4. 25 tuning forks are arranged in series with decreasing frequency 3 beats/s. If the frequency of last
tuning fork is octave of the first, then the frequency of 1st tuning fork is:
a. 142 b. 144
c. 146 d. 140
5. A source and listener is moving in the same direction with a velocity equal to half the velocity of
sound, what is the change in frequency?
a. 0% b. 100%
c. 25% d. 50%
6. When two tuning forks of frequencies 484 Hz and 486 Hz are sounded together. What will be beat
frequency?
a. 4 Hz b. 2 Hz
c. 3 Hz d. 6 Hz
7. The intensity of sound in a normal conversation at home is of the order of:
a. 10–2 Wm–2 b. 10–5 Wm–2
c. 10–2 Wm–2 d. 105 Wm–2
8. For production of beats, the radio should tune with:
a. Same frequency, different phase b. Different frequency, same phase
c. Different frequency constant phase d. Same amplitude and same frequency

Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (b) 8. (c)

Hints to Challenging Problems

134 Principles of Physics - II
HINT: 1
Given,
f1 = 108 Hz, f2 = 112 Hz
amplitude of each wave, a = 1.5 × 10–8 m
 Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  135
a. beat frequency, fb = f2 – f1 I
c.  = 10 log I
b. Maximum amplitude of total sound wave o

(Amax) = 2a HINT: 6
Minimum amplitude of total sound wave (Amin) Given,
=0 Velocity of source (vs) = 25 m/s
c. When the beat is formed, the resultant Velocity of listener (v0) = 0
amplitude, A = 2acos (f1– f2)t Real frequency (f) = 1200 Hz
HINT: 2 Apparent frequency (f') = 1240 Hz
Given, Speed of sound (v) = ?
vs = 30 m/s, f = 262 Hz, vo = 18 m/s, v = 344 When the source is moving towards a
m/s v
stationary listener, f' =  v – v  f
a. Frequency heard when they are approaching,  s
v + vo
f' =  v – v  f
HINT: 7
 s Given
b. Frequency heard when they are receding, Real frequency of sound (f) = 1.0 kHz = 1000 Hz
v  vo a. Speed of sound (v) = 340 m/s
f'' = v + v  f
 s 1 340
HINT: 3
Speed of source (vs) = 2 × v = 2 = 170 m/s
Given, v
Then, f' =  v – v  f
f = 400 Hz, threshold of hearing (I0) = 10-12  s
W/m2 1 340
Pmax = 6.0 × 10–5 Pa b. Speed of listener (v0) = 2 × v = 2 = 170 m/s
v = 344 m/s v + v0
Then, f'' =  v  f
 = 1.2 kg/m3  
 We know that HINT: 8
P2 max Given,
Intensity, I =
2v Beat frequency (f) = 10 beats per sec
 Intensity level in dB,  = 10 log (I/I0) Frequency of tuning fork (f1) = 440 Hz
Frequency of air vibration (f2) = f1  f = 440  10
HINT: 4 = 450 Hz or 430 Hz
Given, Since the beat frequency decreases on loading,
r1 = 30 cm = 0.3 m the true frequency of vibration of air must be
r2 = 1.5 m 430 Hz.
Let  be the required temperature at which
Difference between sound intensity levels,
unloaded fork and air column are in unison i.e.
 = (1 – 2) = ?
Frequency of unloaded fork
We have,
= frequency of air column at °C
r2
= 20 logr  or 440 = f
 1
HINT: 5
 f = 440 Hz
Given,  v = f ×  = 440 × 
Speed of sound at 20°C, v = 344 m/s Now,
Frequency (f) = 150 Hz, v T so we can write
Threshold of hearing (I0) = 10–12 Wm–2 v20 273+20
=
Amplitude (a) = 5.00  10–3 mm = 5.00  10–6 m v 273 + 
Bulk modulus of air (B) = 1.42  105 Pa 430 ×  293
B × 2 B × 2f or =
440 ×  273 + 
a. Pmax = Bka = ×a= v ×a
 HINT: 9
2
Pmax Given,
b. Intensity (I) = r = 20 m
2v
136 Principles of Physics - II
0.5 × 10–6 W
I = 0.5 µW/cm2 = (10–2)2 m2
= 0.5 × 10–2 W/m2
Power transmission (P) = ?
P
We have, I = A
 P = I × A = I  4r2
HINT: 10
Given, v + v0
v0 S
O
f' = v – v × f
s
After passing vs = 0, – v0 HINT: 13
i. When an observer is coming towards the Given,
stationary f = 500 Hz, v = 340 ms–1
vs = 0 vs = 10 ms–1, v0 = 20 ms–1
v + v0 Bridge head
 f' = v × f
ii. After passing the stationary source, Second car First v
v0 vs
v – v0 Source
f'' = v × f Observer
vs
HINT: 11
Given, For the direct sound heard by the observer in
Speed of observer (v0) = 30 ms–1 the second car, we can write
Original frequency (f) = 100 Hz v + v0
v0 O vs = 0
i. f' = v + v × f
O s
S –v0
v + v0
v0 = 20 ms–1 ii. f'' = v – v × f
s
v = 340 ms–1 HINT: 14
frequency of source (f) = ? Given,
i. when observer is moving towards the vo = 95 km hr–1
stationary source, 95 × 1000
v – (–v0) v + v0 = 60 × 60 ms–1 = 26.39 ms–1
f1 = v – 0 × f = v ×f f = 1000 Hz
v – v0 v = 330 ms–1
ii. When observer passes the source, f2 = v × f cliff
Given, f1 – f2 = 50 Hz v v
Train Train
v + v0 v – v0
or tunnel
v × f – v × f = 50 v0 v0
Use given values and find f. vs
HINT: 12 v + v0
Given, i. f1 = v – v × f
s
f = 1000 Hz vs = 18 ms–1 v – v0
v = 330 ms–1 v0 = 18 ms–1 ii. f2 = v + v × f
s
Apparent frequency of echo heard by the car
driver (observer), f' = ?


Acoustic Phenomena  Chapter 4  137
 SPEED OF LIGHT

5.1 Introduction
Until the late seventeenth century, it was not known whether light travels instantaneously or with
finite speed. Many scientists believed that light is observed instantly at all distances regardless where
the source is situated. Against the belief of those scientists, Galileo put his view that light could have
finite speed. He tried to measure the time, a light beam takes to travel to a distant mirror and back,
but he could not measure it because of the time interval being very short. Later on, Many scientists
attempted to measure the speed of light by blinking the lanterns on and off between distant
mountain tops. These experiments also could not give the expected result.
In 1676, Danish astronomer, Olaus Roemer first demonstrated that light travels at a finite speed by
studying the apparent motion of Jupiter's innermost moon IO. In 1865, Maxwell proposed that light
was an electromagnetic wave, and therefore travelled at the speed c ( 3 × 108 ms–1), in his theory of
electromagnetism. In 1905, Albert Einstein postulated in his theory of relativity that speed of light (c)
is a universal physical constant. The experiments measuring the speed of light were performed by
Armand Fizeau (in 1849), Foucault (1862) and Albert Michelson (in 1880). Among these, Foucault's
experiment and Michelson's experiment are described below.

5.2 Foucault's Method

The experimental apparatus set up for the Foucault's method to measure the speed of light is shown
in Fig. 5.1. An intense light from source S is allowed to fall on the partially reflecting glass plate P,
which then transmits light towards a converging lens L. The incident light on lens L converges light
at a point, say I. A plane mirror M1 is placed at point C, which can rotate across an axis passing
through C. As the mirror is inserted between L and I, the light rays converge at point B, rather at I. A
concave mirror M2 is placed at point B. The distance between M1 and M2 are so adjusted that centre
of curvature of the mirror M2 lies at point C on M1. This arrangement resembles the light rays as if
they return back through the same path as they incident on M2. Then, the light rays return towards
the original source S. The glass plate P which is inclined at an angle 45º with principal axis of lens L
partially reflects the light and finally converges at Y as shown in Fig. 5.1.
In the next step, the mirror M1 is rotated with uniform speed about the axis passing through C.
During this condition, the mirror M1 changes its position from M1 to M1', as the light rays traverses
from M1 to M2 and return to M1. Due to the shifting of position of M1, final image does not lie at S,
rather at point S'. The glass plate P reflects the light to another point Y'. The image of S' can be
projected to I' beyond the mirror M1.
138 Principles of Physics - II

Fig. 5.1: Foucault's method

Theory
Let d be the distance between M1 and M2, which is ultimately equal to the radius of curvature of M2
(i.e. d = R). Then, the time (t) for light to travel from M1 to M2 and reflect back to M1 is,
2d
t= c …(5.1)

Where, c is the speed of light which is to be determined in this experiment.

Let  be the angle of rotation of mirror M1 at the same time t as taken by the light to ravel to M2 from
M1 and reflect to M1'. Suppose the angular speed of rotation of the mirror is,

= t


t=


t= …(5.2)
2f
Where, f is the number of rotation of mirror M1 per second (i.e. frequency of rotation of mirror).
Now, equating equation (5.1) and equation (5.2), we get,
 2d
= c
2f
4fd
c= …(5.3)

The direct measurement of  is impossible, since it has very small value and is formed in very small
interval of time. So,  is determined from the following technique.

Determination of 
As the mirror is rotated through an angle , the reflected ray is rotated through an angle 2.
So, from Fig. 5.1, we have,
 Speed of Light  Chapter 5  139
The angle subtended by an arc at the centre of a circle is the ratio of arc to radius, ICI' = 2
In arc II', Angle = 2 and radius = a
As the C is considered as the centre of curvature of concave mirror M2, the value of 'a' is equal
to the value of 'd' (equal to the radius of curvature R of M2).
II'
 2 = a

 II' = a  2 ... (5.4)

Let 'b' be the distance between plane mirror and lens, and x be the distance between the lens and
source S in Fig. 5.1. Since S and S' respectively are conjugate points with respect to I and I' for the
lens L, so we can write,
SS' x ... m = hi = v
II' = a + b  h0 u
(a + b) SS'
II' = x
(a + b) y
 II' = x . . . (5.5)

From (5.4) and (5.5), we have,

(a + b)y
x = a × 2 (... a = d)

(a + b)y
 = 2ax . . . (5.6)

From equations (5.3) and (5.6), we get,

(a + b)y 4 fa
2ax = c
8 fa2x
 c = (a + b) y . . . (5.7)

Knowing the values of 'f', 'a', 'b', 'x' and 'y', the speed of light 'c' in air can be calculated. The value of
'c' found by Foucault is 2.98  108 m/s.

Advantages of Foucault's Method

The main advantages are:
i. It can be performed inside a experimental lab.
ii. The speed of light in any optical medium can be measured.
iii. The adjustment of uniform speed of rotating mirror is quite easy.
iv. In addition, the refractive index of transparent medium can also be measured using this
experiment.

Disadvantages of Foucault's Method

The main disadvantages are:
i. The image obtained is not very bright, due to multiple reflection and refraction of light from
mirrors and lens.
ii. The apparatus arrangement is complicated, so it is difficult to locate the final image of the light
source.
iii. The displacement of image y is very small, so it is difficult to measure correctly.
140 Principles of Physics - II

Michelson Method
Michelson experiment is the most precise method for measuring the speed of light. He spent more
than 50 years to set the apparatus to measure the precise value of speed of light. He was awarded by
Nobel Prize in 1907, for this successful experiment after his 50 years endeavour.
The experiment set up for measuring the speed of light by Michelson method is schematically shown
in Fig. 5.2. It consists of a intense source of light S from which the light is allowed to fall on a face,
say face 1, of polygonal mirror (specifically, octagonal mirror) M1 after being collimated through a
slit. The octagonal mirror is connected to an electric motor which provides the suitable rotation
across an axis passing through centre of the mirror M1. The reflected light from a face of mirror M1 is
sent to a concave mirror M2 which is mounted many kilometers away from M1. A plane mirror M3 is
kept at the focal plane of concave mirror M2. Then, the multiple reflections take place between M2
and M3 and finally the light returns to M1. The light again reflects from another face, say face 3, and is
received in telescope T as shown in Fig. 5.2.
*

Octagonal Slit
Mirror
45°
8 A
7 1

6 M1 2 M2
M3
5 3
4 45° B

Fig. 5.2: Michelson's method

The experiment is performed in two steps. Firstly, the octagonal mirror is set stationary. The mirrors,
slits and telescope are so adjusted that the light falls on face 1 of mirror M1 at an angle 45º and is
received in the telescope after it suffers many reflections from mirrors. Then, the telescope is also
fixed at the same position. In the next step, the octagonal mirror is rotated by using electric motor. In
the beginning of rotation of mirror M1, the light disappears from the telescope. Then, the speed of
rotation of mirror is gradually increased until light reappears in the telescope. During this process,
every preceding face of M1 is exactly occupied by every succeeding face with same inclination.

Theory
Let 'd' be the distance between mirrors M1 and M2. Then, the time taken by the light to travel from M1
to M2 and back to M1 is 2d/c, where c is the speed of light, i.e.
2d
t= c . . . (5.8)

Then, the polygonal mirror (here octagonal) is set into rotation through an angle  during time 't' as
expressed in equation (5.8). So, the total angle rotated by all m sides will be m(here, m = 8) which
will be equal to 2 i.e.
m = 2
 Speed of Light  Chapter 5  141
2
or, = m . . . (5.9)

Let 'f' be the number of revolution per second of the mirror, we can write,

  = t 


or, 2f = t

 2 1
or, t= =m
2f 2f
1
 t= mf . . . (5.10)

From (5.8) and (5.10), we get,

2d 1
c = mf
or, c = 2mfd . . . (5.11)
For m = 8, c = 16fd
In Michelson's original experiment, he used the values of f = 528 rev/s and d = 35 km = 35 × 103 m.
Then, he found the speed of light in vacuum was 2.99910  108 ms–1.
After the advancement of new technology, the speed of light has been measured with more
sophisticated optical devices using highly coherent and unidirectional laser beam. The most precised
value of speed of light in free space (vacuum) is found c = 2.99774  108 ms–1, which is approximately
equal to 3  108 ms-1.

Advantages of Michelson's Method

The main advantages are:
i. The value is most accurate with the real value of speed of light.
ii. The apparatus arrangement is comparatively easier than Foucault's method.
iii. The image obtained is quite bright, so it is easier to locate the final beam of light emerging from
the rotating mirror.
iv. The experiment is performed at a large distance, so the value possesses small error.

Disadvantages of Michelson Method

The main disadvantages are:
i. A long distance (many kilometres) is required to perform the experiment, so it is not a lab
method. The experimental set up is difficult.
ii. It is very difficult to maintain the constant rotational speed of light for a long time.
iii. Rotational mirror may be damaged due to the high speed rotation in an axis.

5.3 Importance of measuring speed of light

Speed of light in vacuum is considered as universal constant. Its value is 3 × 108 ms–1. Moreover, the
interesting fact is that no object or radiation can travel faster than speed of light in vacuum. It is used
in various fields of science as a standard value. Some of them are described below:
c
i. Refractive index of transparent medium can be determined with the help of c, i.e.  = v .
142 Principles of Physics - II
ii. The mass reduction, length contraction and time dilation in relativistic condition can be
determined using the value of 'c'.
m0 0 t0
m= ,= ,t=
v2 v2 v2
1 – c2 1 – c2 1 – c2

E
iii. The equivalent mass of radiation can be determined by using the value of c, m = c2 .

iv. Maxwell's electromagnetic theory can be verified by using 'c'.

Tips for MCQs

1. Danish astronomer, Olaus Roemer, in 1676, first demonstrated that speed of light is finite.
2. Speed of light in vaccum, c = 3 × 108 ms–1, is a universal constant. Nothing moves faster than this
speed.
3. The symbol of speed of light in vacuum 'c' is taken from the Latin Word, 'Celeritas', which means
'Swiftness'.
4. The speed of light is absolute, not relative.
4fa 8 fa2x
5. The formula used to find out the speed of light in Foucault’s method is c = = (a + b) y

6. The formula used to find out the speed of light in Michelson’s method is c = 2mfd, for octagonal
mirror, c = 16fd.
hf
7. The momentum of light photon, p = c

Worked Out Problems

1. A plane mirror is placed at the center of a concave mirror having radius of curvature 40 m. The plane
mirror rotates at the speed of 2600 revolutions per second. Calculate the angle between ray incidents
on the plane mirror and then reflected from it after the light has travelled to the concave mirror and
back to the plane mirror. Given speed of light is 3 × 108 ms–1.
SOLUTION
Given, 4fd 4 × 2600 × 40
Radius of curvature (R) = d = 40 m  = c = 3 × 108 = 4.36 × 10–3
rev Then, 2 = 8.71 × 10–3 rad.
Rotational frequency (f) = 2600 s
180 
Rotation of reflected light (2) = ? = 8.71 × 10–3 × = 0.5º.
  
Speed of light (c) = 3 × 108 ms–1
Therefore, required angle is 0.5º.
We have,
4fd
c =


2. In Foucault's method for the speed of light, the distance between the moving and static mirrors was
3 km and the speed of the moving mirror was 50º rev/s. If the displacement of the returned beam be
7°12', find the speed of light.
SOLUTION
Here,
12
2 = 7º12' = 7 + 60 = 7.2º
 Speed of Light  Chapter 5  143
 We have,
 = 3.6º = 3.6 × 180 rad = 0.063 rad
4fd 4  × 500 × 3 × 103
c = =
d = 3 km = 3 × 103 m  0.063
f = 500 rev/s = 3 × 108 ms–1
c =?

3. [HSEB 2058] The radius of curvature of the curved mirror is 20 m and the plane mirror is rotated at
20 revs–1. Calculate the angle in degree between a ray incident on the plane mirror and then
reflected from it after the light has travelled to the curved mirror and back to the plane mirror. (c = 3
× 108 m/s)
SOLUTION
Here, Since angle through which reflected ray turns,
Radius of curvature of concave mirror is equal is twice the angle of rotation of mirror () so we
to the separation between plane mirror and the can write
concave mirror i.e,  = 2
R = d = 20 m 4fd
=2× c
c = 3 × 108 ms–1
f = 20 rev s–1 8 ×  × 20 × 20 
=
Angle between incident ray and reflected ray  3 × 108  radian
from the plane mirror () = 2 = ? 8 ×  × 400 180 
= 3 × 108 × degree
The speed of light (c) =
4fd   
 = 1.92 × 10–3 degree
4fd
  = c

4. [HSEB 2071] In a Michelson experiment for measuring speed of light, the distance travelled by light
between two reflections from the rotating mirror is 4.8 km. The rotating mirror has a shape of
regular octagon. At what frequency of rotation of mirror the image is formed at the position where
non-rotating mirrors forms it?
SOLUTION
Speed of light (c) = 3 × 108 m/s
No. of face of mirror (m) = 8
No. of rotation (f) = ?
Distance traveled (d) = 4.8 km = 4800 m
We have,
c = 2mfd
or, 3 × 108 = 2 × 8 × n × 4800
 f = 3906 rev/s

Challenging Problems
1. In Michelson's method, to determine the speed of light in air, the distance traveled by light between
reflections from opposite faces of the octagonal mirror is 75 km. The image appears stationary when
the minimum speed of rotation of the octagonal mirror is 500 rotations per second. Calculate the
speed of light in air.
ANS: 3 × 10 8 M/S
2. [ALP] A beam of light after reflection at a plane mirror rotating 2000 times per minute passes a
distant reflector. It returns to a rotating mirror from which it is reflected to make an angle of 1° with
144 Principles of Physics - II
the original direction. Assuming that the speed of light is 3 × 105 kms–1, calculate the distance
between the mirrors.
ANS: 6250 M
3. A beam of light is reflected by a rotating mirror onto a fixed mirror which sends back to the rotating
mirror from which it is again reflected and then makes an angle of 3.6 with the original direction.
The distance between the two mirrors is 1km and the rotating mirror is making 750 revs–1. Calculate
the speed of light.
ANS: 3  10 8 M/S
4. [ALP] A horizontal beam of light is reflected by a vertical plane mirror A, travels a distance of 250 m
is then reflected back along the same path and is finally reflected again by the mirror A. when A is
rotated with constant angular speed about a vertical axis in its plane, the emergent beam is deviated
through an angle of 18 minutes. Calculate the number of revolutions per second made by the mirror.
(c = 3 × 108 m/s)
ANS: 250 REV/SEC
5. In a Michelson’s arrangement for determining the speed of light, the distance between octagonal
reflector and distant stationary mirror is 32 km. Determine the frequency of revolution to turn the
octagonal reflector for forming image after reflection from succeeding reflector. (c = 3 × 108 m/s)
ANS: 586 HZ

[NOTE: Hints To Challenging Problems Are Given At The End Of This Chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Who successfully found that light has finite speed?
 A Danish astronomer, Olans Romer, in 1676 found that light has finite speed. He observed the speed
of light from the eclipses on one of the Jupiter's Satellite.
2. Who found that the speed of light in vacuum is a physical constant?
 Great scientist, Albert Einstein, found that the speed of light in vacuum is a physical constant. Its
value is c = 3 × 108 ms–1. In his theory of relativity, he explained that no object has greater velocity
than the velocity of light in vacuum. Speed of light is not relative. It is the optimum speed in
universe.
3. Does the speed of light depend on the nature of its source?
 No. The speed of light depends on the nature of transparent medium. The transparent medium
c
whose refractive index is high, the speed is low i.e. speed, v = , where c = speed of light in vacuum

and  = refractive index of medium. That is why, speed of light in glass is smaller than that of water.
4. What are the advantages of Foucault's method?
 The main advantages of Foucault's method of measurement velocity of light are:
i. It can be performed inside a experimental lab.
ii. The speed of light in any optical medium can be measured.
5. What are the disadvantages of Foucault's method of measurement of speed of light?
 The main disadvantages are:
i. The image obtained is not very bright, due to multiple reflection and refraction of light from
mirrors and lens.
ii. The apparatus arrangement is complicated, so it is difficult to locate the final image of the light
source.
6. What are the advantages of Michelson's method of measurement of speed of light?
 The main advantages are:
i. The value is most accurate with the real value of speed of light.
 Speed of Light  Chapter 5  145
ii. The apparatus arrangement is comparatively easier than Foucault's method.
iii. The image obtained is quite bright, so it is easier to locate the final beam of light emerging from
the rotating mirror.
iv. The experiment is performed in a large distance, so the value possesses small error.
7. What are the disadvantages of Michelson Method?
 The main disadvantages are:
i. A long distance (many kilometres) is required to perform the experiment, so it is not a lab
method. The experimental set up is difficult.
ii. It is very difficult to maintain the constant rotational speed of light for a long time.
iii. Rotational mirror may get damaged due to the high speed rotation in an axis.
8. What are the importance of measuring speed of light?
 Speed of light is a universal constant. It has many important significances in the study of science.
i. The refractive index of transparent medium can be determined.
ii. The Einstein's mass energy relation is based on the speed of light, E = mc2.
iii. It is the optimum speed of wave, so the existence of particles in a certain space can be examined
comparing with c. The non-existence of electron in nucleus can be confirmed by comparing with
speed of light.
iv. The Length contraction, mass reduction and time dilation phenomena in relativity can be
measured on the basis of speed of light in vacuum.
9. When light travels from one medium to another, does its energy change?
 The energy of single photon remains same. But, the light photon may interact with the particles in a
medium. So, some of the photons may be absorbed and intensity of light may decrease so that the
energy is ultimately decreased.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Is speed of light a measurable quantity?
2. What are the importance of measuring speed of light?
3. What is advantage of Michelson experiment over Foucault's experiment?
4. What is the advantage of Foucault's experiment over Michelson experiment?
5. When light travels from a denser to a rarer medium, its velocity increases. Will the energy carried by
the light wave increase?
6. Speed of light in a denser medium is less than that in rarer medium. What is its effect on the energy
of light?
7. Define refractive index in terms of speed of light.
8. Why is it important to know the accurate value of the speed of light?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Describe Focault’s method with necessary theory to determine speed of light and write down the
significance of this method.
2. Describe Michelson’s method with neat labeled diagram and necessary theory to determine speed of
light. Discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
3. Describe the history of measurement of speed of light. Why is the measurement of light important in
physics.
146 Principles of Physics - II

Numerical Problems
1. A beam of light after reflection at a plane mirror, rotating 2000 times per minute passes to a reflecting
mirror, placed 6250 m away from the rotating mirror. It returned to the rotating mirror from which it
is reflected to make an angle of 1º with its original direction. Calculate the speed of light.
ANS: 3 × 10 8 M/S
2. In a Foucault's experiment, the distance between the rotating mirror and stationary mirror is 120 m
and the distance of the light source from the rotating mirror is 50 m, when the mirror is rotated 200
times per sec, the displacement of the image is 10 cm. Find the speed of light.
ANS: 3 × 10 8 M/S
3. In a Foucault's experiments, the reflected rays made an angle of 18° with its original direction, due to
the reflection from the revolving mirror. The distance of the fixed mirror from revolving mirror was
104 m. If the frequency of rotation of the mirror is 375 rev per sec, calculate the speed of light.
[HSEB 2067]
ANS: 3 × 10 8 M/S
4. In Foucault's method the distances of the rotating mirror from the fixed mirror and the lens were 20
m and 6 m respectively. The source of the light was placed at a distance of 210 cm from the lens.
When the plane mirror was rotated at the rate of 258 times per sec. the shift of the image was
recorded to be 0.7 mm. Calculate the speed of light.
ANS: 3 × 10 8 M/S
5. In Michelson’s method for finding the speed of light, an octagonal prism was used. It was found that first
reappearance of image occurs when prism is rotated at a speed of 500 rev/s. Calculate the speed of light if the
distance between the prism and the distant mirror is 37 km.
ANS: 2.96 × 10 8 M/S
7. In Michelson method to measure the speed of light, a strong source of light is reflected from one face
of an octagonal equiangular mirror and travels a distance of 35 km to a stationary mirror from which
it returns and after second reflection from octagonal mirror forms an image of the source on a screen.
What is the angular speed of rotation of the rotating mirror? (c = 3 × 108 m/s)
ANS: 3364 RAD/S

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The speed of light in vacuum is 3 × 108 ms–1. Then, what is the speed of light in glass of refractive
index 1.5?
a. 4 × 108 ms–1 b. 3 × 108 ms–1
c. 1.5 × 10 ms
8 –1 d. 0.5 × 108 ms–1
2. Which of the following is not a lab experiment?
a. Michelson experiment b. Foucault's experiment
c. Double slit experiment d. Fizeau's experiment
3. Who firstly demonstrated that speed of light is finite?
a. Michelson b. Foucault
c. Young d. Romer
4. Which is the most accurate method of determination of speed of light?
a. Foucault's method b. Michelson's method
c. Fizeau's method d. Romer's method
5. What type of mirror for rotation was used during the Michelson experiment?
a. Plane mirror b. Concave mirror
c. Octagonal mirror d. convex mirror
Answers
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (c)
 Speed of Light  Chapter 5  147

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT:1 
  = 1.8 = 1.8  180 rad = 3.14  102 rad
Here,
2d = 75 km f = 750 rev/s
d = 37.5 km = 37.5 × 103 m 4 fd
Then, c =
f = 500 rotations per second 
Since, HINT: 4
c = 16fd Here,
HINT: 2 d = 250 m
The reflected ray is rotated by 1° c = 3 × 108 m/s
1° f =?
 The plane mirror is rotated by 2
18  18 
2 = 18' = 60 = 60  180 rad
Now,      
The time taken by the mirror to rotate 2000 or, 2= 0.3 rad.
times = 1 min = 60 sec.
  = 0.15 rad.
In one complete rotation, 360° angle is covered
in 60 sec. 4fd
Then, c =
 In 200 complete rotations = (2000 × 360)° in 60 
sec. c
 f=
60 4d
1° covered in 2000 × 360 sec. HINT: 5

1° 60 1 Here,
 2 covered in 2000 × 360 × 2 = 4.17 × 10–5 sec. Number of faces, m = 8
Let the distance between two mirrors be 'd'. d = 32 km = 32 × 103 m
 2d = ct c = 3 × 108 m/s
ct f=?
 d =2
c = 2mfd
HINT: 3 c
 f = 2md
Here,
2 = 3.6


148 Principles of Physics - II
 PHYSICAL OPTICS

6.1 Introduction
We have till now studied the geometric nature of light in which we considered that the light travels
in a straight line path called rays. Many optical phenomena such as reflection, refraction were
studied geometrically, and the same geometric principles were used to model many optical
instruments such as mirror, lens, prisms, microscopes, telescopes, periscopes, etc.
However, there are certain phenomena such as interference, diffraction and polarization which can't
be explained on the basis of geometric optics. So, we will now discuss a different nature of light
known as wave nature to deal with these phenomena. The study of nature of light considering it to
behave as a wave known as wave theory of light is the outcome of rigorous efforts of many scientists,
some of whom are Huygen, Young, Fresnel. The different theories presented at different times in the
history and their experimental confirmation has made us to believe light as a wave. The wave theory
successfully describes all the phenomena such as reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization.
After the advancement of Planck's theory of quantum mechanics, it has been believed that light also
has particle nature. Photoelectric effect and Compton effects are the fundamental properties of light
that exhibits the particle nature of light. Eventually, the modern theory of quantum mechanics
incorporates both wave nature and particle nature of light, called wave particle duality. Some
eminent theories regarding the nature of light were proposed by some scientists which are briefly
explained below:

Newton's Corpuscular Theory

Sir Isaac Newton proposed that light is made up of small discrete particles called "corpuscles" (little
particles) which travel in a straight line with a finite speed. He claimed that the geometric nature of
reflection and refraction of light could be explained if light was made of particles. Because of the
Newton's great prestige, Newton's corpuscular theory was predominant for more than 100 years.
The corpuscular theory was failed when it could not explain the interference, diffraction and
polarization phenomena of light. Moreover, its next evidence of failure is that the speed of light is
greater in denser medium than the rarer medium. To some extent, Newton's corpuscular theory is
similar to the quantum nature of light.
150 Principles of Physics - II

Huygen's Wave Theory

Dutch physicist Christian Huygen in 1678, first proposed the wave nature of light. His model
satisfactorily explained the reflection and refraction of light. To explain the wave nature of light,
Huygen proposed that the space of universe is filled with a hypothetical liquid called 'luminiferous
ether'. He supposed that light waves are mechanical waves which are propagated in the space,
oscillating the particles of ether, just as sound propagates vibrating the air molecules. Huygen's
theory was also similar to Newton's theory that the speed of light is greater in denser medium than
the rarer medium. Later on, the experiment showed that the speed of light was greater in air than the
water. Various scientists attempted to detect the ether, but none was successful. Finally in 1887,
Michelson and Morley carried out their famous experiment, which provided strong evidence against
the ether concept.

Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory

In 1865, James Clerk Maxwell explained that light was an electromagnetic wave which can travel
even in empty space. In his publication "A Dynamic Theory of Electromagnetic Field", he
demonstrated that electric and magnetic fields can travel through space and they oscillate
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of wave. He formulated four important equations
regarding the electromagnetic theory. They are known as Maxwell's equations, then the
electromagnetic signal propagation has become possible. The radio signals, television signals and
telecommunication are being possible only after the Maxwell discovery on electromagnetism.

Particle nature of light (Planck's theory)

In 1900, a German scientist Max Planck changed the understanding of light. Before this discovery,
light could be explained only by wave nature, but not the particle nature. Although the Newton's
corpuscular theory proposed the particle nature of light, it could not explain even the change of
speed of light in different media. Planck's theory proposed that the amount of energy radiated by
luminous source is directly proportional to the frequency of electromagnetic waves (E = hf). Planck's
quantum theory successfully explained the photoelectric effect, Compton effect and pair production.
Planck's discovery of quantum nature of light is a remarkable finding for the modern science, which
changed the existing concept of light at that time.

Dual nature of light

Young's double slit experiment on interference and Fresnel's experiment on diffraction of light
showed that light behaves like a wave. Without wave property of light, the redistribution of energy
(dark and bright patterns) in superposition is impossible. On the other hand, photoelectric effect and
compton effect showed that light behaves like a particle. Thus, a debate regarding the nature (wave
or particle) continued for a very long time and finally resolved when de Brogile proposed a concept
of wave particle duality correlating these two conceptually different aspects of light, called de
Broglie hypothesis. This concept was firmly established when electron wave was detected
experimentally. As a similar consequence, gravitational wave has also been detected experimentally
in September 2015 and announced at Feb 11, 2016.

6.2 Electromagnetic Waves

The wave which is composed by mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields is called
electromagnetic wave. At any point in its propagation, the electric field is perpendicular to the
 Physical Optics  Chapter 6  151
magnetic field, and both are perpendicular to the direction of motion of the wave. These waves are
produced from the conversion of kinetic energy of oscillating charge. Electromagnetic wave can
travel in vacuum. The speed of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is 3 × 108 ms–1. Its speed is constant
whatever the frequency or wavelength or intensity of the radiation. Visible light is simply an
electromagnetic wave. The schematic diagram of electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Fig. 6.1.

Fig. 6.1: Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum
In optics, spectrum refers the arrangement of waves in accordance with wavelength or frequency.
Electromagnetic waves incorporate a wide range of wavelengths ranging from a few kilometers to
about 10–14 m. There are basically seven types of waves in electromagnetic spectrum. They are
radiowaves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-rays and -rays.
i. Radiowaves: Radiowaves have the frequency ranging from a few kilometers down to 0.3 m.
The frequency range is from a few Hz to 109 Hz. Radiowaves are basically used in radio and
television communication signals. The amplitude modulation (AM) band ranges from 530 kHz
to 1710 kHz. Higer frequencies upto 54 MHz can be used for 'short wave' bands. Television (TV)
waves range from 54 MHz to 890 MHz. The frequency modulation (FM) radio band extends
from 88 MHz to ultrahigh frequency (UHF) band. The accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires produce radio waves.
ii. Microwaves: Microwaves have the wavelength ranging from 0.3 m down to 10–3 m. The
frequency range is from 109 Hz to 3 × 1011 Hz. Microwaves can pass easily through the earth's
atmosphere with less interference with longer wavelengths. Special vacuum tubes like
Klystrons, magnetrons and Gunn diodes are used to produce microwaves. They can be used to
152 Principles of Physics - II
transmit power over long distances. They are also used in communication satellite transmission.
A microwave oven uses a magnetic microwave generator.
iii. Infrared waves: Infrared waves have the wavelength ranging from 10–3 m down to 7.8 × 10–7 m.
The frequency range is from 3 × 1011 Hz to 4 × 1014 Hz. Infrared waves are sometimes called
heat waves. They are produced by hot bodies and molecules. The infrared wave coming from
the sun keeps the earth warm. In hospitals, they are used in muscular therapy in physiotherapy
departments. Infrared lies nearer to the red colour of visible spectrum, so it is called infrared.
iv. Visible waves: The objects around us are visualized by using visible waves. It has narrow band
compared to other waves of electromagnetic spectrum. The wavelength of visible light extends
from 7.8 × 10–7 m down to 3.8 × 10–7 m. The frequency ranges from 4 × 1014 Hz to 8 × 1014 Hz.
These waves are produced from the electron transition in various orbits of atoms. It is named
"visible " because it provides the visibility in human eye. The visibility range of other animals
can be different from human. Visible spectrum contains seven colours: red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet.
v. Ultraviolet waves: The wavelength of ultraviolet waves lie nearer to the violet light of visible
spectrum. So, it is named ultraviolet. Its wavelength ranges from 4 × 10–7 m down to 6 × 10–10 m.
The frequency ranges from 8 × 1014 Hz to 5 × 1017 Hz. Ultraviolet rays are a part of the solar
spectrum. These waves are produced by atoms and molecules in electrical discharges. They are
very harmful to the living tissues. It may cause skin cancer. These waves are used to preserve
food stuffs as the rays kill germs.
vi. X-rays: X-rays are familiar from clinical approaches. X-rays are also electromagnetic waves in
which the wavelength extends from nearly 10–9 m down to 6 × 10–12 m. The frequency ranges
from 3 × 1017 Hz to 5 × 1019 Hz. X-rays are commonly produced when energetic electrons are
bombarded on high atomic number metal like tungsten. Besides many uses in medical
diagnosis and therapy, they are harmful for our body. Biological cells are destroyed, if x-rays
are exposed on them.
vii -rays: -rays are most powerful among seven waves of electromagnetic spectrum. They can
easily penetrate even a concrete wall. Their wavelength ranges from nearly 10–10 m below to 10–
14 m. The frequency ranges from 3 × 1018 Hz to 3 × 1022 Hz. They are produced in nuclear

changes. -rays are emitted in radioactivity. These rays have serious effect on human cells.
Besides harmful effects, they are used to kill the cancerous cells in radiotherapy.

6.3 Wavefronts and Wavelets

If a stone is dropped on the surface of still water, circular waves produce and travel away from the
point of impact. The water particles lying on a crest oscillate in the position of their maximum
upward displacement and hence in the same phase. Also, all particles lying on a trough are in the
position of their maximum downward displacement and therefore, in the same phase.

(i) Spherical wavefront (ii) Converging Spherical wavefront (iii) Diverging Spherical wavefront
Fig. 6.2: Different types of wavefronts
 Physical Optics  Chapter 6  153
Similar phenomenon can be observed in light wave while propagating through a homogeneous
medium. If the locus is drawn around the source of light of same phase, spherical shaped waves are
obtained. The locus of such points oscillating in the same phase is termed as a wavefront. Therefore,
a wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of a wave which are oscillating in same phase at any instant. A
wavefront is in fact a surface of wave in which every point oscillates in constant phase.
The shape of wavefronts are different in different conditions. Its shape usually depends on shape of
source. For example, a point source produces the spherical wavefront, a linear source produces the
cylindrical wavefront. When these wavefronts travels long distance away, they appear plane shaped.

Types of wavefronts
The shape of wavefront, of course, depends on the shape of source. Some common shapes of
wavefront are explained below:
i. Spherical wavefront: The waves originating from a point source are spherical in shape and the
wavefronts so produced are called spherical wavefronts. The wavefront produced from the point
source are spherical because all points of that wavefront are equidistant from the point source
and the disturbance starting from that point will reach all these points simultaneously. A
spherical wavefront in shown in Fig. 6.3 (i).
ii. Cylindrical wavefront: When a linear source, such as a linear slit, produces waves, they are cylindrical
in shapes and the wavefronts so produced are called cylindrical wavefronts. The wavefront produced
by "tube light" is cylindrical in shape. A linear source produces the cylindrical wavefront
because the locus of all such points which are equidistant from the linear source will be a
cylinder. A cylindrical wavefront is shown in Fig. 6.3 (ii).

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 6.3: (i) Spherical wavefront (ii) Cylindrical wavefront (iii) Plane wavefront

iii. Plane wavefront: Whether the source is point shaped or linear, the wavefronts produced from
them expands. Then, the curvature decreases progressively. A small portion of such spherical or
cylindrical wavefront at a large distance from the source will be a plane wavefront. The
wavefronts produced by the sun appear perfectly plane when we observe on the earth. A plane
wavefront is shown in Fig. 6.3 (iii).

Wavelets
According to wave theory of light, every point of a wavefront acts as the independent source of light.
As the point acts as a source, new waves are produced from these points. These secondary waves
produced from the points of wavefront care called wavelets. Wavelets are usually spherical in a
homogeneous medium. The velocity, frequency and wavelength of each wavelet is same as that of
original wavefront.
154 Principles of Physics - II
Plane wavefront
Rays and wavefronts
In geometrical optics, the direction of propagation of light is ray
represented by a straight line with an arrowhead. But, in wave optics,
the propagation of light is shown in terms of wavefront (i.e. in terms
of a surface) as shown in Fig. 6.4. Actually, the energy of a wave
travels in a direction perpendicular to the wavefront. Therefore, the
ray shows the direction of energy flow, whereas wavefront shows the
pattern of energy distribution in the space. Hence, the ray is also
defined as an arrow drawn perpendicular to the wavefront in the
Fig. 6.4 : Ray and wavefront
direction of propagation of a wave.

6.4 Wave Theory of Light

After the downfall of Newton's corpuscular theory about nature of light, Christian Huygen proposed
that light was a wave phenomenon. Huygen's theory successfully described the reflection and
refraction of light. However many scientists could not believe his theory because this theory
contradicted the Newton's corpuscular theory. The prestige and academic height of Newton was not
comparable in the scientific community till that date. Huygen's wave theory was not comparable in
the contemporary scientific community. Huygen's wave theory was firmly established when Thomas
Young demonstrated the double slit experiment in 1801 to prove the interference phenomenon of
light. On the basis of Huygen's assumption on wave theory, Fresnel showed the diffraction
phenomenon of light.
To explain model of wave theory, Huygen proposed some assumptions, which are called Huygen's
principle.

Huygen's Principle
Huygen proposed the following assumptions to explain the wave nature of light. They are,
i. Each point on a wavefront acts as secondary source of light. The newly produced waves are
called wavelets or secondary waves.
ii. The secondary waves spread out in all direction with the speed of light in a medium.
iii. The new wavefront at any later time is given by the tangential surface in the forward direction
of the secondary wavelets at that time.
Primary wavefront
A A' Secondary waves front
A"

b
S
c

B" e

B Wavelets or secondary waves

B'
Fig. 6.5: Huygens' construction
 Physical Optics  Chapter 6  155

Explanation of Huygen's Principle

Consider a point source of light S in space from which waves are produced and travelled in the
surroundings. Let AB be a wavefront at any instant of time as shown in Fig. 6.5.
i. According to first principle of Huygen, every point of wavefront acts as secondary source of
light. Points a, b, c, d, e are the fresh source of light and new waves are produced from these
points. Equal radii spheres are formed from each point of wavefront. The radius of each sphere
is r (= ct), where c is velocity of light and t is the time to form the wavelet.
ii. The wavelets spreads around the secondary source point of wavefront. Although the wavelets
expand in forward and backward directions, backward transmission of wave is discarded.
There is no backward transmission of energy.
iii. The wavelets spreading from each point of a wavefront are equal in radius. If the tangent's are
drawn on each of wavelet taking same phase in the forward direction, a new wavefront is
obtained. In Fig. 6.5. A'B' and A''B'' are two new wavefronts. The wavefront A'B' is formed in
the forward direction and another wavefront A''B'' is constructed in the backward direction. But
the wavefront A'B' in the forward direction is possible. No backward wavefront A''B'' is
possible.

6.5 Laws of Reflection of Light from Wave Theory

Consider a plane wavefront AB be incident on a reflecting surface XY with an oblique angle. Let i be
the angle of incidence at point A on the surface. Suppose the point A of the wavefront touches the
surface at first, then gradually neighbouring points and finally by the point B at B' of the surface. As
stated by Huygen's principle, every point of wavefront AB acts as the secondary source of light and
spherical wavelets are produced from these points. So, the first wavelet generated from point A will
grow into a sphere of radius AA', at the same time point B of that wavefront approaches at B' on
plane XY. Thus, a series of wavelets are found travelling away with gradually decreasing radii from
A' to B' as shown in Fig. 6.6. If a locus is drawn taking the points of these grown wavelets of same
phase, a new wavefront A'B' will be obtained. Let r be the angle of reflection at point B'. Also, AN
and B'N' be the normals at point A and B' of the reflecting surface XY.
I I' R R'

N N'

A'
B

i r

i r
X Y

A B'
Fig. 6.6: Reflection at plane surface
156 Principles of Physics - II
Here,
IAN = i
N'B'R' = r
In Fig. 6.6, BA  IA and NA  XY
Since, the angles between two planes is equal to angle between their normals, then IAN =BAB' = i
Similarly, A'B'  B'R' and N'B'  XY, as explained the reason above, A'B'A = N'B'R' = r
Now, taking two right angle triangles ABB' and AA'B'
1. BA = A'B' Same wavefront in same medium after time 't'
2. ABB' = AA'B' Right angles
3. BB' = AA' Distance travelled by light in a same medium after an equal
interval of time
Therefore, s ABB' and AA'B' are congruent triangles. It gives the result,
BAB' = A'B'A
i.e. i = r.
This verifies the first law of reflection. If we consider the incidence plane of wavefront is parallel to
the plane of paper, the plane of reflected wavefront and plane of normal all lie in that plane. This
proves the another law of reflection.
Thus, the laws of reflection is proved from wave theory of light.

6.6 Laws of Refraction of Light from Wave Theory

Let XY be a plane surface separating air from a denser medium (say glass) of refractive index .
Consider a plane wave AB be incident on this plane with an oblique angle. As stated by Huygen's
principle, every point of wavefront acts as the secondary source of light and wavelets are produced
from these points.
When the light from point B on incident wavefront approaches to B' in air, the secondary wave-lets
from point A on the refracting surface XY will grow into a sphere in the denser medium of radius
AA'. As the time taken by light to travel from A to A' in glass medium to that of light is equal
travelling from B to B', we write as,
AA' BB'
v = c . . . (6.1)

Where, v = speed of light in denser medium

c = speed of light in air
In our consideration, the radius of wavelet AA' is largest into glass medium, since it is produced at
first from wavefront AB and the radius of wavelet at B is the shortest, others have the gradually
reducing radius from A to B' as shown in Fig. 6.7. Thus, A'B' be the refracted wavefront in the denser
medium.
 Physical Optics  Chapter 6  157
I I'

N N'
B

i
X Y
A r B'

r
A'

Fig. 6.7: Refraction of light

In Fig. 6.7, NA  XY and BA  IA. Also the angle between two planes is equal to the angles between
their normals, we have,
IAN = BAB' = i
Similarly, for N'B'  XY and A'A  B'A', then, AB'A' = r
BB' AA'
So, sin i = AB' and sin r = AB'

Taking ratio of sin i to sin r, we get,

BB'
sin i AB'
sin r = AA'
AB'
sin i BB'
 sin r = AA' . . . (6.2)

BB' c
From equation (6.1), AA' = v =  . . . (6.3)

Comparing equations (6.2) and (6.3), we get,

sin i
 = sin r

This expression verifies the Snell's law of refraction of light.

Also, if we consider the incident wavefront AB be parallel with the plane of paper, the refracted
wavefront A'B' and the normals AN' and B'N' lie on the same plane.
These conditions verifies the laws of refraction of light.

Note
Why normally incident light refracted without deviation?
When a wavefront AB incident normally on an interface of denser medium, then all the points of that
wavefront produce wavelets on the interface at the same time. Then, each wavelet grows equally (i.e. equal
radii) into the denser medium. So that refracted wavefront is also parallel to the incident wavefront. As the
158 Principles of Physics - II
incident wavefront and refracted wavefront are parallel to each other, light appears undeviated from the
interface.

A B

X Y

A' B'

Tips for MCQs

1. Ray of light is perpendicular to the wavefront
First physicist Theory
Sir Isaac Newton Corpuscular theory
Christian Huygen Wave theory of light
Maxwell Electromagnetic theory
Max Planck Quantum theory
de Broglie Dual nature of light
2. Refractive index is calculated from the wavelength of light as
wavelength of light in vacuum 
 = wavelength of light in medium =
'
3. The light wave shows the phenomena of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization.
4. The front portion of secondary wavelets add up to give rise to a wavefront in a forward direction.
The backward portion of secondary wavelets add up to zero, so no backward wavefront is possible.
5. According to dual nature of light, it shows both particle and wave nature but not at the same time
6. All electromagnetic waves propagate with the speed of light and they are non-mechanical waves.

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. In what sense, Maxwell's electromagnetic theory is different from Huygen's wave theory?
 According to Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, light waves are transverse in nature and they do not
require any material medium for their propagation. However, in Huygen's wave theory, light waves
are longitudinal in nature and they require a material medium for their propagation.
2. Which parameter of light does not change on refraction?
 Frequency is the characteristics of source. It does not change on refraction. It is the number of waves
produced per unit time, which remains equal in any medium. Therefore, frequency of wave is
considered as the most fundamental parameter. However, speed and wavelength of light change on
refraction.
3. What is Huygen's principle?
 Huygen proposed the following assumptions to explain the wave nature of light. They are:
 Physical Optics  Chapter 6  159
i. Each point on a wavefront acts as secondary source of light. The newly produced waves are
called wavelets or secondary waves.
ii. The secondary waves spread out in all direction with the speed of light in a medium.
iii. The new wavefront at any later time is given by the tangential surface in the forward direction of
the secondary wavelets at that time.
4. Explain with proper sketch, the differences between wavefronts and wavelets.
 Main differences between wavefronts and wavelets are as follows:
Wavefronts Wavelets
1. A wavefront is defined as continuous locus 1. Each point on a wavefront acts as a fresh
of all particles of the medium after same source of new disturbance, which are called
time which are vibrating in the same phase. wavelets.
2. Wavefronts are produced from the original 2. Wavelets are produced from wavefronts.
source of light. They may also be sketched
from wavelets.
Primary wave front
A A' Secondary waves front
A"

b
S
c

B" e

B Wavelets or secondary waves

B'

5. Differentiate between plane wavefront and a spherical wavefront.

 The differences between plane wavefront and spherical wavefront are as follows:
Plane wavefront Spherical wavefront
1. A small portion of spherical or cylindrical 1. The waves originating from a point source
wavefront when observed from a long are spherical in shape and the wavefront
distance is called plane wavefront. so produced is called spherical wavefront.
2. It is plane shaped. 2. It is spherical in shape.
3. 3.

6. A normally incident wavefront does not deviate from the boundary of two different media, why?
 When a wavefront AB incident normally on an interface of denser medium, then all the points of that
wavefront produce wavelets on the interface at the same time. Then, each wavelet grows equally (i.e.
equal radii) into the denser medium. So that refracted wavefront is also parallel to the incident
wavefront. As the incident wavefront and refracted wavefront are parallel to each other, light
appears undeviated from the interface.
7. Can two wavefronts cross one another?
 No, it is not possible. If they intersect each other, there must be two different directions of
propagations of energy at the point of intersection which is practically impossible.
160 Principles of Physics - II
8. When a wave undergoes reflection at a denser medium, what happens to its phase and frequency?
 (i) When a wave is reflected from the surface of denser medium, it undergoes a phase change of 
radian. (ii) The frequency of wave does not change in reflection because it is the characteristics of
source.
9. What are the reasons to believe that light is a wave motion?
 Light wave undergoes interference, diffraction and polarization. These phenomena establish that
light is a wave motion.
10. How is a wavefront different from a ray?
 A wavefront is a surface obtained by joining all points vibrating in the same phase. A ray is line
drawn perpendicular to the wavefront in the direction of propagation of light wave.
11. What determines the shape of a wavefront?
 The shape of wavefront depends on two main factors: the shape of source and the distance of
observed wavefront from the source. For example, a spherical wavefront is obtained near a point
source, but it appears a plane wavefront at very far distance from the source.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Who proposed wave theory of light first?
2. Differentiate between ray and wavefront of light.
3. Why backward flow of energy is discarded?
4. What are the use of microwaves and infrareds?
5. Normally incident light does not deviate from the boundary of transparent media, why?
6. The sun is considered a point source of light, why?
7. Name the various theories of light.
8. What were the drawbacks of the corpuscular theory?
9. What is a wavefront? Mention the different types of wavefront.
10. Mention the sources of (i) Spherical wavefront (ii) Cylindrical wavefront and (iii) plane wavefront.
11. Explain Huygen's principle. What are secondary wavelets?
12. When a light ray passes from one medium to another the ray bends at the surface of separation.
Why?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Discuss the various theories regarding the nature of light.
2. Verify laws of reflection of light using Huygen’s principle.
3. State Huygen's principle. Prove the laws of reflection of light using the wave theory. [HSEB 2072]
4. Verify laws of refraction of light using Huygen’s principle. [HSEB 2064]
5. Define Huygen’s principle and prove Snell’s law by the help of wave theory of light. [HSEB 2063]
6. State and explain Huygen’s principle. Use the principle to show that a plane wavefront incident
obliquely on a plane mirror is reflected as a plane wavefront so that the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection. [NEB 2074]

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Who gave concept of corpuscular theory of light?
a. Newton b. Huygen
c. Maxwell d. Planck
 Physical Optics  Chapter 6  161
2. Which parameter does not change on reflection from the surface of denser medium?
a. Velocity b. Frequency
c. Wavelength d. Phase
3. Which wave has the longest wave length?
a. Infrared b. Visible
c. Ultravoilet d. X-rays
4. Which phenomenon shows the wave nature of light?
a. photoelectric effect b. Compton effect
c. Interference d. Pair production
5. Who introduced the wave property of light?
a. Newton b. Archimedes
c. Planck d. Huygen
6. Which experiment discarded the concept of 'ether' in the universe?
a. Double slit experiment b. Michelson-Morley experiment
c. Fresnel experiment d. Doppler's experiment
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (b)


162 Principles of Physics - II
 INTERFERENCE
OF LIGHT

7.1 Introduction
Interference is a phenomenon in which two or more waves overlap so that a resultant wave is
formed whose amplitude may be greater, lower or same as the amplitudes of original waves. It is a
basic property of light that exhibits its wave nature. Interference refers to the interaction of waves
that are similar to each other and in fact correlated to each other. This phenomenon can be observed
in all types of waves like light waves, sound waves and matter waves.
“The phenomenon of redistribution of energy in the resultant light wave formed by the superposition of two
light waves having same frequency (or wavelength) and constant phase difference is called interference of
light.” The term “redistribution of energy” means that shifting of energy from one place to another.
When two light waves from coherent sources superimpose in such a way that the energy is imparted
into definite ways: one in which energy appears and the other in which energy disappears
completely.
The interaction effects can be studied using two identical light sources (having same wavelengths
and certain phase difference). When waves from these sources superimpose to each other, a resultant
wave is formed whose amplitude changes but frequency remains unchanged. When a crest of one
wave overlaps to the crest of another wave or trough of one wave overlaps to the trough of another
wave, the resultant wave will have greater amplitude. If the crest of one wave overlaps to trough of
another wave or vice versa, the resultant wave will have low amplitude.

7.2 Coherent Sources

The interference occurs when two waves of some special characters overlap to each other. These
characters of waves are their wavelengths, amplitudes and phases.
The sustainable interference patterns can be obtained only when
two interfering waves possess the equal wavelength, and constant S1
phase difference. Two waves which obey the above requirements S * d
to produce the observable interference are called coherent sources. S2
Therefore, two sources of light are said to be coherent when they have
the equal wavelength, and constant phase difference. Same frequency
D
can maintain constant phase difference over a time and distance, Screen
hence these sources can be coherent. Otherwise, the sources are Fig. 7.1: Coherent sources
not coherent.
164 Principles of Physics - II
Two independent sources can never be coherent. To be coherent, both the sources must depend on
same origin as when in Fig. 7.1. Since the sources are based on single source, it is named coherent.
Light sources emit the waves of very short wavelength (~ 10–7 m). These waves are produced from
sources as a series of pulses of energy. The pulses so generated last for a very short time about a
nanosecond (~ 10–8 s). Within the length 10–7 m and time interval 10–8 s, there is an abrupt change in
the phase of the waves. Waves from two separate sources may be in phase at one instant, but out of
phase in the next instant. In the fraction of nanosecond, the human eye is not so sensitive to catch
such rapid changes, so the interference pattern is not observable. To produce the sustainable
interference pattern, two light waves must be coherent, i.e. equal wavelength, amplitude and
constant phase difference. However, to produce the interference patterns, it is not essential for the
amplitudes of the waves from two sources to be the same. If two sources produce the waves of
unequal amplitudes, completely dark patterns never be obtained. This reduces the contrast of
interference patterns.
Note
Interference can be observed with two in dependent tuning forks but it cannot be observed two independent
bulbs, why?
i. If two tuning forks are struck simultaneously they produce sound waves almost in same phase. Their phase
difference varies slowly with time. Such variations can be detected easily by the human ear. So, interference
pattern is easily observable.
ii. The phase difference between two independent light sources changes about 108 times per second. Therefore the
interference pattern also changes 108 times per second. Such rapid variations cannot be detected by our eyes.
So, interference pattern is not observable.

Constructive and Destructive Interference

When the crest of one wave overlaps the crest of another or trough of one wave overlaps the trough
of another, their individual effects add together. The result is a wave of increased amplitude. This is
known as constructive interference. It is also called reinforcement. The constructive interference of
two waves in same phases is shown in Fig. 7.2 (i).
If crest of one wave overlaps the trough of another, their individual effects are reduced. The high
part (i.e. crest) of one wave falls to the depth (trough) of another. This is called destructive
interference. It is also called cancellation. The destructive interference occurs by overlapping of two
waves in opposite phases which is as shown in Fig. 7.2 (ii).

Fig. 7.2 (i): Constructive interference

Fig. 7.2 (ii): Destructive interference

 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  165
If the two incoming waves have the same frequency f and equal amplitude a, the resultant wave
produced by constructive interference has an amplitude double than individual wave (i.e. 2a). The
frequency of the resultant is the same as that of incoming waves. If the two waves have equal
amplitudes and overlap out of phase (i.e. 180 or  radian), the resultant wave has zero amplitude.

Conditions for Sustained Interference

In order to obtain the phenomenon of continuous or sustained interference of light the following
conditions should be satisfied.
i. The two sources must be coherent.
ii. The interfering waves should have a constant phase difference.
iii. The amplitude of the interfering waves must be equal or nearly equal.
iv. The two sources must lie very close to each other.
v. The distance of the screen from the coherent sources should be large as compared to the width of slit.
vi. Two interfering sources should emerge from narrow slits (dimension of the order of wavelength of
incident light).

Optical Path
The speed of light is different in different media. Its speed is maximum in vacuum (c = 3 × 108 ms–1).
If light is allowed to pass through air and water at a time, it travels different distance in equal
interval of time.
The distance which the light travels in vacuum during the same time for which it travels in a medium is called
optical path.
Let c and v be the speed of light in vacuum and a medium respectively. The distance travelled by
light in vacuum and that medium in equal interval of time is determined as,
The distance travelled by light in vacuum, d = ct
d
i.e. t= c …(7.1)

And the distance travelled by light in that medium, x = vt

x
i.e. t=v …(7.2)

For equal interval of time,

d x
c =v
c
d=vx

d = x …(7.3)
In equation (7.3), d is the optical path and x is the geometrical path of light. This expression also tells
that optical path is the product of refractive index of a medium and geometrical path in that medium.
In air   1. So, the geometrical path in air is almost equal to the optical path. In other media,
refractive index is greater than 1, so the optical path is always greater than the geometrical path.

Insertion of Denser Medium

When a thin transparent sheet of thickness 't' and refractive index '' is inserted in one of the
interfering beams, the path difference is determined by using following technique.
Consider two points A and B at d distance apart in air (or in vacuum) as shown in Fig. 17.3. If a
denser object (for example a mica sheet) of thickness 't' is inserted between A and B, then the optical
path is changed. Let L be the optical path between A and B, then
166 Principles of Physics - II
L = Optical path in air + Optical path in medium t
A B
= (d – t) + t
= d + ( – 1)t d
Now, optical path difference in above cases, Fig. 7.3: Insertion of
x = L – d = ( – 1)t …(7.4) denser medium

Principle of superposition
The principle of superposition states that, when two or more waves meet at a point, the resultant
displacement of wave at that point is equal to the sum of the displacements of the individual waves
at that point.
Let Y1, Y2, Y 3, . . ., Yn be the displacements of waves that meet at a point is space. Then, the resultant
displacement at the point where they meet is,
Y = Y1  Y2  Y3  . . .  Yn
The displacement is a vector quantity, therefore the individual displacements are added taking the
account of their directions. The principle applies to all types of wave like sound wave, radio wave,
microwave etc.

7.3 Analytical Treatment of Interference of Light

Consider two light waves of same angular frequency '' and amplitudes a1 and a2 emitting from two
slits acting as coherent sources S1 and S2 as shown in Fig. 7.4. The nature of interference is obtained
on the screen at distance D away from the slits S1 and S2.
Let Y1 and Y2 be the displacements of two light waves emitted from coherent sources S1 and S2
respectively. The wave equations for these waves are,
Y1 = a1 sin t . . . (7.5)
Y2 = a2 sin (t + ) . . . (7.6)
Where  is the phase difference of the waves which are taken for the consideration. The value of 
depends on what difference of path the waves travel from their sources to the position of
interference on the screen.
2
(i. e.  = x)


S1

S* O
S2

D
Screen

Fig. 7.4: Theory of interference fringes

If Y be the displacement of resultant wave due to the superposition of Y1 and Y2, the wave equation
for resultant wave is,
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  167
Y = Y1 + Y2 . . . (7.7)
Substituting equations (7.5) and (7.6) in equation (7.7), we get,
Y = a1 sin t + a2 sin (t + )
= a1 sin t + a2 sin t cos  + a2 cos t sin  . . . (7.8)
As two waves of similar nature are superimposed, the resultant wave also behaves as the same
nature with same frequency, but different amplitude and phase. So, we take the following
consideration for the resultant wave.
a1 + a2 cos  = A cos  . . . (7.9)
and a2 sin  = A sin  . . . (7.10)
Where A and  are the amplitude and initial phase of resultant wave.
Using the equations (7.9) and (7.10) in equation (7.8), we get,
Y = A sin t cos  + A cos t sin 
= A (sin t cos  + cos t sin )
Y = A sin (t + ) . . . (7.11)
Equation (7.11) is the wave equation for resultant wave.

Amplitude and initial phase of resultant wave

Squaring and adding equations (7.9) and (7.10), we get,
2
or, A2 cos2  + A2 sin2  = (a1 + a2 cos )2 + a2 sin2 
2 2
or, A2 (cos2  + sin2 ) = a12 + 2a1a2 cos  + a2 cos2  + a2 sin2 
2 2
or, A2 = a1 + 2a1 a2 cos  + a2 (cos2  + sin2 )
2 2
or, A2 = a1 + 2a1 a2 cos  + a2
2 2
 A2 = a1 + a2 + 2a1 a2 cos 
 The resultant amplitude,
2 2
A= a1 + a2 + 2a1 a2 cos  . . . (7.12)
Dividing equation (7.9) by equation (7.10), we get,
A sin  a2 sin 
=
A cos  a1 + a2 cos 
a2 sin 
or, tan  =
a1 + a2 cos 
 The resultant phase,
a2 sin  
 = tan–1  . . . (7.13)
a1 + a2 cos 
It is to be noted that, the interference of two waves can be observed when the amplitudes of two
waves have equal magnitude.
Suppose, a1 = a2 = a, equations (7.12) and (7.13) are written as follows,
 A2 = a2 + a2 + 2a2 cos 
= a2 (2 + 2 cos )

= 2 a2 (1 + cos ) = 2 a2. 2 cos2 2
168 Principles of Physics - II

or, A2 = 4a2 cos2 2


 A =  2a cos 2 . . . (7.14)

Equation (7.14) shows that the amplitude of resultant wave depends on the phase difference  of
original waves at the location of superposition and on the amplitude of each interfering waves.

i.e. A  cos 2

The intensity of wave is directly proportional to the square of amplitude,

i.e. I  A2, then,

I  cos2 2

Also, the initial phase of resultant wave is

a sin  
 = tan–1 
 a + a cos 
sin 
= tan–1 
 1 + cos 
2sin  cos 
= tan-1 
2 2 
= tan-1 (tan 2 )
 2cos2  
 2 

 =2

Conditions for constructive and destructive interference

i. Constructive interference:
The constructive interference of two waves provides the maximum intensity at a position. For such

condition, the term cos2 2 must be maximum.


i.e. cos2 2 = 1


cos 2 =  1


cos 2 = cos n, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .


 2 = n
 = 2n . . . (7.15)
It concludes that, constructive interference (maximum intensity) is obtained when the phase
difference of two waves is in the order of 0, 2, 4, 6, . . . 2n. In such condition, bright patterns
(bright fringe) are produced on the screen.
The relation of path difference and phase difference is.
2
Phase difference, () = × Path difference (x)

2
i.e. = .x

 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  169

 x=  . . . (7.16)
2
Where,  is the wavelength of light emitted by coherent sources.
Using equation (7.15) in equation (7.16), we get

x= . 2n
2
x = n . . . (7.17)
Therefore, for constructive interference, the path difference of two waves must be integral multiple of
wavelength () of source, i.e. 0, , 2, 3, 4, . . ., n. This condition can be summarized as,
Order (n) Phase difference () Path difference (x) Fringe
n=0 0 0 Central bright
n=1 2  First bright
n =2 4 2 Second bright
n=3 6 3 Third bright
... ... ... ...
n=n 2n n nth bright
ii. Destructive interference

Destructive interference provides the minimum intensity of light. For such condition, the term cos2 2
must be minimum.

i.e. cos2 2 = 0


cos 2 = 0

 2n + 1
cos 2 = cos  2 , where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
 
 2n + 1
 2 =  2 
  = (2n + 1) . . . (7.18)
Therefore, for destructive interference (i.e. minimum intensity), the phase difference of two waves
must be odd multiple of , i.e. , 3, 5, . . ., (2n + 1). In such condition, dark patterns (dark fringes)
are produced on the screen.

Also, the path difference, x =  . . . (7.19)
2
Now, using equation (7.18) in equation (7.19), we get,

x = (2n + 1) 
2

x = (2n + 1) 2 . . . (7.20)

It concludes that, the dark patterns are produced on the screen when path difference of interfering
  3 5 
waves are in the odd multiple of 2 , i.e., 2, 2 , 2 , . . ., (2n + 1) 2.
170 Principles of Physics - II
This condition can be summarized as
Order of dark fringe (n) Phase difference () Path difference (x)
n=0  
2
n=1 3 3
2
n=2 5 5
2
n=3 7 7
2
... ... ...
n=n (2n + 1)  
(2n + 1) 2

In conclusion, the path difference in the position and spacing of bright and dark fringes are tabulated
below.
Path difference 0 - 1 - 2 … - n Bright
(in the multiple of ) - 0.5 - 1.5 - … (2n + 1) - Dark
This shows that alternate bright and dark fringes of equal width are produced on the screen with
equal spacing in Young's double slit experiment.

Note:
Students may be confused in writing the order of dark fringe, whether (2n + 1) or (2n – 1). To remove the
confusion, we use the following techniques.
i. If the order is represented by (2n – 1), the value of n should be started from 1, i.e., n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
ii. If the order is represented by (2n + 1), the value of n should be started from 0 i.e. n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Students must be careful in writing the order, in writing the conditions for Young's double slit experiment
we use the order (2n - 1), for the dark fringe because central fringe is bright one, no dark fringe is in zero
order.
But in Newton's ring experiment, central ring is dark, so we use (2n + 1) to represent the order of dark ring.
For dark pattern, the phase difference and path difference of two waves, may be expressed in the following form.
a. Phase difference () = (2n – 1) , for n = 1, 2, 3, 

b. path difference (x) = (2n – 1) 2 , for n = 1, 2, 3, 

(If central fringe is not dark, this condition is more appropriate).

Interference and Principle of Conservation of Energy

It appears that the energy is destroyed at the position of dark pattern and energy is created in the
bright pattern of interference. So, principle of conservation of energy appears to be violated. But in
reality, it is not so. The energy is only transferred from dark pattern to bright pattern - average
energy being always equal to the sum of energies of the interfering waves.
Let I be the intensity ( energy) of a wave of amplitude a. The energy,
E  I  a2
For two identical waves,(energy before interference)
Total energy  2I  2a2 (7.21)
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  171
To find energy after interference:
The amplitude of constructive interference, (i.e. bright pattern) = a + a = 2a
 Energy  I  (2a)2
 Imax  4a2
The amplitude of destructive interference, (i.e. dark pattern) = a – a = 0
 Imin = 0
Imax + Imin
 Average energy  2
4a2 + 0
 2
 2a2 (7.22)
Comparing equations (7.21) and (7.22), we conclude that average energy of dark and bright pattern is
equal to the sum of energy contributed by two waves individually.

7.4 Young’s Double Slit Experiment

Young's double slit experiment is a powerful evidence of wave nature of light. Thomas Young, in
1801, demonstrated how light waves could produce the interference patterns. His experiment is
famous in the name of Young's double slit experiment after his name Young and double slit
apparatus. B
The experimental arrangement of Young's double
slit experiment is shown in Fig. 7.5. It consists of
two slits S1 and S2 in front of a monochromatic
primary light source. These slits S1 and S2, receive
the light from primary source S, and share the
light of same wave front. Therefore, they are
D
coherent and create a sustained and observable
interference patterns. Light waves diffracted from
S1
two slits interfere in front of the slits and
interference patterns can be visualized on the
B
screen (usually, the screen is a travelling S
microscope). Bright fringes (B) are seen where S2
constructive interference occurs and dark fringes
(D) are seen where destructive interference occurs.
D
In the Fig. 7.5, similar phases of two waves
interfere at the center line of the screen, hence this
line is seen bright. At both sides of central bright
line, opposite phases of waves overlap. So, the
dark lines are obtained. Likewise, beyond side of
dark lines, constructive interference occurs, hence
B
the bright lines are obtained. This process is
repeated for many other alternate dark and bright Fig. 7.5: Young's double slit experiment
lines of equal width as shown in Fig 7.5.
172 Principles of Physics - II
Although Young's original double slit experiment was carried out with light, the conditions for
constructive and destructive interference apply for all types of wave like sound waves, water waves
microwaves etc.
Note
White light fringes:
The interference phenomenon of light can be studied by using white light. If the double slits are illuminated with
a white light, each of the colour produces its own fringe pattern. At the center of the pattern, a white maximum is
seen because of the zero path difference for all colours. Thereafter, the maxima and minima of the different colours
overlap in such way as to produce a pattern of coloured fringes. In the careful observation, only a few coloured are
visible due to the overlapping of different colours.

7.5 Theory of interference

Consider two monochromatic coherent light sources S1 and S2 depending on a single monochromatic
light source S. Let the slit separation (i.e. distance between S1 and S2) is d and a screen is taken at D
distance away from the slits as shown in Fig. 7.6. The waves propagating from slits S1 and S2 should
be ensured that they must have the P
same phase. Then, the phenomenon
of superposition of light is observed d y
S1 y-
on the screen. 2 d
Q y+
2
Let us take a point P on the screen at
distance y from the centre of screen O. S O
The light waves emerging from slits d
S1 and S2 continuously fall upon the R
S2
point P with certain phase difference
so that the interference patterns can
be observed on it.
D
Let x be the path difference of two
waves to reach at P after emerging Fig. 7.6: Interference of Light
from S1 and S2 with same phase. Path
difference is the difference of distance traveled by light waves. So,
i. To form the constructive interference at P, the path difference (x) = n, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . and
phase difference,  = 2n, where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .

ii. Also, to form the destructive interference, at P, the path difference, n = (2n – 1) 2, where, n = 1, 2, 3, …

The actual path difference in the Fig 7.6 is,

x = S2 P – S1 P
Now, from right angled PRS2, we have,
d 2
S2P2 = S2R2 + PR2 = D2 + y + 2 
 
d2
S2P2 = D2 + y2 + yd + 4 . . . (7.23)

Also, from right angled PQS1, we have,

S1P2 = S1Q2 + PQ2
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  173

d 2
= D2 + y – 2 
 
d2
= D2 + y2 – yd + 4 . . . (7.24)

Subtracting equation (7.24) from equation (7.23), We get,

S2P2 – S1P2 = 2yd
(S2P – S1P) (S2P + S2P) = 2yd
The path difference, x = S2P – S1P, So
x. (S2P + S1P) = 2yd
As the point P is considered very near to O, we take S2P  S1P = D so,
x. (D + D) = 2yd
yd
x = D . . . (7.25)

In the above consideration, you may be surprised that the approximation (S2P  S1P) is applied only
for addition of S2P and S1P, however it is not applied in the difference (i.e. why x = S2P – S1P is not
taken zero, but S2P + S1P = D + D?)
In fact, the difference S2P – S1P is comparable with wavelength of light, which provides the meaning
full result in the above expression. But, in case of additional part (S2P + S1P) > >  so they can be
approximated, this approximation does not alter the result significantly.
Alternative way to calculate path difference:
Here path difference (x) = S2Q
S2Q S2Q
From S1QS2, sin  = S S = d ...(i)
1 2
P
PO y
From POM, tan  = OM = D ... (ii) S1
y

For very small angle , tan   sin    q q

d M O
Q
So equating (i) and (ii), we get, R
S2
S2Q y
d =D
D

yd yd
S2Q = D i.e. path difference (x) = D

Position of bright fringes on the screen

To produce bright fringe on the screen, the path difference of two waves must be integral multiple of
wavelength of light ().
i.e. x = n . . . (7.26)
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . using equation (7.25) in equation (7.26), we get,
yd
D = n
nD
 y= d . . . (7.27)

D
For n = 0, y0 = 0 (central bright fringe) For n = 1, y1 = d (First bright fringe)
174 Principles of Physics - II
2D 3D
For n = 2, y2 = d (Second bright fringe) For n = 3, y3 = d (Third bright fringe)
nD
... For n = n, yn = d (nth bright fringe).

Fringe width of bright fringe: The separation of centers of two consecutive bright fringes is called
the width of bright fringes. In the above expression, we find, y1 – y0 = y2 – y1 = y3 – y2 = . . . = yn – yn – 1.
It means fringe width of every consecutive waves are equal. It is denoted by .
  = yn – yn – 1
nD (n – 1) D
= d – d
D
 = d . . . (7.28)

Position of dark fringes on the screen

To produce the dark fringe at point P, the path difference of two waves.

x = (2n – 1) 2 . . . (7.29)

where n = 1, 2, 3 . . .
It is to be noted that, n = 0 is not used in dark patterns because no dark pattern is produced at the
centre of the screen (i.e. at y = 0).
Using equation (7.25) in equation (7.29), we get
I 4 a2
yd 
D = (2n – 1 ) 2
D
y = (2n – 1) 2d . . . (7.30)

D
For n = 1, y1 = 2d
–5 –4 –3 –2 – 0  3 4 5
3D
For n = 2, y2 = 2d 
Fig. 7.7: Intensity distribution graph in
5D
For n = 3, y3 = 2d

…
(2n – 1)D
For n = n, yn = 2d
Fringe width for dark fringes: The separation of centers of two consecutive dark fringes is called
fringe width of dark fringes. In above conditions, every consecutive dark fringes have the equal
separation, i.e.
y2 – y1 = y3 – y2 = . . . = yn – yn – 1
The fringe width for dark fringes are denoted by . So,

D
= d . . . (7.31)

Comparing equations (7.28) and (7.31), we get

= 

It concludes that, the fringe width of consecutive bright fringes

or consecutive dark fringes is equal in interference fringe patterns.
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  175

Angular width of fringe

The angular width is the angle subtended by the centers of two consecutive bright or consecutive
dark fringes on the slit. In the Fig 7.8, two bright fringes are taken as the consideration. Here,  is the
angular width of two consecutive fringes.

So, tan  = D

For very small angle , tan   

α

 =D . . . (7.32) S θ

Similarly, for dark fringes

D

=D . . . (7.33)

 
So, =D=D . . . (7.34)

D Fig. 7.8: Angular width of fringe

Also,  =  = d

The angular width,

D 
 = Dd = d


 =d . . . (7.35)

Conclusions
i. Fringe width is directly proportional to wavelength, (i.e.   ), so, the fringe produced by the light
of shorter wavelength will be narrow relative to those produced by light of longer wavelength. Since
the wavelength of light decreases when whole Young's double slit apparatus is submerged into the
water, the fringe width will be smaller.
ii. Fringe width is directly proportional to the screen separation D from the slit. So, farther the screen
from the slit, larger the fringe width.
iii. Fringe width is inversely proportional to the slit separation. Smaller the separation between two slits,
larger is the fringe width. Therefore, to visualize the interference patterns on the screen, the slit
separation must be very small, otherwise the fringe width becomes too small to be detected.
iv. If one of the two slits S1 and S2 is covered, the interference pattern will disappear because interference
pattern is due to superposition of waves from the two sources S1 and S2.
v. If a thin transparent sheet is introduced in the path of one of the two interfering beams, the fringe
system gets displaced towards the beam in whose path, the sheet is introduced.

Displacement of Central Bright Fringe

The bright fringe is produced at the center of screen, only when the optical path is same for both
waves coming from slits S1 and S2 to the center. If a optically denser object is inserted between a slit
and the screen, the central bright fringe is displaced from the centre of the screen due to the change
in path difference. The displacement of central bright fringe is determined by using following
technique.
We know, the distance of any bright fringe from the central fringe is,
176 Principles of Physics - II
Dx
y = d , where x = path difference

For central bright fringe without inserted object of thickness t is

y=0
When the denser object is placed in path, then
Dx' D( – 1)t
y' = d = d
The displacement of central bright fringe,
D( – 1)t
y = y' – y0 = d
D 1
=  d   ( – 1)t
  

y = ( – 1)t

If Young's double slit apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index , the wavelength of light

decrease to ' = , so the fringe width reduces to,

'D D 
' = d = =
d 
Since  > 1, ' < .

7.6 Interference in a thin film

An extremely small thickness of a transparent medium of thickness about the order of 1 wavelength
of light in visible region is called a thin film. The film of soap bubble and the oil spread on the water
surface are familiar examples of thin film. The light incident from a source when reflected from the
upper and lower surface of the thin film acts as the coherent sources. The waves along R1 and R2
represent the coherent sources in Fig. 7.9. Due to the interference of such reflected waves from the
different surfaces of soap bubble, beautiful colours are produced. I R1
R
The net path difference of light reflected from thin film can be D 2
i
determined considering a parallel sided thin film of thickness t X Y
A C
and refractive index  as shown in Fig. 7.9. Suppose a ray IA of
monochromatic light is incident on its upper surface. This wave
r
suffers partial reflection and refraction from the upper surface.
The refracted ray, then, reflects from the lower surface of the film
and finally emerges out from the upper surface. Let R1 and R2 be W Z
B
the path of waves from upper and lower surface of the film
Fig. 7.9: Interference in a thin film
respectively as shown in Fig. 7.9.

Interference by reflection
In such condition, the path difference, between two successive reflected rays is,

x = 2t cos r + 2


The term 2 is obtained due to the interference by reflection of wave.
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  177
In the equation, ( )
i = Angle of incidence on upper surface of thin film
r = Angle of refraction in the refracted medium at same surface
 = Wavelength of light used.
In Newton's ring experiment, the thin film is the air film of refractive index,  = 1 enclosed in the
space between the plano - convex lens and a glass plate. The light rays fall perpendicularly on the
plano - convex less,
so, cos r = cos 0º = 1

Hence, the path difference of two reflected light rays, x = 2t + 2

7.7 Newton's Ring

Newton's rings is a phenomenon in which an interference pattern is created by the reflection of light
between two surfaces - a spherical surface and an adjacent touching flat surfaces. Newton's rings
phenomenon named so after the name of Sir Isaac Newton, who studied the effect in 1717. The
interference patterns produced in Newton's rings phenomenon are circular in shape. Therefore, these
circular rings are also called Newton's rings. It is to be noted that Newton's rings is a phenomenon
and also the name of interference patterns.
Traveling
microscope

Sodium lamp

Plano-convex
lens
P
Q Air film
D E
A
Flat glass
plate
(ii)
(i)
Fig. 7.10: (i) sketch for coherent sources (ii) Arrangement for Newton's Ring Experiment
Newton's rings phenomenon depends on the interference by reflection in a thin film. The layer of air
of varying thickness between the Plano - Convex lens and a glass plate acts as the thin film. The path
difference between the reflected rays from bottom of Plano – Convex lens and upper surface of glass
plate depends upon the thickness of the air gap between them. As the lens is symmetric along its axis,
the thickness is constant along its circumference of a ring of a given radius. Hence, Newton's rings
are circular in shape.
The apparatus arrangement to produce the Newton's rings consists of a Plano - Convex lens placed
on a plane glass plate, facing curve surface of lens towards the plate. A monochromatic light is
refracted through a convex lens in such a way that the refracted rays are parallel to each other. These
parallel rays then fall upon a glass plate G such that these rays are partially reflected towards the
178 Principles of Physics - II
Plano – Convex lens. The glass plate G is so inclined that the rays reflected from it falls normally on
the Plano - convex lens. The interference Phenomenon is observed from the travelling microscope.
When the parallel rays of light fall on the Plano-Convex lens, the reflection takes place from the
lower surface of Plano–Convex lens and upper surface of its base
plate as shown in Fig. 7.10 (ii). The rays reflected from two different
surfaces act as the coherent sources. The superposition of these rays
produces the interference patterns that can be observed through the
travelling microscope. At the point of contact of Plano - Convex lens
and base plate, the thickness of air film is zero. So, there is no
geometrical path difference, but phase is reversed by  due to
reflection of light at an optically denser medium. Hence, the center
of rings is dark spot. Since the thin air film has symmetrically
varying thickness from center to edge of the Plano-Convex lens, the
bright and dark rings of gradually increasing radii are obtained in
the experiment. As the radii of rings increases, the separation of the
Fig. 7.10(iii): Newton's rings
rings decreases as shown in Fig. 7.10 (iii).

Radii of Newton's rings

Let the curvature of spherical surface of Plano – Convex lens is completed considering O as the
center of the sphere as shown in Fig. 7.11. Let R be the radius of curvature of the lens. The thickness
of the air film is zero at the center and 't' at the edge of the lens. Consider P and Q be the two points
of the lens. PM and QN be the maximum thickness of air film such that L

PM = QN = t. Also, OP = CQ = r be the radius of largest ring where air R

film has thickness t.
C
Let CL = CA = R = Radius of curvature of the lens and PQ = Cord of rn rn
Q O P
the sphere t t
From the theorem of intersecting cord, we have N A M

PO × OQ = LO × OA
Fig. 7.11 Demonstration of
r × r = (2R – t) × t radius of Newton's ring
r2 = 2Rt – t2
The value of t2 is very small as compared to 2Rt. So, it can be neglected.
 r2 = 2Rt . . . (7.36)
Also, the path difference of rays in interference by reflection in thin film is,

x = 2t + 2 . . . (7.37)

i. For bright rings, path difference,

x = n. . . . (7.38)
Where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
So, equating equation (7.37) and equation (7.38), we get,

2t + 2 = n,


2t = n – 2

2n – 1
2t =  2   . . . (7.39)
 
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  179
Now, substituting the value of 2t from equation (7.39) in equation (7.36), we get
2n – 1
r2 = R.  2  
 
2n – 1
r2 =  2  R

Therefore the radius of nth bright ring can be determined from.
2n – 1
rn =  2  R
2
 
 rn = 2n – 1R . . . (7.40)
 n 
ii. For dark rings, the path difference,
2n + 1
n =  2  . . . (7.41)
 
Where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .
Now, equating the equations (7.37) and (7.41), we get,

2n + 1 = 2t + 
 2  2
 
n + 2 = 2t + 2

 2t = n . . . (7.42)
Now, substituting the value of 2t from questions (7.42) in equation (7.37), we get.
r2 = R  n
 r2 = nR . . . (7.43)
The radius of nth dark ring is determined from
2
rn = nR
 rn = nR . . . (7.44)
It shows that, the radius rn = 0 only when n = 0 in dark ring, because rn  n. But rn  0 in case of
bright ring because rn  2n – 1. Hence, it can be concluded that, the center ring in Newton's rings
experiment for interference by reflection is dark in nature. But the situation is different, if the
Newton's rings are obtained from the interference by transmission through thin films. In such case,
center ring is bright in nature as shown in Fig. 7.10 (ii).

Determination of Wavelength of Light

Newton's ring experiment is performed to determine the wavelength of light.
Dn
If Dn be the diameter of the nth dark ring, then rn = 2

Dn
 2 = nR
2
or, Dn = 4n R . . . (7.45)
Similarly, if Dn + m be the diameter of (n + m)th dark ring then we can write
2
D n+m = 4 (n + m)  R . . . (7.46)
180 Principles of Physics - II
From (7.45) and (7.46), we get,
2 2
D n+m – D n = 4mR
2 2
D n+m–D n
or, = 4mR . . . (7.47)

Measuring the diameters of (n + m)th and nth dark fringes, the wavelength of monochromatic light is
determined.
Equation (7.47) is also applicable for bright fringes.

Regarding Newton’s Ring

1. The nature of centred Newton's ring is different in different situations.
i. A dark ring is obtained at the centre when interference occurs due to the reflected light as
shown in Fig. 7.12 (i).
ii. A bright ring is obtained at the centre when interference occurs due to the transmitted light as
shown in Fig. 7.12. (ii).
2. The centre ring is considered zero order whether the nature of ring is dark or bright.

(i) (ii)
Fig. 7.12: (i) Newton’s ring due to reflected light (ii) Newton’s ring due to transmitted light
3. The centre ring is dark, although white light is used to produce Newton's ring. However, other rings
are seen colourful due to the rings obtained by different wavelengths of light, as different colours
have different wavelength.
4. The width of rings decreases in accordance with the increasing order (n) as shown in Fig. 7.12.

Applications of Interference
The phenomenon of interference has a wide range of applications:
i. It is used in optical communications and sending messages. It is used to prevent the waves from
overlapping and losing data.
ii. Michelson and Morley disproved the existence of 'ether' in the space of universe in place of vacuum
purposed by Huygen by using interference of light.
iii. It is used in holography to produce three dimensional images.
iv. It is used to test the flatness and parallelism of plane surfaces.
v. A lot of optical filters are based on constructive interference.
vi. It is used to determine the wavelength of light precisely.
vii. It is used to determine refractive index or thickness of transparent thin sheets.
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  181

Tips for MCQs

1. About interference
i. Interference was discovered by Thomas Young.
ii. Law of conservation of energy is not violated in interference, although light added to light may
give darkness.
iii. To produce sustainable interference, two light sources must be coherent.
iv. The separation between two coherent sources should be small.
v. Not only the light, particles like electrons also show the interference phenomenon, but during
that time it behaves like wave.
2. Constructive and destructive interference
2 2
i. The resultant amplitude in interference of two waves a = a1 + a2 + 2a1a2 cos 
ii. Intensity of resultant wave, I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cos
Where,  is the phase difference between two waves
iii. Constructive interference is obtained, when  = 2n and x = n, where, n = 0, 1, 2, …

iv. Destructive interference is obtained, when  = (2n – 1) and x = (2n – 1) 2 , where n = 1, 2, 3, …
3. Some important relations:
i. Relation between optical path and geometric path:
Optical path (L) = refractive index () × geometric path (x)
2
ii. = x

iii. The angular width of a fringe produced by Young's double slit experiment is,
  D 
 = D = D = dD = d
D
iv. The fringe width for both bright and dark pattern is  =  = d 

v. The expression for the radius of nth dark Newton’s ring is rn = nR

vi. The expression for the radius of nth bright Newton's ring is rn = (2n +1) 2 R.
2 2
Dn + m – Dn
vii. Wavelength of light,  = 4mR
4. The energy is only redistributed during interference between dark and bright fringes but total energy
still remains the same. That is why, there is no violation of law of conservation of energy.

Worked Out Problems

1. In young's double slit experiment, the separation of four bright fringes is 2.5 mm. The wavelength
of light used is 6.2 × 10–5 cm. Calculate the separation of slits.
SOLUTION
Given
Width of four bright fringe, 4  = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10–3 m
Wavelength of light,  = 6.2 × 10-5 cm = 6.2 × 10–7 m
Screen distance, D = 80 cm = 0.80 m
Slits separation, d = ?
182 Principles of Physics - II
We have, D
Now, d =
D 
Fringe width,  = d 6.2 × 10–7 × 0.80
= 6.25 × 10–4
Here, 4 = 2.5 × 10–3 m
2.5 × 10–3 = 7.94 × 10–4 m
= 4 = 6.25 × 10–4 m Slit separation is 7.94 × 10–4 m

2. [NEB 2075] In a Newton' rings experiment, the diameter of 15th ring was found as 0.590 cm and that
of 5th ring was 0.336 cm. Calculate the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens if the wavelength
of light used is 5880Å.
Solution
Given, 0.5902 – 0.3362
Diameter of 15th ring (D15) = 0.590 cm = 4 × 5880 × 10–8 × 10
Diameter of 5th ring (D5) = 0.336 cm
= 100 cm
Wavelength of light () = 5880 Å
=1m
= 5880 × 10–8 cm
Radius of curvature (R) = ? Therefore, the radius of curvature of plano-
We have, convex lens is 1 m.
D152 – D52
R =
4 ×  × (15 – 5)

3. [HSEB 2067] In a two-slit interference pattern, the slits are 0.2 mm apart, and the screen is at a
distance of 1 m. The third bright fringe is found at 9.49 mm from the central fringe. Find the
wavelength of light used.
SOLUTION
Given, We know that
Slit separation (d) = 0.2 mm = 2 × 10-4 m nD
yn = d
Screen distance (D) = 1 m
y3 = 9.49 mm = 9.49 × 10-3 m ynd 9.49 × 10-3 × 2 × 10-4
or  = nD = 3×1
n=3
=? = 6.3267 × 10-7 m = 632.67 nm
 The wavelength of light () = 632.67 nm.

4. [HSEB 2064] In a Young's double slit experiment, the separation between the first and the fifth
bright fringes is 2.5 mm when the wavelength of light used is 6.2 × 10–4 mm. Calculate the
separation of the two slits when the distance between slit and screen is 80 cm.
SOLUTION
Given, 1 × D D
For the first fringe (y1) = d = d
Separation between the first and fifth bright
fringes 5× D
For the fifth fringe (y5) = d
= y5 – y1 = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10–3 m
Screen distance (D) = 80 cm = 0.80 m Therefore,
Wavelength of light () = 6.2 × 10-4 mm = 6.2 × 5 D D 4D
y5 – y1 = d – d = d
10–7 m
Slit separation (d) = ? 4 × 6.2 × 10–7 × 0.80
or, 2.5 × 10–3 = d
We know that
nD 4 × 6.2 × 10–7 × 0.80
yn = d  d= 2.5 × 10–3 = 7.9 × 10–4 m
 The slit separation distance = 7.9 × 10–4 m
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  183
5. In Newton’s ring experiment, the diameters of the 4th and 12th dark rings are 0.400 cm and 0.700 cm
respectively. Find the diameter of the 20th dark ring.
SOLUTION
Given, From (i) and (ii), we get
For, n = 4 2 2 2 2
D 12 – D 4 D 20 – D 4
Diameter of 4th ring (D4) = 0.40 cm
4 × 8 ×R = 4 × 16 × R
For, n + m = 12,
2
Diameter of 12th ring (D12) = 0.70 cm D 20 – (0.40)2
 m = 12 – 4 = 8 or (0.70)2 –(0.40)2 = 2
D20 = ? 2
We know that or (0.49 – 0.16) × 2 = D 20
For n = 4 and m = 8, 2
or 0.33 × 2 + 0.16 = D 20
2 2 2 2
D n+m – D n D 12 – D 4 or D20 = 0.66 + 0.16
 = 4m R = 4×8×R
= 0.82
Also, for n = 4, m = 16,  D20 = 0.906 cm
2 2
D 20 – D 4  The diameter of 20th ring is 0.906 cm.
 = 4 × 16 × R

6. [HSEB 2072] In young's double slit experiment, the slits are 0.03 cm apart and the screen is placed
1.5 m away. The distance between the central bright fringe and fourth bright fringe is 1 cm.
Calculate the wavelength of light used.
SOLUTION
Given,
Distance between slits (d) = 0.03 cm = 0.03 × 10-2 m
Distance between slit and screen (D) = 1.5 m
4 = 1 cm = 1 × 10–2 m,  = width of a bright fringe
or,  = 0.25 × 10–2 m
Wavelength () = ?
Now, we have
D
 = d
d 0.25 × 10–2 × 0.03 × 10–2
or,  = D = 1.5 = 5.0 × 10–7 m
 Wavelength of light used () = 5.0 × 10–7 m.
7. [HSEB 2072] Two coherent sources A and B of radio waves are 5 m apart. Each source emits waves
with wavelength 6 m. Consider points along the line between two sources, at what distances, if any,
from A is the interference constructive.
SOLUTION
Given,
Distance between coherent source A and B (d) = 5 m
Wavelength of source () = 6 m
The waves become constructive only when the path difference of two waves is integral multiple of .
i.e. path difference (x) = n, where, n = 0, 1, 2, ....
Let y1 and y2 be the distance from A and B where constructive wave is formed (at point O in figure)
5m
A O B
y1 y2
Let y1 = x
y2 = 5 – x
and x = y1 – y2
184 Principles of Physics - II
Now, y1 – y2 = n ii. For n = 1
x – (5 – x) = n 2x – 5 = 
2x – 5 = n 2x – 5 = 6
i. For n = 0 2x = 11
2x – 5 = 0 ×   x = 5.5 m
2x – 5 = 0 For all n  1, the constructive interference is
2x = 5 produced beyond point B (i.e. x > 5 m).
 x = 2.5 m Hence, the constructive interference must be
obtained at 2.5 m away from A.

8. [HSEB 2073] The separation between the consecutive dark fringes in a Young's double slit
experiment is 1 mm. The screen is placed at a distance of 2 m from the slits 1.0 mm separation. What
is the wavelength of light used in the experiment?
SOLUTION
Given,
Fringe width for dark fringe () = 1 mm = 1 × 10–3 m Screen distance (D) = 2 m
Slit separation (d) = 1.0 mm = 1.0 × 10–3 m Wavelength of light () = ?
We have,
D
 = d
d 1 × 10–3 × 1 × 10–3
 = D = 2 = 5 × 10–7 m
 The wavelength of light used is 5 × 10–7 m.

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] Coherent light from a sodium–vapor is passed through a filter that blocks every except for light
of single wavelength. It then falls on two slits separated by 0.46 mm. In the resulting interference
pattern on a screen 2.2 m away, adjacent bright fringes are separated by 2.82 mm. What is the
wavelength?
Ans: 590 nm
2. [UP] Young’s experiment is performed with light from excited helium atoms ( = 502 nm). Fringes
are measured carefully on a screen 1.20 m away from the double slit, and the center of the twentieth
fringe (not counting the central bright fringe) is found to be 10.6 mm from the center of the central
bright fringe. What is the separation of the two slits?
Ans: 1.14×10–3 m
3. [UP] Two slits spaced 0.450 mm apart are placed 75.0 cm from a screen. What is the distance between
the second and third dark lines of the interference pattern on the screen when the slits are
illuminated with coherent light with a wavelength of 500 nm?
Ans: 0.833×10–3 m
4. [UP] Coherent light with wavelength 400 nm passes through two very narrow slits that are separated
by 0.200 mm and the interference pattern is observed on a screen 4.00 m from the slits. (a) What is the
width (in mm) of the central interference maximum? (b) What is the width of the first-order bright
fringe?
Ans: (a) 8 mm (b) 8×10–3 m
5. [UP] Coherent light with wavelength 600 nm passes through two very narrow slits and the
interference pattern is observed on a screen 3.00 m from the slits. The first-order bright fringe is at
4.84 mm from the center of the central bright fringe. For what wavelength of light will the first-order
dark fringe be observed at this same point on the screen?
Ans: 1200 nm
6. [UP] White light illuminates two thin slits that are 0.100 mm apart. Calculate the angular width of the
first full-color visible spectrum on either side of the central bright line. (Note: The wavelength range for
visible light is 400 nm to 700 nm.)
Ans: 0.172°
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  185
7. [UP] Coherent light with wavelength 500 nm passes through narrow slits separated by 0.340 mm. At
a distance from the slits large compared to their separation, what is the phase difference (in radians)
in the light from the two slits at an angle of 23.0 from the centerline?
Ans: 1670 rad

8. Coherent light that contains two wavelengths, 660 nm (red) and 470 nm (blue), passes through two
narrow slits separated by 0.300 mm and the interference pattern is observed on a screen 5.00 m from
the slits. What is the distance on the screen between the first-order bright fringes for each
wavelength?
9. Two very narrow slits are spaced 1.80 m apart and are placed 35.0 cm from a screen. What is the
distance between the first and second dark lines of the interference pattern when the slits are
illuminated with coherent light with  = 550 nm?
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. State the essential conditions for two light waves to be coherent.
 Following are the basic conditions for two light waves to be coherent.
a. These waves should have same wavelength or frequency.
b. They should have constant phase difference.
c. They must be continuous.
d. Equal amplitudes are mostly preferred.
2. Why are coherent sources necessary to produce a sustained interference pattern?
 Coherent sources have equal wavelength and constant phase difference. It ensures that the positions
of maxima and minima do not change with time. It means sustained interference is obtained.
3. State two conditions to obtain sustained interference of light.
 Two essential conditions for obtaining sustained interference of light are:
a. Two light sources should be coherent.
b. Coherent sources should be narrow and placed close to each other.
4. Two independent light sources cannot act as coherent sources. Why?
 Coherent sources must have equal wavelength and constant phase difference. If we closely observe
the cause of emission of light, they are produced from the excitation and de-excitation of atoms in a
source. Light is emitted by individual atoms, when they return to ground state. Even the smallest
source of light contains billions of atoms which cannot emit light waves in the same phase. So, two
independent sources cannot act as coherent.
5. Why should we have a narrow source to produce good interference fringes?
 A broad source is equivalent to a large number of narrow sources lying close to each other. Different
pairs of narrow sources will produce their own interference patterns which will overlap each other.
So, visibility is almost similar to all over the screen and the fringe system is lost.
6. No interference pattern is detected when two coherent sources are infinitely close to one another.
Why?
D
 The fringe width is,  = d

If the sources are infinitely close to each other i.e. d  0.

The fringe width  tends to infinity. It means the fringe width is so large that even a single fringe can
occupy the entire screen. Hence, the alternate dark and bright fringes are impossible to observe.
7. Why is interference pattern not detected, when the two coherent sources are far apart?
 The fringe width of interference pattern is determined from,
186 Principles of Physics - II
D
= d

When coherent sources are kept very far to each other, the fringe width  is very small, i.e. for d  .
Thus, the fringes are too small to be detected. So, the interference pattern cannot be observed.
8. In young's double slit experiment, if the distance between two slits and the screen are halved and
distance between the slits and the screen is doubled, then what will be the effect on fringe width?
D
 The fringe width of interference pattern is  = d
a. Suppose for initial condition,
D
= d . . . (i)
b. If the distance between two slits is halved and distance between the slits and screen is double,
D'
' = d' …(ii)
d
and D' = 2D and d' = 2
  2D D
' = d = 4  d  = 4 
 
2
New fringes have the fringe width four times wider than the original.
9. In young's double slit experiment, light of green, yellow and orange colours are successively used.
Compare the fringe widths for the three colours.
 For the same apparatus arrangement, d and D are equal, however the fringe widths are varied in
accordance with wavelength of different colours. i.e.   
As we know, Green > Yellow > Orange
The fringe width are also in the order of
Green > Yellow > Orange
10. Explain the statement "light added to light can produce darkness".
 From the principle of superposition of two waves,
y = y1  y2
When two waves of equal amplitude meet at a point in opposite phases, the resultant displacement
in terms of amplitudes is
a = a1 – a2
for a1 = a2
a = 0.
It means, the resultant amplitude is zero and hence intensity becomes zero at the point. In such
condition, when light added to light undergoes destructive interference, and hence produces
darkness.
11. What happens light when light waves interfere destructively at a point? Does this event violate
principle of conservation of energy?
 Total energy in an interference phenomenon is conserved in one destructive and one consecutive
constructive interference pattern. The energy gets transferred from the region of destructive
interference to the regions of constructive interference. Hence, this phenomenon does not violate the
principle of conservation of energy.
12. What will be the effect on the fringes formed in Young's double slit experiment, if the apparatus is
immersed in water?
 For the identical apparatus arrangement d and D are same in both conditions. The fringe width is
determined by the wavelength of light.
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  187
D
In air,  = d . . . (i)

and when the apparatus is immersed into water.


' = …(ii)

So,
 D 1 D 
' = = =
 d  d  
We know,  > 1 for water, so,
' < 
 When the apparatus is immersed into water, fringe width decreases.
13. Why is it comparatively difficult to observe interference in light waves as compared to that in water
waves?
 The wavelength of light waves is much smaller than the water waves. Although the interference
phenomenon is studied in the identical apparatus, d and D are equal for both cases. So, the fringe
width () is directly proportional to wavelength in the given condition, water >> light
water >> light
 The interference fringes have much smaller width in case of light waves than in water waves.
14. Why does a soap bubble show beautiful colours when illuminated by white light?
 A white light constitutes seven different colours with different wavelengths. In it, the wavelength of
red colour is largest and that of violet colour is the shortest. Others lie in between them. Different
colours are reflected from the upper and lower surfaces of a film interface and the patterns are
produced. Since the conditions for bright and dark fringes are satisfied at different positions for
different wavelengths, so coloured fringes are produced.
15. What is the effect on the interference pattern observed in a double slit experiment in the following
cases:
a. Screen is moved away from the plane of slits.
b. Separation between two slits is increased.
c. Width of slits are doubled.
 The fringe width in young's double slit experiment is,
D
= d

a. Taking  of light and d constants,   D. So, when screen is moved away from the slits, fringe width
increases.
1
b. For  and D constants,   d , so, when the separation between two slits is increased, fringe width
decreases.
c. When width of slits are doubled, the interference patterns overlap due to the various pairs of two
slits. Hence, the contract between the maxima and minima decreases.
16. When a thin transparent film is placed just in front of one of the slits in the Young's double slit
experiment using white light, what change results in the fringe system?
 If thin film is placed just in front of one slit, its optical path changes, so the entire interference pattern
D
gets displaced by a distance x = ( – 1)t d

As refractive index  depends on , the voilet fringe is shifted farther than the red fringe. So, there is
a kind of dispersion in the central white fringe.
188 Principles of Physics - II
17. When a low flying aircraft passes overhead, a slight shaking of the picture on TV screen is noticed,
why?
 A low flying air craft passing overhead can reflect the TV signals that spreading in the space. The
direct signal and the reflected signal act as coherent sources, then the superposing of these waves
produces the interference. This activity causes the slight shaking of the picture on TV screen.
18. A source emits white light in the double slit experiment and one slit is covered with blue filter and
other with red filter. Is it possible to observe interference pattern?
 To produce the interference patterns, two sources (i.e. coherent sources) must have equal
wavelength. Light filters select the particular colour of light and allow that colour to pass through it.
Blue filter and red filters pass the blue colour and red colour respectively. These colours of light have
different wavelength. Hence, interference patterns are impossible to obtain.
19. Why is the central fringe bright in Young's double slit experiment?
 The kind of fringe (bright or dark) relies on the path difference of two waves at a point from coherent
sources. In interference phenomenon, bright fringe is obtained when path difference, x = n, where n
= 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . In Young's double slit experiment, x = 0 (i.e. path difference is zero) at the region of
centre fringe. Therefore, bright fringe is produced at the center.
20. Why are Newton's rings concentric circles?
 Newton's rings are produced from interference by reflection or transmission of light waves. Out of
two sources: a plane surface acts as a source and a spherical surface acts as another source. The space
between these two surfaces is filled with transparent medium of uniformly varying thickness.
Therefore, the interference occurs in two dimensional pattern with varying path difference from all
directions. Hence, the interference patterns are obtained circular rings.
21. In Newton's ring experiment, the central ring of the pattern is dark, when viewed by reflected light,
why?
 When light incident from rarer medium and falls on denser medium, the reflected wave suffers the
 
phase change by  radian. It means, the path difference is 2 . Hence, two waves of path difference 2
produce the dark pattern. This happens at the center point of the convex lens while producing the
interference patterns. This refers, center ring is dark.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Write basic requirements to produce interference patterns.
2. What are coherent sources? Can two 100 watt bulbs be connected in parallel circuit to make a
coherent sources?
3. Differentiate between constructive and destructive interference.
4. Interference phenomenon supports the wave nature of light. Explain.
5. When crest of wave overlap to trough of identical wave, the location will be dark. What is the reason
behind this phenomenon. Does it violate principle of conservation of energy?
6. How does optical path changes when a denser medium is inserted in the path of light?
7. State the path difference between two waves for destructive interference.
8. What is the effect on the interference fringes in Young's double slit experiment if the separation
between two slits is increased?
9. "In Young's double slit experiment performed with a source of white light, only back and white
fringes are observed". Is this statement true?
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  189
10. Why are Newton's ring circular in shape?
11. What types of pattern forms at the centre of Newton's rings?
12. What happens when one of the slits in double slit experiment is covered with opaque material?
13. "A very thin film seen in reflected light shows no colour." Why?
14. "The conditions for the production of interference pattern in a thin film due to reflected light and
transmitted light are complementary to each other." Why?
15. In Young's experiment the widths of the two slits are in the ratio 1: 4. What is the ratio of the
amplitudes of the two light waves?
16. Is it possible to produce interference using longitudinal wave? Explain.
17. The phase difference between the light wave emitted by two coherent sources is /2. If two waves
have amplitudes 3 mm and 4 mm, what is the resultant amplitude?
18. If white light is used in Young’s double –slit experiment rather than monochromatic light, how does
the interference pattern change?
19. Why is it so much easier to perform interference experiments with a laser than with an ordinary light
source?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is interference of light? How can you determine the wavelength of light by interference
method?
2. What do you understand by interference of light? Distinguish between constructive and destructive
interference. Is law of conservation of energy hold good during interference? Explain.
3. What is constructive and destructive interference? Obtain conditions for constructive and destructive
interference in Young’s double slit experiment.
4. Describe Young’s double slits experiment for the interference of light and show that widths of bright
and dark fringes are the same. [HSEB 2066]
5. Define coherent sources of light. Prove that the bright and dark fringes in Young’s double slit
experiment are equally spaced. [NEB 2074]
6. What do you mean by interference of light? Derive the fringe width form Young’s double slit
experiment. [HSEB 2057, 2062, 2072]
7. Derive an expression for fringe width using Young’s double slit experiment for interference of light.
What will happen if distance between two slits becomes nearly zero?
8. Describe Young’s double slit experiment to determine the wavelength of monochromatic light.
9. What is Newton’s ring? How can you determine the wavelength of light using Newton’s ring?

Numerical Problems
1. A double slit of 0.5 mm separation is illuminated by light to obtain fringes that are 0.1 cm apart. The
wavelength of blue cadmium light is 4800 Å. What is the distance between slits and the screen?
Ans: 1.04 m
2. In a two-slit interference experiment, the slits are 0.2 mm apart, and the screen is at a distance of 1 m.
The third bright fringe is found at 9.49 mm from the central fringe. Find the wavelength of light used.
Ans: 632.7 nm
3. Two slits are 0.3 mm apart and placed 50 cm from a screen. What is the distance between the second
and the third dark lines of the interference pattern when the slit are illuminated with a light of 600
nm wavelength?
Ans: 10–3 m
4. In an experiment using Young's slit, the distance between centre of the interference pattern and the
tenth bright fringe on either side is 3.44 cm. Distance between slit and the screen is 2 m. If the
wavelength of the light used is 5.89×10–7 m, determine the slit separation and angle made by the
central bright fringe at the slit.
Ans: 3.42 × 10–4 m, 3.4 × 10–5 rad
190 Principles of Physics - II
5. In a young's double slit experiment, the wavelength of light used is 5461 Å. How many fringes can be
seen in a width of 1 cm if the screen is at a distance of 1 m from the source? The slit separation is 1
mm.
Ans: 18
6. In a Young's double slit experiment, interference fringes were produced on the screen placed at 1.5 m
from two slits 0.3 mm apart and illuminated by light of 6400 Å. Find the fringe width.
Ans: 3.2 mm
7. In YDSE, the angular width of a fringe formed on a distance screen is 0.1°. The wavelength of light
used is 6000 Å. What is the spacing between the slits?
Ans: 3.44 × 10–4 m
8. Light of wavelength 4800 Å is incident on a double slit. The average thickness of the fringes formed
on the screen 150 cm away is 3 mm. Find the distance between the slits.
Ans: 0.24 mm
9. In Young's experiment, two coherent sources are 1.5 mm apart and interference fringes are obtained
at a distance of 2.5 m from them. If the sources produces light of wavelength 5893 Å, find the number
of fringes in the interference pattern which is 4.9 × 10–3 m long.
Ans: 5
10. In Young's double slit experiment, the two slits 0.12 mm apart are illuminated by monochromatic
light of wavelength 420 nm. The screen is 1.0 m away from the slits. Find the distance of the second
(i) bright fringe (ii) dark fringe from the central maximum.
Ans: 7 mm, 5.25 mm

11. Two very narrow slits are spaced 1.80 m apart and are placed 35.0 cm from a screen. What is the
distance between the first and second dark lines of the interference pattern when the slits are
illuminated with coherent light with  = 550 nm?
Ans: 10.69 cm
12. If the diameter of two consecutive Newton’s rings in reflected light of wavelength 5890 Å are 2.0 and
2.02 cm respectively, what is the radius of curvature of the lens surface in contact with plane glass
surface?
Ans: 341.2 cm
13. In a Newton’s rings experiment, the diameter of the 5th ring was 0.336 cm and the diameter of the 15th
ring was 0.590 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens if the wavelength of light
used is 5890 × 10-8 cm.
Ans: 99.82 cm
14. A Newton’s ring arrangement is used with a source emitting two wavelengths 1 = 6.0 × 10–5 cm and
2 = 4.5 × 10–5 cm and it is found that the nth dark ring due to 1 coincides with (n + 1)th dark ring due
to 2. If the radius of curvature of the curved surface of the lens is 90 cm, find the diameter of the nth
dark ring for 1.
Ans: 0.2534 cm
15. Newton’s rings are observed in reflected light of  = 5.9 × 10–5 cm. The diameter of the 10th dark ring
is 0.50 cm. Find the radius of curvature of the lens and the thickness of the air film.
Ans: R = 1.06 m, t = 0.0003 cm]
16. Newton’s rings formed with sodium light between a flat glass plate and a convex lens are viewed
normally. What will be the order of the dark ring which will have double the diameter of that of the
40th dark ring?
Ans: 160

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The fringe width interference of monochromatic light produced by double slit experiment is . The
wavelength of light is . Then the ratio of the slit separation to the distance between the slits and the
screen are:
a.  b. /
c. 1/ d. 2/
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  191
2. In Young's double slit experiment, 12 fringes are obtained in a certain fragment of the screen when
light of wavelength 600 nm is used. If the wavelength of light is changed to 400 nm, number of
fringes obtained in the same segment of the screen will be:
a. 12 b. 18
c. 24 d. 30
3. Young's experiment is performed inside water, the fringe width will:
a. Decrease b. Remain same
c. Increase d. None
4. In Young's double slit experiment distance between slits is 1 mm distance between slits and screen is
1 m and wavelength of wave is 4000 Å. Find the fringe width in meter.
a. 0.04 b. 0.0004
c. 4 d. 0.1
5. Young's double slit fringe width is 4.365 mm, separation between slit is 1.35 × 10–4 m and distance
between screen and slit is 1 m then wavelength of light used is:
a. 5890 Å b. 58900 Å
c. 589 Å d. 8950 Å
6. The double-slit arrangement is illuminated with light from a mercury vapour lamp so filtered that
only the string green line ( 5460Å) is effective. The slits are 0.1 mm apart and the screen on which
the interference pattern appears is 20 cm away. The angular position of the first minimum is:
a. 2730 × 10–5 b. 5460 × 10–7
c. 5460 × 10–5 d. 2730 × 10–7
7. In a double slit experiment, instead of taking slits of equal widths, one slit is made twice as wide as
the other. Then, in the interference pattern
a. The intensities of both the maxima and the minima increase.
b. The intensity of the maxima increases and the minima has zero intensity.
c. The intensity of the maxima decreases and that of the minima increases.
d. The intensity of the maxima decreases and the minima has zero intensity.
8. Two beams of light having intensities I and 4I interfere to produce a fringe pattern on a screen. The
phase difference between the beams is /2 at point A and  at point B. Then the difference between
the resultant intensities at A and B is
a. 3I b. 4I
c. 5I d. 7I
9. In a Young's double slit experiment, 12 fringes are observed to be formed in a certain segment of the
screen when light of wavelength 600 nm is used. If the wave-length of light is changed to 400 nm,
number of fringes observed in the same segment of the screen is given by
a. 12 b. 18
c. 24 d. 30
10. Two coherent monochromatic light beams of intensities I and 4I are superposed. The maximum and
minimum possible resulting intensities are
a. 5I and 0 b. 5I and 3I
c. 9I and I d. 9I and 3I
11. In Young's double slit experiment, if the slit widths are in the ratio 1 : 4, the ratio of the intensities at
minima and maxima will be
a. 1 : 2 b. 1 : 3
c. 1 : 4 d. 1 : 9
12. The light beams of intensities in the ratio of 9 : 1 are allowed to interfere. What will be the ratio of the
intensities of maxima and minima?
a. 3 : 1 b. 4 : 1
c. 25 : 9 d. 81 : 1
192 Principles of Physics - II
13. In Young's double slit experimental set-up, if the wavelength alone is doubled, the band width 
becomes

a. 2 b. 2 
c. 3  d. 
14. Which one of the following statements is correct?
a. Monochromatic light is never coherent.
b. Monochromatic light is always coherent.
c. Two independent monochromatic sources are coherent.
d. Coherent light is sometimes monochromatic.
15. In Young's double slit experiment with slit separation d, a monochromatic light of wavelength  is
used. The angular separation of the fringes is
d 
a. b. d

2 
c. d d. 2d

16. If the two slits in Young's double slit experiment are of unequal width, then
a. The bright fringes will have unequal spacing.
b. The bright fringes will have unequal brightness.
c. The fringes do not appear.
d. The dark fringes are not perfectly dark.

Answers
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (b) 16. (d)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 HINT: 3
Given, Given,
Distance between two slits, d = 0.46 mm d = 0.45 mm = 0.45 × 10–3 m
= 0.46 × 10–3 m D = 75 cm = 75 × 10–2 m
D = 2.2 m  = 500 nm = 500 × 10–9 m
 = 2.82 mm = 2.82 × 10–3 m =?
= ? D
Required formula,  = d
D
Required formula,  = d HINT: 4
Given,
d
 So,  = D  = 400 nm = 400 × 10–9 m
HINT: 2 d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 × 10–3 m
Given, D=4m
 = 502 nm = 502 × 10–9 m D
a. width of central maximum, 0 = d
D = 1.2 m, n = 20
y20 = 10.6 mm = 10.6×10–3 m b. The width of bright fringe is independent of
d=? order of fringe so the width of the first order
nD bright fringe, will also be equal.
Required formula, yn = d HINT: 5
Given,
nD
 d= y 1 = 600 nm = 600 × 10–9 m
n
2 = ?, D = 3 m
 Interference of Light  Chapter 7  193
y1 = 4.84 mm = 4.84 × 10–3 m, for n= 1 HINT: 8

1 × D 1D Given,

Required formula, y1 = d , So, d = y r = 660 nm = 660 × 10–9 m
1

First order dark and bright fringes have the  b = 470 nm = 470 × 10–9 m
same width. Therefore, d = 0.3 mm = 0.3 × 10–3 m
2 D D=5m
y1 = y1' or, y1 = 2d Distance between first order bright fringe for
each wavelength, yr– yb = ?
y1 × 2d
So, 2 = We know that,
D
nD
HINT: 6 yn = d
Given,
d = 0.1 mm = 0.1 × 10–3 m For red colour
 v = 400 nm = 400 × 10–9 m = 4 × 10–7 m rD
 yr = d
 r = 700 nm = 700 × 10–9 m = 7 × 10–7 m
Similarly, for blue colour
Angular width of first full colour, 1– 2 = ?
bD
Required formula, yb = d
Angular width for first order, n = 1, is sin  =
HINT: 9
 Given,
d
d = 1.8 m = 1.8 × 10–6 m
For the violet colour in the spectrum,
D = 35 cm = 35 × 10–2 m
v
1 = sin-1  d  Wavelength of light () = 550 nm = 550 × 10–9 m
  Distance between the first and second dark
Similarly, for red colour lines, y2 – y1 = ?
r
2 = sin-1  d  We know that
  
HINT: 7 d sin  = 2 for first order dark line
Given, 

  = 500 nm = 5 × 10–7 m  1 = sin-1 2d
 
d = 0.34 mm = 0.34 × 10–3 m,  = 23°
Now, y1 = D tan 1
Phase difference,  = ?
Similarly,
We know that 3
2 sin 2 = 2d for second order dark line
 = × (path difference)
 3
 2 = sin-1 2d
=
2
× d sin 
 
 Also, y2 = D tan 2
 Dark fringe separation = y2 – y1


194 Principles of Physics - II
 DIFFRACTION
OF LIGHT

8.1 Introduction
The phenomenon of spreading of light when it is passed through small openings or obstacles is known as
diffraction of light. This is the phenomenon that can only be described from the wave aspect of light
and is found to violate the rectilinear propagation of light. Diffraction phenomenon occurs also in
sound waves, radio waves, x-rays, etc. The fact that light undergoes diffraction is powerful evidence
that light has wave properties. Although the diffraction was observed in light before, it could only be
explained in detail after, the discovery of wave theory of light purposed by Augustin Fresnel in 1815.
The degree to which waves are diffracted depends upon the size of the obstacle or aperture and the
wavelength of the light. The greatest effect occurs when wavelength of light is about same as the
aperture. Since the wavelength of visible light is very small (~10–7 m), it is very difficult to detect
diffraction in our common activities. When the opening is wide compared to the wavelength, the
spreading effect is negligibly small. Although the diffraction occurs in wide aperture, it is impossible
to detect. The diffraction in wide and narrow aperture are shown in Fig. 8.1.

A
A

B B

(i) (ii)
Fig. 8.1: Diffraction of light
Frequency modulation (FM) radio waves have shorter wavelength, so they don't diffract as much
around buildings, and hills. That is why, they are not received in mountain sides. But amplitude
modulation (AM) waves can be received well in big cities and mountains, since the waves have large
wavelength. TV signals which are also the radio waves do not spread much around the corners. This
is the reason why the antennas are put on the rooftops but not inside the room. This is done to
improve signal reception.
196 Principles of Physics - II

Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Interference Diffraction
1. Interference is the result of superposition 1. Diffraction is the result of superposition of
of waves starting from two different wave waves starting from different portions of
fronts. the same wave front.
2. All bright fringes in an interference 2. Intensity of bright fringes in a diffraction
pattern are of same intensity. pattern decreases as one move away from
the central bright fringe.
3. The points of minimum intensity in an 3. The points of minimum intensity are not
interference pattern are perfectly dark. perfectly dark in a diffraction pattern.
4. The spacing between fringes is uniform. 4. The spacing between fringes is not
uniform.
5. Large number of patterns are produced. 5. A few numbers of patterns are produced.

8.2 Classification of Diffraction

There are two types of diffraction (i) Fresnel diffraction and (ii) Fraunhofer diffraction.

Fresnel Diffraction
i. Fresnel diffraction: Fresnel diffraction occurs when a wave
passes through a small hole and bends creating a diffraction S

pattern. It is also called the near-field diffraction, since the Source

source is situated nearer to the slit. The size of Fresnel Slit Screen
diffraction pattern depends on the distance between a
Fig. 8.2: Fresnel diffraction
projection and an aperture. No lens is used to produce this
diffraction pattern as shown in Fig. 8.2.
L1 L2
ii. Fraunhofer diffraction: Fraunhofer
diffraction occurs when a wave emerges
from infinity and passes through a small slit
S
and finally forms the diffraction patterns on
the screen. It is also called far-field
diffraction, since the source is situated
effectively at infinity from the slit. Two
Plane wave front Slit Screen
converging lenses are used: first lens L1
converts the spherical wave front into plane Fig. 8.3: Fraunhofer diffraction
wave front as if source is situated at infinity
and second lens L2 converges the diffracted waves on the screen as shown in Fig. 8.3.
Difference between Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction
Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction
1. The source and the screen are at finite 1. The source and the screen or both are
distance from the obstacle or slit. effectively at infinite distance from the
obstacle or slit.
2. Observation of Fresnel diffraction does not 2. The conditions required for the
require any lens. Fraunhofer diffraction are achieved using
two convex lenses.
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  197

3. Cylindrical wave fronts are used. 3. Planar wave fronts are used.
4. The maxima and minima are not well 4. The maxima and minima are well defined.
defined.
5. It has less applications in designing the 5. It has many applications in designing the
optical instruments. optical instruments.

Huygen's Explanation of Diffraction

Huygen's wave theory provides the firm support to explain diffraction phenomenon in light waves.
According to Huygen's principle, every point of a wavefront acts as the secondary source of light,
which produces the secondary wavelets. These wavelets spread independently around the corners.
As every point of sharp corners acts as the independent source of light, it spreads around. The light
wave spreading around the sharp corners in the form of spherical wavefronts is shown in Fig. 8.1 (ii).
Huygen's theory is useful to explain diffraction phenomenon in Fraunhofer experiment.

8.3 Fraunhofer Diffraction at a Single Slit

The experimental set up to study the diffraction phenomenon of light from single slit is shown in Fig.
8.4. It consists of a very narrow single slit where plane wave fronts are allowed to fall upon. A screen
is placed in front of single slit. According to Huygen's theory, every point of a wavefront acts as
secondary source of light and the waves, thus, generated are called wavelets. These wavelets
emanate from the wavefront in the same phase. A convex lens is placed between the slit and screen
such that the screen is in the focal plane of the lens; a bright image should be obtained at a point O
on the screen as shown in Fig. 8.4. Since every point on the slit acts as independent source of light,
the wavelets originating from these points are able to meet at any point of the screen. Hence, dark
and bright patterns are obtained on the screen. These patterns are called diffraction patterns.
L
W

A 
xn

 O
d 
C

N

B P'

W' f

Screen

Fig.8.4: Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit

Formation of Central Maximum

The slit AB is supposed to be divided into a number of very narrow strips of equal width parallel to
the slit. All the wavelets originating from the narrow strips have the same phase. These wavelets
198 Principles of Physics - II
reach at center point O traversing the equal path having same phase. After then, the wavelets
reinforce each other's effect to give maximum intensity at O. Thus, a bright fringe is formed, called
the central maximum.

Path difference between extreme wavelets

Consider the diffracted wavelets with angle  at each strip of slit AB. Let us take a general point P on
the screen at finite distance away from the center point O. The wavelets starting from each strip are
in the same phase. But, they may not have the same phase at point P because these wavelets travel
unequal distance in reaching P.
The wavelets originated from the strips nearer from points A and B are called extreme wavelets
because they lie at the farthest distance in the consideration. Let us draw a perpendicular AN on a
light ray traversing from point B. Beyond the points A and N, the secondary wavelets cover equal
distance. Hence, BN is the path difference of extreme wavelets.
Taking the right angled triangle ANB,
BN
sin  = AB

BN = AB sin 
BN = d sin 
Where d = slit width
 Path difference, BN = d sin  . . . (8.1)

Formation of secondary minima

Consider a point P, on the screen at which the path
difference of extreme wavelets originating from A
and B is  with corresponding diffracted angle 1. In θ1 to P1
A
this condition, dark pattern appears at P1 and is
called the first secondary minimum. To study such
mechanism, let the slit AB be divided into two
C
equal parts AC and BC. So, every strips in the
upper half AC, there is a corresponding strips in the N
B
lower half BC such that the path difference from λ

every corresponding strip to reach at P1 is 2 so that
the waves superimpose out of Fig. 8.5 phase. Thus,
they cancel each other's effect. Hence, a dark
pattern is formed at P1. The condition for the first Fig.8.5: Formation of first minimum
secondary minimum is written, by using equation (8.1).
d sin 1 =  . . . (8.2)

 sin 1 = 2

For very small diffracted angle 1 we write, sin 1  1, So,


1 = d . . . (8.3)
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  199
If the path difference of wavelets originated from strips nearer
the points A and B, in reaching another point P2 on the screen is
2, second dark pattern is appeared. This is called second
secondary minimum. To study this mechanism, the slit AB is to
be divided into four equal parts AC1, C1 C2, C2 C3 and C3 B such θ2
A
 to P2
that the path difference of each corresponding part should be 2
(i.e. path difference of extreme wavelets passing from A1C and C1

C1 C2 is  and so on) as shown in Fig.8.6. So the effect of A1C is C2

cancelled by C1C2 and, the effect of C2C3 is cancelled by C3B.
Thus, the dark pattern is obtained on P2. The condition for the C3
N
second secondary minimum is written by using equation (8.1) as,
B
d sin 2 = 2 . . . (8.4) 2λ

Where 2 is the diffracted angle at slit to reach at P2.

2
sin 2 = d Fig.8.6: Formation of second minimum

 For very small angle of 2, sin 2  2.

2
2 = d . . . (8.5)

Proceeding the above processes, the condition for nth secondary minimum is.
d sin n = n . . . (8.6)
n
or, sin n = d

For very small angle n, sin n  n

n
 n = d . . . (8.7)

Formation of secondary maxima

'
Consider a point P 1 on the screen such that the path
' 3
difference of extreme wavelets in reaching P1 is 2 . In this θ1' to P1'
A
'
condition, the point P 1 appears bright. To study this
mechanism, the slit AB is to be divided into three equal C1
parts: AC1, C1 C2, C2 B as shown in Fig. 8.7 such that the
C2
path difference of extreme wavelets of every consecutive N
part is  (i.e. path difference of extreme wavelets of AC1 B
' 3λ
and C1C2 is  and so on. So, the wavelets reaching P1 from
2
the consecutive points of the parts AC1 and C1C2 will cancel
each other's effect. The wavelets originating from the part
C2B will produce first secondary maximum. The condition
for first secondary maximum is, Fig. 8.7: Formation of first maximum
200 Principles of Physics - II

' 
d sin 1 = 3 2 . . . (8.8)

'
Where 1 is the, diffracted angle to produce for secondary maximum.

' 3
or, sin 1 = 2d

' ' '

For very small angle 1, sin 1  1, then,
2
 1' = 2d . . . (8.9)

' '
Further, suppose the wavelets diffracted at an angle 2 and reaching at a point P2 on the screen
produce the second secondary maximum. This occurs when the path difference between the extreme
5
wavelets is 2 . In this condition, the slit AB is divided into five equal parts AC1, C1C2, C2C3, C3C4, C4B
such that every consecutive part that contains the effect of AC1 is cancelled by C1C2 and the effect of
'
C2C3 is cancelled by C3 C4 at P2 as shown in Fig. 8.8. The wavelets from fifth part would produce
'
second secondary maximum at P2. The condition for second secondary maximum is,
5
d sin 2' = 2 . . . (8.10)

' 5
or, sin 2 = 2d
θ2'
A
' ' '
For very small angle 2, sin 2  2
to P2'
C1
5
 2' = 2d . . . (8.11)
C2
Proceeding the same process, the condition for second
secondary maximum is, C3

' 
d sin n = (2n + 1) 2, where n = 1, 2, 3, . . . C4
N
(2n + 1)
 sin n' = 2d …(8.12) B
5λ
' ' ' 2
For very small angle of n, sin n  n we get
Fig. 8.8: Formation of second maximum
(2n + 1) 
n' = 2d . . . (8.13)

Points to be Considered
1. A distinct diffraction pattern is possible only if the slit is sufficiently narrow.
2. Secondary maxima are less intense than central maximum.
3. The diffraction pattern is symmetrical about the central maximum (i.e. both sides of central
maximum have similar pattern).
4. The width of the central maximum is double than that of the secondary maximum.
5. If the slit is replaced by circular aperture, circular dark and bright rings will appear as shown in
Fig. 8.9.
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  201
6. The conditions of diffraction minima and maxima are exactly reverses of the conditions for
interference minima and maxima.

Intensity central maximum

I-maximum I-maximum

II-maximum II-maximum

Y X
– 3/d – 2/d – /d O /d 2/d 3/d
sin 
Fig. 8.9: Intensity variation curve in diffraction

Width of central maximum and secondary maximum

Let 1 and 2 be the angular diffraction for first and second secondary minimum respectively.
Suppose the screen is placed at distance D from the slit as shown in Fig. 8.10.
OP1 = y1 = displacement of first secondary
minimum from the center O.
OP2 = y2 = Displacement of second secondary
minimum from the center O.

P2
In  P1OC of Fig. 8.10,

β
OP1 y1

y2
tan 1 = CO = D

P1
S θ1 θ2

y1
For very small angle of 1, tan 1  1 O
y1 β0
 1 = D . . . (8.15) D

Also, from the condition of secondary minima, for

very small angle 1

1 = d . . . (8.16)

Equating equations (8.15) and (8.16), we get

y1  Fig. 8.10: Diffraction pattern
D =d
D
 y1 = d . . . (8.17)

In the similar manner, from  P2 OC in Fig 8.10,

y2
2 = D . . . (8.18)

and from the condition of secondary minimum for very small angle 2,
2
2 = d . . . (8.19)
202 Principles of Physics - II
Equating equations (8.18) and (8.19)
y2 2
D = d

2D
y2 = d . . . (8.20)

D
Now, the width of OP1 = y1 – 0 = d

The width of central maximum,

0 = 2 × OP1
2D
= d . . . (8.21)

Also, the width of first secondary maximum,

2D D
() = P1P2 = d – d

D
 = d …(8.22)

If we proceed for the second secondary maximum the width is . This shows that, 0 = 2. It
concludes that the width of central maximum is double than the with of secondary maximum.
Note
i. When white light is used in place of monochromatic light, the central maximum is white but other fringes are
coloured.
ii. Most of the energy of the wave lies in the central maximum.
n 
iii. since sin n = d , for first secondary minimum n = 1 and hence sin 1 = d . This result tells us that the
ratio of wavelength () to the size of aperture (d) determines to what extent light or any other wave falls to
travel in a straight line. If this ratio is small, the bending of light (diffraction) will be small and vice-versa.

8.4 Diffraction Grating

As explained earlier, the slit width for the L
transmission of light must be comparable with S X
A
the wavelength of corresponding wave to obtain
a B
the diffraction pattern. The wavelength of
visible light ranges from 400 nm to 700 nm (i.e. qn
N
C
in the order of 10 m). In Fraunhofer single slit
–7
b P
diffraction experiment, the mechanism of
diffraction of light is explained taking light qn Po
intensity passing through the slit of width about
10–7 m. But in practice, diffraction maxima and
minima can not be visualized taking single slit P'

of such very narrow width. For the practical

M
purposes, large number of very narrow
equidistant and parallel slits are arranged in a S' D
Y
single glass plate such that the superposition of
Fig. 8.11: Diffraction grating
diffracted waves from these slits provides the
appropriate intensity to visualize the diffraction patterns on the screen. This optical device which
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  203
contains a large number of narrow equidistant and parallel slits to obtain the diffraction patterns is called
diffraction grating. It is also called the transmission grating. An ordinary diffraction grating contains
thousands of parallel slits in a millimeter width over a thin glass plate by means of fine sharp
diamond points.
The opaque lines of the grating are called rulings and transparent lines are called slits. The opaque
and transparent lines are scratched alternately on a thin glass plate. Each slit is separated with
equally wide opaque line. The slit width 'd' of the grating is the sum of width of slit 'a' and width of
ruling 'b'. i.e. d = a + b. The slit width 'd' is also called grating element or grating spacing.

Mechanism
Suppose a plane wave front SS' incidents on a plane transmission grating XY as shown in Fig. 8.11.
When the wave front falls on the grating, the slits allow the light to pass and rulings block the light.
As explained by Huygen's principle, every point of a wave front acts as secondary source of light. So,
each point of slits acts as independent source of light and produces the wavelets. Finally, every point
of screen receives light coming from each slit, so that these waves superimpose and diffraction
patterns are obtained.

Theory
Let us take a point P on the screen in which the light waves incident from each slit superimpose after
diffracting with an angle  and traversing through a converging lens as shown in Fig.8.11.
Consider two waves passing through upper two consecutive slits AB and BC. Let  be the phase
difference and x be the path difference of these waves while reaching at P from the slits. To
determine the path difference of waves passing through these consecutive slits, a straight line AN is
drawn so that the path difference is zero for all waves after crossing line AN to meet at P.
From right angled triangle ANC,
CN
sin  = AC

CN = AC sin 
= (a + b) sin 
Here, AC = slit width = d = a + b
The point P to be maximum, the path difference of two waves must be integral multiple of .
 CN = n Where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
or, (a + b) sin  = n
or, d sin  = n …(8.23)
Let N be the number of lines per unit length of the grating. So,
1
d=N

1
a+b=N …(8.24)
So, the equation (8.23) becomes,
1
N sin  = n
Note
In the young's experiment both interference and diffraction are present. When light waves strike the slits, they
get diffracted first and then undergo interference.
204 Principles of Physics - II
Applications of diffraction
i. Diffraction gratings are used for accurate estimation of the wavelengths.
ii. Structure of crystalline solids is determined by x-rays, electron and neutron diffraction
measurements.
iii. Velocity of ultrasonics can be measured with diffraction techniques.
iv. The location, size and shape of ulcer, tumours etc can be found by ultrasound scanning.

8.5 Resolving Power of Optical Instruments

Our eyes are unable to distinctly separate two objects which lie very near to each other. They can
visualize two objects separately only if the angle subtended by them is greater than one minute (1').
If the angle subtended by them is smaller than 1', two objects appear as a same object. Optical
instruments like telescope, microscope, lens are used to visualize such very closely lying objects as
separate. The method of visualizing such very close object as separate is called resolution and the ability of an
optical instrument to produce separate images of two objects which lie very close to each other is called
resolving power.

O
C

S  

C'
O'

Fig. 8.12: Diffraction pattern upto image Fig. 8.13: Resolution between two objects

Optical instruments like lens, microscope and telescope act as aperture. For example a lens is
considered as a circular aperture. Light passing through that aperture goes on diffraction. Then,
image of each point is a set of alternate bright and dark circular fringes with a bright disc at the
center. The size of this disc depends on the aperture of the lens and the wavelength of light used. If
there are two nearby points, their images may give rise to diffraction patterns which overlap on each
other making the resolution of two points.
Diffraction acts as a limit on resolving power of optical instruments. It is termed as limit of resolution.
The limit of resolution is defined as "the smallest linear or angular separation between two point
objects at which they can be just seen as separate object by an optical instrument. The smaller the
limit of resolution of an optical instrument, greater is its resolving power.
Lord Rayleigh experimentally studied how the optical instruments can resolve the very close points
as separate. The phenomenon of distinguishing two very near points were described in terms of
Rayleigh criterion. According to this criterion, the images of two point objects are just resolved when
the central maximum of diffraction pattern of one falls over the first minimum in the diffraction
pattern of the other point source, then the point sources are said to have been resolved by optical
instrument as shown in Fig. 8.13.

Resolving power of microscope

It is defined as the reciprocal of the smallest distance between two point objects at which they can be
just resolved when seen though the microscope.
The limit of resolution of microscope
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  205

d =
2 sin 
1 2 sin 
and resolving power = =
d 
Where,  = wavelength of light
 = refractive index of medium enclosed between object and lens
 = half the angle of cone of light from each point object

Resolving power of telescope

It is defined as the reciprocal of the smallest angular separation between two distant objects whose
images can be just resolved by it. The limit of resolution for telescope is,
1.22 
d = D
1 D
Resolving power = =
d 1.22 
Where,  = wavelength of light
D = the diameter of telescope objective

Resolving power of our eye

The diameter of our pupil (D) = 2 mm
Suppose we use the light of wavelength,  = 5000 Å
Then, the smallest angular separation between two distant points that the human eye can resolve
will be,
1.22  1.22 × 5000 × 10–10
d = D = 2 × 10–3
= 0.305 × 10–3 rad
 1 minute

Tips for MCQs

1. About diffraction: Diffraction occurs on account of interference of secondary wavelets from portions
of the wave front which are allowed to pass through the slits.
2. Conditions of diffraction minima and maxima are exactly reverse of the conditions for interference
minima and maxima.
3. Interference and diffraction can be explained on the basis of wave theory of light. These phenomena
exist also in longitudinal waves, but polarization phenomenon occurs only in transverse wave.
4. For the diffraction at single slit of width (d),
i. Condition of nth minimum is, d sin  = n, where n = 1, 2, 3, 

ii. Condition of nth secondary maximum is, d sin  = (2n + 1) 2 , where n = 1, 2, 3, 
n
iii. The angular position of nth minimum, n = d
nD
iv. The distance of nth minimum from the center of the screen, xn = d
206 Principles of Physics - II

v. The angular position of nth secondary maximum, n' = (2n + 1) 2d
2n + 1 D
vi. Distance of nth secondary maximum from the center of the screen xn' = 
 2  d
5. Width of central maximum,
2D
i. width 0 = 2 = d

ii. Angular spread of central maximum on either side,  =  d .
2
iii. Total angular spread of central maximum 2 = d .
6. The resolving power is the reciprocal of limit of resolution. The expression of limit of resolution is
1.22 D
 = D . The resolving power is .
1.22
1
7. Grating equation, sin n = Nn, where, N = (a + b) .

Worked Out Problems

1. [NEB 2075] How wide is the central diffraction peak on a screen 3.5m behind a 0.01 mm slit
illuminated by 500 nm light source?
SOLUTION
Given, We have,
Distance of screen (D) = 3.5 m 2D 2  500  10-9  3.5
0 = d =  = 0.35 m
Slit width (d) = 0.01 mm = 0.01  103 m 0.01  10 3
Wavelength of light = 500 nm = 500  109 m  The width of central maximum is 0.35 m.
Width of central maximum (0) =?

2. Light of wavelength 633 nm from a distant source is incident on a slit 0.750 mm wide, and the
resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 3.50 m away. What is the distance between the
two dark fringes on either side of the central bright fringe?
SOLUTION
Given, side of the central bright fringe () = ?
Wavelength of light () = 633 × 10–9 m We have
Width of slit (d) = 0.75 mm = 0.75 × 10–3 m D 3.5 × 633 × 10–9
= d = 0.75 × 10–3 = 2.95 × 10–3 m
Distance of screen (D) = 3.5 m
Distance between two dark fringes on either

3. [HSEB 2071] A parallel beam of sodium light of wavelength 589.3 nm is incident normally on a
diffraction grating. The angle between the two first order spectra on either side of the normal is
27º42'. What will be the number of lines per mm on the grating?
SOLUTION
Given, We have,
Wavelength () = 589.3 nm = 589.3 × 10–9 m d sin  = . (for first order)
42º 1
Angle (21) = 27º 42' = 27º + 60 = 27.27º N sin  = 
Number of lines per m (N) = ? sin  sin 13.85
or, N = = 589.3×10–9
  = 27.7/2 = 13.85º 
= 406 lines per mm.
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  207
4. [HSEB 2073] A plane transmission grating having 500 lines per mm is illuminate normally by light
source of 600 nm wavelength. How many diffraction maxima will be observed on a screen behind
the grating?
SOLUTION
Given, 1 1
Also, d = N = 500 × 103 = 2 × 10–6 m
lines lines
Grating lines (N) = 500 mm = 500 × 103 mm From equation (i)
Wavelength of light () = 600 nm = 600 × 10–9 m 2 × 10–6 × sin 90 = n × 600 × 10–9
Number of diffraction maxima (n) = ? 2 × 10–6
n = 600 × 10–9
We have,
d sin  = n (i) = 3.33  3
For total number of diffraction maxima () = 90º  Number of diffraction maxima = 3

5. A diffraction grating has 400 lines per mm and is illuminated normally by a monochromatic light
of wavelength 6000 Å. Calculate the grating spacing, the angle at which first order maximum is seen
and the maximum number of diffraction maxima obtained.
SOLUTION:
Given, n 1 × 6000 × 10–10
lines lines sin  = d = 2.5 × 10–6 = 0.24
Ruling (N) = 400 mm = 400 × 103 m –1
  = sin (0.25) = 13.89º
Wavelength of light () = 6000 Å iii. To find the maximum number of diffraction
= 6000 × 10–10 m maxima,  = 90º.
We have, d sin = n
1 1
i. Grating spacing, d = N = 400 × 103 for n maximum, sin = (sin)max = 1
= 2.5 × 10–6 m d
 nmax =
ii. For first order maximum, n = 1, 
we have, 2.5 × 10–6
= 6000 × 10–10  4
d sin  = n

6. A diffraction grating is set up on a sepectrometer table so that, parallel light is incident on it

normally. For a light of wavelength 5.5 × 10–7 m, first order reinforcement is observed in directions
making angles  of 18° with the normal on each side of the normal. (i) Find the value of the grating
spacing d. (ii) Calculate the wavelength of mono-chromatic light which would give a first order
spectral line at  = 25°, (iii) What would be the values of  for second order spectral lines for each of
these two wavelength? (iv) Is a third order spectrum possible for each? Explain.
SOLUTION
Given, d sin n 1.97 × 10–6 × sin 25°
  = n = 1
Wavelength of light () = 5.5 × 10–7 m
Diffraction angle () = 18° = 0.754 × 10–6 m
Number of diffraction pattern (n) = 1 = 7.54 × 10–7 m
i. Grating spacing (d) = ? iii.  = ?
From grating equation, n = 2, for above both wavelengths.
or, d sin n = n Grating equation, d sin  = n
n
  = sin–1  d 
n 1 × 5.5 × 10–7 5.5 × 10–7
or, d = = sin(18°) =  
sin n 0.28
 d = 1.97 × 10–6 m for  = 5.5 × 10–7 m
2 × 5.5 × 10–7
 = sin–1  1.97 × 10–6 
ii. Wavelength () = ?, if n = 1 at  = 25°
we have,  
d sin n = n 11 × 10–1
= sin–1
 1.97 
208 Principles of Physics - II
11 3 × 5.5 × 10–7
= sin–119.7 sin  =  1.97 × 10–6  = 0.837
   
= sin–1 (0.56) for  = 7.54 × 10–7 m
  = 37.84° 3 × 7.54 × 10–7
sin  = 1.97 × 10–6 = 1.15
Similarly, for  = 7.54 × 10–7 m
2 × 7.54 × 10–7 Since, sin  can not be more than 1, so the third
 = sin–1  1.97 × 10–6  = sin–1(0.77)
  order spectrum is not possible for the
  = 55.95° wavelength  = 7.54 × 10–7 m but, possible for
iv. For n = 3 and  = 5.5 × 10–7 m, we can write,  = 5.5 × 10–7 m

7. A plane transmission grating is ruled with 400 slit/ cm. Assume normal incidence. The  and  lines
emitted by atomic hydrogen have wavelengths 656 nm and 486 nm respectively. Compute the
angular separation in degrees between these wavelengths for (i) first order and (ii) second order
spectrum.
SOLUTION
Given,
Grating lines (N) = 400 slits/ cm = 4 × 104 slits/m
Wave length of  line () = 656 nm = 656 × 10–9 m
Wave length of  line () = 486 nm = 486 × 10–9 m
Angular separation in first order = ?
i. For the first order diffraction of  – lines () ii. Angular separation in second order = ?
=? Angular separation for  and  line  = ?
n =1 n =2
We know that , We can write ,
sin  = nN sin ' = sin–1 (2 × 0.262) = sin-1(0.524)
or,  = sin–1 (1 × 4 × 104 × 656 × 10–9) = sin–1 (0.262)  ' = 31.67°
  = 15.19° Similarly, for  – lines
Similarly, for  -lines () = ? sin '= 2 × N 
Since, sin  = nN or ' = sin–1 (2 × 0.194) = sin–1(0.388)
or,  = sin–1(1 × 4 × 104 × 486 × 10–9) = 11.18°  ' = 22.9°
 Angular separation =  –   angular separation = = ' – '
= 15.19 – 11.18 = 4.01° = 31.67 – 22.9 = 8.7°

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] Monochromatic light from a distant source is incident on a slit 0.750 mm wide. On a screen 2.00
m away, the distance from the central maximum of the diffraction pattern to the first minimum is
measured to be 1.35 mm. Calculate the wavelength of the light.
Ans: 506 nm
2. [UP] Parallel rays of green mercury light with a wavelength of 546 nm pass through a slit covering a
lens with a focal length of 60.0 cm. In the focal plane of the lens the distance from the central
maximum to the first minimum is 10.2 mm. What is the width of the slit?
Ans: 32.1 × 10–6 m
3. [UP] Parallel rays of light with wavelength 620 nm pass through a slit covering a lens with a focal
length of 40.0 cm. The diffraction pattern is observed in the focal plane of the lens and the distance
from the center of the central maximum to the first minimum is 36.5 cm. What is the width of the slit?
(Note: The angle that locates the first minimum is not small.)
Ans: 0.92µm
4. [UP] Red light of wavelength 633 nm from a helium-neon laser passes through a slit 0.350 mm wide.
The diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 3.00 m away. (a) What is the width of the central
bright fringe? (b) What is the width of the first bright fringe on either side of the central one?
Ans: (a) 10.9 mm (b) 5.4 mm
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  209
5. [UP] If a diffraction grating produces its third-order bright band at an angle of 78.4 for light of
wavelength 681 nm, find (a) the number of slits per centimeter for the grating; (b) the angular
location of the first-order and second-order bright bands, (c) Will there be a fourth-order bright
band? Explain.
Ans: (a) 4794 slits/ cm (b) 19°, 40.7° (c) Not possible
6. [UP] Monochromatic light is at normal incident on a plane transmission grating. The first order
maximum in the interference pattern is at an angle of 8.94. What is the angular position of the fourth
order maximum?
Ans: 38.4°
7. [UP] Visible light passes through a diffraction grating that has 900 slits/ cm and the interference
pattern is observed on a screen that is 2.5 m from the grating. Is the angular position of the first order
spectrum small enough for sin   to be a good approximation?
Ans: Yes, sin   
8. [UP] Plane monochromatic waves with wavelength 520 nm are incident normally on a plane
transmission grating having 350 slits/mm. Find the angles of deviation in the first, second and third
orders.
Ans: 10.5°; 21.3°; 33.1°
9. [UP] (a) What is the wavelength of light that is deviated in the first order through an angle of 13.5 by
a transmission grating having 5000 slits per cm? (b) What is the second order deviation?
Ans: (a) 466.89 × 10–9 m (b) 27.80°
10. [ALP] A plane diffraction grating is illuminated by a source which emits two spectral lines of
wavelengths 420 nm (420 × 10–9 m) and 600 nm (600 × 10–9 m). Show that the third order line of one of
these wavelengths is diffracted through a greater angle than the fourth order of the other
wavelength.
11. [ALP] A spectral line of known wavelength 5.792 × 10–7 m emitted from a mercury vapour lamp is
used to determine the spacing between the lines ruled on a plane diffraction grating. When the light
is incident normally on the grating, the third order spectrum, measured using spectormeter, occurs at
an angle of 60°19' to the normal. Calculate the grating spacing.
Ans: 20 × 10–7 m
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is diffraction of light?
 The phenomenon of bending of light towards the geometrical shadow, when it is passed through a
small openings or obstacles is known as diffraction of light. It occurs also in sound waves, radio
waves, x-rays etc. This phenomenon is a firm evidence of wave nature of light.
2. Diffraction is common in sound but not common in light waves, why?
 The degree to which waves are diffracted depends upon the size of the obstacle or slit and
wavelength of light. The greatest effects occur when wavelength of light is about same as slit. As the
wavelength of light (~ 10–7 m) is much smaller than the size of the objects around us, diffraction
pattern is difficult to see. However, sound waves have large wavelength. They get easily diffracted
by the objects around us.
3. If light bends around the obstacles, then why can't we see around a building?
 The diffraction of light depends on the size of obstacle. The size of the walls and building are much
larger than the wavelength of light. So, the diffraction of light around the edge of building is very
poor. So, we cannot see diffraction patterns of light around the wall.
4. A single slit diffraction apparatus is completely immersed in water without changing any other
parameter. How is the width of central maximum affected?
2D
 The width of central maximum in diffraction pattern is,  = d
210 Principles of Physics - II

If the diffraction apparatus is completely immersed into water, the wavelength, ' = .

Hence, the wavelength decreases. So, the width of central maximum decreases.
5. Why are diffraction effects more prominent through a slit formed by two blades than through a
slit formed by two fingers?
 Diffraction is prominent when narrow slits are used having parallel edges. The slit of blades is
perfectly parallel and narrow. But, such type of perfection is impossible in the slit formed by two
fingers.
6. How is the width of central maximum affected if (a) the width of slit is double (b) the wavelength
of the light used is increased?
 a. The width of central maximum is,
2  D
= d
If the width of slit is double, i.e. d' = 2d, then,
2  D 1 2  D 1
' = 2d = 2  d  = 2 
 
It means the width is reduced by half.
b. As   , the width of central maximum increases.
7. What two main changes in diffraction pattern of single slit will you observe when
monochromatic source of light is replaced by a source of white light?
 Following changes are observed when monochromatic light is replaced by a source of white light.
a. In each diffraction order, the diffracted image of the slit gets dispersed into constituent colours
of white light. The red fringe with higher wavelength is wider than violet fringe with smaller
wavelength.
b. In higher spectra, the dispersion is more and it causes overlapping of different colours.
8. What is diffraction grating?
 The optical device which contains a large number of narrow equidistant and parallel slits to obtain
the diffraction patterns is called diffraction grating. It is also called transmission grating. An ordinary
grating contains thousands of parallel slits per millimeter width over a thin glass plate.
9. What is limit of resolution of an optical instrument?
 The smallest linear or angular separation between two point objects at which they can just be seen
separately or resolved by an optical instrument is called the limit of resolution of the instrument.
10. Define resolving power of an optical instrument.
 The resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to resolve or separate the images of two
nearby point objects so that they can be distinctly seen. It is equal to the reciprocal of the limit of
resolution of the optical instrument.
11. On what factors does the resolving power of a telescope depend?
 The resolving power of a telescope is,
1 D
=
d 1.22 
Thus, the resolving power of a telescope depends on the wavelength of light used and the diameter
of the telescope objective.
12. Why does the intensity of the secondary maximum become less as compared to the central
maximum?
 The central maximum is formed due to the constructive interference of wavelets coming from all
parts of the slits. But, other maxima are formed due to the constructive interference of only a certain
part of total slit width. For example, first maximum is produced by the illumination of one third part
of total width of slit.
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  211

13. Is it correct to say that diffraction is interference between different parts of the same wave front?
 Yes. Actually, light is diffracted from the narrow slit, and the patterns are produced due to the
superposition of waves emerging from different points of aperture. According to Huygen's principle,
every point of a wave front acts as secondary source of light, called wavelets. The waves spreading as
the wavelets interfere on the screen and diffraction patterns are obtained.
14. Although the visible light and radio waves are electromagnetic waves, only radio waves diffract
around the buildings, why?
 Visible light and radio waves are, though the electromagnetic waves, they have extremely different
wavelengths. The wavelength of radio waves is much larger than the visible light. Hence, the radio
wave can diffract through the buildings and walls.
15. TV antennas are put at the rooftop, why?
 TV antennas should receive the radio waves to operate the television. In many cases, the signal is
poorly reached into the building due to the lack of diffraction. For the easy reception of signals, they
are kept at rooftops.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Define diffraction of light.
2. Can sound wave diffract?
3. How does diffraction phenomenon give the wave nature of light?
4. Differentiate between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction.
5. Which principle is appropriate to explain the mechanism of single slit diffraction?
6. The intensity of diffraction maxima gradually reduces towards the edge from central maximum,
why?
7. What is diffraction grating?
8. Why is diffraction grating also called transmission grating?
9. How is diffraction phenomenon useful to increase the resolving power of microscope?
10. What is the resolving power of astronomical telescope?
11. What is the reciprocal of resolving power of an optical instrument?
12. What should be the order of size of obstacle or aperture for diffraction of light?
13 Write the feature which distinguishes the diffraction pattern from the double slit interference pattern.
14. A bright patch is observed at the middle of the shadow of one rupee coin placed in the path of light
from a distance source. Explain.
15. Why is a diffraction grating preferable to a prism for use in a spectrometer?
16. What is the maximum number of order that can be obtained using a diffraction grating?
17. How will you increase the angular width of the diffraction pattern observed in a grating?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Derive an expression for the width of secondary maxima for diffraction of light at single slit. How
does this width change with increase in width of the slit?
2. Explain the phenomenon of diffraction of light at a single slit to show the formation of diffraction
fringes.
3. What do you mean by diffraction of light? Discuss the Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit and
explain the formation of the diffraction pattern.
4. Define Fraunhofer diffraction. How is transmission grating constructed? Describe necessary theory of
diffraction grating. [HSEB 2072]
5. What is resolving power? How is it different from magnifying power of an optical instrument?
212 Principles of Physics - II
6. Define limit of resolution and resolving power of an optical instrument. Discuss the resolving power
of an optical instrument with the change of wavelength of light used.
7. What is diffraction of light? How does it differ from interference of light? [HSEB 2058]
8. Describe the diffraction of light at a single slit and find the condition for secondary maxima and
minima. [HSEB 2061]
9. What is diffraction of light? Describe diffraction of light through a single slit. [HSEB 2067]
10. What are the differences between interference and diffraction? Explain the theory of diffraction of
light through a single slit. [HSEB 2065]
11. What is diffraction of light? How can you determine wavelength of light using Fraunhofer diffraction
at a single slit?
12. Explain briefly, what is common to the phenomenon of interference and diffraction.

Numerical Problems
1. The light of wavelength 600 nm is incident normally on a slit of width 3 mm. Calculate the linear
width of central maximum on a screen kept 3 m away from the slit.
ANS: 1.2 mm
2. Red light of wavelength 6500 Å from a distant source falls on a slit 0.50 mm wide. Calculate the
distance between the two dark bands on each side of central bright band of the diffraction pattern
observed on a screen placed 1.8 m from the slit.
ANS: 4.68 mm
3. Calculate the resolving power of astronomical telescope, assuming the diameter of the objective lens
to be 6 cm and the wavelength of light used to be 540 nm.
ANS: 9.1 × 10 4
4. In Fraunhofer diffraction pattern due to a single slit, the screen is placed at a distance of 100 cm from
the slit and the slit is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength 5893 Å. If the separation
between the central maximum and the first secondary minimum is 0.5893 cm, find the width of the
slit.
Ans: 5.89 × 10–3
5. A parallel beam of monochromatic light is allowed to incident normally on a plane transmission
grating having 5000 lines per cm. The angle between the directions of the first and the second order is
15°. Find the wavelength of the light used.
Ans: 4855 × 10–1
6. Monochromatic light of wavelength 6.56 × 10-7
m falls normally on a grating 2 cm wide. The first
order spectrum is produced at an angle of 18° 15’ from the normal. Deduce the total number of lines
on the grating.
Ans: 9546
7. A plane transmission grating has 5000 lines per cm and is adjusted for normal incidence. At what
angle will the second order spectral line be seen using a light of wavelength 5790 Å.
Ans: 35.38°
8. A plane transmission grating contains 600 slits per mm. Find the angular deviation for 400 nm violet
light and 700 nm red light in first order maximum.
Ans: 10.9°
9. Using a grating of 6000 lines per cm a first order spectral line was seen at certain angle using a light
of wavelength 5270 Å. Calculate the angle of diffraction?
Ans: 18.43°
10. What is the angular separation in the second order spectrum between the two mercury yellow lines
of 5790 Å and 5770 Å using a plane diffraction grating of 5000 lines per cm adjusted for normal
incidence?
Ans: 0.14°
11. Light of wave length 5000 Å is incident normally on a plane transmission grating having 6000 lines
per cm on the grating surface. Find the difference in the angles of deviation in the first and the third
order spectra.
Ans: 46.7°
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  213
12. A parallel beam of light falls normally on a plane grating having 5500 lines per cm. A second order
spectral line is observed to be deviated through 30°. Calculate the wavelength of the spectral line?
Ans: 4545Å
13. What is the highest order of the spectrum which may be seen with monochromatic light of
wavelength 6000 Å by means of transmission grating of 6000 lines per cm?
Ans: 2.7 3
14. In Fraumhofer single slit diffraction, light of wavelengths 1 and 2 are used. If first diffraction
minimum of 1 is to coincide with the second minimum of 2, (i) how are the two wavelengths
related? (ii) Will any other minima coincide in the diffraction pattern?
Ans: 1 = 22, 2n1 = n2 – under this condition other minima will coincide
15. A parallel beam of sodium light is incident normally on a diffraction grating. The angle between the
two first order spectra on either side of the normal is 27° 42’. Assuming that, the wavelength of the
light is 5.893 × 10–7 m, find the number of rulings per mm on the grating.
Ans 406 per mm
16. A plane transmission grating contains the slits 4000 lines per cm. Assume normal incidence. The 
and  lines emitted by atomic hydrogen have the wavelengths 656 nm and 486 nm respectively.
Compute the angular separation in degree between these lines in the record order spectrum.
Ans: 8.77°
17. The resolution limit of eye is 1 minute. At a distance of r km from the eye, two persons stand with a
lateral separation of 3 m. Calculate the distance r so that the two persons are just resolved by the
naked eye.
Ans: 10.3 Km
18. A parallel beam of white light is incident normally on a diffraction grating with 6000 lines per cm.
Calculate the angular separation of the red and violet rays of the first order spectrum. Take the
wavelengths of the red and violet light to be 7  10–7 m and 4  10–7 m respectively.
Ans: 10.94°

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A grating with 4000 lines/inch is given. The number of orders of entire visible spectrum between
(4000-7000) are:
a. One complete order b. Two complete orders
c. Three complete orders d. Four complete orders
2. Unpolarised light coverts to partially or plane polarised light by many processes. Which of the
following does not do that?
a. reflection b. diffraction
c. double refraction d. scattering
3. In a Fraunhoffer diffraction experiments at a single slit using a light of wavelength 400 nm, the first
minimum is formed at an angle of 30º. The direction  of the first secondary maximum is given by

a. sin–1 ()
2
3 b. sin–1 ()3
4

c. sin–1 ()
1
4 d. tan–1 ()2
3
4. Consider Fraunhoffer diffraction pattern obtained with a single slit at normal incidence. At the
angular position of first diffraction minimum, the phase difference between the wavelets from the
opposite edges of the slit is
a. /4 b. /2
c.  d. 2

Answers
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d)
214 Principles of Physics - II

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 2D
Given, (a) Width of central bright fringe, 0 = d
Width of slit (d) = 0.75 mm = 0.75 × 10–3 m (b) Width of first bright fringe on either side of
Distance of screen from slit (D) = 2 m D
central fringe,  = d
Distance of first minima from central maxima
(x) = 1.35 × 10–3 m HINT:5

Wavelength () = ? Given,

D . . Number of order, n = 3
Required formula, x = d ( . n = 1) Angle (3) = 78.4°
xd Wavelength () = 681 nm = 681 × 10-9 m
or  = D
sin n
a. N =
HINT:2 n
Given, b. For the first order, sin 1 = 1 × N
Wavelength of light () = 546 × 10–9 m For the second order, sin 2 = 2 × N
Focal length of lens (f) = 60 cm = 0.6 m c. sin 4 = 4 × N
 Distance of screen (D) = 0.6 m (But sin  cannot be greater than 1, so fourth
(∵ image is formed in the focal plane of the lens, order bright band will not be possible.)
so f = D) HINT: 6

First minima from central maxima (x) = 10.2 mm For the first order (n = 1), angle (1) = 8.94°
= 10.2 × 10–3 m For the fourth order (n = 4), angle (4) = ?
Now, From grating equation,
Width of slit (d) = ? sin n = Nn
D . . Now, taking ratio,
Required formula, x = d ( . n = 1) sin 1 N×1× 1
 = = 4
D sin 4 N×4×
or d = x 4 sin 1
 4 = sin–1  1 
HINT: 3  
Given, HINT: 7

Wave length of light ( = 620 nm Given,

= 620 × 10–9 m N = 900 slits/ cm = 9 × 104 slits/m
Focal length of lens (f) = 40 cm = 0.4 m  = 400 nm = 400 × 10–9 m
 Distance of screen (D) = 40 cm = 0.4 m n =?
Distance of first minima from central maximum From grating equation,
(x1) = 36.5 cm = 0.365 m. (Given,  is very small so we can say that sin 
Width of slit, d = ?   to be a good approximation.)
HINT: 8
x
To find , use tan D Given,
  = 520 nm = 520 × 10–9 m
Then, use  in , d = N = 350 slits/mm = 350 × 103 slits/m
sin 
HINT: 4 i. For the first order, sin n = 1  N
Given, ii. For the second order, sin 2= 2 × N
Wavelength () = 633 nm = 633 × 10–9 m iii. For the third order, sin 3 = 3  N
Width of slit (d) = 0.350 mm = 0.350 × 10–3 m
Distance of screen (D) = 3 m
 Diffraction of Light  Chapter 8  215
HINT: 9 41
Given, ii. For fourth order line of 1, sin 4 = a + b
Angle for first order, 1 = 13.5° sin 3
N = 5000 slits/ cm = 5000 × 102 slits/m Then, find,
sin 4
= 5 × 105 slits/m
n =1 HINT: 11
 =? Given,
a. From grating equation, sin 1 = 1 × N  = 5.792 × 10–7 m
b. Second order deviation (2), n = 2 n=3
We have, sin 2 = 2 × N 19 º
 = 60°19' = 60 + 60 = 60.32º
HINT: 10  
Given, Grating spacing (a + b) = ?
1 = 420 nm = 420 × 10–9 m From grating equation, we have
2 = 600 nm = 600 × 10–9 m (a + b) sin n = n
32 n
i. For third order line of 2, sin 3 = (a + b) or (a + b) =
sin n


216 Principles of Physics - II
 POLARIZATION
OF LIGHT

9.1 Introduction
Interference and diffraction phenomena are the evidence of wave nature of light. However, these
phenomena do not tell about the nature of wave, i.e., longitudinal or transverse. The nature of
longitudinal or transverse wave is confirmed by testing the polarization property. The wave which
shows the properties of polarization must travel as transverse wave. Polarization is a phenomenon of
wave in which the vibration can be allowed to pass through in one direction only. The fact that light
can be polarized was understood in the early years of 1800s. It showed the light wave is a transverse
wave motion. Later on, Maxwell described the transverse nature of light considering the light as an
electromagnetic wave. According to Maxwell's description of wave theory, the oscillation of electric
and magnetic fields are right angles to each other and the direction of motion of wave is
perpendicular to both fields. In our discussion, we take the electric field into account because electric
field is responsible for the visibility.

9.2 Polarization of waves

The polarization phenomenon is associated with the transverse nature of light. It can be studied
experimentally by oscillating a rope up and down or from side by side in one dimensional plane as
shown in Fig. 9.1. As the vibration is done only in a plane, the oscillation is called plane polarized
and that can be in vertical or horizontal plane.
Suppose a rope is fixed at one end and another end is passed through a vertical slit. Then, the free
end is hold with hand and is oscillated up and down. Because the plane of vibration is parallel with
the vertical slit, the wave in the oscillating plane travels both sides of the slit as shown in Fig. 9.1(i). If
the rope is oscillated horizontally, the wave damps down to zero amplitude by one the slit as shown
in Fig. 9.1(ii). In another experiment, if the rope is passed through the horizontal slit and oscillate it,
only horizontal oscillation of rope produces the sustainable wave as shown in Fig. 9.1(iii). But, the
vertical oscillated damps down to zero amplitude as shown in Fig. 9.1(iv). These experiments show
that, only the transverse vibration of wave can be polarized. Longitudinal waves vibrate along the
direction of wave travel, and whatever the orientation of the slit, it would make no difference to the
transmission of the waves.
218 Principles of Physics - II

(i) (ii)

(iii) (iv)
Fig. 9.1: Transverse vibration in horizontal slit

Unpolarized and polarized light

The sun and domestic light bulbs emit the light that possesses transverse vibration in all possible
directions. In ordinary beam of light, there are millions of waves travelling in all directions. These
light waves which contain the electromagnetic fields oscillating in all possible directions are called unpolarized
light waves. The vibration of each wave is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light
energy. Unpolarized light is conveniently denoted by a line containing an arrowhead with two
rectangular components: one dot and another perpendicular arrowheads line as shown in Fig. 9.2.

Direction of
or propagation of
light

Fig. 9.2: Unpolarized light

The light wave in which the vibration of wave is restricted in a particular plane is known as polarized light.
The plane in which the vibrations take place is called the plane of vibration. The plane perpendicular
to the plane of vibration is called the plane of polarization. Polarized light can be obtained by passing
light through a polaroid. Polarized light is denoted by a straight line containing an arrowhead with a
dot or a perpendicular arrowheads line as shown in Fig. 9.3.

(i) Vibrations parallel to the plane of paper ii) Vibrations perpendicular to the plane of paper
Fig. 9.3: Polarized light

Differences between unpolarized and polarized light

Unpolarized light Polarized light
1. The vibration of wave occur symmetrically 1. The vibration of wave is restricted in a
in all direction. plane.
 Polarization of Light  Chapter 9  219

2. Unpolarized light contains maximum 2. When unpolarized light is polarized, it is

possible intensity. always reduced in intensity.
3. Original light source gives out unpolarized 3. It is impossible to create polarized light
light. sources without the usage of a polaroids.
4. In unpolarized light, electric field vector 4. In polarized light, the electric field
may be directed in all possible directions. vector is confined in a particular plane.

9.3 Polarization Methods

Light can be polarized by three different methods:
i. Polarization by scattering: Polarization of light may occur due to the scattering through
molecules of air. When unpolarized light falls on the small particles of air in atmosphere, it is
partially polarized. Therefore, sky appears blue in the morning (at the time of sun rise) and red
in the evening (at the time of sun set.)
ii. Polarization by absorption: When unpolarized light falls on the natural crystals or artificial
crystalline material, light is absorbed more in one component than another. So, the light when
passes through such crystals, it is found polarized after passing through it. This unequal
absorption of components of fields in light is called dichroism and the corresponding material is
called dichroic material.
iii. Polarization by reflection: When unpolarized light is incident on the surface of transparent
medium, the reflected light can be obtained completely polarized at a certain angle of incidence.

9.4 Poloroids
Polaroids are the optical devices which select a part of ordinary light to oscillate only in a particular direction.
They are actually thin commercial sheets and have the property of selective absorption. Tourmaline
crystal is a natural polaroid. W.H. Herapath discovered a synthetic crystalline material iodo sulphate
of quinine in 1852. Later on, in 1932, an American scientist Edwin Land developed a polarizer in the
form of large sheets.
Polarised light
Unpolarised light

Polaroid

Fig. 9.4: Action of a sheet of Polaroid on unpolarized

light
Uses of Polaroids
1. Polaroid sunglasses: Polaroid sun glass allows about 50% intensity of incident beam of light.
These glasses permit only the vertical oscillation part of wave and horrzontal oscillation is
either absorbed or reflected. Hence, it reduces excessive glaring of sunlight.
2. Polaroid filters: These filters are used to eliminate the glare of reflected light in photographic
camera.
3. In headlight of automobiles: Polaroids are used in headlight of automobiles to reduce the
glare.
220 Principles of Physics - II
4. In CD players: Polarized laser beam acts as a needle for getting sound from compact disc (CD).
5. In navigation in polar region: In geographical polar region, the magnetic needle doesn’t work
properly. In this region, polarized sunlight is used for navigation.
6. Diabetic patient: Plane polarized light is used to find the concentration of sugar level in
diabetic patients.

Plane of Vibration and Plane of Polarization

When ordinary light is allowed to pass through a polaroid, the light is plane polarized. The direction
of vibration of electric field vector is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation of light. If
the propagation of light is taken along the horizontal direction, the direction of vibration of electric
field vector can be vertical or horizontal plane but perpendicular to propagation. The plane containing
the direction of vibration and the direction of wave propagation is called the plane of vibration. In Fig. 9.5,
ABCD represents the plane of vibration.
A B
G
F
Direction of propagation
H
E
D C
Fig. 9.5: Planes of vibrations and polarizations
The plane passing through the direction of wave propagation and perpendicular to the plane of vibration is
called plane of polarization. No vibration occurs in the plane of polarization. In Fig. 9.5, EFGH
represents the plane of polarization.

9.5 Experimental Demonstration of Transverse Nature of Light

Polaroid is a device which polarizes the incident beam of light. A natural crystal, tourmaline crystal,
acts as a Polaroid. When the unpolarized light arrives at the crystal, the component of electric field of
the incident light which is parallel to the molecules is strongly absorbed, whereas the light with its
electric field perpendicular to the molecules is transmitted through the space of crystal. Thus, the
tourmaline crystal acts as a Polaroid.
To begin the experiment, an original light source and two polaroids are arranged linearly. The
unpolarized light emitted by original source is allowed to fall on polaroids. The first Polaroid nearer
to the light source acts as the polarizer and the second polaroid which is used to observe the final
result of transmitted light acts as analyzer. Actually, polarizer and analyzer can be interchanged.
Ordinary Polarised Polarised
Light Light Light

P1 (i) P2

Ordinary No Light
Light

P1 (ii) P2
 Polarization of Light  Chapter 9  221
Ordinary Polarised
Light Light

P1 (iii) P2
Fig. 9.6: Polarization of a light wave by tourmaline crystal.
In first step, the polarizer P1 and analyzer P2 are arranged parallelly, then the plane polarized light
transmitted from polarizer can pass through the analyzer. Hence, the polarized light can easily be
observed through the analyzer as shown in Fig. 9.6 (i). In the second step, the analyzer is rotated by
90º so the intensity is crossed. Then, it will be found that, no light is transmitted through the analyzer
as shown in Fig. 9.6 (ii). Finally, the polarizer is rotated by 90 such that the polarizer and analyzer
again lie parallel to each other. In this condition, the plane polarized light reappears through the
analyzer as shown in Fig. 9.6 (iii). These situations are similar to the waves generated in a rope while
passing through the parallel and crossed slits as explained in the previous experiment.
It can be concluded from above experiment that,
i. Light can be plane polarized in any components, vertically or horizontally.
ii. The direction of propagation of light is always perpendicular to the oscillation of field vector.

9.6 Malus' law

Statement: When a beam of plane polarized light is incident on an analyzer, the intensity I of light
transmitted from the analyzer varies directly as the square of the cosine of the angle  between the
planes of transmission of analyzer and polarizer.
i.e. I  cos2 
Proof: Let A be the amplitude of electric field vector transmitted by a polarizer. Suppose the plane of
analyzer make an angle  with the polarizer as shown in Fig. 9.7. Then, a component of amplitude,
i.e. A cos  will be transmitted by the analyzer. As we know, the intensity of wave is directly
proportional to the square of amplitude, we write,
I  (A cos )2
I = K A2 cos2 
= (KA2) cos2 
I = I0 cos2 
Where I0 (= KA2) is the maximum intensity of light transmitted from polarizer.
Unpolarised light
I0 I


Polaroid

Fig. 9.7 Intensity variation of light

Case I: When polarizer and analyzer are parallel, i.e.,  = 0,

I = I0
It means, when analyzer is parallel to the polarizer, the intensity of light transmitted from the
analyzer is equal to that which falls on it from the polarizer.
222 Principles of Physics - II
Case II: When polarizer and analyzer are mutually perpendicular, i.e.  = 90
I=0
So, when analyzer is perpendicular to polarizer, the intensity of light transmitted from the analyzer
is zero.

9.7 Polarization by Reflection

In the previous experiments, we have used polaroids to study the Polarization phenomenon of light.
In addition to this method, light wave can be polarized by reflection. The phenomenon of
polarization by reflection was discovered by Malus in 1908. He discovered that light can be partially
or completely polarized by reflection.
Consider an unpolarized light beam falling on a glass–air interface. The beam contains infinitely
large number of wavetrains. The electric field vector of each wavetrain can be resolved into two
components: perpendicular to the plane of incidence ( – components) and parallel to the plane of
incidence ( – component). When light waves fall on the surface of glass, the components of electric
field vectors form certain angles with the reflecting plane. It has been experimentally observed that
the reflection coefficient of each component varies as we change the angle of incidence. At a
particular angle of incidence, the reflection coefficient for  – component is zero. This particular angle
of incidence at which the reflection coefficient for  – component is zero is called the angle of polarization or
polarizing angle. It is denoted by p. In such condition, the reflected light possesses only the  –
component of electric field vector and is completely free from the  – component. This light beam is
completely plane polarized. Thus, the light can be completely polarized by reflection.
As the  – component of field vector is completely absent in the reflected beam, it is completely
refracted. But, the  – component is partially refracted. It is to be noted that  – component is not
completely polarized in reflection therefore, the transmitted beam of light is only partially polarized.
It is obvious that the intensity of transmitted beam has greater intensity than the reflected beam. This
phenomenon is shown in Fig. 9.8.
A
N C

p p

M N
B 90°

r

D
N1

Fig. 9.8: Plane polarization by reflection

 Polarization of Light  Chapter 9  223

9.8 Brewster's law

In 1812, sir David Brewster studied the relation of reflected and refracted angle in a transparent
medium at the condition of polarization by reflection. He experimentally found that the sum of these
angles, reflected and refracted angles, is 90. It means the reflected wave and refracted wave are
mutually perpendicular to each other at the condition of polarization by reflection. Considering this
experimental finding, Brewster formulated a law regarding the condition of polarization by
reflection. This law is known as Brewster's law.
This law states that "at the condition of polarization by reflection, the tangent angle of polarization is equal to
the refractive index of the refracting medium."
Let i and r be the angle of reflection and angle of refraction respectively in a transparent medium
(suppose glass). At the condition of polarization by reflection i = p = angle of polarization. The
required figure to prove this law, is shown in Fig. 9.8.
The experimental result shows that p + r = 90,
 r = 90 – p . . . (9.1)
According to Snell's law,
sin i sin p sin p
= = = . . . (9.2)
sin r sin r sin r
Where  is the refractive index of transparent medium.
Applying equation (9.1) in equation (9.2), we get
sin p sin p
= =
sin (90 – p) cos p
  = tan p
This is the required expression for Brewster's law.

Tips for MCQs

1. Polarization of light confirms its transverse nature.
2. Light can be polarized by passing through certain crystals like tourmaline crystal, Nicol's prism etc.
which are called polarizer or Polaroids.
3. Our naked eyes are unable to detect whether a given beam is polarized or not.
4. The intensity of light when transmitted through a polaroid is reduced ideally by 50% of its original
intensity.
5. Malus law tells that the resultant intensity (I) transmitted from the analyzer varies directly the square
of cosine angle (cos ), between plane of transmission of analyzer and polarizer.
I  cos2
6. Brewster’s law states that, the refractive index of a medium is equal to the tangent of the polarizing
angle for the given medium. Mathematically,
 = tan P
7. Polaroids are used to produce plane polarized light and analyser used to analyse (i.e., identify) the
given light.
8. In general, light reflected from an amorphous material such as glass is partially polarized.
The bees can, not only distinguish unpolarized light, from polarized light, but can also determine the
direction of polarization.
224 Principles of Physics - II

Worked Out Problems

1. Polarizing angle for a medium is 60º. Calculate the velocity of light in the medium. [HSEB 2072]
SOLUTION:
Given, c
 v= 3
Polarizing angle (p) = 60º
From Brewster's law, c 3 × 108
v= =
 = tan p 3 3
 = tan 60 = 3 × 108
= 3 = 1.73 × 108 ms–1
c
Now,  = v  Velocity of light in that medium is 1.73×108 ms–1.

2. Calculate the polarizing angle if light travels from water of refractive index 1.33 to glass of
refractive index 1.50.
SOLUTION
Given, g
or, = tan p
Refractive index of water (w) = 1.33 w
1.50
or, p = tan–1 1.33 = tan–1(1.13)
Refractive index of glass (g) = 1.50
Polarizing angle (p) = ?  
From Brewster's law, we can write,  p = 48.5°
Refractive index of glass with respect to water
(wg) = tan p

3. [HSEB 2071] A beam of light is incident at polarizing angle on a piece of transparent material of
refractive index 1.62. What is the angle of refraction for the transmitted beam?
SOLUTION
Refractive index () = 1.62 or, p = tan–1 () = tan–1 (1.62) = 58.3°
Angel of refraction (r) = ? Again,
If p be polarizing angle, then, p + r = 90
tan p =  or, r = 90 – 58.3 = 31.7°

Challenging Problems
1. The critical angle of light in a certain substance is 45°. What is the polarizing angle?
Ans: 54.7°
2. A parallel beam of liquid is incident at an angle of 58° on a glass surface. The reflected beam is
completely plane polarised. Find the critical angle of light in glass.
Ans: 38.68°
3. [UP] A parallel beam of unpolarized light in air is incident at an angle of 55 on a plane glass surface.
If the reflected beam is completely plane polarized, find the refractive index of the glass and the
angle of refraction of the transmitted beam. [HSEB 2067]
Ans: 1.43, 35.5°

4. [UP] Light traveling in water strikes a glass plate at an angle of incidence of 53.0, part of the beam is
reflected and part is refracted. If the reflected and refracted portions make an angle of 90.0 with each
other, what is the index of refraction of the glass?
Ans: 1.76
 Polarization of Light  Chapter 9  225
5. [UP] The refractive index of a certain glass is 1.66. For what incident angle is light reflected from the
surface of this glass completely polarized, if the glass is immersed in (a) air, (b) water (w = 1.33)?
Ans: (a) 58.9° (b) 51.3°

6. Unpolarized light traveling in a liquid with refractive index  is incident on the surface of the liquid,
above which there is air. If the light is incident on the surface at an angle of 31.2 with respect to the
normal, the light reflected back into the liquid is completely polarized. (a) What is the refractive
index  of the liquid? (b) What angle does the refracted light traveling in air make with the normal to
the surface?
Ans: 58.8
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is polarization of light?
 The phenomenon of light in which the vibration of electromagnetic field can be allowed to pass
through in one direction only is called polarization of light. Light can be polarized by passing
through polariods or by reflection from the surface of transparent medium.
2. Why longitudinal waves cannot be polarized?
 Basically, the vibration of particles or fields should be perpendicular to the direction of propagation
of wave to polarize the waves. Otherwise, the vibration cannot be restricted in only one direction.
This is possible in transverse wave. But, vibrations occur along the direction of propagation in
longitudinal waves. So, their polarization is not possible.
3. Which plane is defined as the plane of polarization in a plane polarized electromagnetic wave?
 The plane containing the direction of propagation of light and perpendicular to the plane of vibration
is called plane of polarization. It contains no vibrations.
4. Which field vector, electric or magnetic is used to represent the polarization of an em wave?
 Electric field vector is used to represent the polarization of an electromagnetic wave. It is because
electric field is responsible to provide the visibility due to electromagnetic wave.
5. Does the value of polarizing angle of incidence depend on colour of light?
 Yes. The polarizing angle (p) depends on the refractive index () of a transparent medium. Also, the
refractive index depends on wavelength of light. For red > voilet, voilet > red. Hence, value of
polarizing angle depends on colour of light.
6. If the polarizing angle for air-glass interface is 56.3º, what is the angle of refraction in glass?
 Given, polarizing angle, p = 56.3º.
We know, in the polarizing by reflection, reflected wave and refracted wave are mutually
perpendicular to each other. So, p + r = 90º
 r = 90° – p
= 90° – 56.3° = 33.7º
7. What is the polarizing angle of a medium of refractive index 3 ?
 At the condition of polarization by reflection, the Brewster's law tells us that:
tan p = 
tan p = 3
 p = 30º
8. Sun glasses are made of polariods and not of coloured glasses. Why?
 Polariods polarize the light. It means, they absorb only that part of light which produces the dazzling
effect in the eye. But the coloured glasses absorb greater quantity of light energy than that of
polariods. So, the image formed by coloured glass is dim.
226 Principles of Physics - II

9. Write two uses of polariods?

 Two uses of polariods are:
a. They are used in sunglasses and camera filters to reduce the glare of light.
b. In window panes of aeroplanes to control the quantity of light coming in.
10. What is the relation between critical angle and polarization angle?
 Critical angle is related to refractive index as,
1
 = sin C , where C = critical angle

Also, the relation between refractive index is,

 = tan p, where p = polarization angle
1
So, tan p = sin C

11. Which of the following waves can be polarized (a) x – rays (b) sound waves?
 a. X-rays are electromagnetic waves. They propagate in transverse form. So, x-rays can be
polarized.
b. Sound waves propagate in longitudinal form. So, they cannot be polarized.
12. Name three properties, which are mutually perpendicular to each other in a plane polarized light
wave.
 The three properties are (a) electric field vector (b) magnetic field vector and (c) direction of
propagation of light wave

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Define polarization of light wave.
2. How does the polarization property conform the transverse nature of light?
3. Is light from sodium lamp polarized?
4. Sunglasses reduce the glare of sunlight, why?
5. Which among x-rays, sound waves and radio waves can be polarized?
6. What do you understand by 'crossed polaroids'?
7. What is plane polarized light?
8. Explain -polarization and  - Polarization in reflection.
9. Will ultrasonic wave show any polarization?
10. What is the value of refractive index of a medium for which polarizing angle is 60º?
11. What is Brewster's angle?
Long-Answer Type Questions
1. Describe an experiment to show that, light waves are transverse in nature.
2. What is polarization by reflection? Derive Brewster's law.
3. What do we understand by polarization of a wave? How does this phenomenon help us to decide
whether a given wave is transverse or longitudinal in nature?
4. Define polarizing angle. Derive the relation connecting polarizing angle and refractive index of a
medium.
5. How can you experimentally distinguish between plane polarized light and unpolarised light?
 Polarization of Light  Chapter 9  227
6. Show that:  = tan p, where =refractive index of the medium, p = angle of polarization or
polarizing angle. [HSEB 2062]
7. Prove that, reflected rays and refracted rays are normal to each other when the light is incident at the
angle of polarization.
8. What are polaroids? How do they work? Write down their some applications.
Numerical Problems
1. Light reflected from the surface of a glass plate of refractive index 1.57 is linearly polarized.
Determine the angle of refraction in glass.
ANS: 32.5º
2. Critical angle for a certain wavelength of a light in glass is 40º. Calculate the polarizing angle and the
angle of refraction in glass corresponding to this.
ANS: 57.3º, 32.7º
3. The polarizing angle for a ray travelling from air to ice is 52°26’. What is the polarizing angle, if the
light ray travels from ice to air?
Ans: 37.5°
4. The sunlight reflected from the surface of water in a pond is completely polarized. If the refractive
index of water is 1.33, find the angle between the sun and the horizon?
Ans: 36.94°
5. At what angle of incidence, sun light reflected from the surface of a lake is fully polarized? The water
lake has the refractive index 1.33.
Ans: 33°
6. A light ray strikes a glass surface at an angle of incidence 59. The reflected ray and refracted ray are
mutually perpendicular. Find the refractive index of glass.
Ans: 1.66

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The angle of incidence at which reflected light is totally polarized for reflection from air to glass
(refractive index n), is
a. sin–1 (n) b. sin–1 (1/n)
c. tan–1 (1/n) d. tan–1 (n)
2. A polaroid is placed at 45º to an incoming light of intensity I. Now the intensity of light after
polarisation would be
I
a. I b. 2
I
c. d. zero
2
3. The numerical operture for a human eye is of the order of
a. 1 b. 0.1
c. 0.01 d. 0.001
4. Critical angle for certain medium is sin–1 (0.6). The polarising angle of that medium is
a. tan–1 [1.5] b. sin–1 [0.8]
c. tan–1 [1.6667] d. tan–1 [0.6667]

Answers
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (c)
228 Principles of Physics - II

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 g
From Brewster's law, = tan p
Given, w
C = 45°, p = ? HINT: 5

1 Given,
i.  = sin C = 1.41 g = 1.66
ii. From Brewter's law, tan p =  a. When the glass is placed in air,
HINT: 2  p = tan–1 g
Given, b. When the glass is immerged in water, p = ?
p = 58° wg = tan p
From Brewter's law, g = tan p g
1 or = tan p
w
Then, C = sin–1  
g HINT: 6
HINT: 3 Given,
Given, Polarizing angle (p) = 31.2°,
p = 55 Refractive index (l) = ?
g = ? a. From Snell's law,
r=? We can write,
From Brewster’s law, we know that sin p
i. g = tan p = tan 55 = 1.43 la = sin r
sin i sin p 1 sin p
ii. Then use, g = sin r = sin r or, = sin (90 –r)
al
HINT: 4
Given, [∵ r + p = 90°]
p = 53º 1 sin p
or, = = tan p
p + r = 90° l cos p
r = 90 – 53 = 37° 1
or, l =
g = ? tan p
b. r + p = 90°


 DIRECT CURRENT
CIRCUIT

10.1 Introduction
The branch of physics which deals about the motion of electric charges is known as current electricity.
When certain amount of charge is given to an insulator, it is deposited at a point, which is named as
static charge. The study about the properties of static charge is known as electrostatics. Charge can
also be stored in a conductor, when it is surrounded with insulating material. If the charge is added
to end of a metallic conductors like silver, copper, aluminium, etc., potential difference is created
between two ends, hence, they readily move from one end to another. This dynamics (motion) of
charge is dealt in current electricity.
In metallic conductors, the electrons in the outermost orbits are loosely bound to their respective
atoms. So, they can easily travel from one atom to neighbouring atoms, these electrons are called free
electrons. However, the motion of free electrons in a conductor is completely random. If a certain
potential difference is created by any means across two ends of a conductor, the direction of motion
of the electrons is specific. This unidirectional flow of charge particles (electrons) creates electric
current. The electrons which take part in the electric current are called conduction electrons.

10.2 Electric Circuit

A closed path containing the electric source and other electric components like resistor, switch, etc.,
is known as electric circuit. If the oppositely charged conducting plates are connected by a metal
wire, the charge particles move from higher potential to lower potential. Conventionally, charge
flows from positive plate to negative plate as shown in Fig. 10.1 (i). In reality, electrons move from
negative charge plate to positive charge plate as shown in Fig. 10.1 (ii), but we describe the direction
of movement of charge in conventional way (from positive potential to negative potential). The wire
serves as a charge pipe through which the charge can flow (similar to water flow in water pipe).
Moreover, charge can flow from positive to positive terminal (also negative to negative terminal), if
they have the different electric potential as shown in Fig. 10.1 (iii).

Fig. 10.1: (i) Convention direction of charge flow (ii) Direction of flow of electrons
(iii) Flow of charge in similar charged plate
230 Principles of Physics - II
In the above examples, the charge flow continues until the plates have different potentials, and
gradually ceases when the plates acquire equal potential. To be a true circuit, charge must
continuously flow through the charge pipe (wire) and return back to original position and cycle
through again. This can be done forming a conducting path that allows the positive charge from
negative plate and back up to the positive plate, then positive charge again flow to the negative plate
through wire (charge pipe). The continuous flow of charge generates the electric current in an electric
circuit as shown in Fig. 10.2.

Fig. 10.2: (i) An electric circuit (ii) a symbolic representation of electric circuit

Circuit Symbols

1. or 2. or 3. or
open circuit closed circuit
bulb or
(open switch)

4. or 5. A 6 G
resistor
ammeter galvanometer

7. V
8. ~ 9.

alternating current/voltage Potential divider or Rheostat

voltmeter

10. or

variable resistor

10.3 Electric Current

The electric current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through any cross-section of a
conductor. It is denoted by I. Its unit is ampere (A). The magnitude of electric current (I) depends on
the amount of charge flowing (q) and the time rate (t) at which charge flows.
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  231
If the rate of flow of charge is independent with time, the current is said to be steady current. For a
charge q flowing over an interval of time 't', the steady electric current is defined as,
Charge flowing (q)
Electric current (I) = Time (t)
q
 I =t …(10.1)

If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, the current is expressed in the differential form of
charge with respect to time,
dq
i.e. I = dt …(10.2)

This current at any time is called instantaneous current. In equation (10.2), dq is the extremely small
charge that flows in any cross-section of a conductor at very short time dt.
Current can consist of any moving charged particles; but most commonly there are electrons. The
electric current has particle nature i.e. current relies on the number of charge particles crossing a
cross-section of a conductor. If N number of charge particles carrying individual charge e cross the
cross-section of a conductor at time interval t, the electric current (I) is written as,
Ne
I = t (... q = Ne)

Although the current has both magnitude and direction, it is not a vector quantity. It does not obey
the vector addition rules. Hence, current is a scalar quantity.
Electrons flow in a conductor when potential difference is maintained at its two ends. The flow of
electrons means the flow of charge. So, the total charge that flows in a circuit can be determined by
integrating the electric current with respect to time. i.e.
q =  I dt …(10.3)

Unit and Dimension of Current

Electric current is considered as a fundamental physical quantity. Its dimension is [A] or [I]. From
the definition of current,
q
I= t

For, q = 1 coulomb, and t = 1 second (s)

1 coulomb
I = 1 second

i.e. I = 1 C/s = 1 ampere

ampere (A) is the unit of electric current.
Therefore, the current flowing in a conductor is said to be one ampere, if one coulomb of charge
flows across any cross-section of a conductor in one second.
From quantization of charge,
q = Ne
q
N=e

For, q = 1 C, and e = 1.6 × 10–19 C

Then,
232 Principles of Physics - II
1C
N = 1.6 × 10–19 C = 6.25 × 1018

Therefore, 1 A electric current constitutes of 6.25 × 1018 electrons crossing a given cross-section in 1
second.

Some facts about current

i. The flow of charge can be compared with the mechanism of flow of water in a pipe of varying
diameter. As the water flows from high pressure to low pressure, charge particles also flow
from high potential to low potential. Whatever the diameter of pipe, the volume rate of volume
of water is same throughout each cross-section.
ii. The symbol of electric current I or i was taken from the French word "Intensite". Intensite means
the intensity.
iii. The magnitude of current at any cross-section of a conductor is same.
iv. The conductor is not charged when current flows through it. Number of electrons that enter
into the conductor is equal to the number of electrons that leave from the conductor, while
current flows.
v. 'Electric Current' is used for both a phenomenon and a physical quantity.
vi. Current is a scalar quantity.

Types of current in electricity

i. Electric current: The current constituted due to the electrons in a conductor is called electric
current. Free electrons are the charge carriers in electric current.
ii. Ionic current: The current constituted due to the motion of positive or negative ions of
electrolytes is known as ionic current. For example, when CuSO4 is dissolved in water Cu++ ions
--
move towards the negative electrode and SO4 ions move towards the positive electrode.
iii. Displacement current: The current produced by electric or magnetic fields is called
displacement current. The current passing between two capacitor plates is an example of
displacement current. Although two capacitor plates are not connected internally with
conducting wire, one plate influences the another by electrostatic induction i.e. by electric field.
This is the cause of displacement current.

Direct current and alternating current

Current 

Direct Current: An electric current whose magnitude and direction does

not change with time is known as direct current (d.c.). A dry cell
produces the direct current. It repels the living beings. If we touch the
high voltage d.c. line, it throws us away. Magnitude of current versus Time 
time graph in direct current is shown in Fig. 10.3. Fig. 10.3: Nature of d.c.

Alternating current: The electric current whose magnitude varies with time and direction reverses
periodically is known as alternating current. It is produced by a.c. generator. Its production depends
on the Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. The magnitude of current versus time graph in
alternating current is shown in Fig. 10.4.
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  233

Current
O

Time 

Fig. 10.4.: Nature of a.c.

10.4 Metallic Conduction

An electric conductor contains large number of free electrons. The electrons in outermost orbits of
atoms of the conductor are almost free from the nuclear attraction, so they can easily travel from one
atom to neighbouring atoms. A conductor contains large number of atoms (in the order of 1028 atoms
per cubic meter), so that it contains same order of
free electrons. These free electrons in the conductor
move randomly like the movement of air molecules
in the atmosphere. However, the motion of free
electrons is not specific, since two ends are at same
potential. So, no current is observed, although the
charge particles move in such situation. When two
Fig. 10.5: Metallic Conduction
ends of the conductor are maintained at different
potentials, the net flow of charge can be measured. The free electrons travel towards the positive end
of the conductor, and constitute electric current. However, it is a conventional current that is directed
from positive end to negative end (i.e. higher potential to lower potential) of conductor and is called
the conventional current.
Consider a metallic conductor of length l and uniform cross-section A. Two ends of the conductor are
maintained at different potentials, connecting it to a dc power supply (a cell) as shown in Fig. 10.5.
As soon as the ends of conductor become at different potentials, a steady current flows across the
conductor. Let q be the net flow of charge at time t, then the net electric current in the conductor is,
q
I= t …(10.4)

Let N be the number of free electrons in the conductor, then from the quantization of charge,
q = Ne … (10.5)
Using equation (10.5) in equation (10.4), we get,
Ne
I= t …(10.6)

Where, e is the charge of an electron.

N
Suppose n be the number of free electrons per unit volume (V), i.e., n = V . It is also called electron
density. Electron density is constant for a conductor at constant temperature. So, the current
expressed in terms of electron density is very useful in the calculation. Now,
N = nV
Also, volume of conductor (V) = A  l. So,
234 Principles of Physics - II
N = nAl …(10.7)
Now, using equation (10.7) in equation (10.6), we get,
nAle
I = t
l
= nA t e

I = nAvde …(10.8)
l
Where, vd is called the drift velocity of an electron in the conductor. Here, vd = t , since the electron
travels l distance (crosses the conductor) at time t.
In equation (10.8), n and A are constant for a uniform conductor and e is universal constant value of
electronic charge. So, the electric current (I) depends on drift velocity (vd) of electrons, i.e. I  vd.
In a conductor, the velocity of electrons is uniform, although the constant potential difference tends
to accelerate them from negative potential end to positive potential end, they suffer frequent
collisions with other charge particles and interactions with nucleus. The velocity of electron in every
instant is almost impossible to observe, so the average velocity is determined to study the flow of
charge in the conductor. Therefore, an average velocity of electron in a conductor along a specific
direction is known as drift velocity.
The value of drift velocity is practically very small (in the order of mm per second). But, the electric
bulb glows as soon as the electric switch is ON, then how is it possible? Actually, all free electrons in
the wire are influenced readily when the circuit is ON. So, they form electric wave with velocity
about the velocity of light. Thus, the disturbance of charged particles in the filament of electric bulb
produces the glow in it.

Current Density
Current density within a conductor is defined as the electric current crossing per unit area of the
conductor. The direction of current through the conductor is always perpendicular to the cross-
sectional area of that point. Current density is a vector quantity. Its direction is along the direction of

current. It is denoted by J . Therefore,
I
J =A

 
i.e. I = JA …(10.9)
In magnitude,
nevdA
J = A
J = nevd …(10.10)
The unit of current density is Am–2 and its dimensional formula is [L–2 A].

10.5 Ohm's Law

Ohm's law provides the basic relation between electric current and potential difference across two
ends of a conductor. As explained in metallic conduction, the electric current is detected only when a
potential difference is maintained at two ends of a conductor. This was discovered by a school
teacher, a German physicist George Simon Ohm in 1828. The law was named after his name 'Ohm'.
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  235
Ohm's law states that "Physical conditions like temperature, mechanical strain, etc. remaining the same, the
electric current through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across two ends of the
conductor".
Let I be the electric current passing through a conductor when potential difference V is maintained at
two ends of a conductor, then the law is written as, (provided that the temperature of conductor does
not change)
VI
V = RI … (10.11)
Where, R is proportionality constant, it is called resistance of a V
conductor.
Equation (10.11) can be compared with straight line equation, y = mx
+ c, with y-intercept, c = 0.
This shows that the graph between V versus I is a straight line
passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 10.6. O I
For a conductor, the ratio of potential difference to current at any Fig. 10.6: Graph of V versus I
instant is constant. This type of conductor is called ohmic conductor.
All the conductors do not obey Ohm's law.

Experimental Verification of Ohm's Law

+ –
Consider an electric circuit containing circuit components: a V
cell, a resistor, rheostat (a variable resistor), a switch, a
voltmeter, and an ammeter, as shown in Fig. 10.7. The R +
ammeter is connected in the series and the voltmeter is A
–
connected parallel to the fixed resistor. The rheostat is
K
connected to the series with the fixed resistor. Rheostat +
varies the resistance in the circuit so that current can be
Rh
changed to study the relationship between the current and
voltage. A standard direct current (dc) source in the circuit Fig. 10.7: Experimental set-up for ohm's law

provides the constant voltage in the circuit. This voltage can be divided into fixed resistor and the
rheostat. Ammeter measures the current and voltmeter measures the potential difference across the
resistor.
To perform the experiment, the deflection of voltmeter and ammeter V
are set initially at zero, although the circuit is closed. Then, the
resistance of rheostat is gradually varied (lowered) so that the current
is gradually increased in the circuit. Then, the deflection is observed in
the ammeter. As the deflection is observed in ammeter, the deflection
in voltmeter needle is also observed increasing gradually. During the O I
procedure, corresponding values of potential difference (V) are noted
Fig. 10.8: Characteristics curve
at different values of current (I). This experiment can be repeated for
different conductors of different resistances.
Let V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5 be the corresponding potential differences for current I1, I2, I3, I4 and I5
respectively in a conductor. Then, we can find,
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5
I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 = I5 = constant
236 Principles of Physics - II
V
It means, I = constant

In this way Ohm's law can be verified experimentally. The graph of V versus I is found as shown in
Fig. 10.8. This curve is called characteristics curve of Ohm's law and shows the linear relationship
between current and voltage (potential difference).

10.6 Resistance and Resistivity

When an electric current flows through a conductor, it offers opposition in its path due to various
factors. Although, the conductor allows electricity to pass through it, it opposes the motion of charge
particles (electrons). The opposition offered by the conductor to the flow of electric current through it
is known as resistance. It is denoted by R. Its unit is Ohm ().
The value of resistance of a conductor basically depends on two physical dimensions: the length and
the cross-sectional area. The resistance of a conductor is,
i. Directly proportional to the length (l) of the conductor,
Rl …(10.12)
ii. Inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor,
1
i.e. R  A …(10.13)

Combining the equations (10.12) and (10.13), we get,

l
RA

l
 R=A …(10.14)

where,  is proportionality constant, it is known as resistivity or specific resistance of a

conductor.
For a conductor of length, l = 1 m and cross-section, A = 1 m2, R = 
Therefore, resistivity of a material is the resistance per unit length per unit cross-sectional area of that
material. Its unit is Ohm meter (m). The materials of low resistivity are called conductors. Metals are
conductors. The materials of very high resistivity are called non-conductors or insulators. The
resistivity of semi-conductors is greater than conductors and smaller than insulators.
The resistivity of a conductor is not universal constant quantity. It primarily depends on the
temperature of conductor. It is constant for a conductor whether you change its geometrical
dimension such as its length, cross-sectional area, etc. but increases as the temperature increases
because collision with the fixed ions increases due to the thermal agitation. Resistance depends on
the geometrical dimension, but the resistivity depends on the nature of conductor.
From Ohm's law,
V l l
R= I A A

For, V = 1 V and I = 1 A For high resistance R For low resistance R

Longer length (l) and Shorter length (l) and
Smaller area (A) Larger area (A)
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  237
1V
R = 1 A = 1 VA–1 = 1 

Therefore, the resistance of a conductor is said to be 1 Ohm if a current of one ampere flows through
the conductor when a potential difference of one volt is applied across its ends.

Mean free path and relaxation time

The free electrons in a metal show same behavior as the gas molecules in a closed vessel. As they
move like gas (in atmosphere) within the metal, they are known an 'electron gas'. These free electrons
move randomly at sufficiently high speed about 105 ms–1, however they cannot produce the electric
current due to their random motion. During their motion, free electrons collide with ions in the metal
and frequently change the direction. The average distance travelled by a free electron between two
successive collisions is called 'mean free path' of that electron and the average time interval between two
successive collisions is called its 'relaxation time'. The relaxation time is denoted by .
In a conductor, the electron experiences the electric force when two ends are connected at two
terminals of a battery. This force tends to move the electrons in a specific direction, so the current is
produced in the conductor. In such motion, the speed of free electrons in a specific direction (i.e. drift
velocity) is very small (in the order of mm/s). In such situation, the acceleration of electron into the
conductor is determined from drift velocity and relation time,
vd
i.e. a=

 vd = a …(10.15)

Resistivity of a conductor
When potential difference V is maintained at two ends of a conductor, the force experienced by free
electrons is,
F = ma
F eE eV
or, a = m = m = ml ... (10.16)

Where,
E = electric field in the conductor
m = mass of electron
V = p.d. across two ends of the conductor.
l = length of conductor
Also, the drift velocity of electrons can be calculated by two different ways,
vd = a .... (10.17)
I
and vd = neA ... (10.18)

I
So, a = neA ... (10.19)

Now, substituting the value of 'a' from equation (10.16) to equation (10.19), we get,
eV I
ml  = neA
V ml
 I = ne2A
238 Principles of Physics - II
m  l
R= ... (10.20)
ne2 A
The resistance (R) in terms of resistivity of a conductor is,
l
R=A ... (10.21)

Comparing equations (10.20) and (10.21), we get,

m
=
ne2
The value of resistivity for a conductor is constant at a given temperature. The resistivity of alloys are
much more than those of pure metals from which they are made.

Unit and dimension of resistivity

l
Since, R =  A

A
 =R l

The S.I. unit of resistivity is Ohm meter (m). And,

A L2
dimension of resistivity, [= [R l ] = [ML2T-3 A-2 L ] = [ML3T-3 A-2]

Dimensionally, the unit of electrical resistivity is kg m3 s–3 A–2.

Electrical Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is called electrical conductance and is denoted by G.
Resistance measures the opposition which it offers to the flow of the current. Conductance measures
the inducement which it offers to its flow.
1
 Conductance = resistance

1
G=R

Unit and dimension of Conductance

1
G=R

The S.I. unit of conductance is inverse Ohm or per Ohm or Ohm-1() or mho or siemen (S). So
 S = 1  = 1 mho.
1 1
 [G]= R = ML2T–3 A–2 = [M–1L–2T3 A2]
   
Therefore, the dimensional formula of conductance is [M–1L–2T3 A2].
Dimensionally, unit of conductance is kg-1 m-2s3 A2 which is equivalent to siemen.

Electrical Conductivity or Specific Conductance

The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is called its electrical conductivity and is denoted by 
(small sigma).
1
 =

 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  239

Unit and dimension of electrical conductivity

We know that,
1
=

The unit of electrical conductivity is per Ohm per metre ( m–1) or mho meter–1 or siemens per
metre (Sm–1).
1 1
And dimension of conductivity, [] =   = ML3T–3 A–2 = [M–1L–3T3 A2]
  
The unit of conductivity on the basis of dimension is kg-1 m-3s3 A2..

Relation between Current Density and Electric Field Strength

From the definition of current density, we can write,
I 1V
J =A=AR
1 V V
=A =
l l
A
E  ∵E V
 J = =E = l …(10.22)
  
Variation of Resistance with Temperature
Resistance arises in a conductor due to the collision of moving electrons with fixed ions. As the
temperature increases, there is more vibration of ions in the conductor. Therefore, the free electrons
at high temperature suffer greater collision than that at lower temperature. Thus, the resistance in a
conductor increases, as the temperature increases.
The resistance of a conductor depends on its temperature.
For small temperature variations, the increase in resistance with respect to resistance at 0°C per
degree rise in temperature is constant for a conductor. This constant is called temperature coefficient
of resistance, . So,
Rise in resistance
Temperature coefficient of resistance () = Reistance at 0°C × Rise in temperature

R – R0 R – R0
 = =
R0 × ( – 0) R0
R – R0 = R0
R = R0 + R0
R = R0 (1 + ) …(10.23)
l
Also, R=A
qoC A
Temperature coefficient  itself is not constant but depends on the initial
temperature on which the increment in resistance is based. When the increment is Rq
Cooling
based on the resistance measured at 0C, then  has the value of 0. At any other Heating
Rq
initial temperature , value of  is  and so on.
R0
As temperature changes, the length and the area also change. But, these changes 0oC
B

l
are very small and the factor A can be treated as constant. Then, R  . So,
240 Principles of Physics - II
 = 0 (1 + ) …(10.24)
Where,  and 0 be the resistivity of the conductor at temperature °C and 0°C respectively. In this
condition,  is also called temperature coefficient of resistivity. Its unit is °C–1 or K–1.

Properties of 
i. The value of temperature coefficient of resistivity of a metal is positive. It means, the resistivity
of the metal increases on heating.
ii. The value of temperature coefficient of resistivity of some alloys like managing and constantan
is about zero. It means the resistivity of these alloys is almost independent of temperature.
Hence, these alloys are used to make the standard resistors.
iii. The value of temperature coefficient of resistivity of semiconductor is negative. It means,
resistivity decreases on heating. Also, the resistivity of electrolytes decreases with increase in
temperature.

10.7 Colour Code for Resistors

Resistor is an essential component of an electric
Brown Black Green Silver
circuit. Carbon resistors are frequently used in
electronic devices, science laboratory and other
many parts in electric circuits. To specify the
value of resistance in a resistor, colour bands
are marked on the surface of resistors as shown
in Fig. 10.9. Different colour bands indicates Carbon resistor
the different numerical values. The numerical
Fig. 10.9: Colour code of resistance
values of colour bands are tabulated below.
There is a specific rule of reading the value of resistance of a resistor. First two colour bands indicate
the resistance value and third one serves as multiplier. For example if a resistor is coded with colours
yellow, green and orange, the numerical value of resistance of that resistor is calculated as, YGO = 45
 103 = 45 k . Also, there is one additional colour (i.e. fourth colour) which gives the tolerance.
Tolerance is the precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example, if a resistor of
resistance 470  with a tolerance of  10%, then it will have value within 10% of 470, i.e., between 470
– 47 = 423  and 470 + 47 = 517 .
Colour Colour code Multiplier Tolerance %
Black 0 10°
Brown 1 101
Red 2 102
Orange 3 103
Yellow 4 104
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106
Violet 7 107
Gray 8 108
White 9 109
Gold 10-1 5
Silver 10-2 10
No colour 20
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  241

Ohmic and non Ohmic conductors I

The conductors whose resistance does not depend on the
variation of voltage and current in them are called ohmic
conductors. These conductors obey Ohm's law. The graph
between voltage and current of ohmic conductor is a straight line.
So, the resistance of such conductors is also called linear
resistance. Metallic conductors like copper, iron, etc. are ohmic
conductors. The characteristic curve (I - V curve) for ohmic
V
conductors is shown in Fig. 10.10.
Fig. 10.10: Nature of ohmic resistance
The conductors whose resistance varies with changing voltage
and current in them are called non-ohmic conductors. These conductors do not obey Ohm's law. The
graph between voltage and current of non-ohmic conductor is a non-linear, so the resistance of such
conductors is called non-linear resistance. Semiconductor diodes, triodes and electrolytes are non-
ohmic conductors. The characteristic curves (I - V curve) for non-ohmic conductors are shown in
Fig.10.11.
I I

V V
(i) Semiconductor diode (ii) Electrolyte
Fig. 10.11: Nature of non-ohmic resistance

10.8 Combinations of Resistors

The connection of two or more resistors in a single circuit is known as combination of resistors. The
combination is basically of two types: series combination and parallel combination.

i. Series Combination of Resistors

The combination of resistors one after another in linear chain such that same current passes through each of
them is known as series combination of resistors. In this combination, electric current in each resistor is
same, and potential difference provided by the source is divided into the resistors in series. So, this
combination is also called as voltage divider combination.
Let R1, R2 and R3 be the resistances of three resistors in series combination as shown in Fig. 10.12. It is
possible to replace these resistances with a single resistance R in any given electric circuit without
changing the potential difference between the terminals of the combination and the current in the
circuit. This resistance of single resistor that represents all resistors in the circuit and draws same
current from the same source is known as equivalent resistance (R).
Let V1, V2 and V3 be the potential difference across the resistors with resistance R1, R2 and R3
respectively. Also, I be the current in each resistor.
V = V1 + V2 + V3 . . . (10.25)
Now from Ohm’s law, we can write,
242 Principles of Physics - II
V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, V3 = IR3
V
Putting these values in equation (10.25), we get,
V = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
 V = I (R1 + R2 + R3) . . . (10.26) I
I
V1 V2 V3
If these resistors are replaced by a single resistor of
resistance R such that same current I flows through it A R1 B R2 C R3 D
when the same potential difference V is applied V
across it, then from Ohm's law, we can write,
R
V = IR . . . (10.27)
Fig. 10.12: Resistors in series
From equations (10.26) and (10.27), we get,
IR = I (R1 + R2 + R3)
 R = R1 + R2 + R3
In general, for n resistors in series, we have,
R = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn . . . (10.28)
Thus, if resistors are connected in series, equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of individual
resistances. R is more than even the maximum among R1, R2, R3, .....Rn.
From (10.28), it is clear that equivalent resistance of series combination is always greater than
individual resistance. So, to increase the resistance in the circuit, resistors are connected in series.
If we consider 'n' number of resistors of equal resistance then, we have,
Requivalent = R + R + R + . . . upto n numbers
 Req. = nR (maximum)
Note
When a no. of resistors connected in series are joined to a terminal of battery, then each resistance has a
different potential difference across its ends, which depends on value of resistance.
V

A
I
I V1
V1 V3 B
V2
V V2
A D C
R1 B R2 C R3
V3
V D

ii. Parallel Combination of Resistors V

The combination of resistors in which one end of each resistors is
connected at a point and another end is connected at another common I I
R1
point such that the combination has common potential difference in each of I1
I2 R2
them is known as parallel combination of resistors. In this combination,
A I3 R3 B
potential difference across each of them is the same and current is
divided among the resistors. V
Let R1, R2 and R3 be the resistances of three resistors in parallel Fig. 10.13: Resistors in parallel

combination as shown in Fig. 10.13. It is possible to replace these

resistances with a single resistance R in any given electric circuit such that the potential difference
across it remains equal to the source, without altering the total current in the circuit. This resistance
of single resistor that represents all the resistors is known as equivalent resistance (R).
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  243
Let I1, I2 and I3 be the electric current through resistors having resistances R1, R2 and R3 respectively.
Since the resistors are combined in parallel, potential difference across each resistor is same.
The total current (I) is the sum of current I1, I2 and I3 through each resistor.
So, I = I1 + I2 + I3 . . . (10.29)
But, the potential difference across each resistance is the same and is equal to the voltage V of battery.
So from Ohm’s law, we have,
V V V
I1 = R , I2 = R and I3 = R
1 2 3

Putting these values in equation, (10.29), we get,

V V V
I=R +R +R
1 2 3

1 1 1
 I = V R + R + R  . . . (10.30)
 1 2 3

If parallel combination of resistors R1, R2, R3 is replaced by an equivalent resistor of resistance R in

such a way that the same current I flows through it when the same potential difference V is applied
across it, then from Ohm's law,
V
 I=R . . . (10.31)

Here, R is called equivalent resistance of R1, R2 and R3.

From equations (10.30) and (10.31), we have,
V 1 1 1 
R = VR1 + R2 + R3 
1 1 1 1
or, R = R1 + R2 + R3
In general for n resistors in parallel, we have,
1 1 1 1
 R = R1 + R2 + . . . + Rn . . . (10.32)

Thus, if resistors are connected in parallel, then reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum
of the reciprocal of individual resistances. The equivalent resistance is less than the smallest
individual resistance, among R1, R2, R3, ......Rn.
From equation (10.32), it is clear that equivalent resistance in parallel combination of resistances is
always less than individual resistance. To decrease the resistance in the circuit, resistors are joined in
parallel.
If we consider ‘n’ number of resistors of equal resistance then,
1 1 1 1
Req. = R + R + R + . . . upto 'n' number.
1 n
or, Req. = R
R
 Req. = n (minimum).

Note
i. Current does not take the path of least resistance. You may have heard a phrase like “current takes the path
of least resistance.” This is a reference to a parallel combination of current paths, such that the current can
244 Principles of Physics - II
take two or more paths. The phrase is incorrect, however, the current takes all paths. Those paths with lower
resistance will have large currents, but even very high-resistance paths will carry some of the current.
ii. To determine the equivalent resistance between A and B in the following ladder circuit.
R R R
A

R R R To infinity

B
R R R
The above circuit is called ladder circuit. In infinitely long ladder circuit, the identical steps of resistors are
repeated. If one complete step of ladder is removed from the ladder, remaining part also gives the same value
of equivalent resistance.
Let R' be the equivalent resistance of the given circuit. The equivalent circuit diagram for the given circuit
is as follows.
R
A

R R'

B
R
RR'
Here, equivalent resistance (R') = R + R + R' + R

10.9 Voltage Divider Circuit

An electric circuit that contains series combination of resistors is V
known as voltage divider circuit. Let R1 and R2 be the resistances
of two resistors, connected in series form as shown in Fig. 10.14. I
In this circuit connection, current I remains constant in each
resistor, but the potential difference V provided by the cell is V1 V2
divided into each resistor. Let V1 and V2 be the potential R1 R2
differences across resistors with resistances R1 and R2
respectively. Fig. 10.14: Voltage divider circuit

Here, equivalent resistance = R = R1 + R2

Total current = I
 Total voltage (V) = I (R1 + R2)
V
 I=R +R (10.33)
1 2

Now, potential difference across R1,

V1 = IR1 (10.34)
Using equation (10.33) in equation (10.34), we get,
V
V1 = R + R  R1
1 2

R1
 V1 = R + R  V
 1 2
Similarly, potential difference across R2,
R2
V2 = R + R  V
 1 2
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  245
It is to be noted that total voltage (V) is the sum of V1 and V2, if internal resistance is negligible.

10.10 Current Divider

An electric circuit that contains parallel combination of resistors is known as current divider circuit.
Let R1 and R2 be the resistances of two resistors, connected in parallel as shown in Fig. 10.15. In this
circuit connection, potential difference V in each resistor remains constant, but the current I is
divided into each path of parallel circuit. Let I1 and I2 be the currents passing through resistors with
resistances R1 and R2 respectively.
Here, equivalent resistance (R) is calculated as,
1 1 1 R1 + R2 V
R = R1 + R2 = R1 R2
R1 R2 I
R =R +R (10.35) R1
1 2
Now, current passing through R1, I1
V
I1 = R
1 I2 R2
IR
= R (10.36) Fig. 10.15: Current divider circuit
1
Using equation (10.35) in equation (10.36), we get,
I R1 R2
I1 = R R + R 
1  1 2
R
 I1 = R + R  I
2
 1 2
Similarly, current passing through R2,
R1
 I2 = R + R  I
 1 2
Total current (I) is the sum of I1 and I2.

10.11 Superconductivity
At low temperatures, certain metals and alloys acquire infinite conductivity (zero resistivity to the
flow of charge). These materials are superconductors. The property of superconductors is called
superconductivity. The temperature below which the special metals exhibit the superconductivity is
known as critical temperature (Tc). Above the critical temperature, the resistivity of the material
follows trend of normal metal, however the resistivity suddenly drops to zero when temperature
approaches to critical temperature. This phenomenon was discovered by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
in 1911. He firstly observed this phenomenon in mercury at a critical temperature of 4.2 K. The
variation of resistivity on changing the temperature for normal metals and superconductors are
shown in Fig. 10.16.
246 Principles of Physics - II

Resistivity

Resistivity
O Temperature O Tc Temperature
(i) (ii)
Fig. 10.16: Resistivity versus temperature graph (i) normal metal, (ii) superconductor
Once electric current is established in a superconductor, electrons flow indefinitely, without any
applied emf. Steady current can be observed even for several years in a superconductor loops
without any observable loss. Since 1987, superconductivity at "high" temperatures (above 100 K) has
been found in a variety of non-metallic compounds. Superconductivity property has not been
observed in gold, silver and pure ferromagnetic materials.
B B
Superconductors show different behaviour than that of
metals in magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force are
pushed out from such materials when placed in the
magnetic field as shown in Fig.10.17. This behaviour was
firstly studied by Meissner and OchsenFeld in 1933, and this
effect is called Meissner effect.

Properties of superconductors T > TC T < TC

1. They behave as strong diamagnetic substance in Fig. 10.17: Diagram of the Meissner effect
magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force are pushed out from the specimen.
2. The resistivity of the materials drop to zero at the critical temperature and show same value of
resistivity below critical temperature.
3. They exhibit Meissner effect.
4. The current in the superconductors persists for very long time.
5. The conductivity of superconductor can be destroyed even below the critical temperature, if it is
placed in strong magnetic field.

Applications of superconductors
1. They are used in very strong magnets.
2. They can be used in ultra fast computer switches.
3. They are applicable to construct the transmission of electric power through superconducting
power lines.
4. They are used in powerful superconducting electromagnets used in Maglev trains, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR).
5. They are used in high sensitive particle detectors like transition edge sensor, superconducting
bolometer, etc.
6. They are used in radio frequency and microwave filters.

Perfect conductors
Perfect conductors are ideal conductors which have zero resitivity. Metals can show zero resistivity
at 0 K temperature, however we can not achieve exactly zero kelvin temperature experimentally.
Hence, the conductor is termed "ideal" conductor. Perfect conductors are not actually super
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  247
conductors. Superconductivity can be obtained above 0 K temperature. There are some basic
differences between perfect conductors and superconductors.
Perfect conductors Superconductors
1. Magnetic field inside the perfect conductor 1. Magnetic field inside the superconductor
has non zero value. is zero.
2. They do not show Meissner effect. 2. They show Meissner effect.
3. Perfect conductivity can be realized in 3. Superconductivity is not observed in noble
noble metals like gold, silver, etc. metals like gold, silver, etc.
4. They are not perfect diamagnetic 4. They are perfect diamagnetic substances.
substances.
5. Temperature should be decreased to 0 K to 5. Superconductors can be made above 0 K,
get a perfect conductor. below critical temperature.

10.12 Electrical Devices

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an electrical device which is used to measure the electric
potential difference between two points in an electric circuit. A voltmeter
is connected in parallel with a device to measure the voltage drop across
it. A properly calibrated voltmeter can display the accurate value of
potential difference of two points in an electric circuit. Display systems of
voltmeter are two types: analog system and digital system. In a analog
voltmeter, the pointer (or needle) of voltmeter is deflected in proportional
to the circuits voltage as shown in Fig. 10.18. A digital voltmeter provides
a numerical display. Voltmeter has a high resistance so that it should not Fig. 10.18: Voltmeter
draw an appreciable amount of current towards it. Hence, it gives the accurate value.

Ammeter
An ammeter is an electrical device which is used to measure the electric
current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence
the device is named 'ammeter' (or ampere meter). It is connected in series
with the circuit. Ammeter can be analog and digital. It measures direct
and alternating current. The internal resistance of an ammeter is very
small so that it may not change the value of current flowing in the circuit.
In ac circuit, a current transformer converts the magnetic field around a
conductor into a alternating current. The diagram of ammeter is shown in Fig. 10.19: Ammeter
Fig.10.19. Ammeter should have much small resistance so that by
connecting it to the circuit, the current flowing through the circuit should not change.

Rheostat T3
Rheostat is an electrical instrument
used to control current by varying the
resistance. The value of resistance can
be varied by sliding its key. Rheostat
consists of three terminals in which two T1 T2

Fig. 10.20: Rheostat

Fig. 10.21: Multimeter

248 Principles of Physics - II
are fixed and connected at two ends of resistive element, called track and another one is the variable
terminal connected to the sliding wiper or slider. Resistance of rheostat depends on the length of the
resistive track. The wiper that moves along the resistive element varies the resistance of the rheostat.
The resistance of the rheostat is changed when the wiper is moved over the resistive path. The
resistive element of the rheostat is made of a coil of wire or a thin carbon film as shown in Fig.10.20.

Multimeter
A multimeter is an electronic measuring device that combines several measurement functions in one
unit. A typical multimeter measures current, voltage and resistance. Multimeters are also analog and
digital. The diagram of an analog multimeter is shown in Fig.10.21.

Galvanometer
Galvanometer is an electrical device which detects the presence of
current in a circuit. It does not measure directly the quantity of current
and voltage, but can be converted into current and voltage measuring
devices after suitable modification. It means, galvanometer can be
converted into an ammeter and voltmeter, connecting the suitable
resistors in it. It is denoted in circuit by G .
Fig. 10.22: Galvanometer

Shunt
A very small resistance connected in parallel to the galvanometer is called a shunt. It is denoted by S.
The shunt serves to reduce the internal resistance of an ammeter. Therefore, the ammeter can be
connected in series in electric circuit without altering the value of total current. Moreover, it prevents
the galvanometer from over heating.

Multiplier
A very high resistance connected in series to the galvanometer is called a multiplier. It is denoted by
R. The multiplier serves to increase the internal resistance of a voltmeter.

i. Conversion of a galvanometer into an ammeter

Ammeter is current measuring device. It is connected in the series of an electric circuit.
To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter, a resistor of very small resistance, called shunt, is
connected in parallel with the galvanometer. The galvanometer, is a low resistance device, but the
resistance is not negligibly small. When large current is passed through the galvanometer, the large
amount of heat is generated in it. So, the internal resistance of galvanometer must be reduced so that
heat generated in it would not harm it. So, the first requisite is to reduce the heat appreciably. The
shunt, very small resistance combined in parallel, when connected parallel to the galvanometer
reduces the resistance without appreciably reducing the current in the circuit. The value of resistance
in the shunt determines the range of ammeter (0 – I). The value of shunt is so adjusted that most of
current passes through the shunt. The circuit diagram of the combination of galvanometer and shunt
is shown in Fig. 10.23.
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  249

Galvanometer

G
+ – = A

S Ammeter Ammeter
Shunt

Fig. 10.23: Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter

Let G be the internal resistance of the galvanometer. A suitable resistance having very small value,
shunt (S), is connected in parallel with the galvanometer as shown in Fig. 10.23. The total current, I in
the circuit is divided into two parts, through the galvanometer and through the shunt. Let Ig be the
maximum current through the galvanometer which gives the full scale deflection in it and the
remaining current (I – Ig) (>> Ig), is passed through the shunt. Although, very small current Ig passes
through the galvanometer, the deflection in it provides the equivalent value of the total current I.
Since, the galvanometer and shunt are connected parallel to each-other, the potential difference
across the galvanometer is equal to the potential difference across the shunt. Therefore,
(I – Ig) S = IgG
Ig
 S = I – I G …(10.37)
 g
Knowing the value of Ig, I and G, the value of shunt can be determined.

i. Internal Resistance of Ammeters

In the conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter, shunt(S) is connected in parallel with
galvanometer of resistance (G). So, the equivalent resistance (Ra) for the ammeter is,
Ra = S  G
SG
Ra = S + G …(10.38)

This shows that, the resistance of ammeter is even smaller than the resistance of shunt (S).

ii. Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter

Voltmeter measures the potential difference across the electric components in an electric circuit. It is
connected in parallel with an electric circuit.
To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter, a very high resistance, called multiplier, is connected in
series with the galvanometer. The internal resistance of the voltmeter should be made very high so
that very small current is allowed to pass through it. This makes the large current to pass through
the load resistance, and hence achieve the high efficiency of the circuit. The circuit diagram of the
series combination of galvanometer and multiplier is shown in Fig. 10.24. It should be noted that
voltmeter is connected in parallel circuit, but a high resistance is connected in series with
galvanometer for the conversion purpose.
250 Principles of Physics - II

Multiplier
Ig
R
G = V

Voltmeter
V
Voltmeter

Fig. 10.24: Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter

Let G be the internal resistance of the galvanometer. A suitable resistance of very high value,
multiplier (R), is connected in series with the galvanometer as shown in Fig. 10.24. Let Ig be the
maximum value of current through the galvanometer. The potential difference (V) of the
combination of G and R is
V = Ig (G + R)
Where, R = resistance of additional resistor (i.e. multiplier)
V
G+R =I
g

V
R =I –G …(10.39)
g

Knowing the values of V, Ig and G, the suitable value of R is determined.

Internal resistance of voltmeter

In the conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter, a large resistance R, is connected in series with
galvanometer of internal resistance (G). So, the resistance of voltmeter, Rv is,
Rv = R + G
Obviously, the internal resistance of voltmeter is greater than the resistance of multiplier. In an ideal
voltmeter, the internal resistance is considered infinity.

Tips for MCQs

dq Ne
1. i. Electric current (I) = dt = t , where N is total number of charge particles.
ii. The unit of I is ampere (A), 1 A = 1 Cs–1
In 1 A current, 6.25 × 1018 electrons flow per unit time which is equivalent to 3 × 109 stat
ampere.
iii. It is a scalar quantity, even though the conventional direction of current is shown from positive
terminal to negative terminal of cell.
2. Electric conduction is defined quantitatively as,
I = nevdA
Where, vd is drift velocity of electron.
The drift velocity of electron in a conductor:
V
i. is directly proportional to the electric field, E into the conductor, i.e. vd  E  = l  , where V is
 
the potential difference across the conductor and l is the length of conductor.
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  251
ii. depends upon nature of conductor and electric field applied across the conductor.
iii. is about 10–4 ms–1 and value of relaxation time is about 10–14 second.
3. Electrical conduction is due to the drift of:
i. electrons in a conductor.
ii. free electrons and holes in a semiconductor.
iii. positive and negative ions in an electrolyte.
iv. electrons and ions in gases in gas discharge tubes.
4. Current density (J):
I
i. Vector quantity, J = A = nevd
→ →
ii. I = J  A = JA cos , where  is the angle made by small cross sectional area A with the direction
of current.
5. Resistance and conductance:
l m
i. Resistance (R) =  A and  = 2
ne 
Where,  is relaxation time, m is mass of electron, n is the electron density and e is magnitude of
electronic charge.
ii. The resistivity depends on temperature and nature of conductor.
1
iii. The reciprocal of resistance (R) is conductance (G), G = R and the reciprocal of resistivity () is
1
conductivity (),  = .

iv. The unit of resistance is ohm () and the unit of conductance is siemen or mho.
v. The unit of resistivity is ohm-meter and the unit of conductivity is (ohm-meter)–1 or Siemens per
meter.
6. Combination of resistors:
i. Series combination: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + …
1 1 1 1
ii. Parallel combination, R = R + R + R + …
1 2 3

iii. The equivalent resistance of n equal resistors of equal resistance (r) when connected in series is
R = nr.
iv. The equivalent resistance of n equal resistors of equal resistance (r) when connected in parallel,
r
R=n.
v. The ratio of n identical resistors of equal resistance when connected in series to parallel is,
Rseries
Rparallel = n
2

7. Variation of resistance with temperature:

i. The resistance at ºC is,
R = R0(1 + ), where R0 = resistance of conductor at 0ºC
 = temperature coefficient of resistance
ii. The unit of  is °C–1 or K–1.
iii. To find the temperature coefficient of resistance, the resistance at 0ºC is taken as reference. So,
R – R0 R – R0
= =
R0( – 0) R0
If R1 is the resistance at 1°C and R2 is the resistance at 2°C, then
252 Principles of Physics - II
R1 = R0 (1 + 1) and
R2 = R0 (1 + 2)
R2 – R1
Solving, we get,  = (Solution is quite tricky)
R12 – R21
iv. The value of  is:
a. positive for a conductor
b. negative for a semiconductor
c. for alloys like manganin and constantan, it is negligibly small,   0. So, they are used to
make standard resistances.
d. zero in superconductors.
8. Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter
GS
i. Internal resistance of ammeter is very small, Ra = G + S

Ig G
ii. Value of shunt is, S = I – I
g

9. Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter:

i. Internal resistance is very large; RV = R + G
V
ii. Value of multiplier, R = I – G
g

10. Unit and dimension of some physical quantities.

Physical Quantity Symbol Dimensions Unit Remark
Electric Current I [A] A SI base unit
Charge Q or q [T A] C
Voltage, Electric potential Work
V [M L2 T–3 A–1] V
difference charge
Work
Electromotive force E [M L2 T–3 A–1] V
charge
V
Resistance R [M L2 T–3 A–1]  R= I
l
Resistivity  [M -1 T–3 A–2] m R=A
1
Electrical conductivity  [M -1 L–3 T3 A2] S =

Electric force
Electric field E [M L T–3 A–1] Vm–1
charge
I
Drift speed vd [L T–1] ms–1 vd = neA
current
Current density J [L–2 A] Am–2
area

Worked Out Problems

1. A 3  and 6  resistors are connected in parallel and the combination is connected series with 8 
resistors. Calculate the equivalent resistance and total current in the circuit if a cell of 2 V is
connected in the circuit.
SOLUTION
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  253

Using the informations given in the question, an  R = 10 .

electric circuit can be drawn, which is shown in Equivalent resistance = 10 
figure below. V 2
Here, Now, total current (I) = R = 10 = 0.2 A
Potential difference, V = 2 V  Total current in the circuit is 0.2 A.
R1 = 3  2V
R2 = 6  I
R3 = 8 
Equivalent resistance (R) = (R1|| R2) + R3
3
R1 R2
= R + R + R3
1 2
8
3×6
= 3 + 6 + 8 = 2 + 8 = 10  6

2. Two resistance of 1000  and 3000  are connected in series with 200 V main supply. What will be
the reading in voltmeter of internal resistance 1000  when placed across the 1000  resistance?
SOLUTION
The appropriate circuit design using the given information is shown in figure below.
Here,
V = 200 V
R1 = 1000 
R2 = 3000 
RV = 1000 
When voltmeter is connected across 1000  resistor, the resistance between A and B is,
RAB = R1 || RV 200 V
R1 RV 1000 × 1000 I
= R + R = 1000 + 1000 = 500 
1 V

Now, equivalent resistance of the circuit,

R = RAB + RBC A 1000  B
= 500 + 3000 = 3500  3000  C

V 200
Total current (I) = R = 3500 = 0.057 A V

1000 
Now, voltmeter reading gives the voltage across A and B, i.e.
VAB = IRAB = 0.057 × 500 = 28.5 V
3. A cell of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance is connected in series with two resistors of
resistance 100  and 200 . Calculate the potential drop across each resistor.
SOLUTION
the electric circuit design in accordance with the given information is given below.
Here, 12 V
V = 12 V I
R1 = RAB = 100 
R2 = RBC = 200 
Equivalent resistance (R) = R1 + R2 = 100 + 200 = 300  A B C
V 12 100  200 
Total current in the circuit (I) = R = 300 = 0.04 A

Now, potential difference across 100  resistor,

VAB = IRAB = 0.04 × 100 = 4 V
254 Principles of Physics - II
The potential difference across 200  resistor
VBC = IRBC = 0.04 × 200 = 8 V
4. A moving coil galvanometer of resistance 10  produces full scale deflection when a current of 25
mA flows through it. How will you convert it into:
a. a voltmeter of range (0 - 120 V)
b. an ammeter of range (0 - 20 A)
SOLUTION
Given,
Resistance of galvanometer (G) = 10 
Current in galvanometer (Ig) = 25 mA = 0.025 A
a. For a voltmeter range (0 – 120 V)
V = 120 V
Series resistance (R) = ?
We have,
V 120
R = I – G = 0.025 – 10 = 4800 – 10 = 4790 
g

b. For an ammeter range (0 - 20 A)

I = 20 A
Shunt (S) = ?
Ig 0.025
We have, S = I – I × G = 20 – 0.025 × 10 = 0.0125 
g

5. A Silver wire 2.6 mm in diameter transfers a charge of 420 C in 80 min. Silver contains 5.8  1028
free electrons per cubic meter. (a) What is the current in the wire? (b) What is the magnitude of the
drift velocity of the electrons in the wire?
SOLUTION
Given, We know that
Diameter (d) = 2.6 mm 2.6  10–3 m I
vd = neA
Charge (Q) = 420 C
Time (t) = 80 min. = 80  60 s.
=
I ∵ A = d2
d  4
ne 4 
2
density of electrons (n) = 5.8  1028 m–3
a. Current in the wire (I) = ?  
We know that 9 × 10–2
= 3.14 × (2.6 × 10–3)2
5.8 × 1028 × 1.6 × 10–19 
Q 420
∵ I = t = 80 × 60 = 9  10–2 A.  4 
b. Drift velocity (vd) = ? = 1.8  10–6 ms–1

6. When a wire carries a current of 1.20 A, the drift velocity is 1.20  10–4 ms–1. What is the drift velocity
when the current is 6.00 A?
SOLUTION
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  255
In the first case, Again,
Current (I) = 1.2 A I'
vd' = nAe
Drift velocity of (vd) = 1.20 × 10–4 ms–1
We know that, Dividing (ii) by (i), we get
I vd' I'
vd = nAe . . . (i) vd = I
In the second case, I' 6
or vd' = I × vd = 1.2 × 1.20 × 10–4 = 6 × 10–4 ms–1
Current (I') = 6 A
Drift velocity (vd') = ?

7. The potential difference between points in a wire 75.0 cm apart is 0.938 V when the current density
→
is 4.40  107 Am–2. What is (a) the magnitude of E in the wire? (b) The resistivity of the material of
which the wire is made?
SOLUTION
Given,  E = 1.25 Vm–1
Potential difference (V) = 0.938 V b. Resistivity () = ?
Length (l) = 75.0 cm = 75.0  10– 2 m We know that
Current density (J) = 4.40  107 Am–2 E = J
a. Electric field (E) = ? E 1.25
  = J = 4.40 × 107
We know that,
V 0.938   = 2.84  10– 8 m
E = l = 75.0 × 10–2

9. A Copper transmission cable 100 km long and 10.0 cm in diameter carries a current of 125 A. (a)
What is the potential drop across the cable? (b) How much electrical energy is dissipated as thermal
energy every hour? [ = 1.72  10– 8 m]
SOLUTION
Given,
Length (l) = 100 km = 100  103 m
Diameter (d) = 10 cm = 10  10– 2 m
Current (I) = 125 A
Time (t) = 1 hr = 3600 s
a. Potential drop (V) = ? 100 × 103
b. Energy (E) = ? = 125 × 1.72 × 10–8 ×

4(10 × 10 )
–2 2
Now,
a. V = I R = 27.4 V.
l
= I.  A ∵ R =  l  And,
 A
b. E = P t
l d
∵ A = 2
= I = V I t [∵ P = V I ]
d
  2  4
= 27.4  125  3600 = 12.3  106 J
 4
10. The resistance of a galvanometer coil is 9.36 , and the current required for full scale deflection is
0.0224 A. We want to convert this galvanometer to an ammeter reading 20 A full scale. The only
shunt available has a resistance of 0.025 . What resistance must be connected in series with the
coil?
SOLUTION
256 Principles of Physics - II
Given, 20 – 0.0224
=
0.0224 × 0.025 – 9.36 = 12.94 
Galvanometer resistance (G) = 9.36 
Galvanometer current (Ig) = 0.0224 A  12.94  resistance is needed to connect across
Full scale current (I) = 20 A coil to make it ammeter.
Shunt resistance (S) = 0.025  I Ig r
Additional resistance (r) = ? G
Now,
I – Ig
P.D. across (G + r) = P.D. cross (S)
Ig (G + r) = (I – Ig) S
I – Ig S
or, r = I .S–G
g

11. Determine the equivalent resistance between A and B in the following circuit.
5 5 5
A

5 5 5 To infinity

B
5 5 5
SOLUTION
This type of circuit is called ladder circuit. In infinitely long ladder circuit, the identical steps of
resistances are repeated. If one complete step of ladder is removed from the ladder, remaining part
also gives the same value of equivalent resistance.
Let R be the equivalent resistance of the given circuit. The equivalent circuit diagram for the given
circuit is as follows.
5
A

5 R

B
5
5R
Here, equivalent resistance (R) = 5 + 5 + R + 5
5R
 R = 10 + 5 + R
R(5 + R) = 10(5 + R) + 5R
5R + R2 = 50 + 15R 10  300 10  17.32
R= =
 R2 – 10R – 50 = 0 2 2
 Using the solution of quadratic equation, 10 + 17.32
 The valid resistance is, R = 2
– (–10)  (–10)2 – 4 × 1 × (–50)
R= 2×1 = 13.67 

12. [HSEB 2071] Consider the figure below. The current through 6  resistor is 4 A in the direction
shown. What are the currents through the 25  and 20  resistors?
SOLUTION
Since R1 and R2 are parallel
P.D. across R1 = P.D. across R2 R1=6
I1= 4 A 25
I1 × R1 = I2 × R2
4 × 6 = 8 × I2 A 8 C
R3
I2 = 3 A I2 R2
Total current through path AC = 4 + 3 = 7 A 20 
B D
R4
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  257
So, current through 25  is 7 A.
6× 8 48
Now, RAC = R1||R2 + R3 = 6 + 8 + 25 = 14 + 25 = 28.43 
Since RAC and RBD are parallel.
P.d..across RAC = P.d. across R4
28.43 × 7 = 20 × I4
28.43 × 7
or, I4 = 20 = 9.95 A
 I4 = 9.95 A
13. [HSEB 2073] An electric lamp consumes 60 W at 220 V. How many dry cells of emf 1.5 V and
internal resistance 1  are required to glow the lamp?
SOLUTION
Given, R = 806.75 
R
Power (P) = 60 W. And,
E.M. F of cell (E) = 1.5 V nE
I = R + nr E, r
Internal resistance (r) = 1 
No. of cell (n) = ? n × 1.5
0.28 = 806.75 + n
We have,
P = IV or, 220 + 0.28 × n = n × 1.5
60 = I × 220 or, 220 = 1.23 × n
I = 0.28 A 220
or, n = 1.23
Again,
V = IR = 179
200 = 0.28 × R  no. of cell = 179
14. A copper wire has a diameter of 1.02 mm and carries a constant current of 1.67A. If the density of
free electrons in copper is 8.51028/m3, calculate the current density and the drift velocity of the
electrons.
SOLUTION
Given, Drift velocity (vd) = ?
Diameter of copper wire (d) = 1.02 mm The cross-sectional area of wire,
= 1.02  10–3 m d2   (1.02  10–3)2
A= =
Current (I) = 1.67 A 4 4
Electron density (n) = 8.5  1028/m3 = 8.17  10–7 m2
Current density (J) = ?

Now, 2.04  106

=
I 8.5  1028  1.6  10–19
Current density (J) = A
= 1.5  10–4 ms–1
1.67 Therefore, the current density is 2.04  106
= = 2.04  106 A/m2
8.17  10–7 A/m2 and drift velocity is 1.5  10–4 ms–1.
J
Also, Drift velocity (vd) = ne

15. [HSEB 2069] The resistance of a conductor is 10 ohm at 50ºC and 15 ohm at 100ºC. Calculate its
resistance at 0ºC.
SOLUTION
258 Principles of Physics - II
Given, R100 1 + 100
 R50 = 1 + 50
Temperature (t) = 50º C
Resistance (R50) = 10  15 1 + 100
or, 10 = 1 + 50
at 100ºC, R100 = 15 
at 0ºC, R0 = ? or, 15 + 750 = 10 + 1000
We know, or, 5 = 250 
R = R0 (1 + ) [ = temp. coefficient of resista or,  = 0.02 K–1
so,  R50 = R0 (1 +  50)
R50 = R0 (1 +   50) 10 = R0 (1 + 0.02 × 50)
and 10 = R0 (1 + 1)
R100 = R0 (1 +   100)  R0 = 5 

16. [NEB 2075] Two resistance of 1000  and 2000  are placed in series with 50 V mains supply. What
will be the reading on a voltmeter of internal resistance 2000  when placed across the 1000 
resistor? What fractional change in voltage occurs when voltmeter is connected?
SOLUTION
Given, P.d. across 1000 = I .Rab
R1 = 1000  = 0.01875 × 666.7
R2 = 2000  = 12.5 V
E = 50 V P.d. across 1000  before connecting the
Internal Resistance of Voltmeter (RV) = 2000 V 1000
voltmeter, = 3000 × 50 = 16.67
Now,
1000 × 2000 16.67 – 12.5
Rab = 1000 + 2000 = 666.7 Fraction change in voltage = 16.67 = 0.25

Total resistance, R = Rab + Rbc × 10% = 25% V

2000 
= 666.7 + 2000
= 2666.7 a 1000  b 2000  c
E 50
Total current in the circuit, I = R = 2666.7
= 0.01875 A 50 V
17. [HSEB 2058] In the given circuit, calculate the potential difference between the points B and D.
SOLUTION
Given, 6V

Emf of cell (E) = 6 V

Potential difference between B and D,
(VBD ) = ? 6 B
12

Total resistance RAC = (6 + 12)  (6 + 12) A



C
= 18  18 12 D 6

18 × 18 Now,
= 18 + 18 = 9  1
VAB = 3 × 6 = 2 V
E 6 2
Total current in the circuit (I) = R = 9 = 3 A 1
AC
VAD= 3 × 12 = 4 V
1 1
Then, IAB = 3 and IAD = 3
 VBD = VAD – VAB
=4–2=2V
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  259

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] Copper has 8.5  1028 free electrons per cubic meter. A 71.0 cm length of 12-gauge Copper wire,
that is 2.05 mm in diameter, carries 4.85 A current. How much time does it take for an electron to
travel the length of the wire?
Ans: 109.5 min
2. [UP] A metallic wire has a diameter of 4.12 mm. When the current in the wire is 8.00 A, the drift
velocity is 5.40  10–5 ms–1. What is the density of free electrons in the metal?
Ans: 6.94  1028 electrons/m3
3. [UP] A Copper wire has a square cross section 2.3 mm on a side. The wire is 4.0 m long and carries a
current of 3.6 A. The density of free electrons is 8.5  1028 m–3. Find the magnitudes of (a) the current
density in the wire; (b) the electric field in the wire. (c) How much time is required for an electron to
travel the length of the wire? [ = 1.72  10–8 m]
Ans: (a) 8.67 × 106 Am–2 (b) 0.149 V/m (c) 1.75 hr
4. [UP] In an experiment conducted at room temperature, a current of 0.820 A flows through a wire 3.26
mm in diameter. Find the magnitude of the electric field in the wire if the wire is made of (a)
tungsten; (b) aluminum. [t = 5.25  10– 8  m; Al = 2.75  10–8  m]
Ans: (a) 5.16 × 10–3 Vm–1 (b) 2.70 × 10–3 N/m
5. [UP] What diameter must a Copper wire have if its resistance is to be the same as that of an equal
length of aluminum wire diameter 3.26 mm? [ c = 1.72  10– 8  m, a= 2.75  10– 8  m]
Ans: 2.58 × 10–3 m
6. [UP] You need to produce a set of cylindrical Copper wire 3.50 m long that will have a resistance of
0.125  each. What will be the mass of each of these wires? [c = 1.72  10– 8 m, Density of Copper
wire (D) = 8.9  103 kgm– 3]
Ans: 0.015 kg
7. [UP] An aluminum cube has a side length of 1.80 m. What is the resistance between two opposite
faces of the cube? [ = 2.75  10– 8 m]
Ans: 1.53 × 10–8 
8. [UP] You apply a potential difference of 4.50 V between the ends of a wire that is 2.50 m in length
and 0.654 mm in radius. The resulting current through the wire is 17.6 A. What is the resistivity of the
wire?
Ans: 1.37 × 10–7 m

9. [UP] A current carrying gold wire has diameter 0.84 mm. The electric field in the wire is 0.49 V/m.
What is (a) The current carried by the wire? (b) The potential difference between two points in the
wire 6.4 m apart? (c) The resistance of a 6.4 m length of the wire? [ = 2.44  10– 8 m]
Ans: (a) 11.12 a (b) 3.13 v (c) 0.281 

10. [UP] What is the resistance of a Nichrome wire at 0.0oC if its resistance is 100.00  at 11.5oC?
[ = 0.0004oC–1]
Ans: 99.54 

11. [UP] A strand of wire has resistance 5.60 . Find the net resistance of 120 such strands if they are (a)
placed side by side to form a cable of the same length as a single strand; (b) connected end to end to
form a wire 120 times as long as a single strand.
Ans: (a) 4.67 × 10–8  (b) 6.72 × 10–4 
12. [UP] A 32  and a 20  resistor are connected in parallel, and the combination is connected across a
240 V d.c. line. (a) What is the resistance of the parallel combination? (b) What is the total current
through the parallel combination? (c) What is the current trough each resistor?
Ans: (a) 12.3  (b) 19.5 a (c) 7.5 a and 12 a
13. [UP]A 150 V voltmeter has a resistance of 30,000 . When connected in series with a large resistance
R across a 110 V line, the meter reads 68 V. Find the resistance R.
Ans: 18.6 × 103 
14. [ALP] A thin film resistor in a solid-state circuit has a thickness of 1 m and is made of nichrome of
resistively 10–6 m. Calculate the resistance available between opposite edges of a 1 mm2 area of film
260 Principles of Physics - II
a. If it is square shaped
b. If it is rectangular, 20 times as long as it is wide Ans:(a) 1  (b) 0.05 
15. [ALP] Two resistors of 1200  and 800  are connected in series with a battery of emf 24 V and
negligible internal resistance as in figure (i). What is the potential difference across each resistor? A
voltmeter V of resistance 600  is now connected firstly across the 1200  resistor as shown, and then
across the 800  resistor. Find the potential difference recorded by the voltmeter in each case.
E E E

I R1 R2 I R1 I R1
R2 R2

(i) v v
(ii) (iii)
Rv Rv

Ans: 14.4 V, 9.6 V, 8 V, 5.33 V

16. [ALP] A moving coil meter has a resistance of 25  and indicates full scale deflection when a current
of 4.0 mA passes through it. How could this meter be converted to a milliammeter having a full scale
deflection for a current of 50 mA? Ans: 2.17 

[Note: Hits to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel to an emf source that has negligible internal resistance.
What happens to the current through R1 when R2 is removed from the circuit? [NEB 2074]
 In the given circuit design, the resistors of resistances R1 and R2 are connected parallel and are
directly connected to the source of emf E. Since the internal resistance of the cell is negligible, both
resistors possess the potential difference individually equal to the emf of the source. So, in first case,
E
total current through R1 is R . When R2 is removed from the circuit, total emf across R1 is still E.
1
E
Hence, the current through R1 is again R . Hence the current does not vary, although the circuit
1
design is changed.
2. Ammeters often contain fuses that protect them from large currents while voltmeter seldom do.
Explain.
 Ammeter is connected in series in an electric circuit. It has very low internal resistance. Hence, large
current may flow through the ammeter. Due to these reasons, high heat may be generated in it and
may have the chance of burning. Hence, to protect from damaging, fuses are connected in it.
However, a voltmeter is connected parallel in an electric circuit and has high resistance, so much less
current flows through it. So, it is almost free from such heating effect.
3. A steady current is flowing in a cylindrical conductor, Is there any electric field within the
conductor?
 Yes. Two ends of a cylindrical conductor acts as two parallel plate capacitors. The free electrons
between two ends of that conductor move under the electric field provided by external power
supply, connected at two ends of the conductor.
4. Will the drift velocity of electrons change if the diameter of a connecting wire is halved? Why?
(HSEB 2073)
 The electric current in a conductor is,
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  261

I = nevd A d1
I When diameter is halved, i.e. d2 = 2
 vd = neA
2
At constant current, for first case, d1
I
v1 2
v1 = neA and v2 = 2
1 d1
For second case,
v1 1
I
v2 = neA v2 = 4
2
v1 A2  v2 = 4v1
 v =A Therefore, drift velocity is increased by 4
2 1
2 times when diameter is halved.
d2
2
v1 4 d2
v2 = d21 = d21
4
5. Why don't we consider the drift velocity of positive ions?
 Electric field into the conductor influences not only the free electrons, but also the positive ions into
it. But, positive ions are relatively heavier than the electrons and they also bind tightly into the atoms,
so that the movement of positive ions is approximately impossible. Therefore, the drift velocity of
positive ions is almost zero.
6. Two copper wires of different diameters are joined end to end. If a current flows in the wire
combination, what happens to the drift velocity of the electrons when they move from the large-
diameter to the smaller-diameter wire?
 The electric current in metallic conduction, I = vdenA
When two wires are joined in series, they pass equal current, although they have different diameters.
So,
I 1
vd = en . A
 
1 d2
 vd  A and A = 4

It means drift velocity is smaller in larger diameter wire. So, the drift velocity of electrons increases
when they move from larger-diameter to smaller diameter wire.
7. An electric current move along the length of conductor. If so, why it is not the vector quantity?
 To be vector quantity, the physical quantity must follow the rules of vector addition and
multiplication. However, ordinary algebra is sufficient to add the electric current and laws of vector
addition do not apply to add of electric currents.
8. What is the cause of resistance of a conductor?
 The conductor contains ions and atoms. As the electrons are charge particles, they interacts with
electrons, ions and atoms. While drifting, these free electrons collide with the ions, other free
electrons and atoms of the conductor. Then, the motion is opposed during the collisions. This is the
primary cause of resistance in a conductor.
9. Two wires of equal lengths, one of copper and the other of manganin have the same resistance.
Which wire will be thicker?
l
 The resistance, R =  A

l1
i. For copper, R1 = 1 A
1
262 Principles of Physics - II
l2
ii. For manganin, R2 = 2 A
2

Here, given that the wires of equal length have equal resistance, l1 = l2 and R1 = R2, so
1 2
A1 = A2
A2 2
A1 = 1
Since, the resistivity of manganin is greater than copper, 2 > 1.
Then, A2 > A1.
Therefore, manganin wire is thicker than the copper wire.
10. Why don't the free electrons is a metal fall to the bottom of the metal due to the gravity?
 Free electrons are distributed almost uniformly throughout the conductor due to the electrostatic
interactions with the ions and atoms. The electrostatic force between two charge particles is much
greater than the gravitational attraction of earth. So, they donot fall from the conductor, although
they are free.
11. The charges in a conductor are supposed to reside on the surface, then why don't the free electrons
all go to the surface?
 The charges reside on the surface only when a conductor possesses excess electrons or deficit of
electrons i.e. it happens only when the conductor is charged. But conductor is not charged, when
current flows through it. The electrons are influenced by the atoms in a conductor, so they do not
come on the surface. They can be distributed throughout the volume of conductor.
12. Name three materials used for making standard resistance. Give reason, Why they are suitable?
 Standard resistances are usually, made with alloys. For examples Manganin, constantan and
nicrome. These alloys are suitable because of the reasons that (i) they possess high resistivity (ii) they
have low temperature coefficient of resistance and have high melting point.
13. When resistors are connected in series the effective resistance is increased. Why?
 When resistors are connected in series, there is the increase in "effective length". Since resistance
varies directly as the length, effective resistance is increased.
14. Write two applications of superconductivity.
 Two important applications of superconductivity are:
i. No power is lost when electrical signals are passed through it.
ii. It is used to developed extremely high speed computers.
15. Write the dimension of electrical conductivity.
 Electrical conductivity () is the reciprocal of resistivity (). i.e.
1 l
= =
 RA
[L]
Now, dimension, [] = [ML2T–3A–2] [L2] = [M–1L–3T3A]

Therefore, the dimension of conductivity is [M–1L–3T3A].

16. What is the difference between resistance and resitivity of a wire?
 Resistance is the variable quantity even for a material at the same physical condition. It is determined
from the ratio of potential difference applied across two ends of a conductor to the current flowing
through it. Resistance depends on shape, size and also on the nature of its material. Resistivity is the
resistance offered by a conductor of unit length per unit cross sectional area. It depends on the nature
of the material and on the physical conditions like temperature and pressure.
17. What is the value of resistance of a resistor of colour coding of red, red and orange,
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  263
 The colour code of red and orange are 2 and 3 respectively. So, Applying the rule of coding pattern,
we have, 22  103 = 22 k.
18. The current flowing through a conductor is 2 mA at 50 V and 4 mA at 80 V. Is it an ohmic or non-
ohamic conductor?
 The resistance of the conductor in two cases are,
i. For I = 2 mA and V = 50 V
V 50
R= I = = 25  103  = 25 k 
2  10–3
and for I = 4 mA and V = 80 V,
V 80
R= I = = 20  103 = 20 k
4  10–3
As the resistance changes with current, the given conductor is non ohmic.
19. Though same current flows through the electric line wires, and the bulb filament, yet only the
filament glows. Why?
 The dissipation of electric energy not only depends on current, it also depends on the resistance of
the conductor used, i.e. H = I2Rt. The filament has high resistance, but the electric line wires in the
electric circuit have negligibly small resistance (i.e. R  0). So, the current passing through the high
resistance filament produces a large amount of energy into light (and heat also). Hence it makes
glow.
20. How will you convert galvanometer into ammeter?
 A very small resistance, called shunt, is connected in parallel with the galvanometer to convert it into
an ammeter. The very small resistance, when connected with galvanometer, bypass as the current
through low resistance region without altering the deflection in galvanometer as it whole current
passes through it. So, ammeter can measure the total value of current in the circuit with minimum
loss of electric power.
21. Voltmeters are always connected in parallel in an electric circuit, why?
 Voltmeter measures the potential difference of two points in an electric circuit, usually across the
resistor and terminals of a cell. It is easily understood that this device measures difference of
potential, it means two points should be taken as reference to find the difference. As we know,
electric potential is considerably difference at two ends of a resistor. Connection at two ends
automatically makes the parallel with resistor or cell. For the efficient circuit, the power loss at the
voltmeter should be minimized. To minimize the power loss in voltmeter, high resistance is
connected in series to the galvanometer so that the current passing through it is negligibly small.
22. Ammeters are always connected in series in an electric circuit. Why?
 Ammeters are current measuring device. Actually, deflection in ammeter occurs due to the amount
of charge passing through per second in an electric circuit. To detect the total charge flow through a
certain cross section of wire, it must be connected in series, otherwise it can detect the partial value.
The internal resistance of ammeter is made very small so that there is negligible loss of electric power
in it.
23. How do you convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter?
 Voltmeter measures the potential different of two points in an electric circuit. To convert a
galvanometer into voltmeter, high resistor of large resistance (called multiplier) is connected in series
with galvanometer. The high resistance series with galvanometer makes the very high internal
resistance of the voltmeter.
The high value of resistance in voltmeter prevents from appreciable loss of electric power in it.
24. In a conductor, large number of electrons are free to move in it, but why no current is detected?
 There are many free electrons moving in a conductor even though no electric source is connected
across it, but these free electrons move randomly so, net flow of these charge particles (electrons) in a
specified direction is zero. Hence, the net current in the conductor is zero. If an electric source is
264 Principles of Physics - II
connected across the end of a conductor, the motion of charge particles is specific, hence the current
is detected.
25. What is specific resistance (resistively) ? What is its unit?
 The resistance of a conductor is
l
R=A

For l = 1 m, and A = 1 m2, R = ,  is known as specific resistance (resistivity)

Therefore the specific resistance (or resistivity) is defined as the total resistance of a conductor of unit
length and unit cross sectional area. It is constant for a conductor at constant temperature, its unit is
ohm meter (m).
26. A metallic conductor is stretched to double of its original length. What would be the resistance and
resistivity of the conductor?
 When a conductor is stretched, its length increases and the diameter decreases, but volume remain
same.
l
In initial condition, R = A … (i)
l'
For l'= 2l, R’ = A'

Since the volume remains unchanged,

Al = A'l'
A
 A' = 2 .

2l
So, R' =  A/2

4l
R' =  A … (ii)

Now, dividing equation (ii) by equation (i), we get

4l
A
R'
R= l
A
R'
R =4
 R' = 4R
This shows that the resistance is increased by four times the initial value.
The resistivity of a material depends on the nature of material and its temperature, it remains
constant in the given situation.
27. Differentiate between Ohmic and non Ohmic conductors.
 Some important difference between Ohmic and non Ohmic conductors are as follows:
Ohmic Conductors Non-Ohmic conductors
1. The conductors in which the graph between 1. The conductors in which the graph between
potential difference (V) and current (I) is different (V) and current (I) is non-linear
linear called the Ohmic conductors. are known as non-Ohmic conductors.
2. They strictly obeys the Ohm's law 2. They do not obey the Ohm's law
3. For example: metallic conductors like 3. For example: Semiconductor devices,
copper, silver etc. diode, transistors etc.

28. Is current a scalar or vector quantity?

 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  265
 Current is a scalar quantity. Although we show the direction of current in a electric in an electric
circuit, this is done only to show the direction of conversion flow of charge. But, the property of
charge flow does not obey the vector addition and multiplication rules.
29. A wire is carrying current. It is charged? Explain.
 To charge a wire some excess charge must be deposited in it (either excess positive or excess
negative). But in a current carrying wire, the number of charge particle entering the wire is equal to
number of these particle leaving it, so no excess charges are deposited. So, the wire carrying current
is not charged.
30. Why are copper wires used as connecting wires?
 The resistivity of copper wire is very small, so its resistance 'R' tends to zero (R → 0). So, the copper
wire does not consume any electric power, rather it easily allow the electricity passing a long distance
with out appreciable loss of electric power. Moreover, the resistance of copper wire does not
contribute to add up in the calculation of total resistance.
31. Why are constantan and manganin used for making standard resistors?
 The temperature coefficient of resistance in constantan and manganin is nearly independent to
temperature. The resistivity in them almost remains constant, although the temperature rises or falls.
This properly of constantan and managanin makes possible in using in very cold and hot places,
moreover in cold and hot season. Hence, they are used for making standard resistors.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. How drift velocity is related with current through a conductor?
2. Is the resistivity of a metal a constant quantity?
3. It is dangerous to operate electrical appliances with wet hands. Why?
4. Is ohm's law applicable to all conductors?
5. Which combination of resistance increases the equivalent resistance?
6. What is the ratio of n-equal resistances when they are connected in series to parallel?
7. What do you mean by the sensitivity of a galvanometer?
8. What is drift velocity?
9. How drift velocity is related with current through a conductor?
10. Does a conductor charge when current flows through it?
11. Is the resistivity of a metal a constant quantity?
12. It is dangerous to operate electrical appliances with wet hands. Why?
13. Why should an ammeter have low resistance?
14. A voltmeter should have high resistance, why?
15. Is ohm's law applicable to all conductors?
16. What is shunt?
17. Which combination of resistance increases the equivalent resistance?
18. Differentiate between ohmic and non ohmic resistance.
19. What is the ratio of n-equal resistances when they are connected in series to parallel?
20. Large amount of current flows through the conductor, why?
21. What do you mean by resistivity of a material? What is its unit?
22. Why do we use connecting wires made of copper?
23. What do you mean by the sensitivity of a galvanometer?
24. A proton beam is going from East to West. Is there an electric current? If yes, in what direction?
25. What are the order of magnitude of thermal velocity and drift velocity of electrons in a current
carrying conductor at room temperature.
266 Principles of Physics - II
26. Silver is a homogeneous conductor and it obeys Ohm’s law. An electrical device is made-up of
pure silver, will it obey Ohm’s law for all values of electric field?
27. What are the factors on which resistivity of a material depend?
28. What do you mean by conductivity of a material? Give its SI units.
29. What is temperature coefficient of resistivity? What is its unit?
30. What happens when an ammeter is placed in parallel with a circuit?
31. If a shunt resistance of 0. 001  is connected across a galvanometer, what can we say about the
resistance of the resulting ammeter?
32. Suppose we want to increase the range of an ammeter from 1 A to 10 A, what should be done to
the shunt resistance?
33. A galvanometer is first converted into a voltmeter of range 0-2 V and then into a voltmeter of
range 0-5 V. In which case the resistance will be higher one?
34. What is superconductivity?
35. How superconductor is different from perfect conductor?
Long-Answer Type Questions
1. Describe the mechanism of current flow in a conductor and derive a relation between current
density and drift velocity to electrons. [NEB 2074]
2. What is drift velocity of an electron? Derive a relation between the current through a metallic
conductor and the drift velocity in terms of the number of free electrons per unit volume of the
conductor. [HSEB 2059]
3. What is current density? Derive an expression for drift velocity of electrons in a conductor in
term of current density?
4. State Ohm’s law. How it is experimentally verified?
5. State and explain Ohm’s law. Two resistors are connected in parallel and third resistor be
connected in series with the combination of parallel resistors. If this combination be connected
with a battery of the negligible internal resistance, find the potential difference across each
resistor. [HSEB 2064]
6. What is equivalent resistance of resistors? Derive its expression when the resistors are
connected (i) in series (ii) in parallel.
7. What is resistance of a conductor? On what factor does it depends? Give the correspondence
relation.
8. What is multiplier? How can you convert galvanometer into voltmeter? [HSEB 2072]
9. Why has an ammeter a very low resistance? How can you convert galvanometer into ammeter?
10. Discuss the mechanism of metallic conduction. Derive J = nev where J is current density, e is
electronic charge and v is drift velocity. [HSEB 2060]

Numerical Problems
1. A 2  resistance coil is to be constructed from a constantan wire of diameter 0.315 mm. If the
resistivity of constantan is 4.9 × 10-6  cm, find the length of the wire required to construct the coil.
Ans: 31.8 cm
2. Two resistors 500  and 300  are connected in series with a battery of emf 20 V. A voltmeter of
resistance 500  is used to measure the p d across the 500  resistor. Find the error in the
measurement.
Ans: 3.4 V
3. Wire A has a resistance of 2 . Wire B, made of the same materials is twice as long and has half the
thickness of wire A. Find the resistance of B.
Ans: 16 
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  267
4. When a wire carries a current of 1.20 A, the drift velocity is 1.20 x 10-4 m/s. What is the drift velocity
when the current is 6.00 A?
Ans: 6 X 10-4 m/s
5. Calculate the potential difference in each resistance in the following voltage divider circuit.

Ans: 10 V, 20 V, 30 V
6. Calculate the current in each resistance of the following current divider electric circuit.

Ans: 9 A, 4.5 A, 3 A
7. A silver wire 2.6 mm in diameter transfers a charge of 420 C in 80 min. Silver contains 5.8 × 1028 free
electrons per cubic meter. What is the current in the wire? What is the magnitude of the drift velocity
of the electrons in the wire?
Ans: 87.5 × 10–3 A, 1.77 × 10–4 ms–1
8. The current density through a conductor is 1Am-2 where the electric field applied its length is 3 Vm-1.
Calculate the resistivity of the conductor. Also calculate its conductivity.
Ans: 3.30 Ωm, 0.33 Ω-1m-1
9. A tungsten coil has a resistance of 12.0  at 15C. If the temperature coefficient of resistance of
tungsten is 0.004 K-1, calculate the coil resistance at 80C.
Ans: 14.94 
10 A 20  resistor and a resistor X are placed in series with a battery of 10 V and of negligible resistance.
If the voltage across X is 2 V, what is the value of X?
Ans: 5 
11. A moving coil meter has a resistance of 25  and indicates full scale deflection when a current of 4.0
mA flows through it. How could this meter be converted (i) to a voltmeter with 0 – 3 V range (ii) to
an ammeter with 0 – 1 A range.
Ans: 725 , 0.10 
12. A galvanometer can bear a maximum current of 25 mA and has a resistance of 5 . Find the suitable
resistance to convert it into
a. A voltmeter of range 0 – 2 V
b. An ammeter of ramge 0 – 10 A.
Ans: R = 80 , S = 0.0125 
13. The earth has a negative surface charge density of 10–9 cm–2. The potential difference of 500 kV
between the top of the atmosphere and the surface results in a current of 2000 A over the entire earth.
How much time is supposed to neutralise the earth's surface? (Radius of earth = 6370 km)
Ans: 255.05 sec
14. The wire of a fuse in an electric circuit melts when the current density increases to 600 A/cm2. What
should be the diameter of the wire so that it may limit the current to 0.4 A?
Ans: 0.29 mm
268 Principles of Physics - II
15. A copper wire of radius 1.0 mm carries a current of 10 A. Calculate the drift velocity of the electrons.
Metallic copper has one conduction electron per atom, the atomic mass of copper is 64 u and density
of copper is 8900 kgm–3. Given 1u = 1.66 × 10–27 kg.
Ans: 2.37×10–4 ms–1
16. A length of copper wire of mass 4.5 kg has a resistance of 14 . Calculate the length and diameter of
the wire. Density of copper is 8930 kg m–3 and resistivity is 1.8 × 10–8 m.
Ans: 6.26 × 102 m, 1.013 mm
17. At 27.0C, the resistance of a resistor is 83 . What is the temperature of the resistor if the resistance
is found to be 100  and the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.7 × 10–4 °C–1?
Ans: 1232°C
18. A tungsten coil has a resistance of 12  at 15C. If the temperature coefficient of resistance of
tungsten is 0.004C–1, calculate the resistance of the coil at 80C.
Ans: 15 
19. Calculate the equivalent resistance between the points P and Q of the network shown in figure given
below:
4 4 4
P

3 3 2

Q Ans: 6 
20. The resistance between the ends of thick wire of length 50 cm and diameter 0.55 cm is 1.44 × 10–3 . A
circular disc of diameter one centimeter and thickness 1.0 mm is this material. Find the resistance
between the opposing round face.
Ans: 8.6X10-7 
E = 60.0 V, r = 0
21. Complete the equivalent resistance of the network in figure
R1 = 3.00  R3 = 12.0 
and find the current in each resistor. The battery has
negligible internal resistance.
Ans: 5 , I1 = 8 A, I2 = 4 A, I3= 3 A, I4 = 9 A R2 = 6.00  R4 = 4.0 

R1
22. Four resistors and a battery of negligible internal resistance
are assembled to make the circuit in figure. Let E = 6.00 V, R1
R3 R4
= 3.50 , R2 = 8.20 , R3 = 1.50  and R4 = 4.50 . Find (a) the E R2
equivalent resistance of the network (b) the current in each
resistor.
Ans: (a) 4.49  (b) I1 = 3.4 A, I2 = 0.162 A, I3 = 0.884 A, I4 = 0.294 A E

1.00  2.00 
23. In the circuit shown in figure, the voltage across the 2.00 
resistor is 12.0 V. What are the emf of the battery and the 6.00 
current through the 6.00  resistor?
Ans: 18 V, 3 A 9
A B
24. Find the equivalent resistance between B and C points.
Ans: 3.684  3 10 
5
25. Find the equivalent resistance between the points A and B of
R
the following circuit. Ans: 2 D
7
C

A B
2R 2R R

R1 =100 

R2 =50 
R3 =50 
6V R4 =75 
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  269
26. Determine the equivalent resistance of following
network. Also, find out the currents in each resistor.
ANs: R = 118.75 , current through R1= 0.05 A, current through
R2 = 0.02 A, current through R3 = 0.02 A, current through R4 = 0.02 A
C
27. Determine the equivalent resistance between A and B if
each resistance is of r . r r
Ans: 0.5 R
r r
28. Find out the equivalent resistance between A and B in B
A
the following circuits.
3 B
R R
3
3 6 6
6 A R C
3

B R R
3 A 3 D
(i) (ii)

1 1 1
A

1 1 1 To infinity

B
1 1 1
(iii)

1 1 1
A

2 2 2 To infinity

B
5
(iv) Ans:(i) 2 , (ii) R (iii) 2.73  (iv) 2 
8

Multiple Choice Questions

1. When 5.5 ohm and 4.5 ohm resistance are joined together in series and a 10 ohm resistance is joined
in parallel the final resistance of the system is:
a. 2  b. 5 
c. 2.5  d. 20 
2. A piece of wire of resistance 4 ohm is bent through 180º at mid-point and the two halves are twisted
together, their resistance is:
a. 8  b. 1 
c. 2  d. 5 

3. The resistance of two wires connected in parallel in 3.43  while the resistance of the same wires
connected in series is 14 . The resistance are:
270 Principles of Physics - II
a. 5 and 6 b. 6 and 7
c. 7 and 8 d. 6 and 8
4. When the diameter of a nichrome wire is reduced to half, the resistance changes by:
a. 2 b. 4
c. 8 d. 16
5. The sound travels with speed 30 ms–1 in string. Then find the distance between successive nodes. If
frequency is 100 Hz
a. 20 cm b. 30 cm
c. 15 cm d. 45 cm
6. Three resisters R1, R2 and R3 ohms are connected in a parallel combination. If R1 < R2 < R3 the
equivalent resistance will be:
a. Less than R1 b. Equal to R2
c. Less than R2 d. Greater than R1
7. The current flowing through a resistance of 900  is desired to reduce by 90%. What shunt should be
joined across it?
a. 100  b. 90 
c. 900  d. 10 
8. The resistance of the series combination of two resistance is R. When they are joined in parallel, the
total resistance is r. If R = nr, then the minimum possible value of n is
a. 4 b. 3
c. 2 d. 1
9. n resistance, each of r ohm, when connected in parallel give an equivalent resistance of R ohm. If
these resistance were connected in series, the combination would have a resistance, in ohm, equal to
a. n2R b. R/n2
c. R/n d. nR
10. A wire of a certain material is stretched slowly by ten percent. Its new resistance and specific
resistance become respectively
a. 1.1times, 1.1 times b. 1.2 times, 1.1 times
c. 1.21 times, same d. both remain the same
11. A thin wire of resistance 4  is bent to form a circle. The resistance across any diameter is
a. 4  b. 2 
c. 1  d. 8 
12. Dimensions of resistance in an electrical circuit, in terms of dimension of mass M, of length L, of time
T and of current I, would be:
a. ML2T–2 b. ML2T–1I–1
c. ML2T–3I–2 d. ML2T–3I–1
13. A colour coded carbon resistor has the colors orange, blue, green and silver. Its resistance value and
tolerance percentage respectively are
a. 36  105  and 10% b. 36  104  and 5%
c. 63  105  and 10% d. 35  106  and 5%
14. The dimensions of 'resistance' are same as those of ........ where h is the Planck's constant, e is the
charge.
h2 h2
a. e2 b. e
h h
c. e2 d. e

15. A coil has resistance 25.00 ohm and 25.17 ohm at 20ºC and 35ºC respectively. What is the temperature
coefficient of resistance?
a. 4.545  10–4/ ºC b. 4.545  10–3/ºC
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  271
c. 4.545  10–2/ ºC d. 4.545  10–5/ºC

Answers
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (a) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 J
c. We have, vd = ne
Given,
Density of electron (n) = 8.5  1028 electrons/m3 l J
or t = ne
Length of wire (l) = 71.0 cm = 71.0  10–2 m.
Diameter of wire (d) = 2.05 mm = 2.05  10–3 m ne × l
or t = J
Current (I) = 4.85 A
Time (t) = ? HINT: 4

we know that Given,

I Current (I) = 0.820 A
vd = neA Diameter (d) = 3.26 mm = 3.26  10– 3 m
l I a. For tungsten wire electric field, E =?
or t =  = 5.25 × 10–8 m.
d
ne 4 
2
We know that
 
I I×4
d2 ne E=J =× A =×
or t = l × 4 × I  d2
b. For aluminium, electric field, E = ?
HINT: 2
 = 2.75 × 10–8  m
Given,
4I
Diameter (d) = 4.12 mm = 4.12  10–3 m We know that , E = J =
d2
Current (I) = 8.00 A
HINT: 5
Drift velocity (vd) = 5.40  10–5 ms–1
Density of electron (n) = ? Given,
We know that dC = ?
I Length of copper wire = lc
vd = nAe Length of aluminium wire = la
I I da = 3.26 mm = 3.26 × 10–3 m
or n = ev A =
d2 According to questions,
evd 4 

d
  Rc = Ra
HINT: 3 clc ala
or A = A
Given, c a
Side length of square cross-section, c a
L = 2.3 mm = 2.3  10– 3 m or 2 = 2 (∵ lc = la)
 d c da
Cross section area A = L2
 4  4
Length of wire, l = 4.0 m
Current, I = 3.6 A c a c
or d 2 = d2 or, d2c = d2a
Density of free electrons, c a a
n = 8.5  1028 electrons/m 3 HINT: 6

Resistivity of copper,  = 1.72 × 10–6 m. Given,

I I Length (l) = 3.50 m
a. Current density, J = A =L2 Resistance (R) = 0.125 
b. Electric field E =  J Resistivity (c) = 1.72  10– 8 m
272 Principles of Physics - II
Density (D) = 8.9  103 kgm– 3 HINT: 10
Mass (m) = ? Given,
We know that Resistance at 11.5°C, R11.5 = 100 
l l×l  × l2 Temperature coefficient of resistance,
R = c A = c × A × l = V  = 0.0004oC–1
c × l2 Resistance at 0°C, R0 = ?
or V = R We know that
m c × l2 mass (m)  R11.5 = R0 (1 +  )
or D = R ∵ density (D) =
 valume (V) or 100 = R0 {1 + 0.0004 × (11.5 – 0)}
c × l2 HINT: 11
or m = R ×D Given,
HINT: 7 Resistance of a strand (R) = 5.60 
Given, = 5.60  10– 6 
Length (l) = 1.80 m Number of strands (n) = 120
Resistance (R) =? R
a. The strands are in parallel, Rnet = n
Resistivity () = 2.75  10– 8 m
b. The strands are in series, Rnet = n × R
l l 
We know that, R =  A =  l2 = l HINT: 12
Given,
HINT: 8
Resistor (R1) = 32 
Given,
Resistor (R2) = 20 
Potential difference (V) = 4.50 V
Potential difference (V) = 240 V
Length (l) = 2.50 m
1 1 1
Radius (r) = 0.654 mm = 0.654  10– 3 m a. For parallel combination, R = R + R
eq 1 2
Current (I) = 17.6 A
R1. R2
Resistivity () = ? or Red = R + R R1= 32 
1 2 I1
We know that
b. Total current (I) =?
RA V r2 R2= 20 
 = l = I × l (∵ A = r2 and V = IR) We have,
I2
V = I Req
HINT: 9
V
Given,  I = R V = 240V
eq
Diameter (d) = 0.84 mm = 0.84  10– 3 m 68 V
V V I R=?
Electric field (E) = 0.49 Vm–1, c. I1 = R and I2 = R V
1 2
Resistivity,  = 2.44 × 10–8 m RV =30000
30000
HINT: 13
a. Current (I) = ? 
Given, ~
We know that
Range of voltmeter = 150 V 110V
I
E=J=A Rv = 30,000 
R =?
E × A E d2
or I = = × emf of the source, E = 110 V
   4
voltmeter reading, V = 68 V
b. Potential difference, V = ?
From the figure, we can write
Length of wire, l = 6.4 m
E = potential difference across R + potential
We know that difference across voltmeter
V 110 – 68
E = l or 110 = IR + 68 or =R
I
 V =E×l 32
V  R= I
c. Resistance of the wire, R = I
 Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  273
Voltmeter reading HINT: 15
But , I = Voltmeter resistance Given,
find the current 'I' and use this value in R1 = 1200 
equation (i) R2 = 800 
HINT: 14 Rv = 600 , E = 24 V
Given, i. From the condition of voltage divider circuit,
R1
a. P.d. across R1, V1 = R + R  V
Thickness = t = 1 m = 10–6 m,  = 10–6 m
A = 1 mm2 = 10–6 m2, R = ?  1 2
R2
a. When the film is square shaped. b. P.d. across R2, V2 = R + R  V
Length of square, l = A = 10–6 = 10–3 m.  1 2
ii. When voltmeter is connected.
Cross-sectional area of the film = thickness ×
Let RV be the resistance of voltmeter.
length of square = 10–6 × 10–3 = 10–9 m2
a. For voltmeter connected across R1
l
We have, R =  A R1 × RV
R' = R + R
1 V
b. When the film is rectangular. Let l and b be the
R'
length and breadth of the rectangle.  V1' = R' + R × V
2
According to question,
l = 20b b. For voltmeter connected across R2
R2 × RV
 A = l × b = 20 b × b = 20b2 R'' = R + R
2 V
Now, A = 10–6 m2
 R'' 
or 20b2 = 10–6  V2' = R + R'' V
 1 
10–6 HINT: 16
or b = 20 = 2.24 × 10 m
–4
Let S be the required resistance of shunt which
When the film is placed length wise. when connected in parallel with the
A = thickness × breadth galvanometer, it becomes milliammeter.
= 10–6 × 2.24 × 10–4 = 2.24 × 10–10 m2 G = 25 
 l = 20b = 20 × 2.24 × 10–4 m = 4.48 × 10–3 m Ig = 4 mA
l 4.48 × 10–3 I = 50 mA
∵ R =  A = 10–6 2.24 × 10–10 = 20 
Ig
G
When the film is placed breadth wise
A = thickness × length I
S
= 10–6 × 4.48 × 10–3 = 4.48 × 10–9 m2
l = 2.24 × 10–4 m V
Now, Since, potential difference across G = potential
l difference across S
R= A
 Ig × G = (I – Ig) × S


274 Principles of Physics - II
Direct Current Circuit  Chapter 10  275
 HEATING EFFECT
OF CURRENT

11.1 Introduction
When potential difference is maintained between two ends of a conductor, current flows through it.
Flow of current is the flow of charged particles (usually electrons). In the movement of charged
particles, they encounter with the nuclei and ions in their path so that interactions take place
between the charge particles and ions and nuclei in their path. Due to such interactions, charged
particles cannot move freely through the conductor. To overcome such difficulty in the movement of
charge particles, external work should be done by using the external power supply. A part of such
work done is converted into the thermal energy of the particles in conductor and eventually produce
heat in it. The amount of heat energy produced in the conductor was studied quantitatively by James
Prescott Joule. So, the law regarding the thermal energy production due to the current is called Joules
law of heating.

11.2 Joules Law of Heating

The production of heat in a resistor basically depends on quantity of current, resistance and time
interval for which the current is passing through it. James Joule, in 1841, derived the relation for
quantity of heat generated in a conductor of ohmic resistance R, when current I is passed through it
for time t. So, this law is known as Joule's law of heating. According to this law, the amount of heat
(H) developed in an ohmic conductor by the passage of current is,
i. directly proportional to the square of current flowing through the conductor.
H  I2 … (11.1)
ii. directly proportional to the resistance of the conductor.
HR … (11.2)
iii. directly proportional to the time of current flow.
Ht … (11.3)
Now, combining equations (11.1), (11.2) and (11. 3), we get,
H  I2Rt
H = kI2Rt … (11.4)
Where, k is the proportionality constant. The value of k depends on the system of unit of heat.
1
i. In calorie unit, k = J
274 Principles of Physics - II
Where, J is the unit conversion factor. Its value is 4.2 J/calorie. It is called mechanical equivalent of
heat. It is not a physical quantity.
From equation (11.4), we get,
I2Rt
H = J (calorie) … (11.5)
ii. In SI unit, k = 1. So,
H = I2Rt (joule) … (11.6)

Experimental Verification of Joules Law of Heating

The experimental set up to verify the Joules law of V
+ –
heating is shown in the Fig. 11.1. It consists of a Rh
–
voltameter containing water about two third of its A
+
inner volume. A heating rod (i.e. resistance coil) of K S T
known resistance is dipped into the water. The rod is
connected to an electric source. Also, an ammeter, a
rheostat and a switch are connected in an electric
circuit. A thermometer is used to record the
temperature change in water.
R
water
To perform the experiment, electric current is Heating coil
supplied to the resistor (heating rod) through a cell. S Stirrer; R  Resistance of heating coil;
The rheostat is used to vary the current in the circuit. T  Thermometer
When electric current is passed through the resistor, Fig. 11.1: Arrangement for experimental
it gets heated and the produced heat is lost into verification of Joule's laws of heating
water. As the resistor is completely immersed into
water, the amount of heat lost by it is equal to the amount of heat gained by the water and
voltameter. So, the amount of heat produced in the resistor can be determined summing up the heat
gained by water and voltameter (i.e. H = (ms)water + (ms)voltameter). The experiment is performed
in three steps.

i. To verify H  I2 (at constant R and t)


To verify H  I2, steady current is passed through the resistor for a H
certain interval of time. The current in the circuit is controlled by
adjusting the resistance of the rheostat. Then, the amount of heat
produced is determined for different values of steady current. When a
graph is plotted for heat lost by rod (equivalently heat gained by water
O I2 
and voltameter) versus square of current supplied for each step, a Fig.11.2: Graph of H versus I2
straight line is found passing through the origin as shown in Fig. 11.2.

ii. To verify H  R (at constant I and t)

To verify H  R, many resistors of different resistances are taken to 
produce the heat. A constant current is passed through these resistors H
turn by turn for equal interval of time. The amount of heat gained by
water and voltameter are calculated for each resistor. When a graph is
plotted for heat gained by the water and voltameter (equivalently heat O R 
lost by resistor) versus resistance R, a straight line is found passing
Fig.11.3: Graph of H versus R
through the origin as shown in Fig. 11.3.
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  275

iii. To verify H  t (at constant I and t)

To verify H  t, a constant current is passed through heating resistor for 
different interval of time. The amount of heat gained by water and H
voltameter are calculated for each time interval. When a graph is plotted
for heat gained by the water and voltameter versus the time interval of
current supply, a straight line is found passing through the origin as
O t 
shown in Fig. 11.4.
Fig.11.4: Graph H versus t

11.3 Electric Energy and Power

Electric energy is the total energy consumed in an electric circuit in a given time. In this case, the
electric potential carries charge from one point to another in the electric circuit. Thus, the electric source does
the work. Consider a conductor of resistance R in which charge q flows for a time t when potential
difference V is maintained across it. Then, the electric workdone is determined by,
W = qV
= ItV
= VIt
= IRIt
W = I2Rt (joule) …(11.7)
Therefore, the electric energy produced in such situation is equivalent to heat energy H. So,
H = I2Rt

Electric Power
The electric power is defined as the rate at which work is done by an electric charge. Alternatively,
the electric power is the rate of electric energy consumption in an electric circuit.
So, electric energy consumption is,
W = VIt
Now,
W
Electric power, P = t = VI

Also,
V = IR
So, P = I2R
Again,
V
I =R

V 2 V2
P = R R = R
 
So, power consumption in an electric circuit can be calculated using only one of the following
formula,
P = I2R
P = IV
V2
P = R … (11.8)
276 Principles of Physics - II
Therefore, if we are given any two of the three quantities I, V and R, the electric power can be
calculated. If a device is marked the power rating 40 W – 220 V, the device consumes electric energy
at the rate of 40 W when joined to a supply of potential difference 220 V.

Units of Electric Power

The electric power (P) = I V
For I = 1 A and V = 1 V
P =1A×1V
= 1 AV
P = 1 watt
Therefore, electric power dissipated is said to be 1 watt when current of 1 A passes under a potential
difference of one volt. In case of household and commercial use, the electric power consumption is
measured in kilowatt (kW).
1 kW = 1000 W
However, the electric power is commercially measured in kilowatt hour. One kilowatt hour is called
1 unit electricity i.e. 1 unit = 1kWh.
One kilowatt hour (one unit) is the amount of workdone when a power of one kilowatt is consumed
for one hour. i.e.,
1 unit = 1 kWh = 1000 W × 3600 s
= 3.6 × 106 Ws
J
= 3.6 × 106 s s

1 unit = 3.6 × 106 J

For example, if a 2000 W - 220 V induction heater is used for 20 minutes in our power supply (i.e. 220
V). Then, the units of electric its used is,
E = 2000 W × 20 min
2000 20
= 1000 kW × 60 h = 0.67 kWh = 0.67 unit.
   
If the price of electricity is Rs.10.0 per unit, then 0.67 unit will cost Rs. 6.70.
In many conditions, the electric power is also measured in horse power (HP).
1 HP = 746 W
1000
So, 1 unit = 1 kWh = 746 HP × 1 h

= 1.34 HPh (horse power hour)

Electricity authority charges the consumption of electric power at homes in the unit of kilowatt hour.

11.4 Electromotive Force

We are familiar with the continuous glow of an electric lamp when connected to an electric cell. The
continuous glow is possible only when a sustainable potential difference is maintained across the
lamp, i.e. some work must be done to carry the charge in the electric circuit. The work can be done
by an electric charge. In a cell, electric energy is liberated by the chemical reaction in the electrolytes.
This liberated electric energy does work to maintain the continuous flow of charge in the circuit. This
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  277
work done by the cell in forcing unit positive charge (1 C charge) to flow in the electric circuit is
called electromotive force (emf).
Actually, emf is not a force as it's name suggests, rather it is a work done.
If dW work is done in moving dq charge by an electric source, the emf of that cell is,
dW
E = dq … (11.9)

In SI system, the unit of E is joule per coulomb (JC–1), which is also called volt (V). It means, the unit
of emf is volt.
The emf of a source of current is said to be one volt if one joule of energy is supplied by the source to
flow one coulomb of charge in the whole circuit.
To put it on another way, the source of emf provides energy to the circuit. The current in the circuit
transfers energy from source of emf to a device. If the device is another battery, then the energy
transferred appears as the chemical energy newly stored in the battery. If the device is a resistor, the
transferred energy appears as the internal energy (observed perhaps as an increase in temperature)
and then can be transferred to the environment as heat. If the device is capacitor, the energy
transferred is stored as potential energy in its electric field. In each of these cases, conservation of
energy demands that amount of energy lost by battery must be equal to the energy transferred to,
dissipated by or stored in the device.
The emf of a source is equal to the potential difference between the terminals of a source when no
current is drawn from the source. No current will be drawn when the circuit is open. So, emf is equal
to the potential difference in an open circuit.

11.5 Terminal Potential Difference

Positive charge (conventional charge) flows from positive terminal to negative terminal through the
external path of an electric circuit, but the positive charge flows from negative terminal to positive
terminal inside the cell. Whatever the direction of charge, the work should be done to move the
charge particles in the circuit. If a voltmeter is connected across two terminals of a cell at the closed
circuit condition, it measures the potential difference of the external circuit, which is called the
terminal potential difference. Therefore, terminal potential difference is defined as the potential difference
between two terminals of a cell in closed circuit.
Emf of a cell is divided into two parts: outside the cell and inside the cell. The potential difference
that is developed outside the cell is equal to the terminal potential difference (V) and the potential
difference inside the cell is called the internal potential difference Vi. Which is also called as lost volt
as this is lost in the source due to its internal resistance.
So, E = V + Vi … (11.10)
The unit of terminal potential difference is volt (V) and its dimension is [ML2T–3A–1]

11.6 Internal Resistance of a Cell

When two terminals of a cell are connected with a resistance wire, current flows from positive
terminal plate to negative terminal plate outside the cell and negative terminal plate to positive
terminal plate in the electrolyte inside the cell. The flow of current in an electric circuit is opposed by
the external resistance in the circuit as well as electrolytes inside the cell. The resistance offered by
the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of current through it is called the internal resistance of a cell. It is
denoted by 'r'.
278 Principles of Physics - II
Due to the internal resistance of a cell, a part of electric energy is converted into the heat energy
which makes the cell heated. The internal resistance of a cell depends upon the following factors:
i. It is directly proportional to the separation of two plates of a cell.
ii. It is inversely proportional to the area of plates dipped into the electrolyte.
iii. It depends on the nature, concentration and temperature of the electrolyte.
After long use, the conductivity of electrolytes used into the cell decreases, hence the internal
resistance increases. Moreover, the deposition of ions on the terminal plates may increase the
internal resistance of a cell.

11.7 Relation of emf, Terminal Potential Difference and Internal

Resistance of a Cell
Consider an electric circuit containing a cell, a
r
resistor and a key. Let E be the emf, V be the
I
terminal potential difference and r be the internal E
resistance of the given cell. The resistance R in
V
exterior circuit is called external resistance. The
circuit diagram with necessary components of an
electric circuit is shown in Fig. 11.5. The internal
R K
resistance of the cell is considered to be connected
in series with cell. Fig. 11.5: Circuit diagram for internal resistance of a cell

When the circuit is switched on, the electric cell supplies energy to move the charge through the
circuit. It means the cell performs work in displacing the charge in the electric circuit. Then, the total
workdone to displace the charge q,
W = E  q = EIt …(11.11)
The work is done in the circuit is divided into two parts; (i) work done outside the cell against the
external resistance (R) (ii) work done inside the cell against the internal resistance (r).
From the principle of conservation of energy,
W = Wexternal + Winternal
EIt = I2Rt + I2rt
E = IR + Ir
or, E = V + Ir, where V = IR is the terminal potential difference across the resistor R
 E – V = Ir . . . (11.12)
The term Ir is the potential drop across the internal resistance which is equal to the difference of emf
and terminal potential difference of a cell. At the condition of discharging, the current is taken
positive value. For non-zero value of internal resistance r > 0, (E – V) > 0 i.e. emf is greater than the
terminal potential difference.
E-V E-V
r = I = V
R 
E-V
r =  V  R . . . (11.13)
 
Thus, the internal resistance of a cell can be determined by using formula in equation (11.13).
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  279

Special Cases
i. If internal resistance of a cell is negligibly small i.e. r  0, then E = V.
ii. During the charging of a cell, the direction of current is taken negative, so we can write,
E = V + (-I) r
 E = V – Ir . . . (11.14)
It shows that, terminal potential difference can be greater than emf when a cell is charging.

11.8 Combination of Cells

The grouping of two or more cells in a single electric circuit is known is combination of cells. Cells
are basically combined in the following ways:
i Series combination of cells.
ii. Parallel combination of cells
iii. Mixed combination of cells.

i. Series Combination of Cells

Cells are said to be connected in series when they
are joined end to end so that the same quantity of
current flows through each cell. In series
combination of cells, the negative terminal of one
cell is connected to the positive terminal of the next,
the negative of the second to the positive terminal
of the third and so on. The series combination of
cells is shown in Fig. 11.6.
Let, emf of each cell = E
Internal resistance of each cell = r
External resistance = R Fig. 11.6: Series combination of cells

Total emf of n-cells in series = nE

Total internal resistance of n-cells = nr
So, total resistance of the complete circuit = R + nr
If I be the current flowing through the circuit, then according to Ohm’s law, we can write,
Total emf
I = Total resistance

nE
 I = R + nr . . . (11.15)

Case (i) If R >> nr i.e. if external resistance R is large enough with respect to total internal resistance
nr,
nE E
I = R =nR

= n times the current that can be drawn from a single cell.

E
Case (ii) If R << nr, then I = r = same as that given by one cell.
280 Principles of Physics - II
Conclusion: When internal resistance is negligible in comparison to external resistance, the cells are
connected in series to get maximum current.

ii. Parallel combination of cells

Cells are said to be connected in parallel when the current
is divided between the various cells. In the parallel
connection of cells, all the positive terminals are
connected together at one point and all the negative
terminals are connected together at another point as
shown in Fig. 11.7.
Let, emf of each cell = E
Internal resistance of each cell = r
External resistance = R
Total internal resistance of n-cells = r/n
(... they are in parallel combination) Fig. 11.7: Parallel combination of cells

So, total resistance of the complete circuit = R + r/n

If I be the current flowing in the circuit, according to Ohm’s law, we have,
Total emf
I = Total resistance

E
= r (11.16)
R+ n

r nE
Case (i) If n >> R (i.e. internal resistance is extremely high), then I = r = n times current given by
one cell.
r
Case (ii) If n < < R (i.e. internal resistance of a cell is low), then

E
I = R = same as given by one cell.

Conclusion: When external resistance is negligible in comparison to the internal resistance, the cells
are connected in parallel to get maximum current.

iii. Mixed combination of cells

The combination in which the cells are arranged in such a way that some of them are connected in
series and others are connected in parallel is known as mixed combination of cells. The circuit
diagram for mixed combination of cells is shown in Fig. 11.8.
Now,
Let, emf of each cell = E
Internal resistance of each cell = r
External resistance = R
Number of rows = m
Number of cells in a row = n
Total internal resistance of given cells = nr/m
So, total resistance of the complete circuit
= R + nr/m
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  281
Total number of cells = mn
emf of each row = nE
Total emf of circuit = nE
If I be the current in the circuit, by Ohm’s
law we have,
Total emf
I = Total resistance

nE
= nr
R+m

nE
= mR + nr
m
mnE
= mR + nr . . . (11.17)

Condition for Maximum Current Fig. 11.8: Mixed combination of cells

In the above combination, m, n and E are constant. The current in the circuit can be produced
maximum only when denominator is minimum. To minimize the denominator,
2
mR + nr = ( mR – nr) + 2 mnrR
mnE
 I= 2
( mR – nr) + 2 mnrR
2
Current, I will be maximum if ( mR – nr) = 0
or, mR – nr = 0
or, mR = nr
or, mR = nr
nr
or, R=m . . . (11.18)

i.e. external resistance = total internal resistance of the cells

Conclusion: When the external resistance of the circuit is equal to the internal resistance of cells, we
use mixed combination of cells to obtain maximum current.
mnE
Imax = . . . (11.19)
2 mnRr

Tips for MCQs

1. Electric power:
i. It is defined as the rate at which work is done by the source of emf in maintaining the current in
electric circuit.
qV V2
 P = t = IV = I2R = R

ii. Its unit is watt or ampere-volt. It is also expressed into horse power, (1 HP = 746 watt).
282 Principles of Physics - II
iii. In series combination of resistances, the potential difference and power consumed will be more
in larger resistance. So, 60 W bulb glows brighter than 100 W bulb when connected in series
1 1 1 1
circuit i.e. P = P + P + P + …
s 1 2 3

iv. In parallel combination of resistances, the current and power consumed will be more in smaller
resistances. Therefore, 100 W bulb glows brighter than 60 W bulb when connected in parallel
combination, i.e. Pp = P1 + P2 + P3 + …
v. In filament bulb, larger powered bulb is made with smaller resistance.
2. Electric energy:
i. It is defined as the total work done or energy supplied by the source of emf in maintaining the
current in an electric circuit for a given time.
V2t
Electric energy (E) = I2Rt = VIt = Pt = R
ii. It's unit is joule. The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J. This is called one unit of electricity.
Total watt × Total hour
iii. Total number of units (n) = 1000
3. Emf, terminal potential and internal resistance:
i. Relation, E = V + Ir
P0 V R
ii. Efficiency of a source of emf,  = P = E = R + r
i
R 1
iii. If R = r, the maximum efficiency of a cell can be obtained, i.e.  = R + R = 2 = 50%

iv. Lamp used for house lightening are connected in parallel.

4. Emf of a cell depends on (a) nature of two plates (b) nature, temperature and concentration of
electrolyte.
5. Terminal potential difference,
a. While charging, V > E, E = V – Ir
b. While discharging, V < E, E = V + Ir
c. While short circuited, R = 0, V = 0
d. In open circuit, I = 0
6. Internal resistance depends on:
a. Separation between two electrodes
b. Nature, temperature and degree of dissociation of electrolyte between plates.

Worked Out Problems

1. Two heating coils A and B connected in parallel in a circuit produces power of 12 W and 24 W
RA
respectively. What is the ratio R when used?
B
SOLUTION
Given, V2
P = R
PA = 12 W
PB = 24 W V2
So, PA =R …(i) and
RA A
RB = ? V2
We know, in parallel circuit, V remains PB =R …(ii)
B
constant.
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  283
PB V2/RB RA 24 2
PA = V2/RA  R = 12 = 1
B

PB RA  RA : RB = 2 : 1
PA = RB

2. A cell of internal resistance of 0.2  is connected two coils of resistance 6.0  and 8.0  joined
parallel. There is a current of 0.2 A in the 8.0  coil. Find the emf of cell.
SOLUTION
According to the given information, the electric so,
circuit can be drawn as follows: I1R1 = I2R2
E I1 × 6 = 0.2 × 8
I 0.2 × 8
0.2  I1 = 6

6.0 
= 0.27 A
Therefore, total current (I) = 0.2 + 0.27 = 0.47 A
8.0 
External resistance (R) = R1 || R2
R1 R2
I2 = 0.2 A =R +R
1 2
Here,
r = 0.2  6×8
= 6 + 8 = 3.4 
R1 = 6.0 
Now,
R2 = 8.0 
Emf (E) = IR + Ir
I2 (in 8.0 ) = 0.2 A
= 0.47 × 3.4 + 0.47 × 0.2
Since, 6.0  and 8.0  resistance are in parallel,
= 1.7 V
the potential difference across them are equal
3. A battery of emf 1.5 V has a terminal potential difference of 1.25 V when a resistor of 25  is joined
to it. Calculate the current flowing, the internal resistance and terminal p.d. when resistance of 10 
is replaces 25 .
SOLUTION
Given, If the 10  resistance replaces 25 , total
Emf (E) = 1.5 V resistance in the circuit is,
Terminal p.d. (V) = 1.25 V Also,
External resistance (R) = 25  R + r = 10 + 5 = 15 
V 1.25 E
Now, current (I) = R = 25 = 0.05 A Now, total current (I') = R + r
E = V + Ir 1.5
or, 1.5 = 1.25 + 0.05 r = 15 = 0.1 A
or, 0.05r = 1.5 – 1.25
Now, new terminal potential difference (V)
or, 0.05 r = 0.25
= IR
0.25
r = 0.05 = 5  V = 0.1 × 10 = 1.0 V

4. A battery of emf 4 V and internal resistance 2  is joined to a resistor of 8 . Calculate the terminal
potential difference. What additional resistance in series with 8  resistor would produce a terminal
p.d. of 3.6 V?
SOLUTION
Given,
Internal resistance (r) = 2 
External resistance (R) = 8 
E 4
Total current (I) = R + r = 8 + 2 = 0.4 A
284 Principles of Physics - II
Let x be the additional resistance in series with 4
3.6 = (10 + x) (8 + x)
8  resistor to produce terminal p.d. of 3.6 V.
Total external resistance (R) = 8 + x or, 36 + 3.6 x = 32 + 4x
E or 4x – 3.6x = 36 – 32
Total current (I) = R + r
or, 0.4 x = 4
4 4 4
= 8 + x + 2 = 10 + x or, x = 0.4
Emf (e) = 4 V  x = 10 
Now,  Additional resistance is 10 .
Terminal p.d. = IR
5. The circuit shown in figure contains two batteries, each with an emf and an internal resistance and
two resistors. Find (a) the current in the circuit (magnitude and direction); (b) the terminal voltage
Vab of the 16.0 V battery; (c) the potential difference Vac of point a with respect to point c.
SOLUTION
Given, We know that
Emf of cell 1 (E1) = 16 V r1 = 1.6  V = E – Ir
EMF of cell 2 (E2) = 8 V r2 = 1.4  or Vab = E 1 – Ir1
R1 = 5  R2 = 9  = 16 – 0.47 × 1.6 = 15.25 volt
a. Circuit current (I) = ? c. Terminal voltage (Vac) = ?
Using Kirchoff's voltage law in the given From the figure, we can write
circuit, we can write Vc + 8 + I (1.4 + 5) = Va
I × r1 + I × R1 + I × r2 + I × R2 = E1 – E2 or Va – Vc = 8 + I × 6.4
or I(1.6 + 5 + 1.4 + 9) = 16 – 8 or Vac = 8 + 0.47 × 6.4 a 1.6  16.0 b

8  Vac = 11.0 V
or I = 17 = 0.47 A
5.0  9.0 
Its direction is in anticlockwise direction.
b. Terminal voltage (Vab) = ? 1.4  8.0 V
c

6. A “540-W” electric heater is designed to operate from 120 V lines. (a) What is its resistance? (b)
What current does it draw? (c) If the line voltage drops to 110 V, what power does the heater take?
(Assume that the resistance is constant. Actually, it will change because of the change in
temperature.)

SOLUTION
Given, b. Current (I) = ?
Power of heater (P) = 540 W We know that
Potential (V) = 120 V P = VI
a. Resistance (R) = ? P 540
 I = V = 120 = 4.5 A.
We know that
V2 c. For potential difference, V = 110 volt, power (P)
P= R =?
V2 (120)2 We know that
 R = P = 540 = 26.7 . V2 (110)2
P = R = 26.7 = 454 W

7. An electrical heating coil is connected in series with a resistance of X  across the 240 V mains, the
coil being immersed in a kilogram of water at 20°C. The temperature of the water rises to boiling
point in 10 minutes. When a second heating experiment is made with the resistance X short-
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  285
circuited the time required to develop the same quantity of heat is reduced to 6 minutes. Calculate
the value of X.
SOLUTION
P.d of mains (V) = 240 V, or I2Rt2 = mcw
2
Mass of water (mw) = 1 kg,
or 240 R × 6 × 60 = 1 × 4200 (100 – 20)
1 = 20°C  R
t1 = 10 min, 2 = 100°C , t2 = 6 min 240 × 240 4200 × 80
or R = 6 × 60
Let R be the resistance of the heating coil.
240 × 240 × 6 × 60
Heat developed in the coil = heat absorbed by or R= = 61.71 
4200 × 80
water
Putting the value of R in (i), we get
or I2Rt1 = mcw
2
240 2  240  × 61.71 = 560
or  R + X R × 10 × 60 = 1 × 4200 (100 – 20)  61.71 + X
  2
2 or  240  = 560 = 9.075
240
or  R + X R =
4200× 80
= 560 . . . (i)  61.71 + X 61.71
  600 240
When resistance x is short circuited, we can or 61.71 + X = 3.012
write 240
240 or 61.71 + X = 3.012
I= R
240
or X = 3.012 – 61.71 = 18 
Also, Heat developed in the coil = heat
absorbed by water

8. [NEB 2075] Two lamps rated 25 W – 220 V and 100 W – 220 V are connected to 220 V supply.
Calculate the powers consumed by the lamps.
SOLUTION
Given, V2 = 220 V
First lamp = 25 W – 220 V V22 220 × 220
R2 = P = 100 = 484 
Second lamp = 100 W – 220 V 2

Voltage (V) = 220 V If two lamps are connected in series and joined
Power consumed (P) = ? R1 R2 to 220 V mains, the current in the circuit, I is
Now, given as,
For first lamp, V 220
I = R + R = 1936 + 484 = 0.091A
P1 = 25 W 1 2

V1 = 220 V Power consumed by first lamp,

220V
V12 220 × 220 I2R1 = (0.091)2 × 1936 = 16 W
R1 = P = 25 = 1936  Power consumed by second lamp,
1

For second lamp, I2R2 = (0.091)2 × 484 = 4 W

P2 = 100 W

9. [HSEB 2062] Twelve cells each of e.m.f. 2 V and of internal resistance 0.5 ohm are arranged in a
battery of n rows and an external resistance 0.4 ohm is connected to the poles of the battery.
Estimate the current flowing through the resistance in terms of n.
SOLUTION
Given, m-cells
No. of cells (N) = 12
Emf (E) = 2 V n-rows

Internal resistance (r)= 0.5 ohm

No. of rows = n
External resistance (R) = 0.4 
Current (I) = ? R
286 Principles of Physics - II
Let, ‘m’ be the no. of cells in each row;
Then, we have;
m × n = 12
12
 m = n
Now, we have;
24n
mE mnE 12 × 2 24 n 0.4 60n
I = mr = mr + nR = 12 = 6 + 0.4n2 = 6 + 0.4n2 = 15 +n2 A
n +R n × 0.5 + n × 0.4 0.4
60n
Hence, the required current flowing through the resistance is 15 + n2 Ampere.

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] The open-circuit terminal voltage of a battery is 12.6 V, when a resistor R = 4.00  is connected
between the terminals of the battery, the terminal voltage of the battery is 10.4 V. What is the internal
resistance of the battery? Ans: 0.857 

r 24.0 V
+
2. [UP] The terminal voltage of the 24.0 V battery is 21.2 V. What is (a)
4.00 A
the internal resistance r of the battery; (b) the resistance R of the R 4.00 A
circuit resistor?
Ans: (a) 0.7  (b) 5.3 

3. [UP]A complete circuit consists of a 24.0 V battery, a 5.60  resistor and a switch. The internal
resistance of the battery is 0.28 . The switch is opened. (i) What does an ideal voltmeter read when
placed (a) across the terminals of the battery? (b) across the resistor? (c) across the switch?
(ii) Repeat parts (a), (b) and (c) for the case when the switch is closed.
Ans: (I) (a) 24 V (b) 0 (c) 24 V (ii) (a) 22.85 V (b) 22.85 V (c)0

4. [UP] When switch S in figure is open, the voltmeter V of the V

battery reads 3.08 V. When the switch is closed, the voltmeter E
reading drops to 2.97 V, and the ammeter A reads 1.65 A. Find
r
the internal resistance of the battery, and the circuit resistance
R. Assume that the two meters are ideal, so they don’t affect the
circuit. A
S R
Ans: 0.07  and 1.8 

5. [UP] A resistor with a 15.0 V potential difference across its ends develops thermal energy at a rate of
327 W. (a) What is its resistance? (b) What is the current in the resistor?
Ans: (a) 0.688  (b) 21.8 A

6. [UP] To stun its prey, the electric eel electrophorus electrius generates 0.8 A pushes of current along
its skin. This current flows across a 650 V potential difference. At what rate does electrophorus
deliver energy to its prey? Ans: 520 W

7. [UP] A battery-powered global positioning system (GPS) receiver operating on 9.0 V draws a current
1
of 0.13 A. How much electrical energy does it consume during 1 2 h? Ans: 6.3  103 J

8. [UP] A capacity of a storage battery, such as those used in automobile electrical systems, is rated in
ampere-hours (A.h). A 50 A.h battery can supply a current of 50 A for 1.0 h, or 25 A for 2.0 h and so
on. What total energy can be supplied by a 12 V, 60 A.h battery if its internal resistance is negligible?
Ans: 2.6  10 6 J
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  287
9. [UP] In the circuit in figure, find (a) the rate of conversion of internal a 1.0 12.0 V d
(chemical) energy to electrical energy within the battery; (b) the rate of
dissipation of electrical energy in the battery; (c) the rate of dissipation of
electrical energy in external resistor.
Ans: (a) 24 W (b) 4 W (c) 20 W

b 5.0 c
10. [UP] The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.4 V when there is a current of 1.50
A in the battery from the negative to the positive terminal. When the current is 3.50 A in the reverse
direction, the potential difference becomes 9.4 V. (a) What is the internal resistance of the battery? (b)
What is the emf of the battery?
Ans: (a) 0.2  (b) 8.7 V
E11 = 12.0 V r1= 1.0 
11. [UP]In the following circuit, find (a) the current
through the 8.0  resistor; (b) the total rate of
dissipation of electrical energy in the 8.0  resistor
R = 8.0 
and in the internal resistance of the batteries. E2 = 8.0 V r2= 1.0 
Ans: (a) 0.40 A (b) 1.6 W

12. [ALP] A surge suppressor is made of a material whose conducting properties are such that the
current passing through is directly proportional to the fourth power of the applied voltage. If the
suppressor dissipates energy at a rate of 6.0 W when the potential difference across it is 240 V,
estimate the power dissipated when the potential difference rises to 1200 V.
Ans: 18.75 kW

13. [ALP] A battery of emf 4 V and internal resistance 2 is joined to a resistor of 8 . Calculate the
terminal potential difference. What additional resistance in series with the 8  resistor would
produce a terminal potential difference of 3.6 V? Ans: 3.20 V and 10 
R1 = 3 
14. [ALP] As shown in the figure, a battery of emf 24 V and
I1 R3 = 8 
internal resistance r is connected to a circuit containing
two parallel resistors of 3  and 6  in series with an 8  I2
I I
resistor. The current flowing in the 3  is 0.8 A. Calculate R2 = 6 
(i) the current in the 6  resistor, (ii) r and (ii) the terminal
potential difference of the battery. [HSEB 2061] E = 24 V, r
Ans: (i) 0.4 A (ii) 10  (iii) 12 V

15. [ALP] A battery X of emf 6 V and internal resistance 2  is in series Ex, rx Ey, ry
with a battery Y of emf 4 V and internal resistance 8  so that the two
emfs act in the same direction. A 10  resistor is connected to the X Y
batteries. Calculate the terminal potential difference of each battery. If
Y is reversed so that the emf now opposes each other, what is the new
terminal potential difference of X and Y? Ans: 5 V, 0 V, 5.8 V, 3.2 V R=10
6 V 6V, r = 0

16. A voltmeter having a resistance of 1800  is used to measure the

potential difference across a 200  resistance which is connected
to the terminals of a.d.c. power supply having an emf of 50 V and I 6
6 B 12
12 
an internal resistance of 20 . Determine the percentage change I1
in the potential difference across the 200  resistor as a result of A I2 C
connecting the voltmeter across it. D
12
12  66

Ans: 1%
17. [ALP]Two heating coils A and B, connected in parallel in a circuit, produce power of 12 W and 24 W
respectively. What is the ratio of their resistances, RA/RB, when use? Ans: 2 : 1
288 Principles of Physics - II
18. [ALP] A heating coil of power rating 10 W is required when the potential difference across it is 20 V.
Calculate the length of nichrome wire needed to make the coil if the cross-sectional area of the wire
used is 1 × 10–7 m2 and the resistivity of nichrome is 1 × 10–6 m. What length of wire would be
needed if its diameter was half that previous used?
Ans: 4 m and 1 m
19. [ALP] The temperature of 0.3 kg of oil in a vacuum flask rises 10°C per minute with an immersion
heater of 12.3 watts input. On repeating with 0.4 kg of oil the temperature rises by 1.2°C per minute
for an input of 19.2 watts. Find the specific heat capacity of the oil and the thermal capacity of the
flask.
Ans:2220 Jkg - 1 K - 1 , 72 J K – 1
20. [ALP] An electric hot plate has two coils of managing wire, each 20 m in length and 0.23 mm2 cross
sectional area. Show that it will be possible to arrange for three different rates of heating, and
calculate the wattage in each case when the heater is supplied from 200 V mains. The resistivity of
manganin is 4.6 × 10-7 m.
Ans: 1 kW, 0.5 kW, 2 kW
21. [ALP] An electric fire dissipates 1 kW when connected to a 250 V supply. Calculate to the nearest
whole number the percentage change that must be made in the resistance of the heating element in
order that it may dissipate 1 kW on a 200 V supply. What percentage change in the length of the
heating element will produce this change of resistance if the consequent increase in the temperature
of the wire causes its resistivity to increase by a factor 1.05? The cross sectional area may be assumed
constant.
Ans: 36%, 39%
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Five bulbs are connected in series across 220 volt line. If one bulb is fused, the remaining bulbs are
again connected across the same line. Which one of the arrangements will be more illuminated?
Justify you answer.
 Let R be equal resistance of filament of each bulb. The total resistance of the circuit as 5 bulbs are
connected in series, R1 = 5R
V 220
Therefore, total current (I1) = 5R = 5R
V
Similarly, when only four bulbs are connected in series, I2 = 4R
2
Therefore, Power dissipation in first case, P1 = I1 (5R)
220 2
P1 =  5R  5R
 
(220)2
P1 = 5R ... (i)
Similarly power dissipation in the second case,
(220)2
P2 = 4R ... (ii)
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get
P2 5
P1 = 4
P2 5
P1 = 4 > 1. Simply, as one bulb gets fused, the total series resistance of four bulbs is less than the
series resistance of five bulbs. By more current flows in second case giving more illumination.
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  289
Therefore, power dissipation is more in second case, hence, the four bulbs in series illuminate
brighter.
2. Batteries are always labelled with their emf, for instance, an A flashlight battery is labelled '1.5 volt'.
Would it also be appropriate to put a label on batteries stating how much current they provide? Why
or why not?
 Emf is the property of electric source, but not the components connecting in the circuit. However, the
electric current depends on both the emf and combination of resistances in the circuit. Since, the
current depends on value of resistance in the circuit, its value varies, although the source is same.
Hence, the labelling of current is not appropriate.
3. Why does an electric bulb nearly always burn out just as you turn on the light, almost never while
the light is shining? (HSEB 2070)
 In the beginning, the filament has relatively low temperature. When current flows through it, it gets
heated. The resistance of a conductor increases on heating. Hence, the electric current is high initially
and decreases as the filament is heated. Due to the sudden change of temperature, the wire suffers
differential expansion at different cross section and it burns.
4. Why an electric bulb becomes dim when an electric heater in parallel circuit is switched on?
 In parallel combination, low resistance draws more power. Low resistance heater draws a higher
current. In such combination, some current from the bulb is diverted into heater. So, the bulb
becomes dim.
5. How does the internal resistance of a cell vary with temperature?
 Internal resistance of a cell decreases when temperature increases. Following are the main reasons of
decreasing internal resistance due to the increase in temperature.
i. The coefficient of viscosity of electrolyte decreases on heating. So, ions can move freely.
ii. Kinetic energy of ion increases on heating. Therefore, ions can move with the speed.
6. Deduce dimensional formula for potential difference.
 Potential difference is the amount of work done in bringing a charge from one point to another in an
electric field.
Work done
 Potential difference (V) = charge

The dimension of work done = [ML2T–2}

The dimension of charge = [AT]
[ML2T–2]
so, [V] = [AT] = [ML2T–3A–1]

Therefore, the dimensional formula of potential differences is, [ML2T–3A–1].

7. Why heat is generated in a conductor, when current flows through it?

 When charge particles (electrons) move in a conductor, they encounter with nuclei and with ions
which oppose the free movement of electrons. To overcome such difficulty in the movement of
charge particles, external works should be done by using the external power supply. Collision of
electron with ions is like collision of small stone with much larger stone. A part of such workdone is
converted into the thermal energy of the particles in conductor and eventually produced heat in it.
8. At what condition, current can be multiplied in series combination of cells?
 When external resistance (R) is very much greater than net internal resistance (nr) of cells, the current
drawn in the circuit is,
nE E
I = R = n R = n  current drawn from every cell.
 
9. Define emf and terminal potential difference.
290 Principles of Physics - II
 emf: The potential difference between two terminals of a cell while current is not drawn from it is
known as electromotive force (emf). It is the maximum possible voltage that the cell can provide in
the circuit. It is denoted by E. Its unit is volt (V)
Terminal potential difference: The potential difference between two terminals of a cell while current
is drawn from it is known as terminal potential difference. Terminal potential difference is equivalent
to voltage drop on the external resistance of an electric circuit. It is denoted by V. Its unit is volt (V).
10. Can terminal potential difference be greater than emf of a cell?
 Yes. This condition is possible when a battery is being charged. In a common circuit, conventional
current flows form positive terminal to negative terminal of a circuit, but the current flows form
negative to positive terminal inside the cell. However, in charging a cell, the convensional current
flows form positive to negative terminal of the cell. In such condition, the magnitude of current is
assigned negative (i.e. – I). So, in the relation of emf and terminal potential difference.
E = V + (–I)r
i.e. E = V – Ir
Since r has some 'positive value,
V>E
11. What is internal resistance? Write the relation between E,V and r.
 The electrolytes of a cell offers the resistance for the current in it. This resistance provided by the
electrolytes of the cell is known as internal resistance of a cell. If the internal resistance of a cell is non
zero. Then the total resistance in an electric circuit is, R + r, where,
R = external resistance
r = internal resistance
Now, emf (E) = I (R + r)
I = total current in an electric circuit.
 E = IR + IR
E = V + Ir
This is the relation between E, V and r.
12. What is one unit electricity?
 When 1 kW electric power is consumed for 1 hour, the electricity so used is called one unit electricity.
So, 1 unit = 1 kWh.
If ten bulbs of each 100 W are lighted regularly for one hour, the consumed electricity is equal to 1
unit electricity.
13. Two bulbs 60 W and 100 W are connected (i) in series (ii) in parallel, which bulb glows brightly?
explain.
 Resistance of lower power bulb is made with greater resistance than high power, i.e. resistance of 60
W bulb has greater resistance than the resistance of 100 W (i.e. R60 > R100).
i. In series, current remains constant in both bulbs, So, P = I2R, i.e P  R .
It means, P60 > P100 ( for R60 > R100).
So, the 60 W bulb consumes more power, hence it glows brighter.
V2 1
ii. In parallel, potential difference remains constant in both bulbs, so, P = R i.e. P  R

It means P60 < P100 (for R60 > R100)

So, in this case, 100 W bulb consumes more power, hence it glows brighter.
14. Batteries are labelled with their emf. For example the dry cell which we use is labelled 1.5 V. Would it
be appropriate to put a label on the batteries stating how much current they provide?
 Resistors, inductors, capacitors are the variable components of an electric circuit. But the current
provided by the cell is depends on the external components of the circuit. Hence, the current varies in
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  291
the circuit, although the circuit contains the constant emf. Hence, the value of current is not
appropriate to specify in a cell.
15. Which resistance, internal or external, should be greater to draw the maximum current the series
combination of the cells?
 In this condition, total current in the circuit,
nE
I = R + nr

To be maximum current, R > nr. Hence external resistance must be greater than the internal
resistance of a cell.
16. A heater wire is heated to red hot but not the conducting wire to it from electric power supply. Why?
 The amount of heat produced in a conductor is determined from the formula of joules law of heating,
H = I2Rt, i.e. H  R.
i. In case of heater wire, R is very high.
so, the heat (H) is significantly very high
ii. In case of connecting wire, R tends to zero, so H→0. So, it can not red hot.
17. Can we measure emf by voltmeter? Explain.
 No, it is impossible. Emf is measured only when current drawn from the source is zero. But
Voltmeter does not work if no current is drawn from the source. A potentiometer is used to measure
the emf.
18. Which combination is set in household wiring, series or parallel?
 In household wiring, parallel combination is set into practice. As the parallel combination is set,
every component of electric appliances like, bulb, fan etc in every room achieves the equal potential
difference. Also, individual switches for individual appliance is possible.
19. Three bulbs 40 W, 60 W and 100 W are connected to 220 V mains. Which bulb will glow brightly, if
they are connected in series?
 The resistance of filament bulb is designed in accordance with the power dissipation,
V2 V2
P = R . So, R = P

1
For the constant voltage supply, R  P . It means the bulb of greater power has lower resistance. So,
R100 < R60 < R40.
If these bulbs are connected in series, the power consumed by the bulb, P = I2R.
i.e. P  R.
It means greater resistance consumes more power, So, 40 W bulb consumes maximum power and 100
W bulb consumes minimum power. Hence, 40 W bulb glows more brightly.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. The same current is passed through the line wire and filament of a bulb, the filament becomes hot but
not the line wire, why?
2. How are the electric lamps connected in houses?
3. On an electric bulb, it is written 100 W and 220 V, what does it mean?
4. What do you mean by electric power?
5. When electric circuits are shorted light spark appears, why?
292 Principles of Physics - II
6. Which of the combination will you prefer if you have to draw large current if external resistance is
negligible compared to internal resistance of a cell? Also, internal resistance is negligible compared to
external resistance?
7. Define watt, kilowatt, kilowatt-hour and horsepower.
8. What do you mean by emf of a cell?
9. What do you mean by the terminal potential difference?
10. What do you mean by the internal resistance of a cell?
11. What are the factors on which the internal resistance of a cell depends?
12. What is the relation between “emf ”and “terminal potential difference”?
13. Though the same current flows through the electric line wires and the bulb filament, yet only the
filament glows, why?
14. In what respect does a heater wire differ from a fuse wire?
Long-Answer Type Questions
1. Derive an expression for the heat produced in the resistor when the current flows through it and
hence state Joule’s law of heating.
2. What is internal resistance of a cell? On what factors does it depend? Derive circuit formula for a cell
in a circuit.
3. Define emf of a cell. Show that the voltage drop across a resistor connected in parallel with a cell is
different from the emf of the cell.
4. What is a cell? Two identical cells, each of emf (E) and internal resistance(r) are connected in series to
an external resistance(R). Find the expression for total current in the circuit.
Numerical Problems
1. The maximum power dissipated in a 10000  resistor is 1 W. What is the maximum current?
Ans: 0.01 A
2. Eight cells, each of emf 1.5 V, are connected in series. If a current of 3 A flows through an external
resistance of 2 , calculate the internal resistance of a cell.
Ans: 0.25 
3. A resistor with a 15.0 V potential difference across its ends develops thermal energy at a rate of 327
W. (a) What is its resistance? (b) What is the current in the resistor?
Ans: (a) 0.688  (b) 21.8 A
4. To stun its prey, the electric eel electrophorus electrius generates 0.8 A pushes of current along its
skin. This current flows across a 650 V potential difference. At what rate does electrophorus deliver
energy to its prey?
Ans: 520 W
5. A battery-powered global positioning system (GPS) receiver operating on 9.0 V draws a current of
1
0.13 A. How much electrical energy does it consume during 1 2 h?
Ans: 6.3  10 3 J
6. A capacity of a storage battery, such as those used in automobile electrical systems, is rated in
ampere-hours (A.h). A 50 A.h battery can supply a current of 50 A for 1.0 h, or 25 A for 2.0 h and so
on. What total energy can be supplied by a 12 V, 60 A.h battery if its internal resistance is negligible?
Ans: 2.6  10 6 J
7. The potential difference across the terminals of a battery is 8.4 V when there is a current of 1.50 A in
the battery from the negative to the positive terminal. When the current is 3.50 A in the reverse
direction, the potential difference becomes 9.4 V. (a) What is the internal resistance of the battery? (b)
What is the emf of the battery?
Ans: (a) 0.2  (b) 8.7 V
8. An electric hot plate has two coils of manganin wire, each 20 m in length and 0.23 mm2 cross sectional
area. Show that it will be possible to arrange for three different rates of heating, and calculate the
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  293
wattage in each case when the heater is supplied from 200 V mains. The resistivity of manganin is
4.6 × 10-7 m.
Ans: 1 kW, 0.5 kW, 2 kW
9. The wire of a fuse in an electric circuit melts when the current density increases to 600 A/cm2. What
should be the diameter of the wire so that it may limit the current to 0.4 A?
Ans: 0.29 mm
10. At 27.0C, the resistance of a resistor is 83 . What is the temperature of the resistor if the resistance
is found to be 100  and the temperature coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.7 × 10–4 °C–1?
Ans: 1232°C
11. An electric heating element to dissipate 400 W on 220 V mains is to be made from a wire 1 mm wide
and 0.05 mm thick. Calculate the length of the wire required if the resistivity of material is
1.1  10–6 m.
Ans: 5.5 m
12. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 0.5  is charged by a d.c. source of 100 V with the help
of a series resistor of 10.0 . Find the terminal voltage of the battery when it is being charged.
Ans: 14.3 V
13. Find the minimum number of cells required to produce an electric current of 1.5 A through a
resistance of 30 . Given that the emf of each cell is 1.5 V and internal resistance of each cell is 1.0 .
Ans: 120
14. An electric heater is marked 1000 W, 220 V. How long will it take to heat 1 litre of water at 20C to its
boiling point? Ans: 5.6 minutes
15. A fuse of lead wire has an area of cross-section 0.2 mm2. On short circuiting, the current in the fuse
wire reaches 30 A. How long the short circuiting, will the fuse begin to melt? For lead, specific heat
capacity = 0.032 cal g–3 C–1. Melting point = 327C, density = 11.34 g cm–3 and resistivity = 22 × 10–6
 cm. The initial temperature of wire is 200C, Neglect heat losses.
Ans: 0.945 sec

Multiple Choice Questions

1. 4 bulbs is rated at 100 V, 200 W, when the voltage drops by 2%, then change in power of bulb is:
a. Increased by 2% b. Increased by 4%
c. Decreased by 2% d. Decreased by 4%
2. The power of a bulb is 100 watt at 200 V. When the voltage is 110 V, power of the bulb is:
a. 150 W b. 50 W
c. 120 W d. 25 W
3. The power of two heater coils is P1 and P2. If they are connected in series, the resultant power is:
P1P2
a. P1 + P2 b. P + P
1 2

c. 0 d. P1P2
4. In order to light a 6 W, 6 V bulb at rated power a battery of emf 6 V and internal resistance 2  is
used. The bulb will light at power:
a. 6 W b. 27/8 W
c. 4 W d. 16/3 W
5. 5 cells each of emf 'E' and internal resistance 'r' are connected in series, by mistake one of the cell was
connected wrongly; then equivalent emf and internal resistance will be:
a. 5E, 3r b. 3E, 5r
c. 3E, 3r d. 5E, 5r
6. In a dynamo, voltage is 6 V current 0.5 A. What is the power generated?
a. 12 b. 1.5
c. 3 d. 5

Answers
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6 (c)
294 Principles of Physics - II

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINTS:1 Electric power developed (P) = 327 W
The open-circuit terminal voltage of a battery is V2
12.6 V which is its emf. (a) Resistance (R) = P
 E = 12.6 V P
R=4 (b) I = V
Terminal voltage (V) = 10.4 V HINT: 6
E–V Given,
r= V R
Current, I = 0.80 A
HINTS: 2 Potential difference, V = 650 V
Given, Power, P = I V
emf of battery, E = 24.0 V HINT: 7
Current, I = 4.00 A Given,
Terminal voltage, V = 21.2 V Potential, V = 9.0 V
E–V Current, I = 0.13 A
a. r = V R
1
V. r Time taken, t = 1 2 h = 1.5  3600 sec.
b. R =
EV
Energy consumed, E = P × t [∵P = V I]
HINTS: 3
HINT: 8
Given,
Given,
emf, E = 24 V
Voltage, V = 12 V
Internal resistance, r = 0.28 
Current, I = 60 A
Resistance, R = 5.60  0.28 24.0 V
Time, t = 1 h = 3600 s
i. When switch is opened,
Total energy supplied, E = Pt = IVt
a. terminal voltage,
V = E – Ir 5.60  HINT: 9
b. V = IR = 0 × R Given,
c. V= E  IR = E  0  R = E Internal resistance (r) = 1.0 
ii. When switched is closed Emf, E = 12.0 V
a. terminal voltage, V = ? Resistance (R) = 5.0 
Total emf E (a) Rate of conversion of energy in battery
Firstly, find I = total resistance = R + r
indicates power of battery. So,
Then use I in V = E  IR First find, I from
b. Voltage a cross resistor V = IR E
c. No potential is dropped across the ideal switch, I = R+r
so V = 0 Then, P = EI
HINT: 4
b. Rate at dissipation of energy in the battery is the
Given, power dissipation. So, P = I2 r
(i) For open switch, voltmeter reading is equal to c. Rate of dissipation of energy in external
emf of the battery. So, E = 3.08 V resistance i.e., power dissipation in the external
(ii) For closed switch, voltmeter reading is equal to resistor
terminal potential difference so, Pext = I2 R
Terminal potential difference, V = 2.97 V HINT: 10
Ammeter reading, I = 1.65 A Given,
E–V V Potential difference across the battery, V = 8.4 V
r = I and R = I
Current, I = 1.50 A
HINT: 5
Current, I1 = – 3.50 A
Given, Potential difference across the battery(V1)=9.4 V
Potential difference (V) = 15.0 V
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  295
E  V1 We know that
a. Internal resistance of the battery (r) = I1 net emf
Total current = total resistance
b. Emf of the battery (E) = V + I r
HINT: 11 E
or I = 10 + r
Given,
Emf (E1) = 12.0 V iii. terminal potential difference of the cell, V = ?
Internal resistance (r1) = 1.0  we know that
Emf (E2) = 8.0 V V = E – Ir
Internal resistance (r2) = 1.0  HINT: 15
Resistance (R) = 8.0  Given,
E1 – E2 Ex = 6 V Ey = 4 V
a. Current through 8 , I = r + R + r rx = 2  ry = 8 
1 2

b. Power dissipation, P = I2 (r1 + R + r2) R = 10 

HINT: 12 Terminal potential difference across each battery
Given, (Vx, Vy) = ?
P1 = 6 W, V1 = 240 V i. Firs case, the total current in the circuit is given
P2 = ? V2 = 1200 V by
According to question, we can write net emf Ex + Ey
I = total resistance = r + r + R
I  V4 x y

or I = KV4 Use I in, Vx = Ex – Irx

Now, Also, Vy = Ey – Iry
E, r
ii. In the second case, the terminal of y is reversed.
∵ P = VI = V.KV4 = KV5
5
The current in the circuit is given by
So, P1 = KV15 , P2 = KV2
V2 5
or P2 =  V  .P1
R net emf
 1 I1 = total resistance
HINT: 13 E, r Ey
Ex – Ey Ex
Given, = r +r +R + – – +
x y
E=4V Now, use I1 in , x y
r=2 R R1 '
R=8 V x = Ex – I1rx
To find, terminal potential difference, V '
R
Also, V y = Ey – I1ry
E–V
Use formula, r = V . R HINT: 16

After addition of resistance, use formula Given,

E–V E = 50 V,
r = V (R + R1) r = 20,
HINT: 14 R = 200 
Given, V
i. I1 = 0.8 A, R1 = 3 , E = 24 V R = 200 R = 200
I2 = ?
R2 = 6 
Use, I1 × R1 = I2 × R2
ii. Internal resistance of a cell, r = ? 50v, r = 20 50v, r = 20
Total current in the circuit, (i) (ii)
I = I1 + I2 Current in the circuit,
The equivalent resistance of R1 and R2 is E
R1 × R2 I= R+r
R= R +R
1 2 Potential difference across R before using
Total resistance in the circuit = R + R3 + r voltmeter as in figure (i),
296 Principles of Physics - II
V = IR 2
d1 d 2
  d2
 A1 = 4 = 4 ×  2  = 4 × 4
When voltmeter is connected across R, then
E = 50 V, r = 20 , R = 200 , Rv = 1800   
d2 1 A
 A1 =  4  4 = 4
The combined resistance of the resistor and
voltmeter is given by  
Rv × R V2 V2
R' = R + R  P = R = . A1
v l1
E V 2
Then, I = R' + r or l1 = A
×P 1
 Potential difference across R after using HINT: 19
voltmeter as in figure (ii),V' = IR' Given,
 % change potential difference 1 1
m1 = 0.3 kg, P1 = 12.3 W, t = 60 °C/s
V' – V
= V  × 100
  2 1.2
HINT: 17 m2 = 0.4 kg, P2 = 19.2 W, t = 60 °C/s
Given, PA = 12W Let S be the specific heat capacity of paraffin oil
PA = 12  and its thermal capacity be C.
RA
PB = 24  In the first case, we can write
RB
RA m1S1 + C1 = Q1
RB = ? PA = 24W 1 Q1
or (m1S + C) t = t = P1
∵ A and B are connected in parallel, the voltage
applied across them is the same. or 0.3S + C = 738 . . . (i)
V2 In the second case, we can write
 PA = R . . . (i) 2 Q2
A
or (m2S + C) t = t = P2
and
V2 1.2
PB = R . . . (ii) or (0.4S + C) 60 = 19.2
B

PA RB or 0.4S + C = 960 . . . (ii)

 PB = RA Solve (i) and (ii) and find S and C.
HINT: 18 HINT: 20

Given, Given,
P = 10 W V = 20 V l = 20 m
A = 10–7 m2  = 10–6  m A = 0.23 mm2 = 0.23 × 10–6 m2
l =? V = 200 V,  = 4.4 × 10–7 m.
V2 l
a. P = R Resistance of the coil, R =  A

But, V2
a. When only one coil is used, P = R
l
R =  A , where A = cross sectional area. b. When both the coil are connected in series,
So, total resistance of the circuit, R = 40 + 40 = 80 
V2 Wattage of the circuit,
P = .A V2
l P= R
V 2
or l = .A c. When both coils are connected in parallel, the
×P
b. l1 = ? when diameter was half total resistance of the circuit R is given by
d 40 × 40
d1 = 2 R = 40 + 40
V2
We know that Wattage of the circuit, P = R
d2
A= 4
 Heating Effect of Current  Chapter 11  297
HINT: 21 Also, we have
Given, l
P1 = 1 kW = 103 W R= A
V1 = 250 V RA
P2= 1 kW = 103 W or l =

1 R1 A
V2 = 200 V, = 1.05  l1 =
2 1
% change in resistance = ? R2 A
2 2  l2 =
V1 V2 2
i.First case, R1 = P and R2 = P l1 - l2
1 2
Thus, % change in length = l1 × 100 %
R1  R2
 % change in resistance = R1  100%


298 Principles of Physics - II
 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

12.1 Introduction
In simple circuits consisting of a single source of emf, the relationship between the current and the
voltage drop across each resistor could be calculated by using Ohm's law. However, for any circuit
consisting of more than one source of emf, the situation becomes quite complicated. For such circuits,
finding the current flowing through each component and hence the voltage drop across each
component is very much important to study their relationships.

12.2 Kirchhoff's Laws

Kirchhoff has given two rules commonly known as Kirchhoff's laws for the calculation of
current and voltage across any electrical component which are discussed below.

i. Kirchhoff's first law or Junction law or current law

A junction is a common point at which all the conductors are joined. Kirchhoff's first law, states that ,
"in any network algebraic sum of currents at any junction is zero".
i.e. I = 0 ... (12.1)
If positive sign is assigned for the currents arriving and negative sign is assigned for the currents
leaving, the law may also be stated as "sum of currents entering the junction must be equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction".
i.e. Iin = Iout ... (12.2)
I6
Let us consider a network of conductors as shown
I3 I5
in Fig. 12.1 in which the current points along the
O
direction of arrow and O is the junction point.
Then, from Kirchhoff's first law at junction O, I4
Sum of current in = Sum of current out I2

Iin = Iout ... (12.3) I1

Here, Iin = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4.
Fig. 12.1: A network of conductors shown with
and Iout = I5 + I6 currents entering and leaving the junction O
300 Principles of Physics - II
From equation (12.3), we can write,
 I1 + I2 + I3 + I4 = I5 + I6
This law is based on the principle of conservation of charge. According to this law, when steady
current flows in a circuit, the electric charges don't get accumulated or destroyed at any point. This
means, if billions of charges particles enter a junction in 1 second, then, same number of charges
must come out of it in 1 second.

ii. Kirchoff's second law

This law also known as mesh or loop law basically deals with p.ds and emfs. Before discussing this
law, let us know what mesh and loop refer to? In a complicated circuit, a mesh refers to a closed path
with no other paths inside it where as loop refers to a closed path that contain two or more meshes in
it.
For examples: In the given circuit in Fig. 12.2, ABEFA and BCDEB are the meshes where as ACDFA
is a loop as it contains two meshes ABEFA and BCDEB in it.
A B C

F E D
Fig. 12.2: Mesh and loop
The mesh or loop here is referred to mean a closed path of a circuit where a junction point comes
only once in the consideration.
Kirchoff's second law, states that, "the directed sum of emfs and p.ds round a closed loop is zero".
i.e. E + IR = 0, When proper direction of emfs and p.ds are chosen.
This can also be stated as "around any closed circuit or loop the algebraic sum of emf (E) is equal to
the sum of p.ds (V = IR) around that closed loop.
i.e. E = IR ... (12.4)
The sign conventions in direction adopted for applying Kirchoff's second law are discussed below.
1. The direction emfs are taken positive if we pass from negative terminal to positive terminal of
the source. In the source of emf, a charge particle gains electric potential energy as it moves
from negative terminal to positive terminal. So, in this direction of motion i.e. from negative
terminal to positive terminal, the potential difference is positive. So, this sign convention is
justified.
2. The p.ds across any component are taken negative, if we move along the direction of current
and positive, if we move opposite to the direction of current. The charge particles move from
higher potential region to lower potential region. This means current flows from higher
potential region to lower potential region. So, potential difference across a conductor in the
direction of current is negative. For the same reason, the potential difference across a
conductor in the direction opposite to current must be negative. So, this sign convention is
also justified.
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  301
Illustration:
Let us consider an electric circuit shown in Fig. 12.3. It consists of three closed paths ABCDFA,
ABEFA and BCDEB. Consider a loop, BCDEB first.
A reference point B is chosen and from this point let us move towards the direction of I1 along BC.
A I2 R1 B R2 I1 C

E1 E2 R3

R5 R4 I1
F E D
Fig. 12.3: Applying Kirchoff's rule in a circuit
Since, we are along the direction of current,
Potential difference across R2 = – I1R2
Potential difference across R3 = – I1R3
Potential difference across R4 = – I1R4
Now, moving along EB to reach B, we move from negative to positive terminal of sources E2, so, E2 is
positive. Thus, Kirchoff's second law for the loop can be written as,
– I1R2 – I1R3 – I1R4 + E2 = 0
 E2 = I1R2 + I1R3 + I1R4 ... (12.5)
Consider another loop AFEBA and choosing A as reference point let us move along AF to reach at A
again.
Since, we are moving from positive to negative terminal of source E1, it must be taken negative.
Again, along FE, we are in the direction of current. So, potential difference across R5 = – I2 R5
For the reason stated previously, E2 is positive and p.d across R1 = – I2R1.
Thus, for this loop, Kirchoff's second law gives,
– E1 – I2 R5 + E2 – I1R1 = 0
E2 – E1 = I2R5 + I1R1 .. (12.6)
Finally, chosing reference point A again for closed loop ABCDEFA and moving along AC to reach at
A again, we get,
P.d across R1 = + I2R1 (Here, we move opposite to direction of current)
P.d across R2 = – I1R2 (we move along the direction of current)
P.d across R3 = – I1R3 (we move along the direction of current)
P.d across R4 = – I1R4 (we move along the direction of current)
P.d across R5 = + I2R5 (we move opposite to direction of current)
The emf E1 is positive.
So, from Kirchoff's second law,
I2R1 – I1R2 – I1R3 – I1R4 + I2R5 + E1 = 0
E1 = – I2R1 + I1R2 + I1R3 + I1R4 – I2R5 ... (12.7)
This is how we apply sign conventions in Kirchoff's second law.
302 Principles of Physics - II
Sometimes, the direction of currents may not be shown in the circuit. In such case, it is always wise
to choose the direction of current originating from the positive terminal of larger emf source. If the
direction you assumed is opposite, you will get negative value of current but the magnitude must
not alter. You may alter the polarity of battery in such case.

Kirchhoff's second law and conservation of energy

When a charge, moves around a circuit, it gains energy as it moves through each source of emf and
loses energy as it passes through each potential difference. So, if a charge moves all way round the
circuit, so that it ends up where it started, it must have same energy at the end as it initially had.
Otherwise, we would be able to create energy from nothing simply by moving charges around
circuits. Thus, Kirchhoff's second law is a direct consequence of principles of conservation of energy.
So, energy gained in passing through sources of e.m.f. = energy lost in passing through components with
potential differences
Remember that an emf in volt is simply the energy gained per one coulomb of charge as it passes
through source, and a potential difference (p.d.) is the energy lost per one coulomb as it passes
through a component.
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb
Thus, Kirchhoff's second law can be thought of as:
So, energy gained per coulomb around loop = energy lost per coulomb around loop

12.3 Wheat Stone Bridge

A bridge network that operates on the principle of comparison B
by a null deflection method is wheat stone bridge. A Wheat I1
stone bridge consists of a network of four resistances out of P Q
which one is unknown. The value of unknown resistance can Ig I3
be determined accurately in terms of three known resistances.
A G C
This method was devised by British physicist Prof. Charles, F.
I2 I4
Wheatstone.
A Wheat stone bridge consists of four resistances P, Q, R and X X R
which form the four arms of rectangle as shown in Fig. 12.4.
The resistances P and Q are the ratio arms and R is standard I D

arms. X is the resistor whose resistance is to be determined. A

source of emf E is connected between points A and C and a
sensitive galvanometer is connected between B and D as shown
K
in Fig. 12.4. E
Fig. 12.4: Wheatstone bridge
When the resistance of R is so adjusted that, there is no
deflection of the galvanometer, the bridge is said to be balanced and there is no potential difference
across the galvanometer. Under such condition,
P X
Q=R ... (12.8)

P
X=QR ... (12.9)

P
Thus, knowing the ratio Q and value of R, we can calculate X from equation (12.9).
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  303
The wheat stone bridge is said to be sensitive if the galvanometer shows large variation for small
change in resistance of R and it is most sensitive when the resistances of four arms are of the same
order. In balanced condition, the effective resistance (Rw) offered by the bridge is,
Rw = (P + Q) | (R + X)
(P + Q) (R + X)
Rw= P + Q + R + X

Under balanced condition the position of galvanometer and battery can be interchanged without
affecting the balance of bridge. So, arms BD and AC are also called as conjugate arms.

Derivations of balanced condition from Kirchhoff's law

Let the direction of currents in various arms be as shown in Fig. 12.4.
Then, from Kirchhoff's second law in loop ABDA
– I1P – IgG + I2X = 0 ... (12.10)
Also, from Kirchhoff's second law in loop BCDB,
– I3Q + I4R + IgG = 0 ... (12.11)
Again, from Kirchhoff's first law at junctions B and D,
I1 = I3 + I g ... (12.12)
I4 = I2 + I g ... (12.13)
When the galvanometer shows null deflection, Ig = 0.
So, equations (12.12) and (12.13) yield,
I1 = I3 ... (12.14)
I4 = I2 ... (12.15)
And, also from equations (12.10) and (12.11)
I1P = I2X ... (12.16)
I3Q = I4R ... (12.17)
Dividing (12.16) by equations (12.17) and using values from equations (12.14) and (12.15), we get,
P X
Q =R
This is the required balance condition of Wheat stone bridge.

12.4 Meter Bridge

It is an electrical instrument which works on the principle of Wheat stone bridge and is used for
measuring the unknown resistance.
It consists of a meter long wire AC of uniform cross-section and composition usually made of an
alloy such as constantan or magnanin. The uniformity in composition and cross-section ensures that,
resistance per unit length remains constant throughout the wire. The wire is stretched over a meter
scale fixed on a flat wooden plank by two L-shaped copper strip of low resistance as shown in Fig.
12.5. Another flat copper strip is fixed a little above the meter scale providing two gaps, where a
known resistance (R) and unknown resistance X are kept. The known resistance is usually a
resistance box A jockey (J) which can slide over the wire AC and a galvanometer (G) is connected
from the midpoint D of the flat copper strip by the help of a wire. When the jockey is slided over the
resistance wire, the length of the resistance wire left to contact point serves as a resistor P and that to
the right serves as another resistor Q. A source of emf E is connected across AC as shown in Fig. 12.5
304 Principles of Physics - II
with the help of four ways key (K). The overall construction now serves as a wheat stone bridge for
null deflection in G with P and Q as standard arms R known resistance and X unknown resistance.
X R
R.B.

A l B (100 - l) C
P J Q

G K

Fig. 12.5: Meter Bridge

Working: When a suitable known resistance is plucked out of a resistance box, the jockey (J) is slided
over wire AC until there is no deflection in the galvanometer G. This condition of zero deflection is
Galvanometer is called balanced condition of the bridge and the point B on the wire AC is called
balance point.
Let l cm be the length of resistance wire (AB = P) then length of resistance wire (BC = Q) is (100 – l)
cm.
Since resistance is directly proportional to length, we can write,
Pl ... (12.18)
and Q  (100 – l) ... (12.19)
From equations (12.18) and (12.19) we can write,
P l
Q = (100 – l) ... (12.20)

Also, from balanced condition of wheat stone bridge,

P X
Q =R ... (12.21)

From equations (12.20) and (12.21), we get,

X l
R = (100 – l) ... (12.22)

l
 X = (100 – l) R

Thus, knowing the values of R and l, we can calculate the value of unknown resistance X.
Further, if r be the radius of the wire X and  be its resistivity, then,
l
X=A

AX
 = l ... (12.23)
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  305
d2
Here, A = 4 can be calculated by measuring the diameter (d) of wire with the help of micrometer.

Thus, the resistivity of X can be easily determined by using equation (12.23).

In the two gaps above, if both the resistors R and X are unknown, then equation (12.22) provides a
suitable comparison of their resistance.
Thus, we can say that, the meter bridge measures or compares the resistance of unknown wires in
terms of length.

12.5 Post office box (P.O. Box)

Post office box is an instrument that works on the Wheat stone bridge principle. It is so called
because, this instrument was used to find the resistance of broken telegraph wires in the post office.
P.O Box is a compact form of Wheat stone bridge more specially a resistance box in which the
resistances with in the box serve as three arms of Wheat stone bridge and value of unknown
resistance can be found by inserting it in the fourth arm. This box consists of two ratio arms AB and
BC which serve on P and Q of the wheat stone bridge and a third long arm CD which serves as the
known resistance. An unknown resistance is inserted between A and D whose value is to be
determined. Each ratio arm consists of three coils of resistance marked 10 , 100  and 1000 inside
the box where as the known resistance arm has the coils resistances ranging from 1 to 5000  inside
the box. A source of emf is connected between A and C' which is connected to C when the key K1 is
pressed. A galvanometer is connected to D and B' is connected to B by a key K2 (Galvanometer key)
while noting the readings, battery key (K1) is pressed first and then K2 is pressed in order to avoid
inductive effects in the galvanometer coil.
X

C Q B P A

1000 100 10 10 100 1000

R

1 2 2 5 10 20 20 50


D 5000 2000 2000 1000 500 200 200 100

C' B'

K1 K2

G
Fig. 12.6: Circuit arrangement for determining unknown resistance using P.O.Box

Procedure
Let an unknown resistance X be connected between A and D.
P 1
At first, 10 resistors are plucked out of each ratio arms so that, the ratio Q = 1

Now, the known resistors from arm CD are plucked out so as to observe the deflection in the
galvanometer. By changing the value of known resistance gradually, the deflection in the
galvanometer changes it direction. If the galvanometer shows left (say) deflection for 3  and rigal
deflection for 4 resistor taken out of CD, then, we say that the resistance lies between 3  and 4 .
306 Principles of Physics - II
In second step, the ratio of arms P and Q are maintained at, P:Q = 10:100. In this case the value of X
now must increase 10 times and hence. We check its resistance directly between 30  and 40  by
plucking suitable resistors. In this case also, we try to find opposite deflections of galvanometer for
two consecutive value of R. If, the galvanometer shows opposite deflection for 36  and 37  then
we say, the resistance lies between 3.6  to 3.7 . Sometimes, we may get a null deflection for
particular value say 36 . In such case we can directly say the value of unknown resistance is 3.6 .
Finally the ratio P:Q is maintained at 10:1000 by plucking 1000  key from Q. The same procedure is
repeated as this time by plucking the resistance key between 360 and 370. If a null deflection is
obtained for certain value of R, say 361  then we say the resistance of the wire is 361. If the null
deflection is not obtained and still opposite deflections exist, then we adopt following method to
calculate exact value of X. Suppose, for, R = 361 , galvanometer deflects by 2 divisions left and for R
= 362  galvanometer deflects by 1 division right.
Total deflection of galvanometer for 1  change in resistance = 2 + 1 = 3 divisions.
Here, 3 division corresponds to 1  resistance
1
or, 1 division corresponds to 3  resistance

2
or, 2 division corresponds to 3  resistance.

2
Therefore, the value of resistance R required for null deflection = 361 + 3  = 361.66 .
 
P X
Thus, the value of unknown resistance from wheat stone bridge principle is, Q = R .

P
or, X=Q R

10
or, X = 1000  361.66

 X = 3.616
In this way, we can determined, the value unknown resistance X using P.O. Box.

12.6 Potentiometer
A potentiometer is an arrangement which measures the emf of a cell or potential difference
accurately. The voltmeter used for such purpose draws some current from the cell and hence some of
the volt is lost in its internal resistance. So, it can't measure the emf accurately. However, a
potentiometer measures emf accurately without drawing any current from the cell as this method of
measurement follows null deflection. When the galvanometer shows null deflection, there is no
current in it, equivalently no current is drawn from cell. This implies the infinite resistance of
potentiometer wire. Thus a potentiometer is also called as ideal voltmeter.

Principle
The basic principle of potentiometer is that, the voltage drop across the length of the conductor
having uniform cross-section and composition due to a steady current is directly proportional to its
length. If V be the p.d across a conductor of length l, then,
Vl
or, V = K.l
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  307
V
or, K= l ... (12.24)

Here, K is a constant known as potential gradient and is simply the voltage drop per unit length of
the conductor.

Construction
A potentiometer consists of a long resistance wire of length 1 m to 10 m stretched horizontally
between two points A and B alongside a meterscale fitted over a wooden plank. A steady current is
maintained in the wire by a cell connected across A and B which is known as standard cell. As a
result there is p.d between two points on the wire which is proportional to their distance from one
another.

Fig. 12.7: Potentiometer

This arrangement can be used for various purpose which are discussed below.

12.7 Comparison of Emfs of two cell

The experimental circuit for the comparision of emfs of
Driver cell
two cells is an shown in Fig. 12.8. The figure shows a
A
driving cell E connected to points A and B. The cells
whose emfs are to be compared are called the primary E
Rh
cells and their emfs must be less than that of driver cell.
K
The positive terminals of E1 and E2 are respectively
connected to point A whereas their negative terminals
are connected to a galvanometer through key K1 and K2 l1
l2
respectively. A jockey which can slide over the wire is D C B
A J J
also connected to the galvanometer. A steady current I
is maintained in the potentiometer wire by adjusting
E1 G
the rheostate (Rh). K1

At first, key K1 is closed so that E1 is introduced in the K2

circuit. The jockey is now slided over AB to obtain a
E2
null deflection of galvanometer. Let, the Fig. 12.8: Potentiometer arrangement for
corresponding length of AB for null deflection of comparison of emf of two cells
308 Principles of Physics - II
galvanometer be l1, which is called the balancing length, then,
E1 = Kl1 ... (12.25)
Similarly, the key K2 is closed and K1 is open. Now, the cell E2 gets introduced in the circuit.
The jockey is again slided over AB to obtain null deflection of galvanometer for this case. If l2 be the
corresponding length of AB in this case, then,
E2 = Kl2 ... (12.26)
From equations (12.25) and (12.26), we get,
E1 l 1
E2 = l 2 ... (12.27)

E1
Thus, measuring the l1 and l2 the ratio E can be calculated.
2

Also, from equation (12.27),

l1
E1 = l . E2 ... (12.28)
2

If the emf of one cell is known, the emf of another cell can determined from equation (12.28).

12.8 Measurement of internal Resistance of the cell

The circuit arrangement for the measurement of internal resistance of cell is as shown in Fig. 12.9.
Driver cell

E
Rh

lAC
lAD D C B
A J J

E1 G
K1

K2
R.B.
Fig.: 12.9: Potentiometer arrangement for measurement of internal resistance of a cell
The cell of emf E1, whose internal resistance r is to be determined is introduced in the circuit with its
positive terminal at A and the negative terminal is connected to a galvanometer provided with a
jockey. A resistance box (R.B) is connected across the cell through a key K2.
At first the key K2 is opened and jockey is slided over AB to get a balance point C(say). Let the
balancing length of AB be lAC.
In this case, the p.d. across AC (= VAC) is equal to emf of cell. So,
E1= VAC = KlAC ... (12.29)
Now, the key K2 is closed so that R. B is introduced in the circuit. The jockey is again slided over AB
to get a balance point say  for a particular resistance R in RB. Let, the balancing length be lAD. Then
terminal p.d
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  309
V = K lAD. ... (12.30)
There is no current from lower circuit to the potentiometer at balance point. However, current flows
in the lower circuit through R.B driven by cell E1. So, V is the terminal p.d.
From Ohm's law in lower circuit,
E1 = I (R + r) and V = IR.
E1 (R + r)
Here, V = R ... (12.31)

From equations (12.29), (12.30) and (12.31),

KlAC (R + r)
KlAD = R
lAC r
or, lAD = 1 + R
r lAC
or, R = lAD – 1
lAC – lAD
 r=R ... (12.32)
lAD
Knowing the values of R, lAC and lAD we can calculate the value of r. One must note that, (lAC > lAD).

Tips for MCQs

1. Kirchhoff's first law:
i. Sum of incoming currents – sum of out going currents = 0, i.e. I = 0
ii. If the current reaching to the junction is taken positive, the current leaving from the junction is
taken negative.
iii. It is based on conservation of charge.
2. Kirchoff's second law:
i. E – IR = 0
ii. It is based on conservation of energy
iii. Guide-lines for sign convention in the second law.
a. Choose any closed loop in the network and designate a direction (clockwise or counter clockwise)
to traverse the loop.
b. Go around the loop in the designated direction, adding emfs and potential differences.
c. A potential drop across a resistance is considered positive or negative depending on whether one
moves in the same sense as the current or in the opposite sense.
3. Wheat stone bridge circuit.
i. When current through the galvanometer is zero, the potential difference at two connecting
junction (B and D) is zero.
ii. Wheat stone's bridge method is not suitable for the measurement of very low and very high
resistances.
P X
iii. In balanced conditions, Q = R

iv. If the positions of galvanometer and battery are interchanged, bridge remains same.
v. Meter bridge, post office box are practical applications of wheat stone bridge.
310 Principles of Physics - II
4. Meterbridge
i. The meterbridge wire is generally made of manganin or constantan or nicrome because these
materials have low temperature coefficient of resistance and high resistivity.
ii. If R1 and R2 be the resistance of same order, and R1 is kept at left gap and R2 is kept at right gap,
in balancing condition.
R1 l1
R2 = l2
iii. The resistance wire of 1 m long is used in this device, and wheat stone bridge principle is
applied in its working, so it is named meterbridge.
5. Potentiometer
i. Potentiometer is an ideal voltmeter. It measures the emf of a cell accurately and does not draw
any current from the cell.
ii. The working principle: The potential drop at any section of the wire is directly proportional to
the length of wire of that section, provided that the wire is of uniform cross sectional area and
constant current is passing.
i.e. V  l (for I, A and  constant)
iii. The sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by increasing the length of potentiometer
wire. In laboratory potentiometer, total length of is 10 m.
iv. As the potentiometer length is increased, its potential gradient decreases.
E1 l1
v. Comparison of emf: E = l
2 2
E l1
vi. Determination of Internal resistance: r = V – 1 R = l – 1 R
  2 

Worked Out Problems

1. What must be the emf E in the circuit so that the current flowing + +
24V E
through the 7  resistor is 1.80 A? Each emf source has negligible – –
internal resistance. 3 2 7

SOLUTION
Given,
Current (I) = 1.80 A (in R = 7 ) Also, Total current, I1 + I2 = I
Let I1 and I2 be the current passing through or, 3.8 + I2 = 1.8
path AB and EB respectively. or, I2 = –2 A
From closed circuit, ABCDEFA Now, from closed circuit, BCDEB,
or, 24 = 1.8  7 + 3  I1 or, E = 2  (–2) + 1.8  7
or, 3I1 = 24 – 12.6 or, E = –4 + 12.6
11.4 or, E = 8.6 V
or, I1 = 3 = 3.8 A
 The value of E is 8.6 V.

2. [HSEB 2059] The emf of a battery A is balanced by a length of 75 cm on a potentiometer wire. The
emf of a standard cell, 1.02 V, is balanced by a length of 50 cm. What is the emf of A? Calculate the
new balance length if A has an internal resistance of 2  and a resistor of 8  is joined to its
terminals.
SOLUTION
Given,
emf of a cell A (EA) = ?
Balancing length for cell A (lA) = 75.0 cm
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  311
emf of a standard cell (E) = 1.02 V lA – l1
r= l1 × R
Balancing length of standard cell (l) = 50 cm
According to the principle of potentiometer, 75 – l1
or 2= l ×8
we have 1

EA lA 1 75
or 4 = l1 – 1
E = l
lA 75 1 75
or EA = l × E = 50 × 1.02 = 1.53 V or 4 + 1 = l1
In the second case, if l1 be the balancing 75 × 4
or l1 = 5 = 60 cm
length, we can write

3. [HSEB 2072] A battery of 6 V and internal resistance 0.5  is joined in parallel with another of 10 V
and internal resistance 1 . The combination sends a current through an external resistance of 12 .
Find the current through each battery.
SOLUTION r1 = 0.5 
Given, C D
I1
Emf of cells (E1) = 6V E 1 = 6V
B E
(E2) = 10 V r2 = 1 
I2
Internal resistances (r1) = 0.5  G
E2 = 10 V
H
I3
(r2) = 1 
External resistances (R) = 12  R = 12 
Currents; I1 = ?, I2 = ? A F
From Kirchhoff's voltage law in a closed loop ABCDEFA.
E1 = I1r1 + I3R
= I1r1 + (I1 + I2) R = I1 × 0.5 + 12I1 + 12I2
6 = 12.5I1 + 12I2 (i)
Again in a closed loop ABGHEFA,
E2 = I2r2+ I3R = I2 × 1 + (I1 + I2) × 12
10 = 12I1 + 13I2 (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) we get, I1 = –2.27 A and I2 = 2.86 A
The negative value of current depicts that current flows from positive to negative terminal into the cell
E1. E1 = 28.0 V
E1 = 28.0v R
4. In the circuit shown in figure, find (a) the current in
(I)
resistor R; (b) the resistance R; (c) the unknown emf E. E  4.00A
← 4.00 A I3
I1
(d) If the circuit is broken at point x, what is the current A B
x R1 = 6.00
in resistor R? (II) I2

→ 6.00 A
6.00A
SOLUTION
Given, b. E = ? R22 == 3.00
3.00
E1 = 28 V Using Kirchhoff's voltage law in loop (II), we
R1 = 6 , I1 = 4A get
R2 = 3  , I2 = 6A E = I1R1 + I2R2
a. Current through R (I3) = ? =4×6+6×3
Using Kirchoff's current law at junction B, we  E = 42 V
have, c. R = ?
I2 = I1 + I3 Using Kirchhoff's voltage law in loop (I), we get
or I3 = I2 – I1 E1 – E = –I1R1 + I3R
=6–4 or 28 – 42 = – 4 × 6 + 2 × R
= 2A or – 14 = –24 + 2R or R = 5 
312 Principles of Physics - II
d. If circuit is broken at x, E1 = I4 × R2 + I4 × R
Current through R (I4) = ? E1 28 28
or I4 = R + R = 3 + 5 = 8
Using Kirchoff's voltage law in above complete 2
circuit, we can write,  I4 = 3.5A

5. A battery of emf 24 V and negligible internal resistance is connected across the diagonally opposite
corners of a cubical network consisting of 12 resistors each of resistance 2. Determine the
equivalent resistance of the network and the current through each edge of the cube.
SOLUTION
The necessary figure is shown below.
J I 2 H
I
2

G
F
I/2 2 2
3I

2 I/2

2 I/2 2 2 I
D C
2 I/2

I I/2 2
2
I/2
A I B

3I

E
E = 24 V

The given circuit is not easily reducible, so it can be solved by the method of "network symmetry".
Here, the paths AB, AD and AF are placed symmetrically in the network. So, current through each of
above path is same. If we take total current 3I, the current in each three paths AB, AD and AF is I.
Making use of 'symmetry considerations' and Kirchhoff's first law, we can write current in terms of I in
all edge of the cube.
Applying Kirchhoff's second law to the loop ABCHEA, we get
I
E–I×2–2×2–I×2=0
E – 5I = 0
E 24
I = 5 = 5 = 4.8 A
E 24
And the equivalent resistance (R) = 3I = 3 × 4.8 = 1.67 

Challenging Problems
1. [ALP] A 1.0  resistor is in series with an ammeter M in a circuit. The p.d. across the resistor is
balanced by a length of 60.0 cm on a potentiometer wire. A standard cell of emf 1.02 V is balanced by
a length of 50 cm. If M reads 1.10 A, what is the error in the reading? Ans: 0.124A
2. [ALP] A simple potentiometer circuit is set up as in figure E1 = 4V
using a uniform wire AB, 1.0 m long, which has a resistance R
of 2.0 . The resistance of the 4 V battery is negligible. If the
variable resistor R were given a value of 2.4  , what would C
A
be the length AC for zero galvanometer deflection? B

G
E2 = 1.5V
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  313
If R were made 1.0  and the 1.5 V cell and galvanometer were replaced by a voltmeter of resistance
20 , what would be the reading of the voltmeter if the contact C were placed at the midpoint of AB?
Ans: 0.825 m and 1.29 V

3. [ALP] A potentiometer consists of a fixed resistance of 2030  in series with a slide wire of resistance
4  meter-1. When a constant current flows in the potentiometer circuit a balance is obtained when (a)
a Weston cell of emf 1.018 V is connected across the fixed resistance and 150 cm of the slide wire and
also when (b) a thermocouple is connected across 125 cm of the slide wire only. Find the current in
the potentiometer circuit and the emf of the thermocouple.
Ans: 0.5 × 10 – 3 A, 2.5 × 10 – 3 V

4. [ALP] The driving cell of a potentiometer has an emf 2 V and negligible internal resistance. The
potentiometer wire has a resistance of 3 . Calculate the resistance needed in series with the wire of
p.d. of 5 mV is required across the whole wire. The wire is 100 cm long and a balance length of 60 cm
is obtained for a thermocouple of emf E. What is the value of E? [HSEB 2056, 2063]
Ans: 1197 , 3 × 10 – 3 V
I=2A R
5. [UP] In the circuit shown in figure, find (a) the current
(A)
in the 3.00  resistor; (b) the unknown emf's E1 and E2;
(c) the resistance R. Note the three currents are given. E1 E2
A
Ans: (a) 8A (b) 36 V, 54 V (c) 9 
R1 = 4  (B) R2 = 3 (C) R3 = 6 
I2 I3 = 3 A
I1 = 3 A
I1 II33==1.8
1.8A
A
6. [UP] What must the emf E in the figure be in order for the I2
current through the 7.00  resistor to be 1.80 A? Each emf EE1 1= =2424v
V
E R 
R33==77
source has negligible internal resistance. RR
1= 3 (A) 
RR22==22
1= 3
Ans: 8.6 V (B)

7. A battery of emf 1.5 V has a terminal p.d. of 1.25 V when a resistor of 25  is joined to it. Calculate
the current flowing, internal resistance and terminal p.d. when a resistance of 10  replaces 25 
resistor. [HSEB 2060]
Ans: 5 , 0.1A, 1 V
X R = 2
8. Calculate the current and unknown resistance (X) if no
current flows in the galvanometer as in figure alongside: G

Assuming resistance per unit length of the wire AB is 0.01 A

J
B
120 cm 80 cm
m–1.
I
Ans: 2.8A, 3 
+ –
E = 4V
R1 k
9. [ALP] In figure A has an emf of 3 V and negligible internal
resistance and B has an emf of 4 V and internal resistance 2.0 E1, r1
X Y
. With the switch K open, what current flows in the meter B
M? When K is closed, no current flows in M. Calculate the A
M
value of R. E2, r2
Ans: 0.5 A, 6 

[Note: Hits to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]
314 Principles of Physics - II

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. How Kirchhoff's first law is based on conservation of charge?
 The charge does not accumulate at a junction of electric circuit. The number of charge particles that
arrives at a junction in a certain time must leave the junction in the same time. This is in accordance
with the conservation of charge. Mathematically, I = 0.
2. How Kirchhoff's second law based on conservation of energy?
 While current flows in the circuit, the charge particles carries the energy. The charge particles draw
energy from the electric source so that net change of energy of a charge after completing a closed
path must be zero. i.e. (E – IR) = 0.
3. Differentiate the Kirchhoff's first law and second law.
 Same major differences are:
i. First law is in accordance with the law of conservation of charge, whereas the second law is based
on the principle of conservation of energy.
ii. First law is applicable to junction of conductors. The second law is applicable to closed circuit.
4. Why are the connections between resistors in a meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
 The resistance of connectors (copper strips) is not accounted for in the bridge formula, so it is
advisable to minimize the resistance of these connections. If the connectors are made with high
resistivity wires, the experimental results would be wrong.
5. What advantage is there in measuring resistance by using wheatstone bridge?
V
 If the resistance of a wire is measured by using voltmeter-ammeter combination, i.e. R = I . It is

somehow affected by the fluctuation in battery voltage and current in the circuit. But, in wheat stone
bridge circuit, the measurement of resistance is free from these fluctuations in V and I.
P X
i.e. Q = R

6. Why meter bridge is also called slide wire bridge?

 A meter bridge consists of 1 m long resistance wire. It works on the principle of wheat stone bridge.
In meter bridge, the wire acts as the resistance for two arms of wheat stone bridge, dividing from the
jockey point. To find the balance condition in measuring the resistance, the jockey is to be slided over
bridge wire. Hence it is named slide wire bridge.
7. Why Wheat stone bridge is not suitable to measure the very low and very high resistance?
 The sensitivity of bridge is ensured only when all other resistances used in the circuit have low value.
This requires a galvanometer of very low internal resistance which itself would be very sensitive.
However, the resistance of galvanometer has fixed value in its construction. So, the wheat stone
bridge cannot measure very low resistance.
For measuring high resistance all other resistance forming the bridge should also be high so as to
ensure the sensitivity of the bridge. But this reduces the current through the galvanometer which
becomes insensitive.
8. Why slider should not be run continuously on the slide wire?
 If the slider is continuously run on the slide wire, scraping may occur on the wire which can affect
the uniformity of the wire. As the uniformity is lost, the resistance of different portion of the wire
changes and the measurement of resistance in terms of length will be inaccurate due to the variation
of cross-sectional area.
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  315
9. Why potentiometer is called ideal voltmeter?
 Ideal Voltmeter measures the original potential difference. For this, the internal resistance of
voltmeter should be infinite so that it does not draw any current. Potentiometer is a device which
does not draw any current from the given circuit and still measures the potential difference. Thus,
the potentiometer is equivalent to an ideal voltmeter.
10. What is the main advantage of comparing emfs of cells by potentiometer?
 The resistance of galvanometer and internal resistances of cells cause no voltage drop because no
current flows through them. Hence, the potentiometer can compare the emfs without any external
effect in the circuit.
11. Sometimes, we face the problem of single side deflection in galvanometer in the experiment on
potentiometer. What is its main cause?
 If the potential difference across two ends of potentiometer wire is smaller than the emf of the cell to
be measured, the balance point will not be obtained on the potentiometer wire. Then, the
galvanometer shows single side deflection.
12. Why is voltmeter less accurate in measuring emf than a potentiometer?
 Potentiometer method is null method. It doesnot draw any current from the source whose emf is to
be measured. However, voltmeter draws some current and consequently measures a slightly less
value of emf.
13. Can we measure the internal resistance of a car battery with the help of wheat stone bridge?
 The car battery consists of accumulators whose internal resistance is very small (of the order of
0.01). Such a small resistance cannot be determined by wheat stone bridge method because the
bridge would then be insensitive.
14. Why do we prefer a potentiometer with a longer bridge wire?
V
 When the bridge wire is larger, the potential gradient is smaller (i.e. l is smaller for large l). Smaller
the potential gradient, more is the sensitivity of the potentiometer wire.
15. Why should the current be not passed through potentiometer wire for a long time?
 If the current is passed for a long time, the potentiometer wire heats up, which ultimately changes
the resistance of the wire. Then the potential drop per unit length of the wire will also change.
16. Of which material the potentiometer wire normally made and why?
 The potentiometer wire is generally made of manganin, constantan or nicrome because these
materials have low temperature coefficient of resistance and high resistivity. A material having low
temperature coefficient of resistance ensures that its resistance does not change appreciably due to
heating.
17. Why should the potentiometer wire be of uniform cross-section and composition?
 Potentiometer wire works in the principle that, the potential drop across a portion of its length is
directly proportional to its length. This principle holds only when the cross-section of the wire is
uniform and the resistivity is same throughout the wire. Uniform composition ensures the same
resistivity throughout the wire.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Can Kirchhoff’s laws be applied both to direct current and alternating current circuits? Explain.
2. When is a Wheatstone bridge said to be balanced?
3. What do you mean by null deflection?
316 Principles of Physics - II
4. What do you mean by potential gradient?
5. What are the uses of a potentiometer?
6. Would the galvanometer show any current if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the
balance point of the bridge?
7. On what principle post office box depends?
8. Post office box contains the resistors of only discrete values of resistance, then how it measures the
resistance in decimal?
9. What is the advantage of measuring internal resistance of a cell by using potentiometer?
10. What is the principle of Meter bridge?
11. What is meant by the sensitivity of a potentiometer?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is Wheatstone bridge? Using Kirchhoff’s law, derive the principle of Wheatstone bridge.
[HSEB 2059]
2. Apply Kirchhoff’s law to derive the expression for an unknown resistance in a Wheatstone bridge.
3. Obtain the balanced condition of Wheatstone bridge circuit.
4. What is a potentiometer? Explain how you compare the emfs of two cells using potentiometer.
[HSEB 2058, 2061]
5. Discuss the principle of potentiometer and use it to determine the internal resistance of a cell.
[HSEB 2060, 2062, 2065, 2067]
6. What is a meter bridge? How can you measure an unknown resistance using Meter Bridge?
[HSEB 2069]
7. Describe with a complete circuit to compare two resistances using Meter Bridge.
8. What is a P.O. Box? How can you measure an unknown resistance using P.O. Box?
9. How would you use P.O. Box to verify the laws of series and parallel combinations of resistors?
Numerical Problems
1. Find the emf of a cell which balances against a length of 180 cm of a potentiometer wire. Given
potential difference per cm of wire as 0.006 V.
Ans: 1.08 V
2. A potentiometer wire of length 300 cm has a resistance of 20 . It is connected in series with a
resistance and a cell of emf 4 volts of negligible internal resistance. A source of emf 20 mV is balanced
against a length of 60 cm of the potentiometer wire. What is the value of the external resistance?
Ans: 780 
3. Two batteries of 7 V and 13 V with the internal resistances 1 Ω and 2 Ω respectively are connected in
parallel with a resistance of 12 Ω. Find the current through each branch of the circuit and the
potential difference across 12 Ω resistance.
Ans: 1.526 A, 2.237 A, 0.711 A, 8.53 V
4. A 1.0 Ω resistor is in series with an ammeter M in a circuit. The p.d. across the resistor is balanced by
a length of 60.0 cm on the potentiometer wire. A standard cell of emf 1.02 V is balanced by a length of
50.0 cm. If M reads 1.10 A. What is the error in the reading?
Ans: 0.124
5. A driver cell of a potentiometer has an emf of 2 V and negligible internal resistance. The
potentiometer wire has a resistance of 3 ohm. Calculate the resistance needed in series with the wire
if a p.d. of 5 mV is required across the whole wire. The wire is 100 cm long and a balance length of 60
cm is obtained for a thermocouple of e.m.f. E. What is the value of E?
Ans: 3 mV
6. The length of 600 cm of a potentiometer wire is required to balance the emf of a cell. When a 20 Ω
resistor is connected across the terminals of the cell, the length required for balance is 550 m.
Calculate the internal resistance of the cell.
Ans: 1.82 Ω
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  317
7. Using a wheat stone circuit, a coil of wire was found to have a resistance of 5 Ω in melting ice. When
the coil was heated to 100oC, a 100 Ω resistance had to be connected in parallel with the coil in order
to keep the bridge balanced at the same point. Calculate the temperature coefficient of resistance of
the coil.
Ans: 5.26 x 10-4 K-1
8. A simple potentiometer circuit is setup as in figure below, using a uniform wire AB, 1.0 m long,
which has a resistance of 2 . The resistance of the 4 V battery is negligible. If the variable resistor R
were given a value of 2.4 , what would be the length AC for zero galvanometer deflection?
4V

R
C
A B

G
1.5 V

Multiple Choice Questions

1. In a potentiometer experiment, the balancing with a cell is at length 240 cm. On shunting the cell with
a resistance of 2 , the balancing length becomes 120 cm. The internal resistance of the cell is
a. 4 b. 2
c. 1 d. 0.5 
2. In a Wheatstone's bridge, all the four arms have equal resistance R. If the resistance of the
galvanometer arm is also R, the equivalent resistance of the combination as seen by the battery is
a. R b. 2R
R R
c. 4 d. 2
3. To draw maximum current from a combination of cells, how should the cells be grouped?
a. Series b. Parallel
c. Mixed d. Depends upon the relative values of external
and internal resistance
4. A cell can be balanced against 100 cm and 110 cm of potentiometer wire, respectively with and
without being short-circuited through a resistance of 10 . Its internal resistance is
a. zero b. 1.0 
c. 0. 5  d. 2.0 
5. The current in the primary circuit of a potentiometer is 0.2 A. The specific resistance and cross-section
of the potentiometer wire are 4  10–7  m and 8  10–7 m2 respectively. The potential gradient will be
equal to
a. 0.2 Vm–1 b. 1 Vm–1
c. 0.3 Vm –1 d. 0.1 Vm–1
6. A current of 2 A flows through a 2  resistor when connected across a battery. The same battery
supplies a current of 0.5 A when connected across a 9  resistor. The internal resistance of the battery
is
a. 0.5  b. 1/3 
c. 1/4  d. 1
7. Two batteries of emfs 2 V and 1 V of internal resistance 1  and 2  respectively are connected in
parallel. The effective emf of the combination is
3 5
a. 2 V b. 3V
3
c. 5V d. 2V
Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (b) 7. (b)
318 Principles of Physics - II

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1
E = 4V
Given,
+ –
Current in the circuit (I) = 1.10A R
Error in reading of the ammeter = ?
For potential difference (V1) across R = 1 ,
balancing length (l1) = 60 cm C C
A B
I R = 1
M
V
V1
For emf (E = 1.02 V) of a standard cell, Since C is at the middle point of AB so
balancing length (l2) = 50 cm
RAC = RBC = 1 
According to the principle of potentiometer, Voltmeter reading across AC = ?
we can write Now, Voltmeter reading across AC = potential
V1 l1 difference across AC
..
E = l2 ( . V  l) = current × resistance
I1 × R l1 RAC × RV
or =I× R +R
E = l2 AC V

l1 E E RAC × RV
or I1 = l × R = RAC × RV × RAC + RV
2
R + RBC + R + R
Hence, error in the reading = (1.224 – 1.10) A AC V
HINT: 3
= 0.124 A
HINT: 2 Let AB the potentiometer wire of resistance
2030  which is connected in series with the
Given,
slide wire BC.
lAB = 1 m RAB =2
RBC
R = 2.4  E1 = 4 V RAB = 2030 , l = 4 m–1
BC
E2 = 1.5 V lAC = ? a. E2 = 1.018 V
In balanced condition, lBD = 150 cm = 1.50 m
Potential difference across AC = E2
RBD = 4 × 1.50 = 6 
IRAC = 1.5
+ –
4
or R + R × RAC = 1.5
AB

Now,
 2  wire has length 1 m. B D D
A C
1 RAB
 1  wire has length 2 m.
G
1 E
 1.65  wire has length 2 × 1.65 m = 0.825 m
Current in the potentiometer, I =?
Hence, required length = 0.825 m
According to questions,
According to the second part of the question,
the following circuit is drawn. E2 = potential difference across the fixed
resistance and 150 cm of the slide wire.
Rv = 20 
R =1 or 1.018 = I (RBD + RAB)
 Electric Circuit  Chapter 12  319
b. In the second case, the balanced condition is E1 – E = I1 × R1 + I2 × R2
achieved only for 125 cm slide wire for or 24 – E = I1 × 3 + I2 × 2
thermocouple connected of emf E. or E = 24 – (3I1 + 2I2) . . . (i)
So, emf of thermocouple = potential difference from loop B,
across 125 cm slide wire E = I3× R3 – I2 × R2
or E = I × resistance of 125 cm = 1.8 × 7 – I2 × 2
HINT: 4  E = 12.6 – 2I2 . . . (ii)
Given, Equating (i) and (ii), we get,
RAB = 3  lAB' = 60 cm 24 – (3I1 + 2I2) = 12.6  2I2
lAB = 100 cm, E=2V From figure, we can write
VAB = 5 mV = 5 × 10–3 V E1 = ? I1 = I2 + I3
Let I be the current in the circuit and R be the or I2 = I1 – I3
resistance needed in series with the From (ii), we get
potentiometer wire AB. E = 12.6 – 2 × 2
E E = 2V
 I= R+R  E = 8.6 V
AB
HINT: 7
2 Given,
 I= R+3
60cm B' B B E = 1.5 V
A
R Terminal potential difference; V1 = 1.25 V
R1 = 25 , I1 = ?, r1 = ?, R2 = 10 
E1
Terminal potential difference, V2 = ?
Now, according to the questions,
E  V1
VAB = potential difference across whole wire In the first case, r1 = V1 R1
AB
E
or 5 × 10–3 = I × 3 Find I, from I = R + r
2 1
Now, in balanced condition
and use I in equation, V2 = E – Ir1
E1 = potential difference across wire AB'
HINT: 8
= I × RAB'
Unknown resistance (X) = ?
2 9 9
= R + 3 × 5 , here, RAB' = 5  Current (I) = ?
HINT: 5 R=2
a. Current through 3 , I2= ? l1 = 120 cm = 1.20 m
From given circuit, l2 = 80 cm = 0.80 m
I2 = I1 + I3 For no galvanometer deflection, we can write
=3+5 P X
Q =R
 I2 = 8A
P
b. from loop B,  X=Q×R . . . (i)
E1 = I1R1 + I2R2
find P and Q and then,
 E1 = 36 V
from (i) we can have
from loop C,
1.20 × 0.01
E2 = I2R2 + I3R3 X = 0.80 × 0.01 × 2 = 3 
c. from loop A,
In the above circuit, (X + R) = 3 + 2 = 5  is
E2 – E1 = IR
parallel to (P + Q) = 1.2 + 0.8 = 2 . So,
HINT: 6
5×2
emf, E = ? Total resistance, R1 = 5 + 2
from loop A,
320 Principles of Physics - II
10 or I × 2 = 4 – 3
 R1 = 7 
1
E 4×7 or I = 2 = 0.5 A
Total current in the circuit, I = R = 10
1
With k closed, no current through M. In this
 I = 2.8 A case
HINT: 9
R =?
Given,
Now,
E1 = 4 V r1 = 2 
potential difference across XY = p.d across A.
E2 = 3 V r2 = 0
With switch k open, ∵ r = E – V.R 
E1R
or r + R = E2
 V 
Current through meter (M), I = ?   V = ER 
Applying Kirchoff's voltage law in the circuit  r+R
XAYBX, we get, 4×R
or 2+R =3
Ir1 = E1 – E2


 THERMOELECTRICITY

13.1 Introduction
In the previous chapters, an electric circuit was designed using an electric cell as a source of
electricity. The cell maintains the potential difference at two points of an electric circuit so that net
displacement of charge particles is directed in a specific direction. This process constitutes the
electric current. There is another method of electricity generation. When a temperature difference
exists between the junctions of two dissimilar conductors, electricity can be produced. This method is
called thermoelectric effect. This thermal effect on generating the electricity was discovered by
German physicist, Thomson Johann Seebeck, in 1821.

13.2 Thermoelectric Effect

The direct conversion of temperature differences to electric voltage is known as thermoelectric effect.
When two conducting wires of different materials are joined to form a closed circuit and two
junctions (joined end) are placed at different temperatures, then a small emf is developed at the
junctions of that coupled circuit and small current flow through the closed circuit. This effect is
known as thermoelectric effect.

Thermocouple G
Fe
A couple of wires of dissimilar metals forming a loop and Cu
producing thermoelectricity is called a thermocouple. The
magnitude of thermo emf produced and direction of current Cold junction Hot junction

depends on the pair of metals selected from the thermo

Fig. 13.1: Demonstration of Seebeck
electric series and temperature of the junction as shown in Fig.
13.1.

Thermoelectric Series
In an electric circuit containing a cell, showing the conventional direction of current flow is much
easier i.e. from positive terminal to negative terminal. However, in the production of thermo-emf, the
thermocouple produces current without a cell so that, it is quite difficult to know the direction of
current flow. To resolve this difficulty, Seebeck made an arrangement of selected metals in a series
322 Principles of Physics - II
form, called the thermoelectric series. The arrangement of metals in thermoelectric series are listed
below.
Antimony, Iron, Zinc, Silver, Gold, Tin, Lead, Copper, Platinum, Nickel, Bismuth.
This series has two main advantages: (a) to know the direction of current flow in the couple, (b) to
find the thermo-emf in the thermo-couple.
a. To know the direction of current flow in the couple: The knowledge of direction of current in
the couple is obtained from letters A, B and C. A denotes Antimony, B – Bismuth and C denotes
cold. That is, in the couple Antimonly-Bismuth the current will pass from antimony to Bismuth
at cold junction. This effect is reversible i.e., if the hot and cold junctions are interchanged, the
emf changes sign, its magnitude remaining unchanged.
b. To find the thermo-emf in the thermo-couple: The magnitude of thermo-emf depends on the
separation of members in thermoelectric series. For example, the magnitude of thermo-emf
produced by iron zinc pair is smaller than that of iron-copper pair because iron-copper
separation is greater than iron-zinc separation in the thermoelectric series. In this series,
Antimony-Bismuth (Sb–Bi) couple produces the maximum thermo-emf among any possible
couple in the given series. Therefore, thermocouple is usually made up of Antimony and
Bismuth.

13.3 Seebeck Effect

The conversion of heat to electricity in a thermocouple was discovered by Estonian Physicist Thomas
Seebeck, in 1821. So, this effect is called seebeck effect. Actually, Seebeck effect is a phenomenon in
which temperature difference between two dissimilar electrical conductors, called thermocouples,
produces a voltage difference between two ends of the conductors. The emf generated by Seeback
effect is due to the temperature gradient along the wire.

Causes of Seebeck Effect

Different metals possess different electron densities. If two metals of different electron densities are
connected at the ends, free electrons diffuse from the metal with higher electron density to metal of
lower electron density as their average velocity varies from one metal to another. Due to the
diffusion of free electrons, potential difference is created setting opposing electric field across two
metals at the junction which is called the contact potential. If two junctions are at same temperature,
the diffusion process is continuous for a moment and stops because equal and opposite potentials
are generated at the ends. If two junctions are maintained at different temperatures, the diffusion
rate of free electrons is different at two ends and creates a different contact potential. So, the current
flows continuously through the thermocouple. The Seeback voltage does not depend on the
distribution of temperature among the metals between the junction.

13.4 Variation of Thermo-emf (E) with Temperature ()

The experimental set up to study the variation of Thermo-emf with temperature is shown in Fig. 13.2
(i) It consists of a thermocouple with a galvanometer. One end of the thermocouple is put into oil
bath and another end is put into a melting ice. Suppose both of them have the same temperature, c.
At this condition, galvanometer does not show any deflection. It means, no emf is developed across
the ends of the thermocouple. Then, the oil bath is heated keeping cold junction at constant
temperature. As soon as the temperature of oil bath is increased, the deflection in galvanometer also
takes place. On increasing the temperature of the oil bath continuously by keeping cold junction at
 Thermoelectricity  Chapter 13  323
constant temperature, the deflection of galvanometer is also increased upto a certain point on scale
and then is found decreasing. This shows that Thermo-emf increases until it attains maximum value
and the temperature at which Thermo-emf becomes maximum is called neutral temperature.
Therefore, the temperature of hot junction at which the Thermo-emf becomes maximum is called neutral
temperature (n). When the temperature is further increased, the Thermo-emf is gradually decreased
and becomes zero and reverses the direction. The temperature of the hot junction at which the
Thermo-emf is zero and reverses the direction is called temperature of inversion (i). The variation of
Thermo-emf with temperature is shown graphically in Fig. 13.2 (ii).

Fig. 13.2: (i) Demonstration of Seebeck effect; (ii) variation of thermo emf with temperature
The graph 13.2 (ii) shows that variation of Thermo-emf and temperature forms a parabolic curve,
beginning from the origin. In such condition, the relation between Thermo-emf and temperature is
given by,
1
E =  + 2 2 …(13.1)

In equation (13.1),  and  are constants which are called thermoelectric coefficients, whose value
depends upon the material of conductor and temperature difference of two junctions.
At neutral temperature: the emf is maximum at neutral temperature so, the first order derivative of
emf with respect to neutral temperature must be zero, i.e.
dE
=0
dn
1
dn + 2 n2
 
=0
d
 + n = 0

n = – … (13.2)

At temperature inversion: The thermo emf is zero at the temperature of inversion (i). Beyond, the
temperature of inversion, thermo emf changes sign and direction current reverses. At the point of
temperature of inversion, E = 0. So, from equation (13.1),
1
i + 2 i2 = 0

i
+ 2 =0

2
i = – …(13.3)

324 Principles of Physics - II
Comparing the equations (13.2) and (13.3), we get the temperature of inversion is twice the neutral
temperature.
Therefore, the neutral temperature can be determined by taking average of temperature of inversion
(i) and temperature of cold junction (c)
 i + c
i.e. n = 2 …(13.4)

In Cu-Fe thermocouple, neutral temperature is about 270°C when cold junction is maintained at 0°C.

13.5 Peltier Effect

In 1834, Jean Peltier fund that an electric current Iron (F e)
would produce a temperature gradient a the
junction of two dissimilar metals.When current B A

flows through the junctions of a thermocouple

(coupling of two dissimilar metals) in the form of
closed circuit, heat is absorbed at one junction
and evolved at the another end. This effect is
called Peltier effect. Peltier effect shows the
C opper (C u)
counter effect of Seebeck effect, hence it is also
Fig. 13.3: Peltier Effect
called reverse Seebeck effect. The peltier effect
can be used to make a refrigerator which is compact and has no circulating fluid.

Causes of Peltier Effect

Two dissimilar metals have different electron densities. When they are connected at two ends,
potential difference is created at two ends called the contact potential. So, electrons tend to diffuse
from higher potential metal to lower potential metal. If a dc source is connected across a metal, the
current flows from higher potential metal to lower potential metal at one junction and from low
potential metal to high potential metal at the other junction. For example, in Cu-Fe thermocouple,
iron (Fe) has greater potential than the copper (Cu). So, current flows from Fe to Cu at junction A
and from Cu to Fe at junction B as shown in Fig. 13.3. At the junction where the current flows from
lower to higher potential metal (Cu to Fe), some work has to be done to flow the current. Hence, this
end becomes cool. Conversely, at the other end where the current passes from higher potential to
lower potential (Fe to Cu), energy is released. Hence, this junction evolves the heat and becomes hot.

Differences between Peltier effect and Seebeck effect

The differences between Peltier and Seebeck effects are given below:
Seebeck effect Peltier Effect
1. This effect is the conversion of heat energy 1. This effect is the generation or absorption
into electrical energy when the two of heat at two junctions of a thermocouple
junctions of a thermocouple are kept at due to the passage of current. It is reverse
different temperatures. Seebeck effect.
2. One end is cooled and another end is 2. A potential difference is maintained at two
heated to generate electricity. ends so that heat is absorbed or evolved.
3. Temperature difference at two junctions of 3. Heat is evolved at one junction and
a thermocouple produces the thermo emf. absorbed at the another junction due to the
passage of current in thermocouple.
 Thermoelectricity  Chapter 13  325

13.6 Thomson's Effect

When two ends of a metal conductor are maintained at different temperatures and current is passed
through it, heat is evolved from one end and heat is absorbed at another end. This effect is called
Thomson's effect. Thomson's effect is the combined effect of Seebeck effect and Peltier effect. The
evolution and absorption of heat in a metal depends upon the direction of current through it. There
are two types of Thomson's effect: positive Thomson's effect and negative Thomson's effect.
Let us consider a thick copper rod with its ends maintained at the same constant temperature and
the centre (O) maintained at a much higher temperature as shown Fig. 13.4.
If no current flows in this conductor, the points P and Q, equidistant from the centre, would be at the
same temperature due to thermal conduction alone but the point O is at much higher temperature
than P and Q. Now, if a current is sent through the rod in the direction as shown in the Fig. 13.4,
then clearly, current flows from lower temperature point P to higher temperature point O and then
to lower temperature point Q. It is observed that, the temperature at P is less than that at Q. This
means that heat energy has been transferred from P to Q (in the direction of the current). To be more
clear, heat is absorbed when current flows from cold region to hot region (i.e. P to Q) and heat is
evolved when current flows from hot region to cold region (i.e. O to Q). Thus, the part PO of the
conductor becomes cooler whereas the part OQ of conductor becomes hotter.
Positive Thomson effect: The evolution of heat in the part of conductor along which current flows in
the direction of temperature fall, is called positive Thomson's effect. This effect is observed in Cu, Cd,
Zn, Ag and Sb.
heat heat
absorbed I evolved
P O Q
Cold Hot Cold
Copper
Heat absorbed Heat evolved

Fig. 13.4: Demonstration of positive Thomson's effect

Negative Thomson effect: When a current is sent in the iron rod in the direction from P to Q, the
point P becomes hotter than point Q i.e., heat energy is transferred from Q to P (in a direction
opposite to that of the current). This is called negative Thomson effect. This effect is observed in Fe,
Pt, Bi, Co, Ni and Hg.
heat heat
evolved I absorbed
P O Q
Cold Hot Cold

Iron Heat evolved Heat absorbed

Fig. 13.5: Demonstration of negative Thomson's effect

If the direction of current in either of the above cases is reversed, the Thomson effect is also reversed.
In lead, the Thomson effect is zero. It is for this reason that, the thermoelectric behaviour of metals is
studied by taking lead as the second element.
326 Principles of Physics - II

Differences between Thomson effect and Joule's effect

The differences between Thomson and Joule's effects are given below:
Thompson effect Joule's Effect
1. This effect is produced when different 1. This effect is produced when current flows
sections of a conductor are maintained at through a resistor whatever the
different temperatures. temperature is.
2. It is both heating and cooling effect. 2. It is basically heating effect.
3. This effect depends on the current passing 3. This effect is directly proportional to the
through a conductor. square of current through the conductor.
4. This effect basically depends on nature of 4. This effect depends on the resistance of the
conductor and temperature difference of conductor.
different parts of conductor.

13.7 Thermopile
Thermopile is an electrical device that uses Seebeck effect to detect and measure the intensity of
thermal radiation. It works on the principle of thermoelectric effect. It is constructed with the series
combination of thermocouple made up of Antimony (Sb) and Bishmuth (Bi). One side of the
thermopile is coated with lampblack to absorb the thermal radiation and another side is covered
with cotton kept at constant temperature. A galvanometer is connected at two ends of the device as
shown in Fig. 25.8. When heat radiation is exposed to the black coated end, it absorbs heat and
temperature rises. This instrument is very sensitive to even a small difference of temperature
between two faces. Hence the Thermo-emf is generated across the ends of thermopile. The
magnitude of thermal intensity is measured from the deflection in galvanometer. Thermopile is used
for measurement of solar radiation and comparison of distribution of heat energy in a spectrum.
metallic cone

Bi shielded

Heat radiation Sb B G

A Bi
insulating lid
Sb

metallic cone
Fig.13.6: Thermopile
 Thermoelectricity  Chapter 13  327

Tips for MCQs

1. Thermoelectric effect is discovered by Seebeck effect. So, it is also called Seebeck effect.
2. Peltier effect is the reverse effect of Seebeck effect.
3. Antimony is the first member and bismuth is the last member of thermo-electric series. So, they are
used to produce maximum thermo emf than that of any other combination in thermoelectric series.
c + i
4. The neutral temperature, n = 2 , where c is the temperature of cold junction and i is the
temperature of inversion.
1
5. The thermo emf, E =  + 2 2, where,  and  are constants.

Worked Out Problems

1. The temperature of the cold junction of a thermocouple is kept at 0ºC. The temperature inversion is
550ºC. Find the neutral temperature.
SOLUTION
Given,
Temperature of cold junction (c) = 0ºC
Temperature of hot junction (i) = 550ºC
Neutral temperature (n) = ?
We have,
c + i 0 + 550
n = 2 = 2 = 275ºC

2. A thermocouple has cold junction at 0C and when the hot junction is at C, the thermo-emf is
given by E = (20 + 0.022) V. What is the temperature of the hot junction if the thermo-emf
produced is 7.5 mV?
SOLUTION
Given, –20  (20)2 – 4 × 0.02 × (–7.5 × 103)
E = (20 + 0.02 2) V   = 2 × 0.02
Temperature of hot junction () = ? –20  400 + 0.6 × 103
for E = 7.5 mV = 7.5 × 10–3 V. = 0.04
Now, – 20  31.6
=
∵ E = (20  + 0.02 2) V 0.04
 E = (20  + 0.02 2) × 10–6 V –51.6 11.6
= 0.04 or 0.04
or 7.5 × 10–3 = (20 + 0.02 2) × 10–6
or 7.5 × 10–3 = 20  + 0.02 2 Negative temperature is not possible.
or 0.02 2 + 20  – 7.5 × 103 = 0 11.6
So,  = 0.04 = 290°C

3. In a thermocouple the thermo-emf is related to the temperature of hot junction  when cold junction
1
is at 0C as E = a + 2 b2 where a = 14 VC–1 and b = – 0.04 V/C2. Find (i) the neutral temperature
and (ii) the temperature of at which the thermo-emf changes sign.
SOLUTION
1
Given, E = a + 2 b2
a = 14 V°C–1, b = – 0.04 V °C–1
328 Principles of Physics - II
i. neutral temperature (n) = ? d 1
or (a + 2 b2) = 0
The neutral temperature is that temperature at d
which Thermo-emf becomes maximum. So, if d 1 d
or (a) + 2 (b2) = 0
1 d d
or a + 2 × b × 2 = 0
ii. The temperature at which thermo-emf changes
or a + b = 0 sign is called temperature inversion (i).
a  i = ?
or  = – b We know that
14 i + c
= –  –0.04 = 350°C n = 2
 
i.e., n =  = 350°C or i = 2n – c
dE = 2 × 350 – 0 [∵ c = 0°C]
 = n then = 0 (As E is maximum constant
d  i = 700°C
value).

4. [HSEB 2073] The thermo-emf  and the temperature of hot junction  satisfy the relation  = a +
b2, where a = 4.1 × 10–5 V(ºC)-1 and b = – 4.1 ×10–8 V(ºC)-1.
If the cold junction temperature is 0ºC, find the neutral temperature.

SOLUTION
Given equation is, dmax
So, = 0 for max
 = a + b2 (i) dn
Also, a = 4.1 × 10–5 V(ºC)-1 d
 (an + bn2) = 0
b = – 4.1 × 10–8 V(ºC)-2 dn
To find the neutral temperature,  = max, a + 2bn = 0
at  = n a 4.1 × 10–5
n = – 2b = – 2 × (–4.1 × 10–8) = 500ºC

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is seeback effect? OR What is thermoelectric effect?
 The conversion of heat energy into electric energy when two ends of a thermocouple are maintained
at different temperatures is knows as thermoelectric effect. A pair of conductors when connected at
two ends is called a thermocouple. This effect was firstly discovered by seebeck, hence it is also called
seebeck effect.

2. What is peltier effect?

 When a d.c electric source is connected to a thermocouple heat is evolve at one point and absorbed at
another end. This phenomenon is called peltier effect. Peltier effect is reverse effect of seebeck effect.
Peltier effect shows the counter effect of Seebeck effect, hence it is called reverse Seebeck effect.

3. Differentiate between Joule's effect and peltier effect.

 The differences between joule’s and peltier effects are given below:
Joule’s Effect Peltier Effect
1. It occurs in a conductor. 1. It occurs in a thermocouple.
2. Heat is evolved throughout the conductor. 2. Heat is evolved at one junction and
absorbed at the another junction.
3. The quantity of heat evolved is directly 3. The quantity of heat evolved or absorbed is
proportional to the square of current. directly proportional to the current.
4. This effect does not depend on direction of 4. This effect depends on direction of current.
 Thermoelectricity  Chapter 13  329
current.
5. The quantity of heat evolution in conductor 5. The quantity of heat absorption or
depends on the resistance of metals used. evolution in thermocouple depends on the
resistance of metals used.
4. Thomson's effect is the combined effect of seebeck effect and peltier effect, why?
 In seebeck effect, electricity is generated when two ends of a thermocouple are maintained at
different temperatures, whereas the heat is evolved or absorbed when a dc electric source is
connected one of the arm of thermocouple in peltier effect.
If an electric current is supplied to a conductor maintaining temperature gradient one end absorbs
and another end evolves the heat. This phenomenon of absorption or evolution of heat energy due to
the flow of current in an unequally heated single conductor is called Thomson's effect. Thus, both
seebeck effect and peltier effect are incorporated in Thomson's effect.

5. What is neutral temperature?

 The temperature of hot junction of thermocouple at which thermoelectric depends on the separation
of places of members in thermoelectric series. Higher the separation, higher the magnitude of thermo
emf in thermocouple. Antimony is the first member and Bismuth is the last member of thermoelectric
series. So, maximum thermoelectric emf can be produced form this combination. So, Antimony and
Bismuth are usually used to form a thermocouple.

6. What are the factors on which the thermo emf produced in a thermocouple depends? [HSEB 2061]
When two junctions of a thermocouple are maintained at different temperatures, thermo emf is
produced across these two ends. The magnitude of thermo emf basically depends on two factors:
i. The nature of materials chosen to make the thermocouple. If the first and last members of
thermoelectric series are used to make thermocouple, the thermoemf is maximum than any two
others in combination in the same temperature difference.
ii. The temperature of hot junction with respect to the cold junction.
7. Define temperature inversion. On what factors does it depend?
In thermoelectric effect, the thermo-emf increases initially, as the temperature of hot junction is
raised. However, it does not rise continuously. At a certain high temperature, the emf becomes
maximum and starts decreasing and becomes zero. If the temperature is further increased the
polarity of emf reverses. The temperature of hot junction in thermocouple at which the polarity of
thermo emf is reversed is known as temperature of inversion. It depends on the nature of materials
used to form thermocouple and temperature of cold junction.

8. Does the thermoelectric effect obey the law of conservation of energy?

Yes. Three laws are basically dealt in thermoelectric effect.
i. Seebeck effect: in this effect, the heat energy absorbed by the hot junction is converted into
electric energy in thermocouple.
ii. Peltier effect: One junction absorbs the heat, whereas the other junction evolves the heat.
iii. Thomson's effect: The electric energy provided by external electric source is converted into
heat energy.
Thus, law of conservation of energy is obeyed in thermoelectric effect.

9. What are the uses of thermoelectric effect?

Thermoelectric effect has several uses in electricity. Some of them are as follows:
i. It is used in generating emf without electric source like battery.
ii. It is used in measuring high temperature.
iii. It is used in detecting heat radiation for example, the device; thermopile.
iv. It is used in refrigeration.
330 Principles of Physics - II

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What is meant by thermoelectric series?
2. Is seebeck effect reversible?
3. What is inversion temperature and upon what factors does temperature of inversion depend?
4. What is neutral temperature? Upon what factor does the neutral temperature depend?
5. Write the mathematical relation for thermoelectric emf of a thermocouple in terms of temperature of
hot junction.
6. What is seebeck effect?
7. Upon what factors does the magnitude of e.m.f. depend?
8. What is inversion temperature and upon what factors does temperature of inversion depend?
9. What is Thomson’s effect?
10. For a given temperature of the hot junction (the cold junction being kept at 00C) in which
thermocouple in the Seebeck series is the thermo-emf the maximum?
11. If the temperature of the cold junction of a thermo-couple is lowered, what will be the effect on its
neutral temperature?
12. How does the thermo-electric series help to predict the direction of flow of current in a thermo-
couple?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Explain what do you mean by Seedbeck Effect? How does thermoelectric e.m.f. vary with
temperature? [HSEB 2056, 2063, 2057]
2. What is thermoelectric effect? Discuss the variation of thermo-emf with the change in temperature of
the hot junction. [HSEB 2067]
3. What is Peltier’s effect? Discuss its cause.
4. What is Thomson’s effect? Discuss its cause.
5. What is a thermo pile? Describe its construction and working.
6. What is thermoelectric effect? How does the thermo-emf of a thermocouple vary with increase in
temperature of hot junction, keeping cold junction at 0°C? Explain. [HSEB 2072]

Numerical Problems
1. The temperature of the cold junction of the thermocouple is kept at 10°C. The temperature of
inversion is 560°C. Find neutral temperature.
Ans: 285°C
2. In a given thermocouple if the neutral temperature is 270°C and temperature of inversion is 520°C
then find the temperature of cold junction.
Ans: 20°C
3. The thermo-emf of a copper-iron thermo-couple whose junction is at 0°C is (-1179) V. If the
thermoelectric constants for this thermocouple are a = –13.89 V°C–2  = –13.89 V0 C–2 and b = 0.042
V°C–2, find the neutral temperature of the hot junction.
Ans: 100°C
4. The emf E of a Cu-Fe thermocouple varies with the temperature '' of the hot junction keeping cold
junction at 10°C given by E (V) = 14 – 0.022. Find the neutral temperature and the temperature of
inversion.
Ans: 350°C, 690°C
 Thermoelectricity  Chapter 13  331

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Thomson effect is the combination of which following effects?
a. Seebeck effect and Peltier effect b. Seebeck effect and Joule's effect
c. Joule's effect and Peltier effect d. Ohm's effect and Joule's effect
2. What type of current is produced in thermoelectric effect?
a. ionic current b. conduction current
c. hole current d. electric current
3. Which combination of metals in thermocouple gives the maximum thermoemf in equal temperature
difference at two ends?
a. Iron and copper b. Zinc and iron
c. Antimony and bishmuth d. Antimony and copper
4. If the cold junction of a thermocouple is kept at 0ºC and hot junction is kept at °C, then the relation
between neutral temperature n and temperature of inversion i is

a. n = I b. n = 2
c. n = I d. i = n + n2
5. The neutral temperature of a thermocouple is 300°C. What is the inversion temperature if the
temperature of cold junction is 1.10°C?
a. 590°C b. 610°C
c. 310°C d. 290°C

Answers
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5.(a)


332 Principles of Physics - II
 CHEMICAL EFFECT
OF CURRENT

14.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we have studied about electric current in which charge is carried by the
moving electrons in a wire. Besides electrons, charge can also be carried by ions of some chemical
substances, called electrolytes. The current carried by ions is called ionic current. The ionic current is
generated due to the dissociation of electrolytes in presence of electric field. The effect of electric
current in the electrolytes is called chemical effect of current.

Some Important Terms Related to Electrolysis

1. Electrolytes: The substance that provides an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in
a polar solvent like water is called electrolyte.
2. Electrolysis: The process by which ionic substances are decomposed (broken down) into
simpler substances when an electric current is passed through it is known as electrolysis.
3. Voltameter: An instrument which is used for measuring the electric charge is called voltameter.
4. Electrode: An electric conductor used to make contact with non-metallic part of circuit is known
as electrode. In electrolysis, electrodes are partially dipped into the electrolyte to conduct the
ions in the solution.
5. Electrochemical equivalent: The electrochemical equivalent of a chemical element is the mass
of that element (in grams) transported by 1 coulomb of electricity. It is denoted by ece. The ece
of an element is measured with a voltameter.
6. Chemical equivalent: The gram equivalent weight divided by its valency is called the chemical
equivalent of a chemical substance. It is denoted by E.
Gram equivalent weight
 Chemical equivalent (E) = Valency

Why Electrolytes Decomposes in Presence of Electric Current?

An electrolyte is a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when dissolved in
water. The electrolyte, for example CuSO4 is composed of two ions Cu++ and SO4– – combined to form
a copper sulphate (CuSO4). When CuSo4 is dissolved in water, the electrostatic attraction between the
ions decreases due to the high dielectric constant of liquid water (i.e. r = 81) entering the space of
these ions. If two terminals of a dc are set up into the solution, positive ions are attracted towards the
334 Principles of Physics - II
negative terminals and negative ions are attracted towards positive terminals. Thus, the electrolytes
decompose in presence of electric current.

Conductivity of Electrolytes
Electrolytes conduct electricity. They conduct electricity in ionic form; therefore the current so
produced is called ionic current. The conductivity of electrolytes is much smaller than that of electric
current in metals (about 105 to 106 times at room temperature). There are several reasons behind
low conductivity of electrolytes than the metals. The main reasons are:
i. The ionic density (the number of ions per unit volume) is smaller than the electron density in
metals.
ii. The mass of individual ion in electrolytes is several thousands times greater than the mass of
individual electron in metal. Hence, the drift velocity of ions is many times smaller than those
of electrons.
iii. The resistance offered by the solution to the ions is much greater than the resistance offered y
the metals to the electrons.

14.2 Electrolysis
Electrolysis is the process of decomposition of ionic substance into simpler substances when electric
current is passed through it. It is the chemical effect of current. This process can be studied
experimentally in copper sulphate solution, silver nitrate solution, etc. For instance, the electrolysis
process in silver nitrate solution is described below:
Let us take a solid silver nitrate (AgNO3) in a voltameter. The solid AgNO3 is dissolved into water to
make the AgNO3 solution. This solution conducts electricity in the suitable connection in electric
circuit. Two silver plates, called electrodes, are partially immersed into the solution and are
connected at two terminals of a battery via a rheostat and an electric switch as shown in Fig. 14.1.
Then, the electrolyte (AgNO3) is dissociated in the form of silver ions (Ag+) and nitrate ion (NO3 ).
AgNO3  Ag+ + NO3 (in the solution)
In presence of steady current in the circuit, the following process takes place.
i. In the beginning, electrons flow from negative + –
terminal of battery to the cathode place C via the + Rh
A K
connecting wire. It develops the negative –
potential in cathode plate. Anode Cathode
ii. Since the cathode plate possesses negative
potential, it is at a lower potential than another
plate, anode plate A. Therefore, the positively
voltameter
charged silver ions (cations) move towards C, AgNO3
while negatively charged nitrate ions (anions) Solution
move towards A. As the cations are deposited at
C, it is called cathode. Similarly, A is called anode, Fig. 14.1: Electrolysis in AgNO3
as the anions are deposited on it of the voltameter.
iii. At the cathode, the Ag+ ions get neutralized by the incoming electrons from the external circuit.
Thus, the reduction reaction takes place at the cathode and the oxidation reaction takes place at
the anode, as,
Ag+ + e  Ag (at cathode)
 Chemical Effect of Current  Chapter 14  335

Ag + NO3  AgNO3 + e (at anode)

iv. The silver ions get into the solution, while released electrons flow back to the positive terminal
of the battery via connecting metallic wire. The flow of appropriate ions inside the battery then
completes the circuit.
Thus, the deposition of silver (Ag) at the cathode plate takes place, while the anode loses an
equivalent amount of silver. The number of electrons (or the amount of charge) passed through the
circuit is equal to the number of electrons given by the cathode or taken by the anode. In overall
process, the concentration of AgNO3 in the solution remains unchanged.

14.3 Faraday's Law of Electrolysis

Michael Faraday studied about the ionic current in electrolytes and deduced the quantitative
measurement of the ionic mass deposition in an electrolyte due to the passage of current. After the
series of experiments on electrolysis, he derived two laws regarding chemical effect of current, called
Faraday's laws of electrolysis.

Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis

This law states that "mass of a substance liberated (or deposited) on an electrode during electrolysis is
directly proportional to the amount of charge passed through the electrolytes".
Let m be the mass of substance deposited on an electrode during electrolysis when amount of charge
q is passed through the electrolyte. From first law of electrolysis,
mq … (14.1)
or, m = Zq … (14.2)
Where, Z is a proportionality constant and it is called electrochemical equivalent of a substance.
Its SI unit is kg /C.
Electrochemical equivalent of a substance may be defined as the amount of substance deposited or liberated
when 1 coulomb of electric charge is passed through an electrolyte.
We have,
q
I= t

 q = It … (14.3)
Using equation (14.3) in equation (14.2), we get,
m = ZIt … (14.4)

Faraday's Second Law of Electrolysis

This law states that "when same quantity of electricity is passed through several electrolytes, the mass of
substance deposited are proportional to their respective chemical equivalent".
Let m1 and m2 be the masses of substance deposited on different electrodes having chemical
equivalents E1 and E2 respectively. Then, according to the second law of electrolysis,
m1  E1 and m2  E2
m1 E1
Then, m = E … (14.5)
2 2

Atomic mass of element

Equivalent mass of an element = Valency of the element
336 Principles of Physics - II

Verification of Faraday's First Law of Electrolysis

The experimental set up for the verification of first law of electrolysis is shown in Fig. 14.2. It consists
a voltameter containing dilute copper sulphate (dil. CuSO4) solution. Copper sulphate solution acts
as the electrolyte for the experiment. Two copper electrodes are partially dipped into the electrolyte.
The electric circuit containing a cell, a switch and a rheostat are connected across two electrodes. The
rheostat is used to vary the current in the circuit.
To begin with, the mass of negative electrode is measured and noted. Then, current I1 is supplied to
the electrolyte for a certain interval of time t and the negative electrode is taken out for measurement
of its mass. The deposited mass of electrolyte is measured. The same process is repeated for different
values of current passed for same interval of time. The deposited mass of substance for each step is
taken for different values of current at equal interval of time.
+ –
+ Rh
A K
–
Anode Cathode

Copper voltameter
CuSO4 Solution

(i) (ii)
Fig. 14.2: (i) Experimental arrangement of first law of electrolysis
(ii) Relation of deposited mass of electrolyte and charge supplied

Let m1, m2, m3, m4 and m5 be the masses of electrolyte deposited when currents I1, I2, I3, I4 and
I5 and hence the charges q1, q2, q3, q4 and q5 are passed through the electrolyte, then we get,
m1 m2 m3 m4 m5
q1 = q2 = q 3 = q4 = q5 … (14.6)

If the graph is plotted between the deposited mass (m) and charge (q = It), a straight line graph is
found passing through the origin. Thus, the first law of electrolysis is verified experimentally.

Verification of Faraday's Second Law of Electrolysis

The experimental set up to verify the Faraday's second + – + –

law of electrolysis is shown in Fig. 14.3. Suppose two

voltameters with different electrolytes are taken. An
electric circuit is connected in such a way that the K
CuSO4 AgNO3
electrodes in electrolytes would be in the series
Cu-Voltameter Ag-Voltameter
combination. Let CuSO4, AgNO3 be the electrolytes in – A +
these different voltameters. A direct current (dc) source
+ –
is used to supply the current and a rheostat is used to
Fig. 14.3: Experimental arrangement of
vary the current in the electrolytes.
second law of electrolysis
In the beginning, the negative electrodes of each voltameter are weighed. Now, a constant current is
supplied to electrolytes for a certain interval of time. Then, the electric current is switched off and
negative electrodes are again weighed. By Subtracting the mass of negative electrodes before
electrolysis from that after electrolysis, the deposited masses are determined.
 Chemical Effect of Current  Chapter 14  337

Let m1 and m2 be the deposited masses of two electrolytes copper and silver respectively, and E1
and E2 be their chemical equivalents respectively. Then, we get,
m1 m2
E1 = E2 … (14.7)

This experiment verifies the Faraday's second law of electrolysis.

Applications of Electrolysis
1. Electrometallurgy: It is the process of reduction of metals from metallic compounds to obtain
the pure form of metal using electrolysis.
2. Electroplating: It is the process where a thin film of metal is deposited over a substrate material.
3. Production of metal compounds: Electrolysis process is carried out to produce the sodium
chlorate and potassium chlorate.
4. Production of cheap energy: Electrolysis is done for the production of hydrogen gas.
5. Production of oxygen: In air craft, oxygen is produced using electrolysis process.

14.4 Faraday's Constant

Suppose one mole of substance of atomic mass A is deposited on an electrode. It means the number
of atoms deposited on the electrode is equal to Avogadro number NA. Let V be the valency of
deposited atom on the electrode, then the charge per atom of the electrolyte = Ve.
(For example V = 2 for copper, V = 1 for silver)
Now, the total charge flowing through the electrolyte for one mole of electrolyte,
q = NAVe ... (14.8)
From first law of electrolysis, the mass liberated in one mole of electrolyte,
A = Z(NAVe)
1 A
 Z = N e V ... (14.9)
A  
NA and e are constants, so equation (14.9) gives the relation,
A
or, Z  V

or, Z  E
A
The quantity V = E is constant for an electrolyte and is known as chemical equivalent or equivalent
mass.
Now, the total mass deposited in the cathode plate is,
m = ZIt
1 A
m = N e V It ... (14.10)
A  
In the equation (14.10), the quantity NAe is a fundamental constant known as Faraday's constant, i.e.
F = NA e.
1 A
So, m =F  V  . It
 
m 1
It =F.E .... (14.11)
338 Principles of Physics - II
E
Z =F

E
 F =Z ... (14.12)

From equation (14.11), we get,

m 1
q =FE
1
m = F Eq … (14.13)

For m = E, we get F = Q. Therefore, Faraday's constant is defined as the quantity of charge required to
liberate the mass of substance equivalent to its gram equivalent. It represents the magnitude of electric
charge per mole of electrons.

Value of Faraday's Constant

From equation (14.12),
E
F =Z

A
= VZ

where, A = gram equivalent weight

V = valency
Considering the silver,
A = 107.88 g
V=1
and Z = 0.001118 g/C
then,
107.88
F = 1 × 0.001118  96500 C

 F = 96500 C.
Faraday's constant (F) is also defined as the magnitude of electric charge per mole of electrons. So,
F = NA e
= 6.023 × 1023 × 1.6 × 10–19
 96500 C
One Faraday refers charge carries by one mole of electron, which is equal to 96500 C charge.

Tips for MCQs

1. Electrolysis is performed in a device called voltameter.
2. Cations are positive ions, they drift towards the cathode plate.
3. Anions are negative ions, they drift towards the anode plate.
4. Faraday's first law of electrolysis, m = Zq = ZIt
Z is called electrochemical equivalent. Its unit is gC–1.
 Chemical Effect of Current  Chapter 14  339

m1 E1
5. Faraday's second law of electrolysis, m = E
2 2

Where, E is chemical equivalent and m is the deposited mass of electrolytes.

Atomic weight
6. Chemical equivalent (E) = Valency
7. Faraday's second law of electrolysis is alternately written as,
ZE
1
Z=FE
E E Eq
 F = Z = m/q = m
Where, F is called Faraday's constant.
C
a. 1 F = 96500 gram equivalent
It means 96500 C charge is required to liberate or deposit 1 gram equivalent of the substance.
b. F = NAe
8. Faraday's laws are consequence of conservation of energy.
9. Alternating current can't be used for electroplating or electrolysis because of change in polarity.
10. Nature of electrolyte determines the emf between the two metals placed in an electrolyte.
11. Unit and dimensions of some physical quantities:
Quantity Symbol Dimensions Units Remarks
Chemical equivalent E [M mol–1] kg mol–1 Molar mass/ valency
Electrochemical
Z [ML0T–1A–1] kg C–1 Z = m/It
equivalent
Faraday constant F [M0L0TAmol–1] C mol–1 F = NAe

Worked Out Problems

1. A current 5 A is passed through a silver voltmeter for 1 h; the mass of silver deposited is 15.10 g.
What is the e.c.e. of silver?
SOLUTION
Given, We know,
Current (I) = 5 A m = ZIt
Time (t) = 1 h = 60 × 60 = 3600 s m 15.10 × 10–3
Z = It = 5 × 3600 = 8.4 × 10–7 Cmol–1
Mass (m) = 15.10 g = 15.10 × 10–3 kg
ece (Z) = ?  Z = 8.4 × 10–7 kg/C

2. A metal plate weighing 200 g is to be electroplated with 5% of its weight in silver. If the
electroplated in 12 h, what is the value of current to be passed through the electrolyte? (e.c.e of
silver = 0.001118 g/C)
SOLUTION
Given, e.c.e of silver (Z) = 0.00111 g/C
Mass of metal (m) = 200 g Current (I) = ?
5 We have,
Electroplated mass (m') = 5% of m = 100  200 m' = ZIt
= 10 g m' 10
I = Zt = = 0.2 A
Time (t) = 12 h = 12  60  60 = 43,200 s 0.00111 43‚200
340 Principles of Physics - II
3. Assuming the Faraday constant is 96500 C mol–1, calculate (i) the charge needed to deposit 1.6 gm of
oxygen in the electrolysis of water, (ii) the time required if a steady current of 2.5 A is used, (iii) the
mass of hydrogen deposited at the end of this time, (Relative molecular masses of hydrogen and
oxygen are 2 and 32 respectively.)
SOLUTION
Given, iii. mass of hydrogen deposited, m = ?
1 F = 96,500 C mol-1 molar mass of hydrogen, M = 2 g = 2 × 10–3 kg
i. Charge required (q) = ? M 2
Atomic mass, A = 2 = 2 = 1
mass of oxygen deposited, m = 1.6 g = 1.6 × 10–3
kg Valency of hydrogen, V = 1
From laws of electrolysis, we have, Chemical equivalent of hydrogen,
1 A 1
m = F qE E =V = 1 =1
mF mFV 1.6 × 10–3 × 96500 × 2 From laws of electrolysis, we have,
or, q = E = A = 16 × 10–3 1
m = F qE
 q = 19300 C
ii. Time required (t) = ? 1
= F × It × E
Here, I = 2.5 A
q 1
∵ I = t = 96500 × 2.5 × 7720 × 1 = 0.2 gm
q 19300  m = 0.2 × 10–3 kg
 t = I = 2.5 = 7720 s

Challenging Problems
1. [ALP] Assuming the Faraday constant is 96500 C mol–1 and that the relative atomic masses of copper
and Silver are 63 and 108 respectively, calculate:
a. the number of atoms of Copper, Cu2+ and of Silver which are liberated respectively by the
Faraday,
b. the masses of these two elements liberated respectively by 0.5 A in 10 min.
(Electronic charge, e = – 1.6  10–19 C.)
Ans: (a) 3 × 1023, 6 × 1023(b) 0.098 g and 0.34 g
2. [ALP] (a) If 1 mole of electrons contains 6.02  1023 electrons, calculate a value of F. (b) In a copper
plating system an electrolysis current of 3.0 A is used. How many atoms of Cu2+ are deposited in 1.5
hr? (Electronic charge, e = – 1.6 × 10–19 C.)
Ans: (a) 96320 Cmol–1 (b) 5.06 × 1022
3. [ALP] Calculate the volume at s.t.p. of hydrogen formed when a current of 0.5 A passes for 2 h in
electrolysis of H2SO4. (Given, NA = 6.0  1023 mol–1, Volume of 1 mole of gas at STP = 2.24  10–2 m3)
Ans: 4.18 × 10–4 m3
4. [ALP] If the mass of hydrogen deposited per coulomb is 1.04  10–8 kg C–1 and if 1 g of hydrogen on
burning to form water liberates 147000 J, calculate the back e.m.f. produced in a water voltameter
when it is connected to a 2 V accumulator.
Ans: 1.5 V
5. [ALP] A battery of accumulators of e.m.f. 50 V and internal resistance 2 , is charged on a 100 V
direct-current mains. What series resistance will be required to give a charging current of 2 A? If the
price of electrical energy is 1p per kilowatt-hour, what will it cost to charge the battery for 8 hours,
and what percentage of the energy supplied will be wasted in the form of heat?
Ans: 23 , 1.6 P and 50%
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]
 Chemical Effect of Current  Chapter 14  341

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. State Faraday's laws of electrolysis.
 There are a couple of laws in electrolysis of Faraday.
i. First law: "The mass of ions liberated at an electrode in electrolysis is directly proportional to the
quantity of charge passing through the electrolyte." In mathematical form, this law is stated as,
m = Zq = ZIt.
ii. Second law: "When the same amount of electricity is passed through a number of electrolytes
placed in series, then the mass of ions liberated at the electrodes is directly proportional to their
chemical equivalents." In mathematical form, this law is stated as,
m
E = Constant.
2. What is meant by Faraday's constant?
 Faraday's constant is defined as the quantity of charge required to liberate the mass of substance
equal to its gram equivalent. Its value is, F = 96500 Cmol –1. Faraday's constant is quantitatively
determined from the ratio of chemical equivalent (E) to electrochemical equivalent (Z).
E
i.e. F = Z

3. Why electrolytes have lower conductivity than metallic conductors?

 Electrolytic current is also called ionic current. In this condition, the current is produced due to the
flow of ions. Ions are massive than electrons. Hence, they offer high resistance while flowing in the
solution. But the metallic current is produced due to the flow of free electrons. Hence, it is also called
electric current. Electrons are much lighter and smaller than the ions. Hence, they offer low resistance
while moving in metallic conductor.
Therefore, electrolytes have lower conductivity than metallic conductors. Moreover, the free electron
density (n) of metal is more than that of electrolyte. In equation,
I = nevdA,
i.e. I  n.
4. Electrolysis is possible by d.c. not by a.c. why?
 The alternating current changes its direction periodically in very short interval of time (in our electric
domestic lines, 50 times per second). So, the ions of the solution are unable to flow to any specific
direction and impossible to deposit on a plate. But, the polarity is fixed in d.c., so, the deposition is
possible in a electrode containing opposite natured ions.
5. What type of current flows in a voltameter?
 Ionic current flows inside a voltameter. In voltameter a chemical compound dissociates and ions
move to the plates containing opposite potential. Hence, ions flow in the voltameter. Electronic
current flows in conducting wire.
6. What is voltameter?
 The vessel containing electrodes and electrolytes in which the electrolysis is performed is called
voltameter. Voltameter contains two electrodes and the electrodes are connected to two terminals of
a d.c. power supply. The electrodes attract the oppositely charged ions from the electrolyte.
7. What are the uses of electrolysis?
 There are many uses of electrolysis. Some of them are as follows:
a. It is used in electroplating. Electroplating of gold in cheap metals looks like expensive
ornaments.
b. It is used in purifying metals. Pure metals can be deposited at on electrode in electrolysis.
c. It is used in chemical analysis.
342 Principles of Physics - II
d. It is used in manufacturing chemicals.
e. It is used in printing industries.
8. What is the difference between ionization and electrolysis?
 The dissociation of an electrolyte into its constituents when a passage of electric current is passed
through it is known as ionization. Anions and catations are produces in ionization.
Electrolysis the conduction of ions through the electrolyte is known as electrolysis. Electrolysis occurs
due to the motion of ions.
9. Why is the conductivity of a electrolyte low as compared to that of a metal?
 In metallic conduction, free electrons moves through the conductor, whereas the ions are moved in
the conduction of electrolyte. Due to the following reasons, the conductivity of electrolyte is smaller
than the conductivity of a metal.
i. The mass of ions is much more greater than free electrons. So, the drift velocity of electrons is
greater than ions in electrolyte.
ii. The density of free electrons in a metallic conductor is relatively very high than the ions in
electrolyte.
10. A voltameter measures current more accurately than an ammeter does. Explain why?
m
 From first law of electrolysis, the ionic current is measured as, I = Zt . In such process, the value of m,
Z and t can be measured more precisely, upto 3 - 4 decimal numbers, whereas the ammeter cannot
measure the current so accurately. In ammeter, the value of shunt greatly affects the amount of
current measurement.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What is the difference between ionization and electrolysis?
2. How do you distinguish between the passage of electric current through metal and that through
electrolyte?
3. Why electrolytes have low conductivity than metallic conductors?
4. What is meant by thermoelectric series?
5. Is seebeck effect reversible?
6. What is inversion temperature and upon what factors does temperature of inversion depend?
7. What is neutral temperature? Upon what factor does the neutral temperature depend?
8. Write the mathematical relation for thermoelectric emf of a thermocouple in terms of temperature of
hot junction.
9. What do you mean by thermoelectric effect?
10. What is seebeck effect?
11. Upon what factors does the magnitude of e.m.f. depend?
12. What is inversion temperature and upon what factors does temperature of inversion depend?
13. What is neutral temperature? Upon what factor does the neutral temperature depend?
14. Distinguish between peltier effect and joule effect.
15. Write the mathematical relation for thermoelectric emf of a thermocouple in terms of temperature of
hot junction.
16. Can alternating current be used for electrolysis? Explain.
17. Define electrochemical equivalent of a substance.
18. What is the difference between ionization and electrolysis?
19. Define chemical equivalent.
 Chemical Effect of Current  Chapter 14  343

20. What do you mean by faraday's constant?

21. Write faradays first law and second law of electrolysis.
22. How do you distinguish between the passage of electric current through metal and that through
electrolyte?
23. Why electrolytes have low conductivity than metallic conductors?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. State Faraday's laws of electrolysis. How will you verify Faraday's second law experimentally?
[NEB 2075]
2. What is faraday’s constant? Explain the verification of Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. [HSEB 2058]
3. What is neutral temperature? Describe the variation of thermoelectric emf with temperature.
4. What is Thomson’s effect? Describe the construction and working of thermopile.

Numerical Problems
1. Calculate the current following through a electrolytic tank if 0.95 g of copper is deposited in the half
an hour on the cathode. (e.c.e. of Cu = 0.000329 g/col)
(Ans: 1.6 A)
2. The cold junction of a thermocouple is maintained at 10ºC. No thermo-emf is developed when the
hot junction is maintained at 530ºC. Find the neutral temperature.
(Ans: 270ºC)
3. If 1 mole if electron contains 6.02 × 1023 electrons, calculate the value for F.
(Ans: 96320 C/mol)
4. In a copper plating system an electrolysis current of 3.0 A is used. How many atoms of Cu2+ are
deposited in 1.5 h?
(Ans: 5.06 x 1022)
5. A current of 2 A flows through an electroplating solution for 40 min deposits 1.6 g of copper.
(Atomic mass 63.5, valency 2 on the cathode. Compute the faraday.
(Ans: 95250 C/mol)
6. How long will it take to deposit electrolytically 10.79 g of silver on the cathode of a silver voltameter
by a current of 25 A? [e.c.e. of silver = 0.001118 gC-1] Ans: 6.4 min
7. A copper voltameter is connected in series with a heating coil of resistance 10 . A steady current
flows in the circuit for 20 minutes and deposits 0.99 g of copper. Calculate the amount of heat
generated in the coil in this time. e.c.e. of copper is 0.00033 gC-1.
Ans: 75 kJ
8. A copper voltameter and an ammeter are connected in series with a battery through a resistance. In
50 minutes, 0.99 g of copper is deposited on the plates. The ammeter reads 0.95 A. Calculate the error
in its reading. [e.c.e. of copper = 0.00033 gC-1]
Ans: 0.05 A

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A current of 10 A, deposits 10.8 g of silver in 900 s. The mass of copper deposited by 9 A of current in
1200 s will (Ecu = 31.5 and EAg = 108):
a. 3.78 g b. 6.35 g
c. 7.56 g d. 10.80 g
2. Electrolysis is possible in:
a. Only a.c. b. Only d.c.
c. Both d. Depends on Voltage, not a.c. or d.c.
3. In electrolytes, the conduction of electricity is due to,
a. Free electrons b. bound electrons
c. ions d. atoms
344 Principles of Physics - II
4. A current of 1 A is possible through a dilute H2SO4 for some time to liberate 1 g of oxygen. How
much hydrogen is liberated during this period? (Faraday's constant = 96,500 C/mol):
a. 2 g b. 1 g
c. 0.5 g d. 0.125 g
5. A current of 1.6 A is passed through CuSO4 solution. The number of Cu++ ions liberated per minute
are:
a. 6  1019 b. 6  1013
c. 3  1020 d. 3  1017
Answers
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (c)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 1 1
mass of hydrogen deposited, m= F qE= F ×It× E
Here,
1 F = 96,500 C mol–1 Number of moles of hydrogen deposited,
Atomic mass of copper = 63 total mass
Atomic mass of silver = 108 N = molar mass
a. Q = 96,500 C
∵ 1 mole has volume 2.24 × 10–2 m3
Copper is bivalent element so charge carried by
 1.86 × 10–2 moles have volume,
each atom of copper (Cu2+) is 2e.
(2.24 × 10–2 × 1.86 × 10–2) m3
1F
 Number of atoms librated by 1 F = 2e Hence,
Volume of hydrogen formed = 4.18 × 10–4 m3
Silver is monovalent, so charge carried by each
HINT: 4
atom of silver (Ag+) is e.
Given, Mass of hydrogen deposited by 1 C charge
1F
 Number of atoms liberated by 1 F = e = 1.04 × 10–8 kg
b. I = 0.5 A  Charge due to 1 g (10–3 kg) hydrogen
t = 10 min = 600 s deposited,
A 10–3
i. For copper, Ec = V q = 1.04 × 10–8 = 9.61 × 10–4 C

1 1 Energy liberated = 147000 J

Now, mc = F qE = F × It × E Energy liberated (E)
Now, Back emf = charge (q)
A
ii. For silver, Es = V HINT: 5

q 1 Given, emf, E = 50 V
Now, ms = F Es = F × It × Es Internal resistance, r = 2 
HINT: 2
Voltage of source , V = 100 V
Series resistance required, R = ?
a. 1 F = NA × e
Current, I = 2A
= 6.023 × 1023 × 1.6 × 10–19
We know that
= 96320 Cmol–1
b. I = 3 A, t = 1.5 h = 1.5 × 3600 s = 5400 s net emf VE
Total current = total resistance = R + r
Number of atoms of Cu2+ deposited = ?
Total charge passed, Q = It Energy taken from mains in 8 hours = VIt
Since copper is diatomic so charge curried by ∵ 1 kWh requires 1 P for electrical energy
each atom of Cu2+ is q = 2e  1.6 kWh requires 1.6 P
Q Now,
Now, Number of atoms of Cu2+ deposited = q
Energy wasted = (I2R + I2r) t
HINT: 3
Energy wasted
Given,  % energy wasted = Energy taken × 100%
I = 0.5 A
t = 2 h = 2 × 3600 s = 7200 s
Chemical Effect of Current  Chapter 14  345
 MAGNETIC EFFECTS
OF CURRENT

15.1 Introduction
It is a well established fact that electricity and magnetism are interrelated fields of study. A current
carrying conductor has magnetic field associated with it. Though this fact came as a surprise to the
people who discovered it, this feature has become enormously important in the field of science and
technology.
We will try to find the magnetic field associated with different types of current carrying conductor in
this chapter.

15.2 Oersted Discovery

Hans Christian Oersted, one of the leading scientists of 19th century, found that a magnetic field is
established around a current carrying conductor. In 1820, he accidently found that a compass needle
got deflected when an electric current was passed through a metallic wire placed nearby as shown in
Fig. 15.1. His experiment showed that electricity and magnetism are linked to each other and then,
paved the way to study the several laws regarding the electromagnetism. His research later created
technologies such as radio, television, fibre optics etc.

Rh K Rh K

A B A B
N

S N
S

Fig. 15.1: Magnetic effect of current

15.3 Rules of Finding the Direction of Magnetic Field

Magnetic field being a vector quantity, possesses both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of
the field can be found out by the implementation of various mathematical formulation which shall
346 Principles of Physics - II
be discussed later in this chapter. However, the direction of the field can be determined by using any
of the following rules as per the convenience.

i. Maxwell's Cork Screw Rule

According to this rule, if the direction of forward movement
Direction of
of a right handed screw gives the direction of current, magnetic lines of force
direction of rotation of screw shows the direction of magnetic
lines of force. The direction of field at any point is then along
the direction of tangent at that point drawn along the
direction of motion. Fig. 15.2 (i) shows right handed screw
Direction of current
advancing forward by rotating it in clockwise direction. So,
direction of rotation gives magnetic lines of force. It is also Fig. 15.2(i): Maxwell's cork screw rule
known as right handed cork screw rule.

ii. Right Hand Thumb Rule

According to this rule, if a current carrying current
conductor is held by right hand keeping the thumb
straight such that electric current is in the direction of
thumb then the direction in which the fingers curl
(bend) shows the direction of magnetic lines of force
as shown in Fig. 15.2(ii). And again the direction of magnetic field lines
field at any point is along the direction of tangent at
that point drawn along the direction of curled fingers. Fig. 15.2 (ii): Right hand thumb rule
For a circular conductor, if the curled fingers have
the direction of current, then thumb points along the direction of magnetic field.
Anticlockwise current Clockwise current

B B
(Out from the (Into the plane
plane of paper) of paper)

Fig. 15.3: Right hand rule for circular conductor carrying current

iii. Fleming's Left Hand Rule

This rule is used to predict the direction of force and hence the direction of motion of a current
carrying conductor or any charged particle moving in the magnetic field. According to this rule, if
thumb, first finger and second finger of left hand are held mutually perpendicular to each other as
shown in Fig. 15.4 such that,
 First finger points the direction of Field. (F to F)
 SeCond finger points the direction of Current. (C to C)
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  347

Then, ThuMb points the direction of Thrust (force) and hence the Motion (T to T and M to M).
ThuMb-Thrust or Motion

First finger-Field

SeCond finger-Current

Fig. 15.4 Fleming's left hand rule

15.4 Lorentz Force

A charge particle held stationary in the magnetic field does not experience any force. But, the
situation is different, if the charge is in motion. Experimentally, it has been found that, a moving
charge particle experiences magnetic force which is, proportional to the magnitude of charge (q), its
velocity (v) and the strength of the magnetic field (B). The direction of this force is such that, it points
in the direction perpendicular to the velocity and magnetic field, mathematically it can be expressed
as,
  
Fm = q ( v  B ) ... (15.1)
 ^ ^ 
or, Fm = Bqv sin  n (Where n is unit vector along the perpendicular to the plane containing v

and B and  is the angle between them.
In magnitude,

|Fm |= Bqv sin  ... (15.2)
If the electric field is also present, then force on q due to electric field is,
 
Fe = q E ... (15.3)
The sum of forces on moving charge q due to electric and magnetic field is called Lorentz force and is
given as,
     
F = Fe + Fm = q [ E + ( v  B )] using equations (15.1) and (15.3)
In equation (15.2), we see that,
i. If q is at rest, v = 0, So, Fm = 0.
So, a stationary charge particle a magnetic field does not experience any force.
ii. If  = 0 or 180º, Fm = 0. If charge moves parallel or antiparallel to the direction of magnetic
field, then Fm = 0.
iii. If  = 90º, Fm = Bqv which is the maximum value of force experienced by charge q. It shows
that a charge particle moving along a line perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field

experiences maximum force. Since the force is always perpendicular to velocity vector v , the
force is centripetal in nature. Therefore, the particle moves in a circular path.

15.5 Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor

Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in magnetic field, the moving charges within the
conductor experience magnetic force and this force is transmitted to the material of the conductor as
a whole. Thus, conductor experiences force distributed along its length.
348 Principles of Physics - II
Let us consider a straight segment of a conductor of length l
I
and cross-sectional area A carrying a steady current I from
bottom to top as shown in Fig. 15.5. Let it be placed in a region
 l q
of uniform magnetic field B which is parallel to the plane of B
paper and  be its inclination with the direction of field. We
have assumed the conventional direction of current and hence
the moving charges are positive.
Fig. 15.5: Conductor moving in
Let vd be the drift velocity of these charges which also must
a uniform magnetic field
have an inclination of  with the magnetic field. The magnetic
Lorentz force experienced by each charge of magnitude q is given by,
  
F = q (vd × B )
F = Bqvd sin  …(15.4)
The direction of this force is into the plane of paper as defined by Fleming's left hand rule.
If n be the number of charge per unit volume of the conductor, the total number of charge in the
conductor is,
N = nV = nAl …(15.5)
So, the total magnetic force experience by all the charges in the conductor is,
F = NBqvd sin  …(15.6)
From equations (15.5) and (15.6), we get,
F = (nAl) Bq vd sin 
 F = (nqAvd) (Bl sin ) …(15.7)
We know, the drift velocity of the charge particle is given by,
I
vd = nAq (... in metallic conduction, I = nevdA, here, e = q)

I = nAqvd …(15.8)
So, from equations (15.7) and (15.8), we get,
F = IBl sin  …(15.9)
  
F = I ( l × B) …(15.10)
Thus, total force experienced by the conductor placed in uniform magnetic field is perpendicular to
both length and field (perpendicularly inward into the plane of paper which contains both l and B in
this case.)

Case I : If the conductor is parallel or antiparallel to the field, then

 = 0º or 180º
F = IBl sin 0º or IBl sin 180º
F=0
Thus, a conductor placed parallel to uniform magnetic field experiences no force.

Case II : When the conductor is placed perpendicular to magnetic field

 = 90º
 F = IBl sin 90° = BIl
This is the maximum force experienced by the conductor.
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  349

15.6 Torque on Rectangular Current Loop and Magnetic Moment


When a current carrying wire is placed in external magnetic field B , the wire experiences a magnetic
force. Besides the values of B, I and l, the magnitude of the force depends also on the orientation of
wire in the magnetic field. If a wire of closed current loop is placed in the uniform magnetic field, the
magnitude of force relies on the orientation of area covered by the loop.
i. If the plane of enclosed area by the current loop is perpendicular to the direction of uniform
magnetic field, the net force on it is zero. In this condition, the force on one half of the loop is
equal and directed exactly in opposite direction of the next half part, and the line of action of
these forces is the same. So, no net torque is produced.
ii. If the current carrying loop is orientated at some angle to the magnetic field, two pairs of forces
do not pass through the same line of action and hence constitute a couple. The moment of this
couple, called torque , tends to rotate the loop in the field.
FPQ

P
q
I
Q
I
l
B
FQR
b cos q
FPS S
I q

S q
b I b
R
(ii)
R
(i)
FRS
Fig. 15.6: (i) Magnetic torque on rectangular coil (ii) Showing perpendicular distance between couple
Consider a rectangular current loop PQRS of a conducting wire with linear dimension l and b

carrying current I through it, and is placed in a uniform magnetic field B . Suppose the field is
directed along the horizontal direction parallel to plane of paper. The rectangular wire is so adjusted
that its sides PS and QR are vertical, and sides PQ and RS are horizontal but not parallel with the

field as shown in Fig. 15.6 (i). Let the plane of the loop forms an angle  with the magnetic field B .
The force acting on each side of the loop is described below.
FPQ = BIb sin , (upward)
FRS = BIb sin , (downward)
Here, PQ = RS = b (into the plane of paper)
In such condition, the line of action of FPQ and FRS is the same, but are directed in exactly opposite
direction. As the magnitude of these forces is also equal, they cancel each other. Therefore, there is no
displacement along the vertical direction.
Also, FQR = BIl sin 90º (perpendicularly out from the plane of paper)
= BIl
and FPS = BIl sin 90º (perpendicularly in from the plane of paper)
These two forces, FQR and FPS, have equal magnitude and are also directed in exactly opposite
direction, but they do not pass through the same line of action and therefore make a couple. Thus,
the wire tends to rotate about the vertical axis. Then, the moment of couple () is,
350 Principles of Physics - II
 = magnitude of either force  perpendicular distance between them,
Here, FQR = FPS = BIl
Perpendicular distance between these forces = b cos  as shown in Fig. 15.6 (ii)
  = BIl b cos 

 = BIA cos  (∵ l  b = A)

If the rectangular loop contains N number of turns, total torque will be N times the value of torque
by one turn. So,
 = NBIA cos 
 = BINA cos  ... (15.11)

The magnitude of torque is sometimes studied in terms of angle between the field B and normal to
 
the plane of the loop as shown in Fig. 15.6(iii). Let  be the angle between B and normal (n) to the
plane of loop, then from geometry of figure,
n
 = 90º –  90–q
P
or,  = 90º –  q
a
B
Hence,  = BINA cos (90º – ) Q

 = BINA sin ... (15.12)

Special cases

i. When plane of loop is perpendicular to the field B , S
( = 90º,  = 0º)
R
 = BINA cos 90º = 0. (No torque is acted) Fig. 15.6 (iii): Magnetic torque
showing the plane of coil

ii. When plane of loop is parallel to the field B , ( = 0º,  = 90º)
 = BINA cos 0º = BINA (The torque is maximum.)

15.7 Magnetic Moment

When current flows in a closed loop, it acts as a tiny m
magnet in which the magnetic field is directed axially
outward as shown in Fig. 15.7. In such condition, the
current loop acts as a dipole. This produces the magnetic
moment,  = IA. The magnetic moment of a coil containing
I I
N turns is,
 = NIA
   Fig. 15.7: Magnetic moment in a circular loop
Also, the torque,  =   B
So,  = B sin 
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  351

The maximum torque, max = B. (∵ sin  = 1 is the maximum value)

In vector form,
    
 =   B = NI A  B . ... (15.13)
The unit of magnetic moment is ampere square meter (Am2)

15.8 Moving Coil Galvanometer

Moving coil galvanometer is an example of torque experienced by a coil in magnetic field that can
measure small value of current. Most of the current measuring devices are made from the moving
coils, which rotate due to the torque generated in it. It is also called moving coil meter or wetson
galvanometer.
Principle: This galvanometer works in the principle of torque generated by the magnetic field in a
current loop. When a current carrying coil is placed in magnetic field, it experiences a net torque.
Construction: It consists of a narrow rectangular coil ABCD consisting of a large number of turns of
fine insulated copper wire wound over a frame of light, non-magnetic metal. A cylindrical shaped
soft iron (P) known as core is placed within the coil. The coil is suspended between the two
cylindrical pole-pieces of magnet by a thin flat phosphor bronze strip. The upper end of the strip is
connected to a movable torsion head H. The lower end of the coil is connected to a hair-spring of
phosphor bronze having only a few turns as shown in Fig. 15.8. The upper and lower end of the coil
are connected to two terminals T1 and T2 for the connection to the external circuit.
The pole-pieces of magnet are made cylindrical so that the angle between the plane of the coil and
the magnetic field is zero in all orientation of the coil. This makes the magnetic field in the small air
gap between the cylindrical pole pieces radial and hence constant torque is experienced by the coil. A
plane mirror is rigidly attached to the
phosphor-bronze strip. This helps to measure Calibrated scales
the deflection of coil. Aluminium
pointer
Theory: When terminals T1 and T2 are
H
connected to the external electric circuit, torsion head
current I flows through the coil kept into the
Phosphor bronze wire
space of pole-pieces, hence the coil
experiences torque. Since the field is radial, T1
the plane of coil remains parallel to the T2
Cylindrical soft iron core fixed
magnetic field in all the orientations. The A B
sides AB and DC do not experience any force.
N P S
The sides BC and AD remain perpendicular
to the direction of the magnetic field and horse shoe magnet
D C
experience forces perpendicular to the plane
coil hair spring
of the coil. Force on BC is,
FBC = NIBl sin 90º = NIBl
Fig. 15.8: Moving coil galvanometer
Where,
N = number of turns in the coil
352 Principles of Physics - II
I = Current flowing through the coil
B = magnetic field strength
l = length of BC = length of AD
The forces FBC and FAD are equal in magnitude and exactly opposite in direction, but the line of action
is different. So, two forces constitute a couple. This couple tends to deflect the coil and is known as
deflecting couple.
The moment of deflecting couple,
1 = NIBl  b
Where, b = perpendicular distance between points of action of two forces.
 1 = NIBA ... (15.14)
When the coil rotates, the suspension fibre gets twisted. Then, the restoring couple is set up in the
fibre, which opposes the deflection of the coil. The restoring couple is directly proportional to the
twist. Let  be the angular twist and k be the torsion constant (restoring couple per unit angular twist)
of the suspension fibre, then,
The moment of restoring couple,
2 = k ... (15.15)
The deflection of the coil stops, when deflecting couple (1) is equal to the restoring couple (2). This
condition is called the equilibrium condition.
In equilibrium,
NIBA = k
k
or, I = NBA  ... (15.16)
 
or, I = K ...(15.17)
k
Where, K = NBA is called galvanometer constant because the value of k, N, B and A for a
galvanometer remains constant.
So, from equation (15.17), we can write,
I
This shows, the deflection of the coil is proportional to the current flowing through it. The variation
of current (also the voltage) can be measured directly from the angular deflection of galvanometer
needle over a properly calibrated linear scale.

Current sensitivity
The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the angular deflection of the meter needle per

unit current. It is denoted by I .

Therefore, from equation (15.16), we get,

 NBA
I= k ... (15.18)

The sensitivity can be increased by increasing N, A and B, and decreasing the value of torsion
constant k.

Voltage Sensitivity
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  353

Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the angular deflection of the meter needle per unit

voltage. It is denoted by V.

We have, from equation (15.16),

 NBA
I= k
Dividing both sides by R (of galvanometer coil),
 NBA
or, IR = kR
 NBA
 V = kR ... (15.19)

The sensitivity can be increased by increasing N, A and B and decreasing k and R.

Variation of N, A, B, k and R
i. N can be increased by increasing the number of turns of the coil.
ii. Magnetic field B can be increased by using a strong magnet.
iii. A is the area enclosed by the coil, which can be increased by winding the coil over a larger
frame.
iv. k can be decreased by using the material of low torsion constant, so phosphor-bronze for
suspension is used.
v. R can be decreased by using the low resistivity coil like copper.

15.9 Biot-Savart Law

Biot-Savart Law is a mathematical tool devised to calculate the magnitude of magnetic field due to
steady current distribution. This law was first discovered by Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart
towards the beginning of 19th century. This law is used to find net magnetic field due to any

distribution of currents by first writing differential magnetic field ( dB ) due to a current-length

element and summing the contributions of dB from all the elements. For this, we mentally divide the

current carrying conductor into differential (small) length dl and then define a length vector dl for
each element which we call length element. Obviously, this is a vector that has length dl and
 
direction is the direction of current in dl. The product of current (I) and length element ( dl ) i.e (I dl )
is called a differential current-length element (or current element).
Thus, net field at any point is the superposition of differential magnetic field due to all such current-
length element of the conductor. Experimentally, it has been found that, the magnitude of
differential magnetic field (dB) at point P at distance r due to current

length element I dl is, r P
f dB
i. Directly proportional to the current element Idl, dl
r

dB  Idl
ii. Inversely proportional to the square of radial distance (r), I

1
dB  r2
Fig. 15.9: Magnetic field
by current element
354 Principles of Physics - II
 
iii. Directly proportional to the sine angle between dl and r ,
dB  sin 
Combining above conditions (i), (ii) and (iii), we get,
0 Idl sin 
dB  r2
4
Idl sin 
dB = k r2
0 1
where k is proportionality constant. In SI system, k = and in CGS system, k = c , c is speed
4
of light. We use SI system throughout the book. So,
0 Idl sin 
dB = r2 (Magnitude)
4

 0 I dl  ^
r
dB = r2 (with direction) ... (15.20)
4

Where ^ r is a unit vector that points from dl towards P.  is the angle between the directions of dl
and ^r , and 0 is the absolute permeability and its value is 4  10-7 Hm1.
If medium is other than vacuum, then,

 0r I dl  ^
r 
dB= Where r = is the relative permeability.
4 r2 0
 
In equation (15.20), dB is a vector which is perpendicular to plane containing dl and ^ r . So, the
 
direction of dB is along the direction of perpendicular to the plane containing dl and ^
r , in this case,
perpendicularly outward from the plane of paper shown by ⊙.

15.10 Applications of Biot-Savart's Law

i. Magnetic field due to an infinitely long straight conductor carrying current
Let us consider an infinitely long straight conductor +¥

carrying steady current I as shown in Fig. 15.10. Let P

dl f
be a point, at a perpendicular distance x from the
A
 r
conductor where the magnetic field B is to be (p– f)
determined. The calculation of magnetic field due to
l r
this conductor explicitly exploits the application of
Biot-Savart's law.
For this, we consider an element of conductor of length O P
dl = dy at point A as shown in Fig. 15.10 which is r x
I
distance away from point P and x distance away from
point O. Also,  be the angle between length dl and –¥
Fig. 15.10: Magnetic field by straight conductor
^
unit vector r along the line AP (= r) which joins the
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  355

length element and point P.


The magnetic field dB at point P due to this elemental length can be written from Biot-Savart's law
as,


 0 Idl × ^r
dB = r2 …(15.21)
4
 
In equation (15.21), the vector dl × ^r shows that direction of dB is perpendicular to the plane of
paper.
The magnitude of this magnetic field can be written as,
0 Idl sin
dB = r2 …(15.22)
4
Now, from Fig. 15.10 in right angled triangle AOP,
r 2 = x 2 + l2 …(15.23)
x
and sin ( – ) = r

x
sin  = (x2 + l2 ) …(15.24)

From equations (15.22), (15.23) and (15.24), we can have,

0I xdl
dB = …(15.25)
4 (x2 + l2)3/2
Since, the conductor can be imagined to consist of infinite number of length elements each of length

dl and each contributing magnetic field dB along the same direction (perpendicular to the plane of
paper), the net magnetic field P due to entire wire can be obtained by superposition (sum) of fields
due to individual length elements.
Thus, magnitude of total magnetic field is,
  0I xdl
B=  dB =  …(15.26)
  4 (x2 + l2)3/2
– –
Further, referring to Fig. 15.10, we get,
l
cot (180 – ) = x

l
or, – cot  = x …(15.27)

Differentiating above expression with respect to , we get

dl = x cosec2 d …(15.28)
Also, from equation (15.27), we get,
l = – x cot 
Squaring both sides,
l2 = x2 cot2 
Adding x2 both sides,
x2 + l2 = x2 + x2 cot2 = x2 cosec2 …(15.29)
And, from equation (15.27), we can write,
356 Principles of Physics - II
x
tan  = – l

Thus, when l  ,    and when l  –,   0

Using equations (15.28) and (15.29) in equation (15.26) and changing the limiting values, we can
write,
 
0I  x  x cosec2 d 0I  sin d
B= =
4  (x2 cosec2)3/2 4  x
0 0
0I 0I
or, B= [– cos]0 = [cos  + cos 0]
4x 4x
0I
or, B= [– (–1) + 1]
4x
0I
 B= …(15.30)
2x
This is the required expression for the magnitude of the magnetic field due to an infinitely long
conductor at any point x distance away from it. The result implies that, even though the conductor is
infinite, magnetic field due to it is not infinite and tends to be infinite when x tends to zero. The field
is directly proportional to the current through it and inversely proportional to the distance from the
conductor.

It is interesting to note from above expression that, the magnetic field B has same magnitude at all
points on a circle of radius x centred on the conductor and lying in the plane perpendicular to
conductor itself. The direction of field at any point on this circle is along the tangent to it at that point.
Thus, direction of field must be everywhere along the tangents to such circle. We can simply find the
direction of magnetic field by using Right-hand rule.

ii. Magnetic field due to a circular coil

a. At the centre of the coil: Let us consider a narrow circular coil carrying steady current I. Let O
be its centre and 'a' be its radius such that OP = a as shown in Fig. 15.11.
To find magnetic field due to the coil at its centre, let us assume the coil to consist of small
length elements each of length dl. The magnetic field at O due to any such length element dl at
P is then given by Biot-Savart's law as,

 0 Idl × ^
a
dB = …(15.31)
4 a2
Where, ^
a is a unit vector along PO.

In the above equation (15.31), the vector product dl × ^
a shows that, direction of field is
perpendicular to the plane of paper (shown by ⊙ at the centre O).
The magnitude of this magnetic field can be written as,
0 Idl sin  0 Idl sin 90º
dB = =
4 a2 4 a2
Here,  = 90º is the angle between length element and radius a.
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  357

0 Idl
 dB = …(15.32)
4 a2 I

Similarly, the magnetic field due to all other length elements

are considered along the circumference of the circular coil
acts along the same direction (perpendicularly out of the dl
O a P
plane of paper as shown by ⊙ in Fig. 15.11). So, the total
magnetic field is the sum of magnetic fields due to
individual length elements. Thus, magnitude of total Fig. 15.11: Magnetic field at the
magnetic field is, centre of circular coil

2a
0 Idl
B=  …(15.33)
 a2
4
0
Here, total length of circular coil = circumference of coil = 2a
 From equation (15.33), we can have,
0I 2a 0I 0I
B= dl =  (2a) = 2a
4a2  4a2
0
If the coil consists of N number of turns,
0 NI
B = 2a
Note
Magnetic field at the center of hydrogen atom
In neutral hydrogen atom, an electron revolves around the nucleus. The nucleus of hydrogen atom contains
one proton and is much heavier than an electron. So, the proton is taken relatively at rest. The magnetic field
intensity at the center of the atom can be considered as the sole contribution of motion of electron in its orbit.
In this situation, the motion of electron in its orbit is compared to the electric current in a current loop.
The magnetic field at the centre, given by current through a circular coil is,
0IN
B = 2a ...(i)

Where, a is the radius of electronic orbit of hydrogen atom. N is the total number of revolution of electron
around the nucleus. This can be considered as that there are N turns of coil around the nucleus of hydrogen
atom and each turn contains one electron.
Also, q = e
q e
So, I = t = t ... (ii)

Using equation (ii) in equation (i), we get

0e
B = 2at . N

0 N
= 2a t .e
 
0
B = 2a f e

N
Where f = t is the frequency of revolution of electron around the nucleus.
358 Principles of Physics - II
b. At any point on the axis of the coil: Let us consider a circular coil of mean radius 'a' carrying a
steady current I in anti-clockwise direction. Let the coil lies in the Y-Z plane such that its axis is
along the X-axis. Let 'P' be a point at a distance x on the x-axis from centre O, where the
magnetic field is to be determined as shown in Fig. 15.12.
Let us consider an elemental length 'dl' on the upper half of the coil such that the current

element I dl at C is along Z-axis out of the plane of the paper and perpendicular to it. Let r be the
distance between elemental length and the point P such that the unit vector ^ r is perpendicular

to the I dl and on the plane paper.
Then, from Biot-Savart's law, the magnetic field at 'P' due to this length element is,

 0 Idl × ^r
dB = …(15.34]
4 r2

The vector product ( dl × ^ r ) shows that, the direction of magnetic field is along PQ

perpendicular to ^
r and dl and lies in the plane of paper.
The magnitude of magnetic field at P is given by,
0 I dl sin 
dB = r2
4

But, the angle between dl and ^
r is  = 90º. So,
0Idl
dB = …(15.35)
4r2
From geometry of Fig. 15.12, the angle made by dB with X-axis is . So, the components of dB
are,
0 Idl cos 
dBx = dB cos  =  r2 (along X-axis) …(15.36)
4
0 Idl
and dBy = dB sin  =  sin  (along Y-axis) …(15.37)
4 r2
Since, the problems has rotational symmetry, we can find an opposite current element at D in
the diametrically opposite half as shown in Fig. 15.12. The current element at D will be into the
plane of paper and perpendicular to it. The field due to this current element will have the same
magnitude dB but its direction will be along PR as shown in Fig.15.12. Similarly, for every
length element dl, we can always find an opposite length element carrying current in opposite
direction.
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  359
Y

dB sin q

C dB
Idl
a q Q
r r
I a

(90–q) q dB' cos q

O x dB cos q
P X

D dB'
R
Z
dB' sin q
Fig. 15.12: Magnetic field at the axis of circular coil

These two elements give equal contributions to the X-components of dB but opposite
components perpendicular to X-axis. So, these perpendicular components cancel each other so
that the net field at P will be due to the fields along x-axis.
The net field at P, due to the whole coil is given by,

2a 2a 2a

0  Idl cos  0I
B= 
 dB x = = cos  
 dl
4  r 2 4r 2

0 0 0
0I 0I
= cos   [2a – 0] = cos   2a
4r2 4r2
0I a
 B= cos  …(15.38)
2r2
Further, from Fig. (15.12) in triangle COP, we can have,
a
cos  = r and r = (a2 + x2)1/2

 Equation (15.38) can be written as,

0Ia2
B = 2(a2 + x2)3/2

If the coil consists of N-turns, then,

0 NI a2
B = 2(a2 + x2)3/2 …(15.39)

If A is the area of each turn, then,

A
A = a2  a2 =

0 NIA
 B= …(15.40)
2 (a2 + x2)3/2

Special cases
1. When point P lies at the centre of coil, x = 0, so from equation (15.39)
0 NI
B = 2a [Maximum value]
360 Principles of Physics - II
2. When P lies on the axis of coil at a distance equal to the radius of the coil, x = a, again, from
equation (15.39), we can have
0 NI
B=
25 a
3. When the point P lies on the axis at a distance far away from the centre of coil, such that x >> a,
then a2 + x2  x2 (a can be neglected as compared to x). From equation (15.39), we can have,
0 NIa2
B= 2x3

iii. Magnetic Field due to Solenoid

A solenoid can be thought of a being made up of
many narrow identical circular coils placed side
S
by side. We know, for any narrow circular coil of N
radius a the magnitude of the magnetic field at a
point on its axis is given by equation (15.13),
I
0 Ia2
dB = 2r3 …(15.41) Fig. 15.13 Solenoid
Where, r is the radius vector from coil to the point on axis.
Consider a transverse section of a long solenoid in which the  on the side PQ shows the current
coming out of the paper and  on side RS shows the current entering into the plane of paper. Let its
length be L and it is long in the sense that its diameter is small as compared to length. Let us consider
a point A on the axis YY' of the solenoid as shown in Y

Fig. 15.14 at which the magnetic field is to be P R

determined. q1
Now, let us consider an elemental portion CD of C a
B
thickness dy and d be the angle subtended by this
q E
portion at A as shown in Fig. 15.14. If 'n' be the dy r
number of turns per unit length of solenoid, then
magnetic field at point A due to this elemental portion D dq
A
is,
0 Ia2
dB = 2r3 ndy …(15.42) q2 S
Q

In Fig. 15.14, AC  AD = r is the radius vector and Y'

DCA =  is the angle between radius vector and Fig. 15.14: Magnetic field at the axis of Solenoid

elemental portion DC. From geometry,

DCA = CAB = 
In DCE,
DE DE
sin  = CD = dy

DE
dy =
sin 
DE = dy sin  …(15.43)
Again, in DAE,
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  361

DE DE
sin d  d = DA = r

DE = rd …(15.44)
From equations (15.43) and (15.44),
rd = dy sin 
rd
 dy = …(15.45)
sin 
Now from D, a perpendicular DE to line AC is drawn.
So, from CAB,
a
sin  = r

a = r sin  …(15.46)
Using the values from (15.45) and (15.46) in equation (15.42) we get,
0I nrd
dB = 2r3 (r sin )2 
sin 
1
 dB = 2 0  nI sin   d …(15.47)

In a solenoid, as we move from one end to another end, there is variation of  subtend at A by each
elemental portion of thickness dy. So, total magnetic field due to solenoid can be obtained by
integrating equation (15.47) between limits 1 to 2.
2
1 0 nI
 B =  2 0 nI sin   d = 2 [–cos ]21

1
0 nI
= 2 [– cos 2 – (– cos 1)]

0 nI
 B = 2 (cos 1 – cos 2]
If the solenoid is infinitely long, then  varies from 0º to 180º as we move from one extreme end to
another extreme end. So,
1 1
B = 2 0 nI (cos 0º – cos 180º) = 2 0 nI [1 – (–1)]

 B = 0 nI
N
If N be the total number of turns, then, n = L

0 NI
 B= L

iv. Helmholtz Coil

A Helmholtz coil is a parallel pair of identical circular coils spaced one radius apart and arranged co-
axially such that same current flows through both the coils in same direction. The basic principle of
Helmholtz coil is that, it produces a homogenous magnetic field in its centre which is directly
proportional to the number of turns in the coils and the current applied to them.
362 Principles of Physics - II
Let us consider two identical coils each of radius a and carrying steady current I which are arranged
co-axially separated by a distance a from each other as P Q
a
shown in Fig. 15.15. a 2
+d
a
S
Let S be any point on the axis d distance away from mid-
O
point O where magnetic field is to be determined. a

If N be the number of turns in each coil, then magnetic

Fig. 15.15: Magnetic field by Helmholtz coil
field at S due to coil P is
oNIa2
BP = 3
a
22 + d + a2 2
2

  
Similarly, magnitude field at S due to coil Q is,
1 oNIa2
BQ = 2 3
a – d + a2  2
2

2  
The resultant field at S due to both the coils is the sum of BP and BQ as they are directed along
the same direction. Because they carry current is same direction.
oNIa2  1 1 
So, B = BP + BQ = 2  a 3+ 3
  a 
2 + d + a2 2 – d + a2 
2 2
2 2
     
0NIa2  1 1 
= 2  a2 3+ 3
  a 
 4 + ad + d2 + a22  4 – ad + d2 + a22
2

     
0NIa2  1 1 
= 2 a2 3 + 
3
4d 4d2    4d 4d2
a2 
 4 1 + a + a2 +a 2 2  1 – a + a2 + a22
    4   
2d
Here d << a, so, neglecting higher power of  a  we get,
 
0NIa2  1 1 
B = 2 a2 3 + 
3
4d    4d
a2 2
 4 1 + a  + a  2 2  1 – a + a2 
    4   
0NIa2  1 1 
= 2  a2 3+ 3
  a 2

 4 + ad + a2 2 2 
2
   4 – ad + a  
0NIa2  1 1 
= 2  5a2 3+ 3
5a
 4 + ad2  4 – ad2
2

   
0NIa2  1 1 
= 2  5a2 3 3+ 3 3
4d 5a 4d
 4  1+ 5a   4  1 – 5a  
2
2 2 2 2
       
3 –3 –3
0NIa2  4 2  4d 2 4d 2 
= 2 5a2
 1 + 5a + 1 – 5a  
    
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  363

3
0NIa2 4 1 1 – 3 4d + ...... + 1 + 3 4d – ......
= 2 52 .
 3
 2  5a  2  5a  
( )
a2 2

4d
(∵ Using binomial expansion and neglecting higher powers of 5a )

3
0NI 4
= 2a 52 [1 + 1]

3
0NI 4 0NI
= 2a 52 = 0.72 a (approx.) ... (15.48)
 
Now, at mid-point 0,
0NIa2
B = 2  magnetic field due to each = 2. 3
a2
2 4 + a2
2
 
0NIa2 0NI
= 3 = 0.72 a ...(15.49)
5a2  2
 4 
Thus, from equations (15.48) and (15.49) we see that field over small region around mid-point is
nearly uniform.

15.11 Statement of Ampere's Circuital Law

Ampere's law is an useful mathematical tool which relates net magnetic field along a closed loop to
the electric current passing through the loop. This law is more convenient while calculating the
magnetic fields of current distribution with a high degree of symmetry.
This law states that, "the line integral around a closed path of the component of the magnetic field tangent to
the direction of the path equals o times the current intercepted by the area within the path."


i.e. ∮ B . dl = 0  (net current)
B
B
q
dl

B^
To state it in more simpler scalar form,

∮ B dl = 0  (net current) ... (15.50) Fig. 15.16: Magnetic field

through closed surface

The closed path over which the integration is carried out is called amperian surface.
In order to apply ampere's law, all current should be steady. Currents have to be taken with their
algebraic sign for example, if currents going out of the surface are positive, then those going in are
negative. The net magnetic field is zero only when net current is zero or when magnetic field is
normal to the selected path at any point.
364 Principles of Physics - II

15.12 Application of Ampere's circuital law

i. Magnetic field due to a long straight conductor carrying current: let us consider an infinitely
long straight conductor which carries a steady current I in upward +¥
direction as shown in Fig. 15.17. Let us consider an arbitrary point A,
which is r distance away from the conductor where the magnetic
field is to be determined. I B
Consider an Amperian loop in the form of a circle of radius r passing
through point A. Also, dl be an elemental length of this Amperian
loop as shown in Fig. 15.17. The direction of the magnetic field at all O dl
r
points of the circular loop is along the direction of tangent to that A

 
point. So, magnetic field B and length element dl are parallel to each
other at the point of consideration i.e. the angle  between them is 0º.
To calculate, the magnitude of magnetic field, applying Ampere's
law in the closed loop, –¥
Fig. 15.17: Magnetic field
by Straight conductor
 
∮ B  dl = 0 I

∮B dl cos  = 0 I

∮ Bdl cos 0º = 0I

∮ Bdl = 0I …(15.51)

At all points at a distance r from the conductor, the magnitude of magnetic field is constant. So,
equation (15.51) can be written as,

B∮dl = 0 I

or, Bl = 0I …(15.52)

 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  365

But, l = 2r is the circumference of Amperian loop.

B  2r = 0I
0I
B=
2r
This is the required expression for magnetic field due to a long straight conductor carrying
steady current.
ii. Magnetic field due to a solenoid: Let us consider a transverse section of a solenoid as shown
in Fig. 15.18 in which the upper view of dots  represents the current coming out of paper and
lower view of cross represents the current going into the plane of paper.
x w

u l v

Fig. 15.18 Transverse section of solenoid

The magnetic field (B) inside the solenoid is uniform but at places outside it, magnetic field is
negligible (zero for ideal solenoid).
Let us consider a rectangular Amperian loop uvwx as shown in Fig. 15.18 such that uv = wx = l
and vw = xu = h.
Applying Ampere's law in closed rectangular loop,

 
∮ B  dl = 0 × net current enclosed by the loop …(15.53)

Here,

  v   w  x   u  
∮ B  dl =  B  dl+  B  dl+ B  dl+  B  dl
   
u v w x

Evaluating these integrals individually, we get,

v  v v
B  dl =  B dl cos 0º = B dl = Bl (∵ Angle  between B and dl is zero.)
  
u u u

w  w
B  dl =  B dl sin 90º = 0 (∵ Angle  between B and dl (along vw) is 90º)
 
v v
366 Principles of Physics - II

x  
 B  dl = 0

(∵ Field is almost zero outside for ideal solenoid)

u  u
B  dl =  B dl cos 90º = 0
 
x x
Again, if n be the number of turns per unit length of the solenoid, number of turns in length l = nl
If I be the current in each turn, net current enclosed by the loop = nIl
So, equation (15.53) becomes,

∮ B dl = 0 nIl

or, Bl = 0 nIl
 B = o nI
iii. Magnetic field due to toroid: A toroid is a hollow circular ring consisting of large number of
turns of insulated wire which are tightly wound so as to form a dough-nut shape. A toroid can
be thought of as a solenoid which has been bent to
close on itself forming circular shape.
If the turns are closely spaced then we call it as ideal ld r3
ie
toroid. For such toroid, the magnetic field is confined
cf
eti

within the hollow region inside it and is constant in

ection of magn

magnitude. However, the magnetic field outside this r2

hollow region of ideal toroid is zero. The magnetic r1
field lines inside the toroid are close circles concentric O

with toroid itself. Hence, direction of field is along the

dir

tangent at any point of such circles.

Consider transverse section of toroid as shown in Fig.
15.19 in which dots  on the outer part represent the
current coming out and crosses in the interior side
represent the current going into the plane of paper. Fig. 15.19: Magnetic field due to toroid
The direction of magnetic field is thus clockwise
based on right hand thumb rule for circular loops.
Let us consider three Amperian circular loops each of radius r1, r2 and r3 as shown in Fig. 15.19.
For each loop the magnetic field should be tangential to them and constant in magnitude. Let B1
be the magnetic field for innermost loop of radius r1. Applying Ampere's law in this loop,

∮ B1 dl = 0 × net current enclosed by the loop

 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  367

or, B1 ∮ dl = 0 × net current enclosed by the loop

Here,

∮ dl = 2r1

and net current enclosed by this loop is zero. So,

B1 = 0
This means, magnetic field at such points in the open space inside the toroid is zero.
Similarly, considering outermost circular amperian loop of radius r3,

∮B3 dl = 0 × net current enclosed

Here, B3 is the magnetic field for outermost loop and is constant in magnitude.

 B3 ∮dl = 0 × net current enclosed

Now, ∮dl = 2r3 (circumference of outermost loop) and

net current enclosed = I = 0

[... Current coming out of paper is cancelled exactly by current going into the plane paper]
 B3 = 0
Thus, magnetic field outside the toroid is also zero. This is the case of ideal toroid. However,
small field exists outside the toroid in reality.
To find, magnetic field inside the toroid, consider an amperian loop of radius r2 as shown in Fig.
15.19.
If B2 be the magnetic field for this loop, applying Ampere's law,
368 Principles of Physics - II

∮B2 . dl = 0 × net current enclosed

Here, B2 is constant in magnitude and B2 and dl are parallel at each point of the circular loop. So,

∮ B2 dl = ∮ B2 dl cos  = B2 ∮ dl cos 0º = B2 ∮ dl

 B2 ∮ dl = B2 2r2 = 2B2r2

If n be the number of turns per unit length of the toroid and I be the current through each turn,
then
Total current enclosed = current in each turn × total number of turns
= I × n × 2r2
= 2nIr2
Therefore, equation (15.54) can be written as,
2B2r2 = 0 2nIr2
B2 = 0 nI …(15.54)
Thus, magnetic field inside the toroid is independent of the radius

15.13 Force between two conductors carrying current

It is now the well established fact that, every current carrying conductor has a magnetic field of its
own. So, whenever two conductors carrying current are placed near to one another, they exert
magnetic force on each other. The magnitude of these forces depends upon the magnitude of current
carried by each and their distance of separation. The nature of the force may be attractive or
repulsive, again depending upon the direction of current in each.

15.14 Magnetic force between two parallel conductors

i. When currents are in the same direction: Fig. 15.20 shows two infinitely long straight
conductors A and B in the form of wires placed parallel, r distance away from each other. Let IA
and IB be the steady currents flowing on wires A and B respectively from bottom to top (i.e.,
along same direction).
For each of the wire, the field lines are the circles centred at the conductor itself and the plane of
these circles are perpendicular to the plane of paper.
The current IA in the wire A sets up magnetic field BA and at any distance r away from it (say at
point R) the magnitude of this field is given by,
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  369

0 IA
BA = …(15.55)
2r
The direction of magnetic field at this point is perpendicularly inward from the plane of paper
and is shown by cross , whereas at point P, the direction of field is perpendicularly outward
from the plane of paper and is shown by ⊙.
Another conductor B carrying current IB placed at distance r and passing through point R
experiences force FBA due to BA, whose magnitude is,
FBA = BAIBl sin  …(15.56)
Where, l is a segment of wire B
The direction of force FBA is perpendicular to wire B and parallel to plane of paper towards wire
A as defined by Fleming's left hand rule.
The angle  between length segment and direction of field is 90º so,
FBA = BAIBl …(15.57)
From equation (15.55) and (15.57), we get
0 IAIBl
FBA = …(15.58)
2r
Similarly, the magnetic field BB set up by wire B at any point Q which is r distance away from it
is,
0 IB
BB = …(15.59)
2r
The direction of this field is perpendicularly outward from the plane of paper and is shown by
. So, the force FAB due to BB on any conductor A carrying current IA and passing through point
Q which is r distance away from it is, A B
FAB = BB IA l sin 
Where, l is a length segment of wire A
equivalent to that of wire B.
Again, this force is perpendicular to wire A P BB
BA
Q FBA R
and is parallel to plane of paper towards wire FAB BB
B. So, BA S
FAB = BBIAl …(15.60)
From equations (15.59) and (15.60), we get, r
IA IB
0 IAIBl
FAB = …(15.61)
2r Fig. 15.20: Force between parallel conductors
with current in same direction
From equation (15.58) and (15.61), we get,
FAB = FBA
Thus, the force exerted by the conductors on one another is equal in magnitude and act towards
one another. This means, force is attractive when currents are in the same direction.
ii. When currents are in opposite direction:
In the above case, if the direction of the current say IA is reversed such that it flows from top to
bottom, the force between them turns out to be repulsive. The magnitude BA of the magnetic
field at any point R at distance r away from conductor A carrying current IA is given by,
370 Principles of Physics - II
0 IA
BA = …(15.62)
2r
The direction of this field is perpendicularly outward from the plane of paper at point R and is
shown by . Another conductor B is placed at this distance and passing through point R
experiences force FBA due to BA whose magnitude is,
FBA = BA IB l sin  …(15.63)
Where, l is the length of wire B.
The direction of this force is perpendicular to wire B and parallel to plane of paper away from
wire A as defined by Fleming's left hand rule.
A B
Here,  = 90º is the angle between the length
segment and direction of magnetic field IA IB
FBA = BA IB l …(15.64)
So, equation (15.62) and (15.64), we get, S
FBA
0 IA IB l Q BB
P
FBA = y …(15.65) FAB R
2r
BA
In similar manner, the force FAB or an equivalent
length segment l of A due to field BB of wire B
r
can be shown to be,
0 IA IB l
FAB = …(15.66) Fig. 15.21: Force between parallel conductors
2r
with current in opposite direction
The direction of this force is perpendicular to
wire A and parallel to plane of paper away from B.
From equations (15.65) and (15.66),
FAB = FBA
Though the forces are equal in magnitude, they act away from one-another and are repulsive in
nature.

Definition of one Ampere

The force acting between two wires placed parallel to each other is the basis for the definition of one
of the seven S.I. base units, known as ampere.
We know, the force exerted by either conductors carrying current placed parallel to each other is,
0 IA IB l
F=
2r
F 0 IA IB
or, l = 2r …(15.67)

F
Here, l = f is called force per unit length of the conductor.

In above equation (15.67), if IA = IB = 1 A, l = 1 m and r = 1 m then,

4 × 10–7
F= = 2 × 10–7 N
2
Thus, the ampere is the constant current, which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length and negligible cross-section placed 1 m apart in vacuum would produce on each other
a force of magnitude 2 × 10–7 N per meter of wire.
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  371

15.15 Hall Effect

It is a well established fact that, a beam of electrons projected in vacuum can be deflected by
externally applied magnetic field. This kind of deflection by the externally applied magnetic field is
possible also for the drifting conduction electrons in a conducting wire. And this effect was
discovered in 1879 by Edwin H. Hall, then a 24 year old graduate student while working on his
doctoral degree at the John Hopkin's University, USA and is known as Hall effect in his honor.
Let us consider a copper strip of width d and thickness t carrying current I from top to bottom
(conventional direction). The charge carries in such conductors are electrons and hence these drift in
the direction opposite to current, that is from bottom to top. Let this copper strip be placed in a

uniform magnetic field B which is perpendicularly inward from the plane of paper as shown in Fig.
15.22 A soon as the magnetic field is turned on, each drifting electrons will experience a deflecting

magnetic force FB pushing it towards the right edge of the strip (Flemming's left hand rule) and start
to pile up there. The left edge will now have uncompensated positive charges (ions) in the fixed
positions. This separation of positive and negative charges within the strip sets up an electric field E,
pointing from left to right. This electric field now exerts electric force FE on each electron tending to
push it to left. This electric force on the electrons opposes the magnetic force on them and an
equilibrium is reached soon at which these forces balance each other.
i.e. FE = FB …(15.68)
These electric and magnetic fields are mutually perpendicular to each other and constitute a cross-
field.
If VH is the potential difference associated with electric field also known as hall voltage, then,
VH
E= d …(15.69)

The electric force FE experienced by each electron of charge e is,

FE = eE …(15.70)
The magnetic force experienced by each electron is
FB = Bevd …(15.71)
Where, vd is drift velocity of electron.
From equations (15.68), (15.69), (15.70) and (15.71) we get,
Bevd = eE
Fig. 15.22: Hall effect
e VH
or, Bevd = d

e VH
 vd = Bed …(15.72)

Also, if n be the number of conduction electrons per unit volume of the conductor whose cross-
sectional area is A, then
I
vd = nAe …(15.73)

From equations (15.72) and (15.73), we get,

I e VH
nAe = Bed
372 Principles of Physics - II
BId
or, VH = nAe
But, A = d × t
BI
so, VH = net …(15.74)
From above equation (15.74), we see that hall voltage is inversely proportional to charge density. So,
hall voltage is greater in semi-conductor than in conductor.
1
In equation (15.74), ne = Hc is called hall coefficient.
BIHc
 VH = t …(15.75)
If RH be the hall resistance then, VH = IRH
BHc
so, RH = t
If J be the current density in the strip then,
I
J=A
I = JA
So, from equation (15.75), we get,
BJAHc
VH = t = BJdHc
VH 1 EH
Hc =  d   BJ = BJ
 
Significances of Hall Effect
i. Measuring the drift velocity of charge carries: The drift speed of electrons in any conductor is
very small usually of the order of 10–4 m/s. So, if we move the entire conductor in the direction
opposite to the direction of current with a speed equal to drift speed, relative drift speed of
electron with respect to magnetic field is zero. i.e. electrons are at rest. Electrons at rest do not
experience magnetic force. This means, in situations as discussed above, the hall voltage must
disappear. Thus, the conductor speed needed to vanish out hall voltage is equal to drift speed.
In this way, we can measure the drift speed.
ii. Detecting nature of charge carriers: In the case discussed above, consider that the current is
due to positive charge carriers and these move from top to bottom in the strip. Now, due to the
applied magnetic field these positive charges must be pushed to right hand side of the strip and
hence this side must be at higher potential. But, a voltmeter connected across the extreme edges
will show that right edge is at lower potential. This means, voltmeter reading contradicts our
assumption that the charge carriers are positive and hence these must be negative.
iii. Hall effect permits the direct measurement of the concentration of the charge carriers (n) in the
material.

Tips for MCQs

1. Magnetic field:
i. When electric current passes through a conductor, magnetic field is associated with it, but not the
electric field because the conductor does not acquire any charge.
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  373


ii. Magnetic field strength is represented by B and its unit is Tesla (T) or Weber per square metre
(Wb/m2) in SI system, and in CGS system its unit is Gauss (G) or Maxwell per square centimeter
(Mx/cm2).
1 G = 10–4 T.
iii. A current in straight conductor produces circular magnetic field, whereas the current in a circular
coil produces straight magnetic field at the center of the circular coil.
2. Lorentz Force:
i. The magnitude of magnetic Lorentz force is,
  
| F | = q | v  B | = Bqv sin 
ii. The direction of Lorentz force can be determined by Fleming's left hand rule. For mutually
perpendicular set of thumb, fore finger and middle finger in left hand, Fore finger- magnetic field;
middle finger - electric current and thumb - force. This rule is taken for conventional current (i.e.
flow of charge from positive terminal to negative).
iii. If the charge particle moves parallel to the direction of magnetic field, it does not experience any
force. In such condition, velocity, kinetic energy and momentum of charge particles remain same.
iv.  symbol represents the magnetic field inward perpendicular to the plane of paper and  symbol
represents the magnetic field outward perpendicular to the plane of paper.

v. If a current I flows in a straight wire of length l in a magnetic field B , it experiences the force, F = I
 
( l  B ) = BIl sin.
vi. Total Lorentz force on a charged particle due to both electric and magnetic fields.
   
F = q E + q( v  B ).
3. Magnetic torque and moving coil meters
i. The magnetic torque in a rectangular coil
 = BINA cos , where  is the direction of the current with respect to uniform magnetic field.
ii. The magnetic moment of a current loop,
 = IA, I = current, A = Area of loop.
BNA
iii. The angular displacement of needle in moving coil meter,  =  k  I
 
Where k is restoring torque per units twist.
 BNA
iv. The current sensitivity of coil meter, I = k

V BNA
v. The voltage sensitivity of coil meter, I = kR .

4. Biot and Savart law:

i. Biot Savart law is analogous to Coulomb's law of electrostatics.
 
ii. The magnitude of magnetic field dB due to a current element (I dl ) is,
 0 Idl sin
|dB| = r2
4
   
 0 I dl  r  0 I dl  r
In vector form, dB = r3 also, dB = r2
4 4
374 Principles of Physics - II
 
 0 J  r
In terms of current density, dB = dV.
4 r3
iii. In circular coil of N terns carrying current I,
0NI
Value of B at the center, B = 2r

and the direction of B is perpendicular to the plane of circular coil.

iv. In circular coil of radius R and having N turns carrying current I, value of B along its axis is,
 0 NIR2
B = 2(R2 + x2)

0I
v. Value of B due to an infinite long straight current carrying conductor, B = .
2r
vi. Value of B due to an infinite long current carrying solenoid,
0nI
B = 0nI (at the center) and B = 2 (at the end).

5. Amperes law:
i. Statement: The line integral  Bdl = 0Inet.
ii. It is the alternative method to Biot Savart law.


iii. If a closed path does not encircle the wire, then the line integral ∮ B . dl is zero.

6. Magnetic force per unit length, due to two current carrying conductor,
F oI1I2
i. l = 2d , d = distance between two wires.
The magnitude of force per unit length is same for both conductor, although current is different
in them.
  
F = – F
 l 1  l 2
ii. Parallel currents attract, and antiparallel current repel.
7. Hall effect:
BI
i. Hall voltage, VH = net
1 EH
iii. Hall coefficient HC = ne = BJ
BHC BHcd
ii. Hall resistance, RH = t = A

Worked Out Problems

1. An -particle of mass 6.62  10–27 kg and charge twice that of an electron but of positive sign
travels at right angles to a magnetic field with a speed of 6  105 ms–1. Strength of magnetic field is
0.2 T. (i) Calculate the force on -particle. (ii) Also calculate its acceleration.
SOLUTION
Given,
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  375

Mass of -particles (m) = 6.62  10–27 kg

Charge (q) = +2e = 2  1.6  10–19 C = 3.2  10–19 C
Speed (v) = 6  105 ms–1
and  = 90º, magnetic field (B) = 0.2 T
Then, Force (F) = ?
We have,
F = Bqv sin 
= 0.2  3.2  10–19  6  105  sin 90º = 3.84  10–14 N
F
Now, acceleration (a) = m

3.84  10–14
= = 5.77  1012 ms–2.
6.62  10–27
Therefore, the acceleration of -particle is 5.77  1012 ms–2.

2. The plane of a 5.0 cm  8.0 cm rectangular loop of wire is parallel to a 0.19 T magnetic field. The
loop carries a current of 6.2 A. (a) What torque acts on the loop? (b) What is the magnetic moment of
the loop? (c) What is the maximum torque that can be obtained with the same total length of the
wire carrying the same current in this magnetic field?
SOLUTION
Given, b. Magnetic moment (M) = ?
Area of loop (A) = 5 × 8 cm2 = 4 × 10–3 m2 We have,
Magnetic field (B) = 0.19 T M = IA N = 6.2 × 4 × 10–3 × 1
Current (I) = 6.2 A  M = 24.8 × 10–3 Am2
Angle between plane of loop and field () = 0° c. Maximum torque (max) = ?
Number of turns (N) = 1 We have,
a. Torque on the loop () = ?  = BINA cos 
We know that, For maximum torque, cos  = 1
 = BINA cos   max = BINA = 0.19 × 6.2 × 1 × 4 × 10–3
= 0.19 × 6.2 × 1 × 4 × 10–3 × cos 0  max = 4.7 × 10–3 Nm
  = 4.7 × 10–3 Nm
3. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron circulates around the nucleus in a path of
radius 5.1  10–11 m at a frequency of 6.8  1015 rev/s. What value of B is set up at the center of the
orbit?
SOLUTION:

Given,
Radius (r) = 5.1  10–11 m

Frequency (f) = 6.8  1015 rev/s

Magnetic field (B) = ?

We have,

oNI
Magnetic field at the center of circular coil, B = 2r

0 q 0 e 0 N
= 2r . N t = 2r . N t  = 2r . t . e
    
376 Principles of Physics - II
0 N
= 2r . f.e Where, f = t
 
4  10–7  6.8  1015  1.6  10–19
=
2  5.1  10–11

= 13.40 T.

The value of B at the center of orbit is 13.40 T.

4. The coil of a moving coil galvanometer has 50 turns and its resistance is 10 . It is replaced by a coil
having 100 turns and resistance 50 . Find the factor by which the current and voltage sensitivities
change.
SOLUTION
Given,  Now, current sensitivity change
In first case, (/I)2 BN2A/k N2 100
= = = 50 =2 : 1
Number of turns (N1) = 50 turns (/I)1 BN1A/k N1
Resistance (R1) = 10  b. Voltage sensitivity change?
 BNA
We have, V = kR
In second case,
Number of turns (N2) = 100 turns  
Resistance (R2) = 50   Now, current sensitivity change
(/V)2 BN2A/kR2
a. Current sensitivity change = ? =
(/V)1 BN1A/kR1
 BNA
We have,  I  = k N2R1 100 × 10 2
 = N R = 50 × 50 = 5 = 2 : 5
1 2

5. A copper wire has 1 × 1029 free electrons per cubic meter and cross-sectional area 2 mm2 carries a
current of 6 A. Calculate the force acting on each electron if the wire is now placed in uniform
magnetic field of flux density 0.1 T perpendicularly.
SOLUTION
Given,
No. of free electrons (n) = 1 × 1029 /m3
Cross section area (A) = 2 mm2 = 2 × 10–6 m2
Current (I) = 6 A
Flux density (B) = 0.1 T
Force on electron (F) = ?
Now,
I
The drift velocity (vd) = enA
I BI 0.1 × 6
and F = Bevd = Be enA = nA = 1 × 1029 × 2 × 10–6 = 3 × 10–24 N

6. A solenoid is designed to produce a magnetic field of 0.0270 T at its center. It has radius 1.40 cm and
length 40.0 cm and the wire can carry a maximum current of 12.0 A. (a) What minimum number of
turns per unit length must the solenoid have? (b) What total length of wire is required?
SOLUTION
Given,
Magnetic field (B) = 0.0270 T Now,
Radius (r) = 1.40 cm = 1.40  10–2 m Total length of the wire (L) = circumference of
Length of each turn(l) = 40.0 cm = 40.0  10–2 m one turn × Number of turns
Current (I) = 12.0 A or, L = 2 r × N
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  377

Number of turns per unit length (n) = ?

= 2 r × n l ∵ n = N
Total length of the wire (L) = ?  l
The magnetic field due to solenoid is given by, = 2  1.40  10–2  1790  40.0  10–2
B = 0nI = 63.0 m
B 0.0270
or, n = µ I =
0 4 × 10–7 × 12.0
 n  1790 turns/m

→ →
7. A closed curve encircles several conductors. The line integral ∲ B · dl around this curve is 3.83  10–
4 Tm. What is the net current in the conductors?
SOLUTION
Given,
→ →
∲ B · dl = 3.83 × 10–4 Tm
According to Ampere’s law, we have,
→ →
∲ B · dl = 0I
or, 3.83  10–4 = 4  10–7 I
 I = 305 A
8. [HSEB 2072] A horizontal wire, of length 5 cm and carrying a current of 2 A, is placed in the middle
of a long solenoid at right angles to its axis. The solenoid has 1000 turns per meter and carries a
steady current I. Calculate I, if the force on the wire is equal to 10–4 N. (0 = 4 × 10–7 H m–1).
SOLUTION
Given,
Length of wire (l) = 5 cm = 5 × 10-2 m
Current on wire (I1) = 2 A
No. of turns of solenoid (n) = 1000 turns/m
Force on wire (F) = 10-4 N
Current on solenoid (I2) = ?
We have,
F = B.I1. l
or, F = 0 n I2. I1 l [B = 0 n I2]
or, 10–4 = 4 × 10-7 × 1000 × I2 × 2 × 5× 10–2
or, I2 = 0.8 A
9. An electron of kinetic energy 10 eV is moving in a circular orbit of radius 11 cm, in a plane at right
angles to a uniform magnetic field. Determine the value of flux density. (Mass of an electron = 9.1 
10–31 kg, e = 1.6  10–19 C.
SOLUTION
Given,
Kinetic energy (Ek) = 10 eV = 10  1.6  10–19 J = 1.6  10–18 J
Radius (r) = 11 cm = 11  10–2 m
Mass of electron (m) = 9. 1  10–31 kg
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6  10–19 C
We know,
1
Ek = 2 mv2

2Ek 2  1.6  10–18

v = m = = 1.88  106 ms–1
9.1  10–31
378 Principles of Physics - II
As the electron revolves in a circular orbit, it experiences the centripetal force,
mv2
r = Bev
mv 9.1  10–31  1.88  106
 re = 11  10–2  1.6  10–19 = 9.69  10 T.
–4

 The flux density is 9.69  10–4 T.

10. [HSEB 2072] A 60 cm long wire of mass 10 g is suspended horizontally in a transverse magnetic field
of flux density 0.4 T, through two springs at its two ends. Calculate the current required to pass
through the wire so that, there is zero tension in the springs.
SOLUTION
Given, Weight of wire = Magnetic force
Length of wire (l) = 60 cm = 0.6 m or, mg = BIl
Mass of wire (m) = 10 g = 10 × 10–3 kg or, 10 × 10–3 × 10 = 0.4 × I × 0.6
Magnetic flux density (B) = 0.4 T or, 0.1 = 0.24 I
Current in the wire (I) = ? 0.1
or, I = 0.24 = 0.42 A
For no tension in the wire, the weight of wire
must be equal to the magnetic force in upward
direction. i.e.

11. [HSEB 2067] A slice of indium antimonide is 2.5 mm thick and carries a current of 150 mA. A
magnetic field of flux density 0.5 T, correctly applied, produces a maximum Hall voltage of 8.75 mV
between the edges of the slice. Calculate the number of free charge carriers per unit volume,
assuming they each have a charge of -1.6  10-19 C.
SOLUTION
Given, BI
 n = V et
Thickness (t) = 2.5 mm = 2.5 × 10–3 m H

Current (I) = 150 mA = 150 × 10–3 A BI 0.5 × 150 × 10–3

or, n = V et = 8.75 × 10–3 ×(1.6 × 10–19) × 2.5 × 10–3
Magnetic field (B) = 0.5 T H

Hall voltage (VH) = 8.75 mV = 8.75 × 10–3 V 75

= 35 × 10–22
Electronic charge (e) = – 1.6 × 10–19 C
Electron density (n) = ?  n = 2.14 × 1022
Now, Hence, the required number of free charge
We have, carriers is 2.14 × 1022 m-3.
BI
Hall voltage (VH) = net

12. [HSEB 2061] A horizontal straight wire 5 cm long weighing 1.2 gm–1 is placed perpendicular to a
uniform horizontal magnetic field of flux density 0.6 T. If the resistance of the wire is 3.8 m-1,
calculate the p.d. that has to be applied between the ends of the wire to make it just self supporting.
SOLUTION
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  379

Given, Weight of wire = Magnetic force

Length of wire (l) = 5 cm = 5 × 10–2 m or, mg = BIl sin 90° [∵ = 90]
Weight per meter = 1.2 g V
 Total mass of wire (m) = 1.2 × 5 × 10–2g = 0.06 g = or, 0.06 × 10–3 × 9.8 = 0.6 × R × 5 × 10–2
Flux density (B) = 0.6 T V
Resistance per meter = 3.8  m–1 or, 0.588 × 10–3 = 0.03 × 0.19
 Total resistance of wire (R) = 3.8 × 5 × 10–2  = 0.  V = 3.7 × 10–3 V
Potential difference (V) = ? Hence, the required potential is 3.7× 10–3 V.
Now,
To make the wire just self supporting,

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] A horizontal rod 0.200 m long is mounted on a balance and carries a current. At the location of
the rod a uniform horizontal magnetic field has magnitude 0.067 T and direction perpendicular to the
rod. The magnetic force on the rod is measured by the balance and is found to be 0.13 N. What is the
current?
Ans: 9.7 A
2. [UP] A circular coil of wire 8.6 cm in diameter has 15 turns and carries a current of 2.7 A. The coil is
in a region where, the magnetic field is 0.56 T. (a) what orientation of the coil gives the maximum
torque on the coil, and what is the maximum torque? (b) for what orientation of the coil is the
magnitude of the torque 71% of that found in part (a)?
Ans: (a)  = 0°, 0.13 Nm (b) 45°
3. [UP] An electron experiences a magnetic force of magnitude 4.60  10–15 N when moving at an angle
of 60.0 with respect to a magnetic field of magnitude 3.50  10–3 T. Find the speed of the electron.
Ans: 9.49  106 ms–1
4. [UP] An electromagnet produces a magnetic field of 0.550 T in a cylindrical region of radius 2.50 cm
between its poles. A straight wire carrying a current of 10.8 A passes through the center of this region
and is perpendicular to both the axis of the cylindrical region and the magnetic field. What
magnitude of force is exerted on the wire?
Ans: 0.297 N
5. [UP] Two long, parallel transmission lines, 40.0 cm a part, carry. 25.0 A and 75.0 A currents. Find all
locations where, the net magnetic field of the two wires is zero if these currents are in (a) the same
direction; (b) the opposite direction.
Ans: (a) 10 cm (b) 20 cm
6. [UP] Two long, parallel wires are separated by a
I1 = 5.00A
distance of 0.400 m. The currents I1 and I2 have the
directions shown. Calculate the magnitude of the force 0.400 m
exerted by each wire on a 1.20 m length of the other. Is I2 = 2.00A
the force attractive or repulsive?
Ans: 6.00 × 10–6 N
7. [UP] Two long, parallel wires are separated by a distance of 2.50 cm. The force per unit length that
each wire exerts on the other is 4.00 × 10–5 N/m, and the wires repel each other. The current in one
wire in 0.600 A. (a) What is the current in the second wire? (b) Are the two currents in the same
direction or in opposite direction?
Ans: (a) 8.3 A (b) yes, currents are in opposite directions
380 Principles of Physics - II
8. [UP] A closely wound, circular coil with radius 2.40 cm has 800 turns. (a) What must the current in
the coil be, if the magnetic field at the center of the coil is 0.0580 T? (b) At what distance x from the
1
center of the coil, on the axis of the coil, is the magnetic field 2 of its value at the center?
Ans: (a) 2.77 A (b) 0.0184 m
9. [UP] A closely wound coil has a radius of 6.00 cm and carries a current of 2.50 A. How many turns
must it have, if at a point on the coil axis 6.00 cm from the center of the coil, the magnetic field is 6.39 
10–4 T?
Ans: 69
10. [UP] A 15.0 cm long solenoid with radius 2.50 cm is closely wound with 600 turns of wire. The
current in the windings is 8.00 A. Compute the magnetic field at a point near the center of the
solenoid.
Ans: 40.2 × 10–3 T
11. [UP] As a new electrical technician, you are designing a large solenoid to produce a uniform 0.150 T
magnetic field near the center of the solenoid. You have enough wire for 4000 circular turns. This
solenoid must be 1.40 m long and 20.0 cm in diameter. What current will you need to produce the
necessary field?
Ans: 41.8 A
12. [UP] A wooden ring whose mean diameter is 14.0 cm is wound with a closely spaced toroidal
windings of 600 turns. Compute the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center of the cross-section
of the windings when the current in windings is 0.650 A.
Ans: 1.11  10–3 T
13. [UP] A current of 0.5 A is passed through a rectangular section of a semiconductor 4 mm thick which
has majority carriers of negative charges or free electrons. When a magnetic field of 0.2 T is applied
perpendicular to the section, a Hall voltage of 6.0 mV is produced between the opposite edges.
Calculate the number of charge carriers per unit volume?
Ans: 2.6 × 1022 m-3
14. A piece of germanium has dimensions 10 mm × 5 mm × 1 mm. When it is carrying a current of 150
mA, the Hall voltage is 57 mV. The number of charge carriers per unit volume in germanium is 4.3×
1021 m–3. What is the magnetic field strength?
Ans: 0.26 T
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. How many ways are there to produce a magnetic field?
 There are four basic ways of producing magnetic field. They are:
i. by a magnet
ii. by a current carrying conductor
iii. by a moving charge
iv. by changing electric field.
 
2. A charge q is moving in a region where both the magnetic field B and electric field E are
simultaneously present. What is the Lorentz force acting on the charge?
 
 The Lorentz force due to magnetic field is Fm = q( v  B ) and the Lorentz force due to the electric

field is Fe = q E . Then, the total Lorentz force acting on the charge is,
  
F = FB + Fe = q( v  B ) + q E .
3. Write the condition under which an electric charge does not experience a force in a magnetic field.
 The force experienced by an electric charge in a magnetic field is,
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  381

F = Bqvsin 

When charge q moves in a magnetic field B , the magnitude of force is affected by velocity (v) of
charge particle and direction of motion () of charge particle. Here, the force can be zero when (i)
velocity is zero, i.e. charge particle is at rest or (ii) direction of motion of charge particle is parallel or
antiparallel to the field B, i.e.  = 0º or 180º.
4. Under what condition does an electron moving through a magnetic field experience maximum force?
 For an electron, when moving in a magnetic field B with speed v, the force on it is, F = Bev sin ,
where e = electronic charge.
The value of F is maximum, at  = 90º.
Therefore, an electron experiences maximum force, when it moves perpendicular to the direction of
magnetic field.
5. A charge particle carrying a charge q moves in an electric field E, if its specific charge is S, write an
expression for its acceleration in terms of above entities. [HSEB 2073]
 The force experienced by a charge particle in an electric field is,F = qE.
So, ma = qE,
where, m = mass of charge particle
a = acceleration of charge particle
qE
 a= m

q
The specific charge is the charge to mass ratio of a charge particle. Here, m = S.

So, acceleration, a = SE.

6. Explain how the direction of Lorentz force is determined? [HSEB 2065]
 The direction of Lorentz force is determined by Fleming's left hand rule. According to this rule if first
finger, second finger and thumb of our left hand are stretched mutually perpendicular to each other,
then first finger shows the direction of magnetic field, second finger shows the direction of current
and thumb shows the direction of Lorentz force.
7. What is the work done by the magnetic field on a moving charge?
 The power supplied by the magnetic field is P = F.v where F is Lorentz force and v is the velocity of
charge particle. We know,
 
F = q( v  B )
  
So, P = q( v  B ). v = 0
Since the power of magnetic field is zero. The work done by magnetic field, (W = P.t) is also zero.
8. What are the unit and dimensional formula of magnetic field B?
 The SI unit of B is tesla (or weber per square meter, Wb/m2). Its CGS unit is gauss (G). Its
dimensional formula is [ML0T–2A–1].
9. If an electron is not deflected in passing through a certain region of space, can we be sure that there is
no magnetic field in that region?
 No. The magnitude of force experienced by the electron depends on the direction of its velocity (v)
with respect to magnetic field B.
 
i.e. F = q( v  B )
382 Principles of Physics - II

= q vB sin  ^
n.

If the electron travels parallel ( = 0) or anti-parallel ( = 180º) with the field, it does not experience
any force. In this case, the electron does not experience any force, even though it is moving in
magnetic field. So, no deflection condition of electron does not necessarily mean the absence of
magnetic field in that region.
10. What is the principle of moving coil galvanometer?
 The principle of moving coil galvanometer is, "When a current-carrying coil is placed in magnetic
field, it experiences a torque." In the working of moving coil galvanometer, moment of deflecting
couple ( = NBIl) is equal to the moment of restoring couple (2 = k)
i.e. NBIl = k.
11. What is meant by high current sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer? How can we increase it?

 A galvanometer is said to be sensitive, if it gives a large deflection for a small current. The current

NBA


=
sensitivity
I .

 k


To increase the current sensitivity of galvanometer, number of turns of coil (N), magnetic field (B)
and area covered by coil (A) can be increased and torsion constant (k) should be decreased. But
experimentally, N and A cannot be increased much because this will increase the length and
correspondingly the resistance of the coil.
12. What is voltage sensitivity of moving coil galvanometer? How can we increase it?

 It is defined as the angular deflection of galvanometer needle per unit voltage. It is denoted by V .

 NBA
V = kR .
To increase the voltage sensitivity, N, B and A can be increased and torsion constant (k) and
resistance of coil (R) should be decreased. However, N and A cannot be increased much which
ultimately increases the length and so, increases the resistance.
13. Why are pole pieces of galvanometer made cylindrical?
 Cylindrical pole pieces provide the radical magnetic field in the air gap between them. The magnetic
lines of force within the air gap are along the radii. On the account of this, the plane of the coil remain
always parallel to the direction of the magnetic field, which provides the constant moment of
deflection couple at any position.
14. Define 1 ampere of current in terms of force between two parallel conductors carrying current.
 If two parallel conductors carrying currents I1 and I2 respectively, which are separated with a
distance d, the force per unit length between them is,
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  383

0 I1I2
F=
2 d
For 0 = 4  10–7 Hm–1, I1 = I2 = 1 A and d = 1 m
4  10–7 1  1
F=  1 = 2  10–7 N.
2
Hence, 1 A current can be defined as that amount of current which flows through each of long
parallel wires separated by 1 m distance when force per unit length between them is 2  10–7 N.
15. What is a current element? Give its significance.
 The product of magnitude of current (I) and the elementary length (dl) of current carrying conductor

is called the current element. Current element is represented by I dl . Current element Idl is the source
of magnetic field in current carrying conductor, as the charge particle is a source of electric field.
16. A charge particle moves through a region of uniform magnetic field. Is the momentum of the particle
affected?
Magnetic force deflects the charged particle continuously from its path, so its momentum changes
due to the change in its direction of motion.
17. What is the basic difference between magnetic field and electric field?
 Whether a charged particle is at rest or in motion, an electric field always exerts a force on it and the
changes its speed and hence changes its kinetic energy. A magnetic field exerts a force only when the
charge particle is in motion. In magnetic field, there is no change in speed and hence, no change in
kinetic energy.
18. Why does a current carrying conductor experience a force in a magnetic field?
 When current flows, electrons drift through the conductor. A moving electron experiences magnetic
force in a definite direction in a magnetic field. The force on moving electrons of the current carrying
conductor gets transmitted to the conductor as a whole.
19. A stream of protons is moving parallel to a stream of electrons. Do the two streams tend to come
closer to move apart?
 The path of beam depends on the speed of charge particles. Protons and electrons are opposite
charge particles. In the small speed, the electrostatic force between them is larger than the magnetic
force. So, they tend to come closer. But, they gradually diverge as their speed increases. They behave
as if two parallel current carrying conductor with current in opposite direction are taken closer. In
such condition, magnetic repulsion dominates the electrostatic attraction between the beam of
electrons and protons.
20. Why do we prefer phosphor-bronze alloy for the suspension wire of a moving coil galvanometer?
 Because of the following reasons, we prefer phosphor-Bronze alloy for suspension wire of a moving
coil galvanometer:
i. It has small restoring torque per unit twist. This makes galvanometer highly sensitive.
ii. It is rust resisting.
iii. It has high tensile strength so that even a thin fibre does not break under the weight of the
suspended coil.
21. What is the importance of radial magnetic field in a moving coil galvanometer?
 In radial magnetic field, the plane of the coil remains always parallel to the direction of the field.
Hence, the torque on the coil is always same in all positions of the coil in the magnetic field. This
provides a linear current scale.
22. A current carrying solenoid tends to contract. Explain Why?
 A solenoid consists of large number of turns closely compact to each other. When a current flows
through it, the direction of current of adjacent turns is in the same direction. So, the current flowing
in the adjacent turns in considered as if two current carrying straight conductors are placed nearer to
384 Principles of Physics - II
each other. Since the direction of current is same, the magnetic force tends to pull them inward. Thus,
the solenoid tends to contract.
23. What is the magnetic field at the center of a current carrying cube?
 The cube can be regarded as a set of six current carrying pairs. The contribution of each pair is zero.
So, the net magnetic field strength at the center is zero.
24. A parallel electron beam moving with a uniform velocity is gradually diverging. When it is
accelerated to a high velocity, it starts converging. Explain.
 A beam of electrons experiences both electrostatic repulsive force and magnetic attractive force. In
the low velocity, electrostatic repulsion dominates the magnetic attraction in the beam. So, the beam
diverges. If the velocity is increased sufficiently large value, the magnetic force dominates the
electrostatic force. Then, the beam tends to converge. However, the electrons should be accelerated in
such a high speed (about velocity of light) which is very difficult to achieve practically.
25. Explain the magnetic field around a current carrying solenoid.
 Solenoid is a long cylindrical coil of insulated copper wire. The magnetic field around a solenoid is
made up of the magnetic fields of a large number of narrow circular coils joined in series. All these
magnetic fields add up to give a strong magnetic field. This field resemble the field of a bar magnet.
The strength of magnetic field is strong into the coil. But, the field towards the equatorial region is
very weak because, lines of force are distributed in infinitely large space in long solenoid.
26. What is the advantage of ampere's law over Biot-Savart law?
 Ampere's law and Biot -Savart law are useful to determine the magnetic field due to current carrying
conductor. Ampere's law is superior than Biot-Savart law in determining B for highly symmetrical
systems. It is easier method. But, it is not applicable for complicated shaped wire.
27. What is the principle of Hall effect?
 When a conductor or semiconductor with current flowing in one direction is introduced
perpendicular to a magnetic field, a voltage can be measured at right angles to the current path and
magnetic field.
28. What are the use of Hall effect?
 Major uses of Hall effect are:
i. The Hall effect is relevant to a variety of sensor applications.
ii. Hall probes are often used as magnetometer to measure the magnetic fields.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What is the magnetic field at a point on the axis of the current element?
2. Show the magnetic line of force around a straight current carrying conductor.
3. What is the nature of magnetic field in a moving coil galvanometer?
4. Why a current carrying rectangular coil experiences a torque in magnetic field? Is there any
condition, that the coil experiences no torque?
5. What is the advantage of using pole pieces magnets in moving coil galvanometer?
6. What type of galvanometer is commonly used in experiments?
7. What is the advantage of Biot-Savart law over Amperes circuital law?
8. Find of ratio of magnetic field intensity produced by a long solenoid at the center to the end.
9. Magnetic field strength is taken almost zero at the equatorial region of a long solenoid. Why?
10. Toroid is special case of long solenoid. Explain.
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  385

11. When does a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field experience maximum and
minimum forces?
12. Does the force between two current carrying conductors depend on the medium? Explain.
13. If the field strength of the radial field of a galvanometer is increased, does its sensitivity increase or
decrease?
14. If an electron beam in a cathode-ray tube travels in a straight line, Can one be sure that, there is no
magnetic field present?
15. An electron beam moving with uniform speed is gradually diverging, and when it is accelerated to
high speed it starts converging, why?
16. A loop of wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field. For what, orientation of the loop is the magnetic
flux a maximum? For what orientation is the flux zero?
17. How does a current carrying coil behave as a bar magnet?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Explain in brief, the motion of an electron moving normal to a magnetic field. [HSEB 2056]
2. Obtain the expression for the emf induced in the conductor moving in a magnetic field. [HSEB 2052]
3. Derive the formula for the magnetic field at a point due to a long straight current carrying conductor
using Biot and Savart law. [HSEB 2061, 2062, 2064, 2067]
4. State Biot and Savart law and obtain the expression for the magnetic field at the centre of the circular
coil. [HSEB 2055]
5. Derive the formula for the magnetic field at a point on the axis of a current carrying circular coil
using Biot and Savart law.
6. What is a solenoid? Derive the formula for the magnetic field at a point on the axis of long current
carrying solenoid using Biot and Savart law.
7. State and explain Biot and Savart law with a case of its application. [HSEB 2065]
8. State and explain Ampere’s theorem and hence, use it to find the magnetic field intensity due to a
long current carrying solenoid. [HSEB 2060, 2067]
9. What is a toroid? Find the magnetic field at a point inside a current carrying toroid.
10. Derive an expression for the magnitude of the magnetic flux density at the centre of a narrow circular
coil. [HSEB 2056]
11. Derive an expression for the magnetic field at a point due to a long straight conductor carrying
current. [HSEB 2057]
12. What is a Helmholtz Coil? Derive an expression for the magnetic field due to this coil.
[HSEB 2058, 2063]
13. Derive the formula for the magnetic field at the centre of a circular coil carrying current. Explain why
the magnetic field at the center of the coil disappears when the circular coil is made infinitely large.
[HSEB 2059]
14. Derive the expression for the force experienced by current carrying conductor placed in a uniform
magnetic field.
15. Derive an expression of force per unit length between two parallel conductors separated by a
distance ‘r’ and carrying currents I1 and I2 in the same direction. [HSEB 2066]
16. Find an expression for torque on rectangular coil in a uniform magnetic field. [HSEB 2063]
17. Describe the principle, construction and working of moving coil galvanometer.
18. What is Hall effect? Obtain an expression for the Hall emf in terms of area of cross section, width of
strip, magnitude of magnetic field and the current carried by the strip.

Numerical problems
386 Principles of Physics - II
1. A horizontal rod 0.200 m long is mounted on a balance and carries a current. At the location of the
rod a uniform horizontal magnetic field has magnitude 0.067 T and direction perpendicular to the
rod. The magnetic force on the rod is measured by the balance and is found to be 0.13 N. What is the
current?
Ans: 9.7 A
2. The plane of a 5.0 cm × 8.0 cm rectangular loop of wire is parallel to a 0.19 T magnetic field. The loop
carries a current of 6.2 A. (a) What torque acts on the loop? (b) What is the magnetic moment of the
loop? (c) What is the maximum torque that can be obtained with the same total length wire carrying
the same current is this magnetic field?
Ans: 4.7 x 10-3 Nm, 24.8 x 10-3 Am2, 4.71 x 10-3 Nm
3. A circular coil of wire 8.6 cm in diameter has 15 turns and carries a current of 2.7 A. The coil is in the
region where the magnetic field is 0.56 T. (a) What orientation of the coil gives the maximum torque
on the coil, and what is the maximum torque? (b) For what orientation of the coil is the magnitude of
the torque 71% of that found in part (a)?
Ans: 0.13 Nm, 45O
4. Two long, parallel wires are separated by a distance of 2.50 cm. The force per unit length that each
wire exerts on the other is 4.00 x 10-5 N/m, and wires repel each other. The current in the wire is
0.600 A. (a) What is the current is the second wire? (b) Are the currents in the same direction or in
opposite directions?
Ans: 8.3 A, opposite direction
5. A closely wound, circular coil with radius 2.40 cm has 800 turns. (a) What must the current in the coil
be if the magnetic field at he center of the coil is 0.0580 T? (b) At what distance from the center is the
coil on the axis if the coil, is the magnetic field ½ its value at the center?
Ans: 2.77 A, 0.0184 m
6. A straight conductor X, of mass 50 g and length 0.5 m, is placed in a uniform magnetic field of 0.2 T
perpendicular to X. Calculate the current in X if the force acting on it just balances its weight.
Ans: 5 A
7. A closely wound coil has a radius of 6.00 cm and carries a current of 2.50 A. How many turns must it
has if at a point on the coil axis 6.00 cm from the center of the coil, the magnetic field is 6.39 x 10-4 T?
Ans: 69 turns
8. The electron in hydrogen atom revolves in a circular path of radius 0.5  10-10 m with a uniform
speed of 4.0  106 m/s. Calculate the magnetic field produced by the electron at the nucleus.
Ans: 25.6 T
9. Calculate the magnetic field produced at the center of a square coil of sides 4 m and carrying current
5A.
Ans: 3.54  10-5 T
10. A current of 1 A is flowing in the sides of an equilateral triangle of side 2 m, find the magnetic field at
the centroid of the triangle.
Ans: 9  10-7 T
11. A magnetic field of 37.2 T has been achieved at the MIT Francis Bitter National Magnetic Laboratory.
Find the current needed to achieve such a field (a) 2.00 cm from a long straight wire. (b) At the center
of the circular coil of radius 42.0 cm that has 100 turns.
Ans: 3.72  106 A, 2.49  105 A
12. A wire 28 m long is bent into N turns of circular coil of diameter 14 cm forming a solenoid of length
60 cm. Calculate the flux density inside it when a current of 5 amp passes through it.
Ans: 6.67  10-4 T
13. A wooden ring of diameter 14 cm is wound with a closely spaced toroidal winding of 600 turns.
Compute the magnetic field at the center of the cross section of the windings when a current of 0.65
m flows through it.
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  387
Ans: 1.11  10-3 T
14. Two galvanometers which are otherwise identical are fitted with different coils. One has a coil of 50
turns and resistance of 10  while the other has 500 turns and a resistance of 600 . What is the ratio
of the deflections when each is connected in turns to a cell of emf 2.5 V and internal resistance of
50 ?
Ans: 13:12
15. If the coil if moving coil galvanometer having 10 turns and of resistance 4 ohm removed and replaced
by second coil having 100 turns and of resistance 160 ohm. Calculate (i) The factor by which the
current sensitivity changes and (ii) The factor by which the voltage sensitivity changes.
Ans: 10:1, 1:4
16. A proton is moving northwards with a velocity of 5 x 106 m/s in a magnetic field of 0.1 T directed
eastwards. Find the force on proton.
Ans: 8  10-14 N
17. A circular coil of 50 turns and area 1.25 x 10-3 m2 is pivoted about a vertical diameter in a uniform
horizontal magnetic field and carries a current of 2 A. When the coil is held with its plane with a
north south direction. It experiences a corresponding couple is 0.03 Nm. Calculate magnetic flux
density.
Ans: 0.4 T
18. A horizontal straight wire 5 cm long weighing 1.2 gm-1 is placed perpendicular to a uniform
horizontal magnetic field of flux density 0.6 T. If the resistance of the wire is 3.8 m-1, Calculate the
p.d. that has to be applied between the ends of the wire to make it just self-supporting.
Ans: 3.72  10-3 V
19. A rectangular coil of 50 turns hangs vertically in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.01 T so that plane of
the coil is parallel to the field. The mean height of the coil is 5 cm and its mean width is 2 cm. Calculate
the strength of the current that must pass through the coil in order to deflect it 30o if the torsional constant
of the suspension is 109 Nm/degree.
Ans: 69 µA
20. Two parallel straight conductors carrying currents in the same direction 12 A and 8 A are 10 cm
apart. Calculate the position of a third conductor placed in between the two conductors so that the
force experienced by it is zero.
Ans: 0.06 m
21. A 2 MeV proton is moving perpendicular to uniform magnetic force field of 2.5 T. What is the
magnetic force on the proton? (Mass of proton = 1.6 × 10–27 kg)
Ans: 8.0 × 10–12 N
22. A wire of length 20 cm and mass 50 mg lies in a direction 30 east of north. The earth's magnetic field
at this site is horizontal and has a magnitude of 8.0 × 10–3 T. What current must be passed through
the wire, so that it may float in air? (g = 10 ms–2)
Ans: 0.63 A
23. A coil of 10 turns and area 5 cm2 has a magnetic moment of 4 × 10–8 Am2 and experiences a maximum
torque of 2 × 10–8 Nm when placed in a uniform magnetic field. Calculate the magnetic induction in
the coil.
Ans: 0.5 T
24. A horizontal wire 0.1 m long carries a current of 5 A. find the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic field which can support the weight of the wire, assuming it's mass to be 3 × 10–4 kg?
Ans: 5.88 × 10–3 T. B is horizontal and perpendicular to the wire
25. A block of semiconductor of size 10.0 mm wide and 2.0 mm thick has a Hall voltage of 60mV in the
magnetic field of 0.09 T. The number of charge carriers in the material is 8.0 × 1020. What is the
current in the semiconductor?
Ans. 0.85 A
26. A slice of indium antimonide is 2.5 mm thick and carries a current of 150 mA. A magnetic field of
flux density 0.5 T, correctly applied, produces a maximum Hall voltage of 8.75 mV between the edges
388 Principles of Physics - II
of the slice. Calculate the number of free charge carriers per unit volume, assume they each have a
charge of -1.6 × 10– 19 C.
Ans: 2.1 × 1022
27. A flat silver strip of width 1.5 cm and thickness 1.5 mm carries a current of 150 A. A magnetic field of
2.0 T is applied perpendicular to the flat face of the strip. The voltage developed across the strip is
measured to be 17.9 µV. Estimate the number density of free electrons in the metal.

Ans: 6.983 × 1028 m–3

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A long wire carries a steady current. It is bent into a circle of one turn and the magnetic field at the
centre of the coil is B. It is then bent into a circular loop of n turns. The magnetic field at the centre of
the coil will be
a. nB b. n2B
c. 2nB d. 2n2B
2. Two parallel beams of positrons moving in the same direction will
a. repel each other. b. will not interact with each other.
c. attract each other. d. be deflected to the plane containing the two beams.
3. A circular coil of radius R carries an electric current. The magnetic field due to the coil at a point on
the axis of the coil located at a distance r from the centre of the coil, such that r >> R, varies as
a. 1 : 2 b. 1 : 4
c. 1 : 16 d. 4 : 1
4. A charged particle of mass m and charge q travels on a circular path of radius r that is perpendicular
to a magnetic field B. The time taken by the particle to complete one revolution is
2 qB 2 m
a. m b. qB
2 mq 2 q2B
c. B d. m
5. A straight wire of mass 200 g and length 1.5 m carries a current of 2 A. It is suspended in mid-air by a
uniform horizontal magnetic field B. The magnitude of B (in tesla) is (Assume g = 9.9 m s–2)
a. 2 b. 1.5
c. 0.55 d. 0.66
6. A horizontal overhead powerline is at a height of 4 m from the ground and carries a current of 100 A
from east to west. The magnetic field directly below it on the ground is
(0 = 4   10–7 T m A–1)
a. 2.5  10–7 T southward b. 5  10–6 T northward
c. 5  10–6 T southward d. 2.5  10–7 T northward
7. A particle of mass m, charge Q and kinetic energy T enters a transverse uniform magnetic field of

induction B . After 3 s, the kinetic energy of the particle will be
a. 3T b. 2T
c. T d. 4T
8. A long straight wire of radius a carries a steady current i. The current is uniformly distributed across
a
its cross-section. The ratio of the magnetic fields at 2 and 2a is

1
a. 4 b. 4
1
c. 1 d. 2
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  389

9. A change q coulomb makes n revolutions in one second in a circular orbit of radius r. The magnetic
field at the centre of the orbit in N A–1 m–1 is
2 rn 2 q
a. q  10 b. r  10
–7 –7

2 q 2 nq
c. nr  10–7 d. r  10–7

10. A galvanometer has a coil of resistance 100 ohm and gives a full scale deflection for mA current. If it
is to work as a voltmeter of 30 volt range, the resistance required to be added will be
a. 900  b. 1800 
c. 500  d. 1000 

11. For a current I along positive z-direction, what is the magnitude of magnetic field at (a, 0, 0)?
0I 0I
a. a2 b. a
0I 0I
c. d.
a 2 a
12. A proton and an alpha particle enter a uniform magnetic field with the same velocity perpendicular
to the field. What is the ratio of time periods of alpha particle to that of proton?
a. 2 b. 1/2
c. 1 d. 4
13. Magnetic field at the centre of a circular coil of radius R due to current I flowing through it is B. The
magnetic field at a point along the axis at distance R from the centre is
B B
a. 2 b. 4
B
c. d. 8 B
8
14. A current I flows in an infinitely long wire with cross-section in the form of a semi-circular ring of
radius R. The magnitude of the magnetic induction along its axis is
0I 0I
a. b.
2R 2 2R
0I 0I
c. d.
2 R 4 R
15. An electron moving around the nucleus with an angular momentum l has a magnetic moment
e e
a. m l b. 2m l
2e e
c. m l d. l
2 m
16. The magnetic field at a perpendicular distance of 2 cm from an infinite straight current carrying
conductor is 2  10–6 T. The current in the wire is
a. 0.1 A b. 0.2 A
c. 0.4 A d. 0.8 A
17. The shunt resistance required to allow 4% of the main current through the galvanometer of resistance
48  is
a. 1  b. 2 
c. 5  d. 4 
18. Biot-Savart law can be expressed alternatively as
a. Coulomb's law b. Ampere's circuital law
c. Ohm's law d. Gauss' law
390 Principles of Physics - II
Answers
1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (a) 11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c) 14. (a)
15. (b) 16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT:1 b. For what orientation of the coil is the torque
Given, 71% of that found in part (a) ?
Length, l = 0.200 m  = 71% × max
Magnetic field, B = 0.067 T 71
or BINA cos  = 100 × 0.13
Force, F = 0.13 N
Current, I = ? Find ,
Angle between field and rod,  = 90° HINT: 3
We have, Given,
F = B I l sin  Force (F) = 4.60  10–15 N
F Angle () = 60
or I = Magnetic field (B) = 3.50  10–3 T
lB sin 
HINT:2
We know that
Given,  F = qvB sin 
F
Diameter (d) = 8.6 cm = 8.6  10–2 m or v =
qBsin 
Number of turns (N) = 15
HINT: 4
Current (I) = 2.7 A
Magnetic field (B) = 0.56 T Given,
a. What orientation gives maximum torque = ? B = 0.550 T
Maximum torque,  max = ? r = 2.50 cm = 2.50 × 10–2 m
We have, I = 10.8 A
 = BINA cos  Force exerted on the wire, F = ?
For  to be maximum, cos  = 1 i.e.,  = 0°.  = 90°
Hence, if the plane of coil is oriented along the We know that
magnetic field, the torque is maximum given F = BIl sin 
by In this case, l = 2r (diameter of cylindrical
region is equal to the length of wire)
d2
 max = BINA = BIN × 4 F = BI × 2 r sin 90
 Magnetic Effect of Current  Chapter 15  391

F
Force per unit length  l  = 4 × 10–5 N/m
HINT: 5
Given,  
Separation between to wires, Current in one wire, I1 = 0.60 A
d = 40 cm = 40 × 10–2 m F µ0 I1I2
a. Use formula, l =
Current in one wire, I1 = 25 A 2 r
Current in another wire, I2 = 75 A b. The two wires carrying current repel each
a. Let x be the distance of point of zero magnetic other, so the currents in the wires must be in
field from first wire, the opposite directions.
x =? HINT: 8
I1 Given,
a = 2.40 cm = 2.40 × 10–2 m
xx
P Number of turns, N = 800 turns.
40–x
40 – x B = 0.058 T
I2 a. Current in the coil, I = ?
The distance of point P from the second wire is We know that
(40 – x) cm when net field is zero. So, we can µ0 NI
B = 2a
write
B1 = B2 2a × B
or I = µ N
µ0 I1 µ0I2 0
or . = b. At what distance x from the centre of the coil is
2 x 2 (40 – x)
b. Currents are in opposite directions as in figure 1
the magnetic field 2 its value at the centre? i.e,
In this case, P be the point nearby the wire
carrying current I1 at a distance x where net x=?
field is zero. From given condition,
P B
magnetic field, B' = 2
x I1
µ0NIa2 1 µ0NI
or 2(x2 + a2)3/2 = 2 × 2a
40cm
40 cm
a2 1
or (x2 + a2)3/2 = 2a
I2 HINT: 9
So, we can write Given,
B1 = B2 a = 6 cm = 6 × 10–2 m
µ0 I1 µ0 I2 I = 2.50 A
or =
2 x 2 x + 40 Number of turns, N = ?
HINT: 6 Distance of a point from the centre of the coil, x =
Given, 6 cm = 6 × 10–2 m.
Separation between wires, r = 0.400 m Magnetic field, B = 6.39 × 10–4 T.
Current, I1 = 5.00 A The magnetic field at a point on the axis of the
Current, I2 = 2.00 A coil is given by
Length of each wire, l = 1.20 m µ0NIa2
B = 2(x2 + a2)3/2
We know that
µ0 I1I2 B × 2(x2 + a2)3/2
F = l or N =
2 r µ0Ia2
The force is repulsive due to opposite direction HINT: 10
of current. Given,
HINT: 7 Length of solenoid (l ) = 15.0 cm = 15.0  10–2 m
Given, Number of turns (N) = 600
Distance between two wires, r = 2.50 cm Current (I) = 8.00 A
= 2.50 × 10–2 m Magnetic field (B) = ?
392 Principles of Physics - II
The magnetic field due to a solenoid is given by µ0NI
B=
N N 2a
B = 0nI = µ0 l I (∵ n = l )
HINT:13
HINT: 11 Given,
Given, Current (I) = 0.5 A
Magnetic field (B) = 0.150 T Thickness (t) = 4 mm = 4 × 10-3 m
Length (l) = 1.40 m Magnetic field (B) = 0.2 T
Number of turns (N) = 4000 Hall voltage (VH) = 6.0 mV = 6.0 × 10-3 V
Diameter (d) = 20.0 cm n=?
We know that
Current needed, I = ? BI
VH = net
 The magnetic field due to a solenoid is given by
B = 0nI BI
n = V et
N H
or B = µ0 l I HINT: 14
Bl Given,
or I = µ N Thickness (t) = 1 mm = 10-3 m
0
HINT: 12 Current (I) = 150 mA = 150 × 10–3A
Given, Hall voltage (VH) = 57 mV = 57 × 10–3 V
Diameter (d) = 14.0 cm = 14 × 10–2 m n = 4.3 × 1021 m-3, B = ?
d 14.0 We know that
 Radius (r) = 2 = 2 = 7.0  10–2 m
BI
VH = nte
Number of turns (N) = 600
Magnetic field (B) = ? nteVH
or B = I
Current (I) = 0.650 A
The magnetic field due to a toroidal solenoid is
given by


s 393
 s 395

392
 MAGNETISM

16.1 Introduction
A freely suspended bar magnet rests showing north and south direction roughly. If the magnet is
displaced from its equilibrium position and observed repeatedly, it comes to line up at N-S direction
in each case. This activity was an interesting query in the scientific society, in the beginning of study
about the magnetism of earth. Later on, many experimental results that were done at different
locations of the earth proved that the earth is a huge magnet and behaves as if a huge bar magnet is
laid at interior of the earth. This branch of physics which deals with the study of earth's magnetic
field is called terrestrial magnetism. It is also called geomagnetism.
Although many scientists studied about the magnetic property of the earth, William Gilbert, in 1600,
is considered as the pioneer of research on this field, when he published a paper 'De Magnete'. The
cause behind the terrestrial magnetism has not yet been clarified. Out of many purposed theories,
some of them are given below:
i. Consideration of a permanent magnet at the interior of the earth.
ii. Effect of external magnetic field whose source lies beyond the earth.
iii. Due to the cosmic rays.
iv. Due to the thermoelectric current that generates in the metallic part on the surface of the earth.
Despite these proposed theories none of them have been able to fully convince the researchers
and general public.

Facts about the Geomagnetism

There are many observed facts about the geomagnetism. Some of them are given below:
i. The north and south pole of earth's magnet (i.e. terrestrial magnet) lie at the opposite directions
of geographical poles.
ii. The geographical poles and earth's magnetic poles do not coincide.
iii. The earth's magnetic poles change over time. They do not lie always at a fixed location of the
earth.
iv. Geomagnetic field strength varies from 3.0 × 10–5 T (at the equator) to 6.0 × 10–5 T (at the poles).
v. Over the long time, the magnetic poles are supposed to be reversed.
vi. The distance between the geomagnetic poles is considerably shorter than the diameter of the
earth.
392 Principles of Physics - II

Fig. 16.1: Geomagnetism

16.2 Geographical Meridian and Magnetic Meridian

The north pole of terrestrial magnet lies towards the geographical south pole and vice-versa, but
they do not coincide at a particular location. They are significantly far, about 1800 km, to each other.
To study the geographical locations and magnetic field strength of the earth, imaginary planes are
considered on the earth's surface, they are called meridians. Two types of meridian are drawn on the
earth, they are geographical meridian and magnetic meridian.

Geographical Meridian
The imaginary lines passing through the geographical north pole and south pole of the earth is called
geographical axis and the plane passing vertically through the geographical axis is known as
geographical meridian.

Magnetic Meridian
The imaginary line passing through the earth's magnetic south pole and north pole is called
magnetic axis and the plane passing vertically through the axis is known as magnetic meridian.
The geographical meridian and magnetic meridian do not coincide with each other. They have
approximately 17º angular separation at the equator.

16.3 Magnetic Elements of the Earth

The physical quantities which are useful to study the magnitude and direction of earth's magnetic
field are known as magnetic elements of the earth. These elements are also applicable to determine
the geographical locations. There are three types of magnetic elements of the earth.
i. Angle of declination
ii. Angle of dip or angle of inclination
iii. Horizontal components of earth's magnetic field
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  393

Angle of Declination Geographical G

Angle of
Declination
As explained previously, the magnetic meridian and geographical meridian
M
meridian do not coincide with each other. They lie at certain
angles apart. The angle between the magnetic meridian and the O Magnetic
meridian
geographical meridian at a place is known as the angle of
declination. It varies from varies place to place on the surface of
the earth. The declination angle is shown in Fig. 16.2.

Angle of Dip or Angle of Inclination

A magnetic needle supported with a horizontal frictionless axle
and placed at magnetic meridian does not remain in horizontal
direction at all places; one end dips down and another end rises Fig.16.2: Angle of declination
up. The direction shown by the needle at a place gives the direction of resultant magnetic field of the
earth. The inclination of the needle differs from place to place. i.e. magnetic field strength of the earth
is different at different places. The angle made by the resultant magnetic field with its horizontal
components is known as an angle of dip or angle of inclination. It is denoted by .
If the magnetic needle is taken towards the magnetic poles of the earth, through the path of magnetic
meridian, one end of the needle dips down gradually. If we go towards north holding the needle, the
north pole of the needle dips down. Conversely, the south pole of the needle dips down if we bring
the needle along the south. The needle aligns Horizontal
perfectly vertical at the magnetic poles. This angle
 of dip
shows that angle of dip is 0º at the equatorial
region and 90º at the earth's magnetic poles. In
between equator and pole, angle of dip lies S
between 0º to 90º (i.e. 0 <  < 90). N

Consider a magnetic needle that can be rotated

Vertical
freely about the horizontal axis as shown in
Fig.16.3. The angle between the direction of Fig. 16.3: Angle of dip

needle and horizontal line drawn from the point of rotation gives the angle of dip ().
Dip angle is measured with a device, called the dip circle.

Horizontal Components of Earth's Magnetic Field BH

The resultant intensity of earth's magnetic field can be resolved into O

two mutually perpendicular components, horizontal component and
vertical component. The component parallel to the horizontal plane B BV
of earth is called horizontal components of earth's magnetic field, the
C
horizontal component is taken as the reference to measure the angle
Fig. 16.4: Components of
of dip. This component of the earth's magnetic field at which the angle of
magnetic field
dip is zero is known as horizontal component of earth's magnetic field. It is
denoted by BH. Another component of earth's magnetic field which is perpendicular to horizontal
one is known as vertical component of earth's magnetic field. It is denoted by BV. The horizontal
component and vertical component of earth's magnetic field are shown in Fig. 16.4.
Let B be the resultant intensity of earth's magnetic field and  be the angle of dip, then from Fig. 16.4,
BV
tan  = B …(16.1)
H
394 Principles of Physics - II
or, BV = B sin  …(16.2)
or, BH = B cos  … (16.3)
Squaring and adding equations (16.2) and (16.3), we get,
BV2 + BH2 = B2 sin2 + B2 cos2
or, BV2 + BH2 = B2
 B= BV2 + BH2 …(16.4)

16.4 Apparent Dip

The plane of scale of dip circle must be positioned along the
B1H= BH cos P’
magnetic meridian to determine the true value of dip angle. If the
dip circle is rotated at certain angle (usually horizontal) from the  BH
O P
magnetic meridian, the needle of dip circle does not indicate the 
 1

correct direction of earth's magnetic field. The angle of dip at the

position except the magnetic meridian is known as apparent dip. It B
B'V = BV Q’
is denoted by '. R Q
Let the plane of scale of dip circle is set at an angle  with the Fig. 16.5: Real dip and apparent dip
magnetic meridian as shown in Fig. 16.5. If the dip circle is rotated
only along the horizontal plane, and vertical plane remains unchanged. Then,
New component along horizontal, B'H = BH cos 
and component along vertical = BV
Then, the tangent angle of apparent dip,
BV
tan ' = B'
H

BV
=
BH cos 
tan  ... tan  = BV
 tan ' = … (16.5)
cos   BH
This is the expression for the relation of true dip and apparent dip.

Dip circle
Dip circle is an instrument which measures the angle of dip at different locations of the earth. It is
used in surveying, mining and study of earth magnetism. It consists of a magnetic needle pivoted at
the centre of a vertical circular scale that can rotate in the plane of scale about the horizontal axis
passing through its centre of gravity. The circular scale is divided into four quadrants with 0-90º, 90°-
0, 0-90º and 90°-0 as shown in Fig. 16.6. The deflection of magnetic needle measures the angle of dip.
Also, the rotation of vertical scale about the horizontal circular scale fixed on its base gives the angle
of rotation of circle.

Measurement of dip angles

The dip circle measures the angle of dip with two different methods.
i. Bringing the needle into the magnetic meridian
ii. Without bringing the needle into the magnetic meridian
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  395
i. Bringing the needle into the magnetic meridian: The angle of
dip is directly measured by using this method. First, zero point
vernier scale on the support position of dip circle is coincided
with the zero of horizontal scale at its base. Then, whole the
apparatus is rotated upto a position that the magnetic needle of
dip circle points 90°-90° on the vertical scale. In this position,
the plane of vertical scale is perpendicular to the magnetic
meridian (i.e. along the east-west) direction. Then, keeping the
horizontal scale fixed, the plane of vertical scale is rotated by
90°. Now, the plane of vertical circular scale aligns along the
magnetic meridian. In this condition, the deflection of magnetic
needle is read, which gives the true angle of dip. Fig. 16.6: Dip circle
Errors associated with this measurement
a. The centre of gravity of needle may not lie at the axis of rotation, which gives the
erroneous value of dip angle.
b. The centre of needle may not coincide with the centre of circular scale. This produces the
excessive rotation in one direction only.
c. 0 - 0 line or 90°- 90° line may not lie in a same line, which may deviate the value of dip
angle from the true value.
ii. Without bringing the needle into the magnetic meridian: The angle of dip can be determined
by using the values of apparent dip. In this method, two apparent dips are measured by
rotating the scales of dip circle 90º one another. BH sin θ
Let 1 be the apparent dip in a plane which makes angle 
with the magnetic meridian. In this plane, the vertical BH
component of earth's magnetic field is not changed but the
horizontal component will be changed to BH' = BH cos .
θ
Then, the apparent dip, ° –
90
BV BV
tan 1 = B ' = θ
H BH cos 
BH cos θ
BV
or, cos  = Fig. 16.7: Components of horizontal
BH tan 1
magnetic field
BV
 cos  = B cot 1 …(16.6)
H

Then, the scale of dip circle is rotated by 90°, so that the angle made by this plane with the magnetic
meridian will be (90° – ). let 2 be the apparent dip in the new plane. Now, the horizontal
component of earth magnetic field in this plane is,
BH'' = BH cos (90° – )
= BH sin 
Now, the apparent dip is,
BV BV
tan 2 = B '' =
H BH sin 
BV
or, sin  =
BH tan 2
396 Principles of Physics - II
BV cot 2
 sin  = BH …(16.7)

Squaring and adding equations (16.6) and (16.7), we get,

2 2
BV BV
cos2 + sin2 = B cot 1 + B cot 2
 H   H 
2
BV
or, 1 = 2 (cot2 1 + cot2 2)
BH
= tan2  (cot2 1 + cot2 2)
1
= (cot2 1 + cot2 2)
cot2 
 cot2  = cot2 1 + cot2 2 ... (16.8)
This is the appropriate expression of determining true dip by using two apparent dips.

16.5 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism

Magnetic substances contain molecular magnets. Molecular magnets are tiny magnets, but they do
not show the magnetism independently, rather a group of such molecules produces the magnetism.
This group of molecular magnets which form a tiny but a complete magnet are called domains. All
ferromagnetic substances contain domains. All ferromagnetic substances have a characteristics
"domain character".
In the absence of external magnetic field, domains are oriented randomly, so the magnetic substance
does not show its magnetism as shown in Fig. 16.8 (i). When an external magnetic field is applied,
the domains align along the direction of applied field as shown in Fig. 16.8(ii). Thus, the ferro-
magnetic substance shows the magnetic behaviour. In ferromagnetic substance, the magnetism is
retained even after the, external magnetic field is removed.

(i) (ii)  Bo

Fig. 16.8 : Domains (i) absence of external magnetic field; (ii) presence of external magnetic field

16.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials

Every matter is made up of atoms. In atoms, electrons revolve around the nuclei that form the
current loop as if the current flows in a circular coil as explained in chapter (15). The revolution of
electrons in an orbit generates the magnetic field along the axial direction, which forms the magnetic
moment. Thus, each current loop acts as the tiny bar magnet. Similarly, spin of particles also
generates the magnetic moment.
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  397
The magnetic moment due to a current loop is added to magnetic moment due to spins. Also, the
magnetic moments due to the spin of protons and neutrons are added up in the magnetic moment
generated by electrons. The vector sum of all above magnetic moments provides the net magnetic
moment of an atom. In a substance, the direction of magnetic moment is random, so net magnetic
moment is observed zero in the absence of external magnetic field. When the magnetic substance is
placed into the external magnetic field, tiny magnets start orienting along the direction of applied
field. However, the thermal agitation attempts to break the alignment of atoms. So, to prevent from
the deformation of such alignment of such tiny magnets, the strength of external magnetic field
should be increased. At a certain value of magnetic field, the alignment is completed. This condition
is called saturation of magnetism.
Some important terms associated with the magnetic materials are explained below.
i. Intensity of magnetization: It is defined as the net magnetic moment per unit volume of a magnet
along the direction of applied magnetic field. It is denoted by I. It is a vector quantity.
→ →
→ Magnetic moment (M) M
I = Volume (V) =V

The unit of I is ampere per meter (Am–1). In a bar magnet, M = m  2l, where, m is magnetic pole
strength and 2l is the effective length of the magnet.
Also, the volume of bar magnet (V) = A  2l, where A is the cross-sectional area of magnet
Therefore, the intensity of magnetization,
m  2l m
I = =
A  2l A
Therefore, the intensity of magnetization is also defined as the pole strength per unit cross-
sectional area of a magnet.
→
ii. Magnetic intensity ( H): It can also be defined as the force experienced by a unit positive charge
flowing with unit velocity in a direction normal to magnetic field. The degree to which a magnetic
→
field can magnetize a material is called magnetic intensity. It is denoted by H . It is a vector quantity.
Its unit is ampere per meter (Am–1). It is also called magnetic force. Magnetic intensity
magnetize the magnetic substance when placed in this field.
B
H =H

→
iii. Total magnetic field ( B ): When a magnetic substance is placed in an external magnetic field, it
gets magnetized. The resultant magnetic field within the magnetic material is the vector sum of
magnetic field due to applied field and the induced magnetic field due to the material itself.
Its SI unit is weber m2 or Tesla (T). Its CGS unit is gauss (G)
→
Therefore, total magnetic field B , is written as,
→ → →
B = Applied field ( B 0) + magnetic field due to the magnetization of material ( B H)
→ → →
i.e. B = B 0 + B H ... (16.9)
→ → → →
The terms B 0 and B H can be expressed into H and I respectively.
→ → → → →
The strength of applied field due to the magnetic intensity H , B 0 =  H and B M = 0I = 0 H
398 Principles of Physics - II
Where,  is dimensionless quantity and is known as magnetic susceptibility. The magnetic
susceptibility indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an applied
magnetic field.
Therefore,
→ → →
B = 0 H + 0 H
→
= 0 (1 + ) H ... (16.10)
→
Also, in the material medium, total magnetic field B is directly proportional to the magnetic
→
intensity H .
→ →
i.e. B H
→ →
B = H
Where,  is the absolute permeability of a medium. So, we write,
 = 0 (1 + ) ... (16.11)

Magnetic Susceptibility
Magnetic susceptibility of a magnetic substance is the ratio of intensity of magnetization to the
magnetic intensity. It is denoted by . It has no unit. It is the property of substance.
intensity of magnetization (I)
 = magnetic intensity (H)
I
=H

Magnetic susceptibility  measures how much extent the materials can be magnetized. The magnetic
materials which can be magnetized strongly, have the value of  high positive value. This type of
materials are called ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic materials which are weakly magnetized
have the value of  small positive value. This type of materials are called paramagnetic materials.
Likewise, the magnetic materials which are weakly magnetized in the opposite of applied field are
called diamagnetic materials. The value of  is small negative for these type of materials.

Relative Permeability
Absolute permeability of a material medium is a measure of the amount of resistance encountered
when forming a magnetic field in that medium. It is denoted by . If the absolute permeability is
taken for the free space (or vacuum), it is denoted by 0. It is also called the permeability constant.
The ratio of absolute permeability of a medium to permeability constant is called relative
permeability. It is denoted by r. Therefore,

Relative permeability (r) =
0
It is a dimensionless quantity. The relation between absolute permeability and magnetic
susceptibility is,
 = 0 (1 + )

=1+
0
r = 1 +  ... (16.12)
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  399
This expression gives the relation between relative permeability of a medium and its magnetic
susceptibility.

Curie Law
The intensity of magnetisation (I) of a paramagnetic substance is
i. directly proportional to the magnetic induction produced by the magnetizing field H in free
space,
i.e. I  B0 and B0 = 0H
ii. Inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T of the material
1
i.e. I  T

Combining above equations,

B0 0H
I T  T

This law was first discovered by Madam Curie and hence the law is called Curie law in
magnetism. Since, 0 is constant.
H
I T

I 1
HT
1
=T

1
Hence,   T .

Curie temperature for iron is 1000 K, for cobalt 1400 K and for nicked 600 K.

16.7 Magnetic Substances

The substances which are influenced by the magnetic field are known as magnetic substances.
Magnetic substances are divided into three categories:
i. Diamagnetic substances
ii. Paramagnetic substances
iii. Ferromagnetic substances

Diamagnetic Substances
When placed in magnetic field, the lines of force tend to avoid substance.
The magnetic substances which have the tendency to move from stronger to weak part of the external magnetic
field are known as diamagnetic substances. They are feebly repelled by the magnet. Some examples of
diamagnetic substances are: antimony, bismuth, copper, lead, gold, mercury, water, air, zinc, silver,
etc.
Some important properties of diamagnetic substances are given below:
1. They are feebly repelled by the magnet and tend to move from
stronger field to weaker field.
2. If a diamagnetic rod is suspended in a uniform magnetic field, the rod
aligns itself in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the
magnetic field.
400 Principles of Physics - II
3. When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, the lines of force are rarefied in the
substance and pass through the surrounding air.
4. They lose their magnetism as soon as the magnetization field is removed.
5. When a diamagnetic substance is placed in a magnetic field, it develops weak magnetization in
a direction opposite to the direction of the magnetizing field.
6. The permeability of a diamagnetic substance is less than one.
7. The magnetic susceptibility () of a diamagnetic substance has a small negative value and it is
temperature independent.
8. The intensity of magnetization (I) is small, negative and varies linearly with field.
9. Induced dipole moment (m) is a small ve value.
10. They do not obey Curie's law.

Paramagnetic Substances
The magnetic substances which are weakly magnetized by the external magnetic field is known as
paramagnetic substances. They are weakly attracted to a magnet. They slowly move from weak to
strong external magnetic field direction. Some examples of paramagnetic substances are: aluminium,
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, oxygen (at STP), platinum, etc.
Important properties of paramagnetic substances are given below:
1. They are feebly attracted by a magnet and have tendency to move from weak to strong
magnetic field direction.
2. If a paramagnetic rod is freely suspended in a uniform magnetic field,
the rod aligns parallel to the field direction. The lines of force prefer
to pass through substance rather than air.
3. As soon as the magnetizing field is removed, they lose their magnetic properties.
4. The magnetic lines of force prefer to pass through a paramagnetic material rather than air.
5. When a paramagnetic substance is placed in a magnetizing field, it is weakly magnetized in the
direction of external magnetic field.
6. The magnetic permeability of a paramagnetic substance is slightly greater than one.
7. The magnetic susceptibility () of paramagnetic substance is less than one but has positive
1
value. Value of magnetic susceptibility is inversely proportional to temperature   T (i.e. curie
law).
8. The intensity of magnetization (I) is positive, small and varies linearly with field.
9. Induced dipole moment (m) is a small positive value.
10. They obey Curie's law.

Ferromagnetic Substances
The substances which get strongly magnetized in the direction of external magnetic field are known as
ferromagnetic substances. They have strong tendency to move from weaker magnetic field region to
strong magnetic field region. These substances are strongly attracted by a magnet. Some examples of
ferromagnetic substances are: Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Gadolinium, Dysprosium, etc.
Some properties of ferromagnetic substances are given below:
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  401
1. They are strongly attracted by the magnet and have the tendency to move from weak to strong
external magnetic field.
2. When they are placed in a magnetic field, the magnetic lines of force
tend to crowd into them.
S N
3. When a ferromagnetic substance is freely suspended in a uniform
magnetic field, it aligns itself parallel to the direction of magnetic
field.
4. Ferromagnetic substances retain their magnetism even after the magnetizing field is removed.
5. When ferromagnetic substances are placed in external magnetic field, they get magnetized
strongly along the direction of field.
6. The permeability of ferromagnetic substance is extremely large as compared to the permeability
of free space.
7. They obey Curie's law. At certain temperature called Curie point, they lose ferromagnetic
properties and behave like paramagnetic substances.
8. They have large positive susceptibility(). The magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic
1
substance obeys Curie-Weiss law   where TC is Curie temperature.
T TC
9. The intensity of magnetization (I) is very large, positive and varies non-linearly with field.
10. Induced dipole moment is a large positive value.

16.8 Magnetic Hysteresis

Magnetic substances behave differently in the external magnetic field. The diamagnetic substance
and paramagnetic substance have the simple linear relationship between magnetizing field (external
→ →
magnetic field) H and total magnetic field into the substance ( B ) or intensity of magnetization (I).
However, the ferromagnetic substance exhibits different behaviour than that of dia and para-
→ →
magnetic substance, B and H have the non-linear functional relationship, B = f(H). The behaviour of
ferromagnetic substance in external magnetic field is explained below.
In the absence of external magnetic field, the
arrangement of magnetic domains of ferromagnetic B
substance are random, so it does not show any
magnetic strength around it. When it is kept into the
A
→
external magnetic field (i.e. inducing field H ), the X
magnetic domains of the substance tend to orient
along the direction of applied magnetic field and
hence it becomes magnetized. If the external magnetic
Y O U
field is turned off, the magnetic strength of H
ferromagnetic substance will not be zero. This
V
persistence of magnetic field strength of magnetic
substance although the inducing field is reduced to Z
zero is known as magnetic hysteresis. Hysteresis is
lagging (phase) of magnetic induction of
ferromagnetic and ferromagnetic materials with
Fig. 16.9: Magnetic hysteresis curve
respect to be cyclic variation of an applied magnetic
402 Principles of Physics - II
field, when the specimen is at a temperature below its Curie temperature. The non-linear closed
→ →
curve between the magnetic intensity H and total magnetic field ( B ) (or intensity of magnetization
(I)) is known as hysteresis curve or hysteresis loop. This behaviour of ferromagnetic substance in the
presence of external magnetic field is explained in the following steps. The hysterisis curve is shown
in Fig. 16.9.
In the Fig. 16.9, X = retentivity, Y = coercivity, A = Saturation, OY = HC and OX = Br.
→ →
i. In the absence of magnetic intensity ( H), total magnetic field ( B ) into the substance is also zero.
So, the curve begins from origin O of hysteresis loop.
ii. When the external magnetic field is turned on, the molecular magnets starts showing magnetic
behaviour. When the applied field strength is gradually increased, the substance is also induced
towards saturation value. It means the molecular magnets gradually orient along the external
magnetic field. In figure, the curve beyond point A shows the saturation line. In this condition,
almost all of the magnetic domains are aligned along the direction of applied field. If the
applied field is further increased, there is no more magnetic domains left to add up the
magnetic strength in the substance. So, the saturation is obtained. Graph OA shows the nature
of magnetization in ferromagnetic substance from zero to saturation point.
→
iii. If the applied field (i.e. magnetic intensity H) is, then, reduced gradually to zero, surprisingly,
→
the total magnetic field B in the substance will not be zero, rather it has certain positive value
OX in the graph. It means the induced magnetic field retains in the ferromagnetic substance
once magnetized, although the applied field is zero. This value OX in graph is called remenance
(or retentivity).
→ →
iv. If the direction of magnetic intensity H is reversed and gradually increased, the value of B
→
decreases and becomes zero at a certain reverse value of H. The graph OY shows the value of H
at which the value of B in ferromagnetic substance is zero. This value of reversed magnetic
intensity which makes the total magnetic field in the substance is zero is called coercivity.
→
v. If the magnetic intensity H is further increased the substance begins magnetizing as explained
in (ii) but in the opposite direction as shown in curve. At certain maximum value of magnetic
→
intensity, the value of B remains constant. This is the saturation value of magnetization in the
reverse direction. Point Z shows the saturation value in the curve.
→ →
vi. If the magnetic intensity ( H) is decreased then the value of B is also decreased, but can not be
→
zero, even though H becomes zero. This nature is also similar as explained in (iii.)
vii. If the magnetic intensity is then, increased along positive direction (i.e. as explained in ii) value
→
of B in magnetic substance initially decreases and becomes zero as shown in point V. Further
→
increasing the value of H, the curve meets at point A and so, forms a closed loop as shown in
Fig. 16.9.
→
Thus, hysteresis loop shows the relationship between magnetic intensity ( H) and total magnetic field
→ →
( B ) into the substance. It is always referred to as the B-H loop. It is also noted that the value of B
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  403
→
depends on the intensity of magnetization ( I ) of the substance. Therefore, Hysteresis loop can be
→ →
drawn between I and H. The area enclosed by the curve gives the energy loss per unit volume of
the material per cycle.

Significances of Hysteresis Loop

1. Hysteresis loop is obtained in ferromagnetic materials.
2. This loop determines the capacity of magnetic
material how strongly and how permanently
the material can be magnetized.
i. Soft iron has low coercivity and large
retentivity. Such types of materials can
be magnetized quickly and also
demagnetized quickly. This type of
material is used in transformer core,
moving coil galvanometer and
electromagnets.
ii. Steel has low retentivity and large
coercivity. The loop occupies large area
in B-H graph. The magnetic property of
such type of materials remains relatively
long time after once magnetized. So, Fig. 16.10: Hysteresis loop for soft iron and steel
steel is used for permanent magnets.

Tips for MCQs

1. The strength of earth magnetic field is in the order of 10–4 T.
2. The value of angle of declination of the earth at the equator is 17°, its value is measured by kew
magnetometer.
3. Angle of dip varies between the value of 0° at equator and 90° at the magnetic poles of the earth.
4. Three types of magnetic materials are classified on the basis of magnetization intensity I,
susceptibility  and relative permeability (r)
Dia-magnetic Paramagnetic Ferrromagnetic
–1  m < 0 0 < ,m <  m >> 1
0  r < 1 1 < r < 1 +  r >> 1
 < 0  > 0  >> 0
Where,  small positive value.
5. Only ferromagnetic materials show hysteresis behaviour.
6. Comparison of hysteresis loop between soft iron and steel.
Soft iron Steel
1. Low coercivity, high retentivity, narrow 1. Coercivity is high, low retentivity, wide
hysteresis loop, susceptibility is high, hysteresis loop, susceptibility is low and
permeability is high permeability is low.
2. Soft iron is used in transformer, moving coil 2. Steel is used to make the permanent
galvanometer, electromagnets, etc. magnets.
404 Principles of Physics - II
8. Some important relations
Bv
a. tan  = B
H

tan 
b. Apparent dip, tan ' =
cos 
c. True dip from two apparent dips, cot2 = cot21 + cot22
2
d. BV + BH2 = B2
e. r = 1 + 
B
f.  = 0r = H = 0 (1 + )
M m
g. I= V =A
B0
h. H=
0
I
i. m = H

Worked Out Problems

1. Find the dip angle where the vertical and horizontal components are equal.
SOLUTION
Given, B
BV = BH = B (let) or, tan  =B
The tangent angle of dip is, or, tan  = 1
BV   = 45º
tan  = B
H At dip angle 45º, the vertical and horizontal
components are equal.
2. A magnetic needle suspended in a vertical plane at 30º from the magnetic meridian makes an angle
of 45º with the horizontal. Find the true angle of dip.
SOLUTION
Given,  tan  = cos   tan '
Apparent dip () = 45º = cos 30º  tan 45º
Orientation of needle from the horizontal ()
= 30º 3
= 2  1 = 0.866
True dip () = ?
tan    = 41º
We know, tan ' =
cos 

3. What will be the value of vertical component and total intensity of earth's magnetic field at a place
where dip is 60º? Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field is 0.34 × 10–4 T.
SOLUTION
Given,
Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field (BH) = 0.34 × 10–4 T
Angle of dip () = 60º
Vertical component of earth's magnetic filed (Bv) = ?
Total intensity (B) = ?
We know,
Bv
tan  = B
H
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  405
 Bv = BH tan 
= 0.34 × 10-4 × tan 60º = 0.59 × 10–4 T
and B = BH2 + Bv2
= (0.34 × 10–4)2 + (0.59 × 10–4)2 = 0.68 × 10–4 T
4. Find the magnetization of a bar magnet of length 5 cm and cross sectional area 1 cm2 if magnetic
moment is 0.9 Am2.
SOLUTION
Given, We know that
Magnetic moment (M) = 0.9 Am2 M 0.9
l = 5 cm = 5 × 10–2 m Magnetization (I) = V = 5 × 10–4
A = 1 cm2 = 10–4 m2  I = 1.8 × 105 A/m
Volume of the magnet (V) = l × A
= 5 × 10–2 × 10–4
 V = 5 × 10–6 m3

Challenging Problems
1. The value of dip at a place is 45°. If the plane of the dip circle is turned through 60° from the
meridian, what will be the apparent dip?
Ans: 63.4°
2. The vertical and horizontal components of the earth’s magnetic field at a place are 0.2 oersted and
0.3464 oersted respectively. Calculate the angle of dip and the total intensity of earth’s magnetic field
at that place.
Ans: 0.4 × 10-4 T
3. The apparent dip at a certain position of the dip circle is 66.1°. The dip circle is rotated through an
angle of 90° and the apparent dip is found to be 69.94°. What is the dip at that place?
Ans: 57.67°
4. Calculate the vertical component of earth's field at a place where the dip is 60° and the horizontal
component is 0.2 × 10–4 Wb/m2.
Ans: 0.346 × 10–4 Wb/m2
5. The horizontal component of earth's magnetic field at a place is 0.25 gauss and its vertical component
is 0.35 gauss. Calculate angle of dip and earth's total magnetic field at that place.
Ans: 54.46°, 0.43 × 10–4 T
6. The needle of a dip circle shows an apparent dip of 45° in a particular position and 53° when the
circle is rotated through 90°. Find true dip. (HSEB 2062)
Ans: 38.6°
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What do you mean by terrestrial magnetism?
 The earth acts as a huge magnet. It behaves as an ordinary magnet. The magnetic behaviour of the
earth's magnet is known as terrestrial magnetism. The magnetic polarities of terrestrial magnetism
are opposite of geographical polarity, but they do not coincide.
2. What are the three basic components of terrestrial magnetism?
 Three basic components of terrestrial magnetism are (a) angle of declination (b) angle of dip and (c)
horizontal component of earth's magnetic field.
406 Principles of Physics - II
3. What is angle of declination?
 The magnetic meridian and geographical meridian do not coincide at earth. They lie certain distance
apart. The angle between the magnetic meridian and the geographical meridian at a place is known
as the angle of declination which varies from place to place on the surface of the earth.
4. What is angle of dip?
 The angle made by the resultant magnetic field with its horizontal components is known as an angle
of dip or angle of inclination. It is denoted by .
5. What are the angle of dip at the earth's magnetic poles and equator?
Or, What are the maximum and minimum value of angle of dip?
 Angle of dip is different at different locations on the earth. Its value is maximum at the earth's
magnetic poles which is equal to 90º. Value of dip angle is minimum at the equatorial line, where the
dip angle is 0º.
6. How does the knowledge of declination at a place help in navigation?
 Angle of declination at a place of the earth gives the angle between the geographical and magnetic
meridians. So, the knowledge shall help is sailing the ship in the required direction so as to reach the
destination.
7. What is diamagnetic substance? Write some examples.
 The magnetic substances which have the tendency to move from stronger to weak part of the
external magnetic field are known as diamagnetic substances. They are feebly repelled by the
magnet. Some examples of diamagnetic substances are: antimony, bismuth, copper, lead, gold,
mercury, water, air, zinc, silver, etc.
8. Write any five important properties of paramagnetic substances.
 Some important properties of paramagnetic substances are given below:
a. They are feebly attracted by a magnet and have tendency to move from weak to strong magnetic
field direction.
b. If a paramagnetic rod is freely suspended in a uniform magnetic field, the rod aligns parallel to
the field direction.
c. As soon as the magnetizing field is removed, they lose their magnetic properties.
d. The magnetic lines of force prefer to pass through a paramagnetic material rather than air.
e. When a paramagnetic substance is placed in magnetizing field, it is weakly magnetized in the
direction of external magnetic field.
9. What are magnetic domains?
 Magnetic substances contain molecular magnets. Molecular magnets are tiny magnets, but they do
not show the magnetism independently, rather a group of such molecules produces the magnetism.
This group of molecular magnets which form tiny but complete magnets are called domains.
10. What is apparent dip?
 The plane of scale of dip circle must be positioned along the magnetic meridian to determine the true
value of dip angle. If the dip circle is rotated certain angle (usually horizontal) from the magnetic
meridian, the needle of dip circle does not indicate the correct direction of earth's magnetic field. The
angle of dip at the position except the magnetic meridian is known as apparent dip. It is denoted by
'.
11. A ferromagnetic substance becomes paramagnetic above Curie temperature. Explain why?
 The atoms in magnetic substance act as tiny magnets in ferromagnetic substance, these tiny magnets
in a domain are strongly bind and align in a specific direction. When the temperature is raised above
the curie temperature, no domain exists so that forces due to the magnetic moment of domains
disappear. Then, the tiny magnets orient almost randomly, hence, the ferromagnetic substance
becomes paramagnetic.
12. What is Curie law in magnetism?
 The intensity of magnetisation (I) of a paramagnetic substance is
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  407
i. directly proportional to the magnetic induction produced by the magnetizing field H in free
space,
i.e. I  B0 and B0 = 0H
ii. Inversely proportional to the absolute temperature T of the material
1
i.e. I  T

Combining above equations,

B0 0H
I T  T

This law was first discovered by Madam Curie and hence the law is called Curie law in
magnetism. Since, 0 is constant.
H
I T

I 1
HT
1
=T

1
Hence,   T .

13. Define the terms retentivity and coercivity.

 The value of intensity of magnetization of a ferromagnetic material when the magnetizing field is
reduced to zero is called retentivity or remanance or residual magnetism of the material. It tells that
the magnetism retains in a ferromagnetic substance, even though applied field is zero.
The value of magnetizing field required to reduce residual magnetism to zero in a material is called
coercivity.
14. Distinguish between dia and para-magnetic substances.
 Some important relations between dia-magnetic and para-magentic substances are as follows:
Dia-magnetic substance Paramagnetic substance
1. It is feebly magnetized in a direction 1. It is feebly magnetized in the direction of
opposite to the direction of the magnetizing magnetizing field.
field.
2. The value of  has small negative value. 2. The value of  has small positive value.
3. For example: copper 3. For example: aluminium
15. What is the basic use of hysteresis loop?
 This loop provides the information in the selection of suitable materials for different purposes. For
instance, if the retentivity of a material is high, the substance is strongly magnetized, such type of
magnetic materials are used in iron cores of transformer. If the area of hysteresis loop of substance is
large, such type of materials can be used to form permanent magnet.
16. How does the knowledge of declination at a place help in navigation?
 Declination at a place of the earth is the angle between the geographical meridian and magnetic
meridian. It is different at different locations of the earth. The information about declination help in
steering the ship in the required direction so as to reach the destination.
17. What is the susceptibility and permeability of a perfectly diamagnetic substance?
 For perfectly diamagnetic substance,
B = 0 (H + I) = 0
or, H + I = 0
408 Principles of Physics - II
 I=H
I –H
i. Susceptibility,  = H = H = –1

ii. Relative permeability, r = 1 +  = 1 – 1 = 0

 Absolute permeability,  = 0r = 0
18. Why transformer cores are made of soft iron?
 Transformer transfers the signals of alternating current. In this process, the transformer core has to be
magnetized and demagnetized periodically. In this condition, the material is so chosen that it does
loss the relatively low energy i.e. the material has to be made from the material of low hysteresis. Soft
iron meets this requirement.
19. Why soft irons is used to make the electromagnets?
 The hysteresis loop of soft iron is narrow. So, loss of energy per unit volume per cycle of its
magnetization is small. It also have light permeability. Therefore, it can be magnetized and
demagnetized easily. Hence, soft iron is used for making electromagnets.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What are the geomagnetic elements?
2. How does dip vary on earth's surface from place to place?
3. What do you mean by angle of declination and angle of inclination?
4. Classify ferro-, para-, and dia-magnetic substance in accordance with attraction with an iron rod.
5. Why does not the compass needle point to the true north?
6. What is Curie point?
7. Would the maximum possible magnetization of paramagnetic sample be of the same order of
magnitude as the magnetization of a ferromagnet?
8. A certain region of space is to be shielded from magnetic fields. Suggest a method.
9. How many neutral points are obtained when a magnet is placed vertically?
10. Which way would you a compass point if you were at earth’s north magnetic pole?
11. A small magnet pivoted at the centre is free to rotate in magnetic meridian. At what place, will it
stand vertical?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What are magnetic substances? How are they classified? Describe in brief.
2. Distinguish between ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials. Write down their some
properties.
3. What are the magnetic elements of the earth? Describe them in brief.
4. What are real and apparent dips? Establish the relation between them.
5. If  is the true dip in the magnetic meridian; and 1 and 2 be apparent dips at different planes
perpendicular to each other then prove that cot2  = cot2 1 + cot2 2.
6. What is hysteresis? Describe the formation of hysteresis loop in ferromagnetic substance.

Numerical Problems
1. At a given place, the horizontal component of the earth's field is 0.38 oersted and the vertical
component is 0.134 oersted. Calculate the total field and dip at that place.
Ans: 0.36 × 10-4T, 19025’
2. At a given place, the horizontal component of the earth's magnetic field is 0.3 × 10-4 Wm-2 and the
angle of dip is 30º. What will be the vertical components of the earth's magnetic field?
Ans: 1.73 × 10-5 T
 Magnetism  Chapter 16  409
3. The total magnetic intensity at a place is 0.4 oersted and the angle of dip is 30º. Calculate the
horizontal and vertical components.
Ans: 0.34 × 10-4 T, 0.2 × 10-4 T
4. The vertical component of earth's magnetic field at a place is 0.16 × 10-4 tesla. Calculate the value of
horizontal component of earth's magnetic field, if angle if dip at the place is 600.
Ans: 0.32×10-4 T
5. A magnet suspended at 60° with the magnetic meridian makes angles of 450 with the horizontal.
What shall be the actual value of the angle of dip?
Ans:  = 26.56°
6. The true value of the dip at a place is 45°. If the plane of the dip circle is turned through 30° from the
meridian, what will be the apparent dip?
Ans: 33.7°

Multiple Choice Questions

1. At what angle of dip, the vertical component and horizontal component of geomagnetic field are
equal?
a. 0 b. 30
c. 45 d. 90
2. The susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance
a. does not vary with temperature.
b. first decreases and then increases with rise of temperature.
c. increases with rise to temperature.
d. decreases with rise of temperature.
3. The magnetic moment of a magnet is 5 Am2. If the pole strength is 25 Am, what is the length of the
magnet?
a. 10 cm b. 20 cm
c. 25 cm d. 1.25 cm
4. The ratio of magnetic fields due to a small bar magnet in the end on position to the broad side on
position at equal distance is
a. 1:4 b. 1:2
c. 1:1 d. 2:1
5. A bar magnet is placed in north-south direction with its north pole to the north. In which direction
from the centre of the magnetic field will be points of zero magnetic field lie.
a. north and south. b. east and west.
c. north-east and south-east. d. north-west and south-east.

Answers
1. (c) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (b)

Hints to Challenging Problems

Hint:1 Hint:2
Given, Given,
True dip ( = 45° BV = 0.2 oersted
 = 60° BH = 0.3464 oersted
Apparent dip (') = ? True dip ( = ?
We know that BV 0.2
tan  = B = 0.3464
tan  tan 45° H
tan ’ = =   = 30°
cos  cos 60°
Now, total intensity, B = B2V + BH2
410 Principles of Physics - II
Hint:3 BV = 0.35 G = 0.35 × 10–4 T
Given, dip () = ?
1 = 66.1° Total magnetic field, B = ?
2 = 69.94° We know that
 =? BV
tan  = B
We know that H

cot2  = cot2 1 + cot2 2 0.35 × 10–4

Hint:4
or tan  = 0.25 × 10–4 = 1.4
Given,   = tan–1(1.4) = 54.46°
 = 60° Also,
BH = 0.2 × 10–4 Wb/m2 2 2
B = BV + BH
BV = ?
Hint:6
We know that
BV Given,
tan  = B 1 = 45°
H

or BV = BH × tan  2 = 53°
Hint:5 true dip () = ?
Given, We know that
.. cos2  = cot2 1 + cot2 2
BH = 0.25 G = 0.25 × 10–4 T [ . 1 G = 10–4 T]


 ELECTROMAGNETIC
INDUCTION

17.1 Introduction
The current carrying conductor produces magnetic field of its own. This fact came as a surprise,
when Hans Christian Oersted was preparing for a lecture. He discovered that, a magnetic compass
kept nearby a current carrying conductor showed deflection in particular direction. When the
direction of current was reversed, the compass showed an opposite deflection. After intensive
research of months, he came to a conclusion that electric current could generate magnetic field.
Even more surprisingly, a reverse of this effect was discovered i.e. magnetic field (changing) could
produce an electric field that could drive a current in the electric circuit. This link between changing
magnetic field and the electric field induced by it is called as electromagnetic induction. This effect
was observed by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry independently.
These discoveries formed the basis that electricity and magnetism are no longer the independent
fields, they are inseparable. The unification between these two fields was mathematically formulated
by James Clerk Maxwell and this unified theory is now known as electromagnetism.

17.2 Electromagnetic Induction

Consider a circular conducting loop provided with a sensitive ammeter as shown in Fig. 17.1. Since,
there is no any source of emf, there is no current in the loop initially. Now, if the bar magnet is
gradually moved with its north pole (N) facing towards the loop, the ammeter shows deflection
indicating the current in the loop. This current disappears suddenly if we stop the motion of the bar
magnet. Again, if the bar magnet is moved away from the loop, there is again deflection of ammeter
but in opposite direction indicating the reverse current in the loop.
S

Fig. 17.1: Electromagnetic induction due to motion of bar magnet.

412 Principles of Physics - II
If the magnet is moved faster, the current in the ammeter is greater.
If the magnet is moved away or towards the loop facing its south pole towards it, there is current in
the loop but the directions of the current are exactly opposite to the case where north pole of the
magnet faces the loop.
The overall experimental observations can be summarized as follows:

N S N S

a. When the magnet is moved towards coil b. When the magnet is moved away from the
with its north pole facing the coil, the current coil and its north pole still faces the coil, the
is clockwise (say) in the coil. current is anticlockwise in the coil.

S N S N

c. When the magnet is moved towards coil d. When the magnet with its south pole facing
with its south pole facing the coil, current is the coil is moved away from the coil, current
again anti-clockwise in the coil. is in clockwise direction.
From these observations, following results were concluded.
1. A necessary condition for the current to appear in the coil is that, there must be relative motion
between the coil and the magnet (flux linkage on coil must change).
2. Faster motion produces greater current and vice-versa.
3. The direction of current produced in the coil due to the movement of the magnet towards it, is
exactly opposite to that due to movement of magnet away from it.

17.3 Magnetic Flux and Induction Explained

A magnetic source modifies the space around it in some manner
so that any other magnetic material experience force due to it. →
dA
This region of space is called magnetic field and can
broadly be represented in terms of field lines. These are the
closed lines (imaginary) emanating from the north pole
towards south pole and again towards north forming

continuous closed loop. →
B
The number of these field lines crossing per unit area of the A
surface held perpendicular to its path is called magnetic
flux (B). Fig. 17.2(i): Magnetic flux for arbitrary angle 
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  413
If A be the area of loop placed in a magnetic field B, then mathematically, magnetic flux is defined as,
 
B = 
 B  dA …(17.1)


Here, dA is a vector of magnitude dA that is perpendicular to the differential area dA.

or, B = 
 B dA cos 
Here,  is the angle between the area vector and the direction of magnetic field. For uniform
magnetic field B is constant and the integration is carried for dA only and this gives just the area A of
the surface.
→
A
i.e. B = B cos  
 dA = BA cos  …(17.2)

Case I: If  = 90º, B = BA cos 90º = 0 (minimum)

If the direction of magnetic field is perpendicular to the →
B
direction of area vector, i.e. when the surface lies parallel to the
direction of field, the magnetic flux crossing the surface is zero
as shown in Fig. 17.2 (ii).

Case II: If  = 0º, B = BA cos 0º = BA (maximum) Fig. 17.2(ii): Magnetic flux for  = 90°

If the direction of magnetic field is parallel to direction of area vector i.e. when surface lies
perpendicular to direction of field, magnetic flux crossing the surface is maximum as shown in Fig.
17.2 (iii).

Case III: If  = 180º, B = BA cos 180º = –BA

If the direction of magnetic field is anti-parallel to area vector. →
A
maximum flux is linked with the surface but in opposite
direction of the surface. →
B
The current induced in a closed loop can now be explained in
terms of flux through the area enclosed by the loop and we call Fig. 17.2(iii): Magnetic flux for  = 0°
this flux as flux linked with the coil. So, whenever we move
magnet away or towards the coil, the flux linked with it changes and this change in magnetic flux
induces the current in the coil.

17.4 Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

After a series of careful investigations, Faraday was able to visualize the cause of emf and current
induced in the closed loop and deduce mathematical expression relating the emf and flux linked
with the closed loop. His findings can be summarized both qualitatively and quantitatively in
following two statements which are known as Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. This law
explains the working principle of electric motors, generators and transformers.

Qualitative statement
"An emf and hence the current is induced in a closed loop when the number of magnetic field lines
that pass through the loop is changing i.e. when the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes."
414 Principles of Physics - II
It should be understood that, the number of magnetic lines of force passing through the coil has
nothing to do with induced emf. But, the change in number of field lines passing through the loop
induces emf. The magnitude of induced emf depends only on the rate at which number of field lines
changes.
So, more precisely, Faraday's law can be stated in the form of a mathematical expression known as
the quantitative statement.

Quantitative statement
"The magnitude of the emf E induced in a closed conducting loop is equal to the rate at which the
magnetic flux through that loop changes with time".
d
i.e. E = – dt …(17.3)

The negative sign is used to indicate the opposition to the change of flux by induced emf.
If we seek only the magnitude, we omit the negative sing in equation (17.3).
If the closed loop is a coil of N turns, induced emf appears in every turn. The total emf induced is the
sum of these individual emfs.
For a tightly wound coil of N turns, same flux passes through every turn and hence the flux changes
at same rate. So, total emf induced is written as,
d
E =  N dt …(17.4)

Suppose a coil has N turns and flux through it changes from an initial value of 1 to the final value of
2 in time t. Then,
initial flux linkages = N1
final flux linkages = N2
N2  N1
Now, the induced emf (E) = t
2  1
E =N t 
 
d
In differential form, E = N dt (in magnitude)

General ways of changing magnetic flux

The magnetic flux linked with the coil can be changed by any one or all of the following methods.
1. Changing the magnitude of the magnetic field within the closed loop.
2. Changing either the total area or the portion of the area that lies within the magnetic field.
3. Changing the angle between the direction of field and plane of closed loop. For example, by
rotating it.
Note
i. Induced current requires a change in flux. We must remember that the existence of magnetic flux through an
area is not sufficient to create an induced emf. A change in that magnetic flux must occur for an emf to be
induced.
ii. Expression for induced charge: From Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
E 1 d
I = R = R – dt 
 
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  415

1 d
I = –R dt 1 2
Integrating, q =– R  d
dq 1 d

dt = - R dt 1
1
d q = – R [2 – 1]
dq = – R
For a coil with N number of turns.
N
q = – R [2 – 1]

17.5 Lenz law and direction of induced emf

Michael Faraday showed that the emf induced in the
closed loop (conducting) was due to the changing S

magnetic flux. Determining the direction of induced

emf and hence current in the loop is a theoretical rule
N
devised by Henrich Friedrich Lenz most popularly
N
known as Lenz law.
Bind
It states that, "the induced emf (current) has a direction
such that the magnetic field due to this current opposes the
change in magnetic flux that induces the current". In short, I
it can be stated as, "the induced current has a direction
such as to oppose the cause producing it". Lenz law is
S
the direct consequence of conservation of energy.
Fig. 17.3: (i) Direction of induced magnetic field
More clearly, whenever magnetic flux linked with
closed loop changes, current is induced in it. This in turn induces its own magnetic field. This
induced magnetic field opposes the change in the flux linkage due to externally applied field.

Explanation
Consider a bar magnet and a closed conducting loop as shown in Fig. 17.3, which are in relative
motion. As the bar magnet is moved toward the closed loop, the magnetic flux linked with the coil
increases which induces current in it in the direction shown. The induced current produces the
magnetic field (Bind) of its own. According to Lenz law, this induced magnetic field (Bind) must have a
direction such as to oppose the approaching bar magnet. This means, the induced magnetic field is
directed upwards as if the loop itself acts as a bar magnet with its north pole in upward direction
and south pole in downward direction. This direction of magnetic field is possible if the current (I) is
in anticlockwise direction as defined by right hand rule.
Lenz law can be better understood by the help of following tabulated experimental observations.
Direction of Bext Direction of
Experiment Illustration Remarks
and Bind current
1. A bar magnet S Bind must act Bext and Bind act
is moved upward so as to opposite so as to
towards coil N
repel approaching oppose the
with its N pole magnet
Bind Anticlockwise increasing down
N
facing coil. ward flux
I

Bext
416 Principles of Physics - II

2. A bar magnet S Bind and Bext have Bext and Bind act in
is moved same direction same direction
N
away from and Bind tend to
coil and N- S Clockwise oppose the
pole faces coil. decrease in
Bext
downward flux
Bind
linkage.
3. Magnet moves N Bext and Bind are in Bext and Bind act in
towards coil opposite direction opposite direction
with its s-pole S Bext and Bind opposes
facing the coil. S Clockwise the increasing
upward flux.

Bind

4. Magnet N Bext and Bind are in Bext and Bind act in

moved away same direction same direction
S
from coil with Bext Bind tend to
its s-pole N Bind Anticlockwise oppose the
facing the coil decreasing
I upward flux.

Lenz Law and Conservation of Energy

Let us consider a bar magnet be moved towards closed conducting loop with its north pole facing
the coil as shown in Fig. 17.3. According to the Lenz’s law the direction of induced emf must be such
that it opposes the motion of magnet of the approaching magnet. Let’s see why this has to happen.
When the magnet is moved towards the coil, the flux linked
with it changes. This induces the emf in the coil as defined by
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. This emf drives
current in the closed loop and hence the loop induces the S N S
Bind N
magnetic field of its own. Now, if this induced field develops
the south pole in the region near to north pole of bar magnet,
there is attraction between them. This attraction accelerates the I

bar magnet towards the coil thereby increasing the kinetic Fig. 17.3: (ii) Direction of induced
energy and without expending the equivalent amount of magnetic field
energy. This is clear violation of conservation of energy.
But, if the induced field develops north pole in the region near the north pole of the bar magnet,
there is repulsion between them. Thus, external work has to be done to overcome this repulsion. It is
this mechanical energy due to external work done that appears as the electrical energy in the form of
induced current. Similarly, when the bar magnet is moved away from the coil, the flux linked with
the coil decreases. And again, induced field in the coil has its south pole in the region near the north
pole of the bar magnet, so that the force now turns out to be attractive. In order to move bar magnet
away from the coil, external work has to be done. This external work done is converted into the
electrical energy in the coil. Thus, either the bar magnet is moved towards or away from the coil;
external work has to be done which appears as the electrical energy in the coil. For this region the
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  417
direction of induced emf must be opposite to the changing flux and hence Lenz law is in total
agreement with the conservation of energy.

Fleming Right Hand Rule

This rule is used to define the direction of induced current
especially for generator. According to this rule, if thumb, first
finger and second finger of right hand as held mutually
perpendicular to each other such that,
ThuMb points in the direction of Motion and First finger points
in the direction of Field then, seCond finger points in the
direction of induced Current.
The direction of induced current may be found easily by applying Fleming right hand rule or Lenz
law. Fleming rule is used where induced emf is due to flux cutting (dynamically induced emf) and
Lenz law is used when flux linkage is for statically induced emf.

17.6 Motional emf

Let us consider a stationary U-shaped conductor placed in a region of uniform magnetic field

B directed perpendicularly inward into the plane of paper A
+
shown by crosses  as in Fig. 17.4. Also, consider a movable
conducting rod AB which can slide over the U-shaped v l
conductor forming a closed loop.
Let the rod AB be moved inward with velocity v, then all the –
B
charge particles contained in the rod also have the same velocity
v along the same direction. Let q be one such charge situated Fig. 17.4: Motional emf of a conductor
anywhere at the instant when the motion is initiated. The
magnitude of Lorentz force experience by this charge is,
F = Bqv sin 
Here, the angle  between v and B is 90º. So,
F = Bqv …(17.5)
According to Flemming's left hand rule this charge experiences force in upward direction along the
length of the conductor towards A. The same is applied to all other charges in the conductor so that
the end A is more positive than end B. This creates an electric field within the rod directed from A to
B. Because of this field, the charge particles flow towards the ends unless the force due to electric
field with in the conductor is sufficient enough to cancel magnetic force on charge q.
In this situation, if E be the electric field, then
qE = Bqv
E = Bv …(17.6)
The charges will now be in equilibrium.
The stationary U-shaped conductor too has free charge carrier in it but these do not experience any
magnetic force. However, the charge particles near end A and B in Fig. 17.4, start to redistribute
along the length of stationary conductor creating an electric field within it. This establishes electric
current along its length from A to B. Thus, the moving rod has become source of emf, within the rod
charges flow from B to A (lower potential to higher potential as in battery) and in the stationary U-
418 Principles of Physics - II
shaped conductor current flows from A to B (higher to lower potential as in rest of the circuit). This
emf induced in the rod AB which drives the current through the closed circuit is known as motional
emf as it is developed in the conductor due to its motion in the magnetic field. Now, if a charge q
moves from B to A along the rod, due to non-electrostatic force (magnetic), then work done is,
W = Bqv  l
From definition of emf,
Workdone to move charge from lower potential to higher potential
E = Charge
Bqvl
= q = Bvl
 E = Bvl
This is the required expression for motional emf.
If the conductor moves at an angle  with the direction of flux, then the induced emf is
E = Blv sin 
  
In vector form, E = l( v  B )
 
i.e. cross product of vector v and B . Generators work on the production of dynamically
induced emf in the conductor.
Note
1. Induced emf across the wheel spoke:

If a bicycle wheel of radius r is rotated in a plane normal to the external uniform magnetic field B , the induced
emf between the axle and rim of the wheel (across the length of spoke) is calculated as follows:
In this case, two ends of spoke are not in same speed, the end which lies at the center of wheel has zero speed
0+v v
and the end which lies at its rim has maximum speed, v. So, the average speed vav = 2 = 2
v
 Induced emf (E) = B2 l

rr
=B 2 (... Here, v = r, l = r)
Br2
E = 2
2. emf induced due to geomagnetic field:
If an aircraft flies horizontally at the certain height in the sky, its metallic wing intersects the vertical
component of geomagnetic lines of force. So, the emf is induced across two ends of the wings. In such case, net

B is taken from only the vertical component of geomagnetic field. i.e., B = BV = BH tan
Hence, induced emf (E) = BVlv = (BH tan ) lv, where  is angle of dip.

17.7 Emf induced in a rotating coil in uniform magnetic field

Consider a rectangular coil of surface area A and having N number of turns. The coil is rotated in the

uniform magnetic field of B so that the direction between the field and area vector changes
continuously in its rotation. Then, the magnetic flux linked with the coil at any instant is given by:
 = NBA cos  (16.11)
As the coil rotates about an axis perpendicular to the magnetic field, it keeps on changing its relative
orientation with respect to the field as shown in Fig.17.5. So, the magnetic flux linked in coil also
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  419
changes continuously with time. This change in flux induces the 
emf in the coil. In every half cycle of its rotation, the direction of
emf reverses.
Let  be the angular velocity of the rotating coil. For time t, the
angular displacement of the coil,  = t. Therefore, →
 B
 = NBA cos t (17.7)
→
Differentiating with respect to time, A
d d cos t
dt = NBA dt
d
dt = –NBA  sin t (17.8)

d
The induced emf, E = – dt Fig. 17.5: Rotating coil in a
uniform magnetic field
 E = – (–NBA  sin t)
= NBA  sin t (17.9)
Since the induced emf E depends on periodic function sin t, the emf is periodic in nature. The value
of induced emf E is maximum, when sin t = 1, i.e. t = 90°. In this condition,
Emax = Eo = NBA  (17.10)


E

Eo
 2 3
t 
(0, 0)

Fig. 17.6: Nature of alternating emf

The value Eo (= NAB) is the peak value (peak value of emf). This condition is achieved when the
plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field.
 E = Eo sin t (17.11)
If we plot the graph between E and t, the graph is sine curve as shown in Fig.17.6.
The emf represented by equation (17.11) is called alternating emf. Also,
E = IR (17.12)
So, the equation (17.11) is written as,
IR = Io R sin t
I = Io sin t (17.13)
The equation represented by equation (17.13) is called alternating current (a.c.). The graph of I versus
t is shown in Fig.17.7.
420 Principles of Physics - II


I

Io
 2 3 t 
(0, 0)

Fig. 17.7: Nature of alternating current

17.8 Inductor and Inductance

Inductor is a circuit element that is designed to oppose any variations in the current through the
circuit. It is also called as choke, and the usual circuit symbol for inductor is . Basically, it is a
coil of conducting wire.

17.9 Self inductance

In any circuit, the current flowing through it sets up magnetic field of its own and causes magnetic
flux. If there is any variation in the current flowing through the circuit, the magnetic flux changes,
This change induces an emf in it. This induced emf in any circuit due to change in current in itself is
called self induced emf and the phenomenon is known as self induction. According to Lenz law, this
induced emf always opposes the current that caused this emf and hence tends to make it more
difficult for the variations in current to occur.
In more simple way, when current increases in the circuit, the magnetic flux linked with circuit
increases. This induces emf in the direction tending to oppose the increase of current. Similarly,
when current deceases in the circuit, the magnetic flux linked with circuit decrease. This induces emf
in the direction tending to oppose the decrease of current.
Thus, in both the situations, the self induced emf tends to oppose the variations of the current in the
circuit.
Let us consider, an inductor in the form of coil having N number of turns and I be the current
flowing through it. As stated earlier, the magnetic flux () linked with it is directly proportional to
current flowing through it.
i.e.   I
or,  = LI …(17.14)
Where, L is proportionality constant known as coefficient of self induction or self inductance.
Rearranging equation (17.14),

L=I ...(17.15)

Thus, self inductance is mathematically defined as the ratio of total magnetic flux linked to the
current flowing in the coil. Its value depends upon the number of turns, size, shape and material of
the coil and permeability of the medium inside the coil.
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  421
Differentiating equation (17.14) with respect to time, we get,
d dI
dt = L dt …(17.16)

According to Faraday's law of induction, the induced emf E due to change in flux is, N
d
E = – dt …(17.17) I

So, from equations (17.16) and (17.17), we get

dI
E = – Ldt …(17.18)
I
dI S
In equation (17.18), if, dt = 1 As–1, then E = –L Fig. 17.8: Self inductance
Thus, self inductance is also defined as the emf induced in the coil when the rate of change of current in it is
unity.
In equation (17.17), writing the dimensions of quantities on R.H.S. we get,
M1L2T–3A–1
[L] =  × T1 = [M1L2T–2A–2]
 A1 
Which is the dimensional formula for self inductance.
dI
Also, in equation (17.17), the unit of E is volt (V) and that of dt is As–1. Thus, S.I. unit of inductance is,

VA–1s which is known as Henry, in the honour of Joseph Henry. On the other hand, the equation  =
LI gives the unit of inductance as weber per ampere (WbA-1)
 WbA–1 = VA–1s = Henry
Finally, one henry is defined as the induced emf of 1 volt when the current changes at the rate of 1
ampere per second in the circuit.

17.10 Energy stored in an inductor

When current flowing through inductor increases, the magnetic flux increases and emf is induced in
the coil. This opposes rising current in the coil and the external field does work in it for this purpose.
This work is done till the current attains a maximum steady value and is stored in the form of energy
in the inductor. After this steady value of current no work is done. The energy acquired in this
process is not dissipated if the inductor is ideal (zero resistance) but is stored in it as magnetic
dI
potential energy. This energy is released only when the current in the circuit decreases. If dt be the
rate at which the current I in the circuit increases, then magnitude of induced emf E is related to self
inductance as,
dI
E = L dt …(17.19)

If P be the rate at which energy is delivered (i.e. power) to the inductor, then we can write,
P=IE …(17.20)
as (P = IV)
From equation (17.19) and (17.20), we get,
dI
P = L dt  I
422 Principles of Physics - II
or, P  dt = L I d I …(17.21)
The total power delivered to raise the value of current from 0 to a steady value I0 in time t is obtained
by integrating equation (17.21) as,
t I0

 P  dt = 
 LI  dI
0 0
t
Here,  P  dt = W = total work done at time 't'

0
I0
 W = L  IdI

0
1 2
W = 2 LI0
Thus, magnetic energy stored in the inductor is,
1 2
U = W = 2 LI0 ...(17.22)

Self inductance of plane coil

Consider a plane coil of radius r having current I passing through it. The magnetic field at the centre
of the coil,
0 NI
B = 2r (17.23)

Where, N is the number of turns in the plane coil. The magnetic flux linked at the centre of the coil,
 = NBA
0 NI
= N  2r  r2
 
 0 N2 Ir
= 2 (17.24)

Also,
 = LI (17.25)
Equating equation (17.24) and (17.25), we get,
 0 N2 Ir
LI = 2
 0 N2r
L = 2 (17.26)

Self Inductance of a Solenoid

Consider an infinitly long solenoid of radius r and cross section A which carries current I. The
uniform magnetic field at the centre of solenoid,
0 NI
B = 0nI = l (17.27)

Now, the flux linked,

 = NBA
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  423
0 N I
=N l A

0 N A I
2
= l (16.28)
Also,
 = LI (17.29)
Equating (17.28) and (17.29), we get,
0 N2 A
LI = l I
0 N A2
L = l
0 N2 Al
= l2
L = 0 n2 Al (17.30)
N
Where, n is the number of turns per unit length, n = l . From equation (17.30), we conclude that self
inductance can be increased by increasing the number of terns per unit length (n), Area enclosed (A)
and length (l) of solenoid.

Non-inductive Winding
If a wire is bended two folds and then wounded as shown in
Fig.17.8, the coil is said to be non-inductive. Each coil is in close
contact with a similar turn carrying same current in the opposite
direction. In this condition, the magnetic field produced by one coil
is neutralized by another coil. So, the resultant magnetic flux and
the net self inductance in non-inductive winding are negligible. Fig. 17.9: Non-inductive winding

17.11 Mutual Induction

The phenomenon of inducing voltage (emf) in a coil due to variation of Ip A B Is
current in another coil placed nearby is called mutual induction. The coil
in which current is varied is called primary coil and the coil in which emf
Ep Es
is induced is called secondary coil.
Let us consider two coils A and B as shown in Fig. 17.10 in which coil A
acts as primary and B acts as secondary coil. The coil A has magnetic Fig: 17.10: Mutual induction
field of its own due to the current flowing through it and hence has the
magnetic flux linked to itself and the coil B near to it. When the current in coil A is gradually
increased, there is change in magnetic flux linked with both the coils. This change in magnetic flux
induces emf in the coil B and this phenomenon is called mutual induction.
Here, the emf is induced in the primary coil as well due to self induction which tends to oppose the
increase in current in it. The emf induced in secondary coil B also opposes the growth of current in
primary coil A. It is found that, greater the current flowing in primary greater will be the flux linkage
with the secondary. So, if Ip be the current through primary and s be the flux linked with the
secondary, then
s  Ip
s = MIp …(17.31)
424 Principles of Physics - II
Here, M is a proportionality constant known as coefficient of mutual induction of mutual inductance .
Rearranging equation (17.31) we get,
s
M=I …(17.32)
p

Thus, coefficient of mutual induction is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux linked with secondary
to the current in the primary coil. It's value depends upon the number of turns in the secondary coil,
shape and size of the coil, distance between two coils, orientation of the coils and permeability of
core material.
Differentiating equation (17.31) with respect to time,
ds dIp
dt = M dt …(17.33)

According to Faraday's law, the emf (Es) induced in secondary is given as,
ds
dt = – Es …(17.34)

From equations (17.33) and (17.34), we get,

dIp
ES = –M dt …(17.35)

dIp
If the rate of change of current in primary, dt = 1 As–1 then, Es = –M

Thus, coefficient of mutual induction is defined as the emf induced in the secondary coil when the current in
the primary coil changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. It's unit is henry.
dIp
In equation (17.35), if ES = 1 volt and dt = –1 As–1.

then, M = 1 henry
Thus, coefficient of mutual induction of two coils is said to be 1 henry when the current changing at
the rate of 1 As–1 in the primary coil induces an emf of 1 volt in the secondary coil.

Mutual inductance of two concentric plane coils r2

Consider two concentric circular coils of different radii r1 and r2 (for r2
> r1) which are arranged coaxially as shown in Fig. 17.11. r1
Let I1 and I2 be the current in inner circular coil and outer circular coil
respectively.
The magnetic field produced by outer circular coil at the centre,
Fig. 17.11: Mutual induction
0 N2 I2 of two concentric plane coils
B2 = 2r (17.36)
2

The magnetic flux linked across the inner coil is,

1 = N 1 B2 A 1
0 N2 I2
= N1  2r   r21
 2 
 0 N1 N2 r21
1 = 2r2 I2 (17.37)

Also,
1 = M12 I2 (17.38)
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  425
Equating (17.37) and (17.38), we get,
 0 N1 N2 r21
M12 I2 = 2r2 I2

 0 N1 N2 r21
 M12 = 2r2 (17.39)

Generally, uniform magnetic field B is appropriate while calculating the mutual inductance. Now,
when we consider the current through larger coil, then, the magnetic field near the centre of coil
becomes uniform. So, the flux linked and hence, the magnetic field of the smaller co-axial coil also
becomes uniform. In such case, it is easier to calculate the mutual inductance on smaller coil due to
larger coil. But, when we consider the flow of current through inner coil, though the field is more or
less uniform inside this cross-section, it becomes non-uniform outside, in the area between larger coil
and smaller coil owing to large radius of larger coil. So, calculation of mutual inductance on larger
coil due to small, becomes difficult (Ref. Halliday, Resnik and Walker). In such situation, the
reciprocity theorem becomes helpful. According to the reciprocity theorem,
 0 N1 N2 r21
M12 = M21 = 2r2
For N1 = N2 = 1
 0 r21
M12 = M21 = 2r
2

Mutual Induction between Two Solenoids

Consider two very long coaxial solenoids of equal length 'l'. Let r1 and r2 be the radius of interior and
exterior solenoid respectively. If current I2 flows through the exterior solenoid, magnetic field B2 is
generated inside it. The magnetic field B2 so produced induces the interior solenoid and emf is
induced in it. It is noted that the magnetic flux which is enclosed into the interior solenoid is
responsible to create the induced emf (and hence, induced current) in this solenoid.
l

r2
r1

Fig.17.12: Mutual Induction between two solenoids

In this condition, exterior solenoid acts as primary solenoid and interior solenoid acts as secondary
solenoid. Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns in primary solenoid and secondary solenoid
respectively.
The magnetic field at any point inside the primary solenoid is,
0N2I2
B2 = l (17.40)

The magnetic flux passing through the secondary solenoid is,

1 = N1A1B2 (17.41)
426 Principles of Physics - II
where, A1 is the cross-sectional area of secondary coil and A1 = r12.
Using (17.40) in (17.41), we get,
0N2I2
1 = N1 r12 
 l 
0N1N2 r12
= l  I2 (17.42)

Also, the flux linkage in the secondary coil is,

1 = M12 I2 (17.43)
Equating (17.42) and (17.43), we get,
0N1N2 r12
M12I2 = l  I2

0N1N2 r12
 M12 = l (17.44)

As explained in concentric plane coils, the reciprocity theorem can be applied here. So, we get,
0N1N2 r12 0N1N2 A
M12 = M21 = l = l (17.45)

where, A = area of smaller solenoid.

17.12 A.C. Generator

A closed loop rotating in a uniform magnetic field in a convenient fashion induces a voltage between
the loop terminals. This effect can be used to build on electric power generator. This device actually
converts mechanical energy into electric energy. An a.c. generator also called as alternator, converts
mechanical energy into sinosuidally varying electrical energy.

Operation Principle
Principle of operation of a.c. generator is electromagnetic induction. When a closed conducting loop
rotates in a uniform magnetic field, the flux linked with the loop changes continuously. This induces
emf that varies sinosuidally as defined by Faraday law of electromagnetic induction.
Y
Construction and working

The basic elements of an electric generator are shown in Fig. C
B
17.13. A wire loop ABCD rotates about a vertical axis YY'
within the uniform magnetic field generated by the pole
pieces N and S as in Fig. 17.13(i). This rectangular loop is N S
B
known as armature. Each terminal of the loop is connected to
a metal ring R1 and R2 usually made of copper which rotates Y' D
A
along with the armature. The contact with the rings is made R1
by means of fixed brushes B1 and B2. If the brushes are B1
connected to an electrical load RL, an alternating current will R2 B2
be established in the circuit. When the coil is rotated anticlock
RL
wise (say), from its initial position with its plane parallel to
field, the flux linkage increases continuously which induces
current in the circuit, and becomes maximum when the
output
orientation of loop is perpendicular to field. The current in A.C. Voltage
this case is from B2 to B1 according to Fleming right hand rule.
When the coil is rotated further this orientation, the flux starts Fig. 17.13 (i): A.C. generator
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  427
to decrease and again the induced current in the external circuit is from B1 to B2 as determined by
Fleming's right hand rule. Thus, the continuous rotation of coil produce current which varies
sinosuidally with time which is because of the change of position of coil relatively to the magnetic
poles. The amplitude of the current/voltage produced depends upon the magnetic field strength and
rotational speed of loop. The frequency is equal to the number of revolutions per second executed by
the loop.
Let at any instant of time, the normal to the plane of coil makes angle  with the field B. If N be the
number of turns in the loop each of area A, then,

magnetic flux linkage () = N ( B . A ) = NBA cos .
Since,  is the angular frequency,  = t, Thus,
 = NBA cos t ... (17.46)
The change in  due to rotation produces change in flux and according to Faraday's law emf (E) is
induced which is given by,
–d –d
E = dt = dt (NBA cos t)

= – BNA (– sin t). 

E = BNA sin t ... (17.47)
For maximum emf, sin t = 1. So, Emax = Eo = BNA.
Thus, equation (17.47) can be written as,

E = Eo = sin t ... (17.48) E
Cases: If t = 0, E = 0
 
If t = 2 E = Eo sin2 = Eo
Eo
If t =  E = Eo sin = 0  2 3 t
3 3 (0, 0)
 t = 2 E = Eo sin 2 = Eo

t = 2 E = Eo sin 2 = 0
The variation of emf with time is thus
as shown in Fig. 17.13 (ii). Fig. 17.13(ii) : Nature of alternating emf
E Eo
The current is given by, I = R = R sin t = Iosin t

17.13 Transformer
An electrical device which transforms (changes) an alternating voltage from one value to another of greater or
smaller value by using the principle of mutual induction is called transformer.
A transformer is symbolically represented as in Fig. 17.14(i).

Primary
Secondary

(i) (ii)
Fig. 17.14 (i): Symbol of transformer (ii) Single limb transformer
428 Principles of Physics - II
It essentially consists of two coils called soft iron core
primary and secondary separated from
each other and coiled around a soft iron
core either one on top of other as shown in Input EP

load
ES Output
Fig. 17.14 (ii) or on separate limbs as
shown in Fig. 17.14 (iii).
When, an alternating voltage is applied to magnetic field lines
the primary coil, the resulting current Fig. 17.14 (iii): Schematic diagram for a transformer
produces a large alternating magnetic flux
d
which links the secondary and induces emf in it due to mutual induction. If dt be the rate at which
the flux linked with secondary changes, then from Faraday's law, emf induced (Es) in the secondary
is,
d
Es = – Ns dt …(17.49)

Here, Ns = number of turns in the secondary due to change in current in primary with emf (Ep) is
induced in due to its self induction. Therefore,
d
Ep = –Np dt …(17.50)

Here, Np = number of turns in the primary.

Dividing equation (17.49) by equation (17.50), we get,
Es Ns
Ep = Np …(17.51)

This is known as transformer equation. We see from above equation that emf (Es) induced in
secondary depends upon the number of turns on it. So, we can categorize transformed on the basis of
number of turns it has in secondary in comparison to primary coil. A transformer having more
number of turns in secondary than primary coil is called step up transformed. This is so called
because output voltage is greater than the supplied input voltage.
A transformer having less number of turns in secondary as compared to primary is called step-down
transformer. It is so called because, the output voltage is smaller than the supplied input voltage.
For an ideal transformer, applied voltage Vp is nearly not quite equal to Ep and Vs (terminal voltage
across secondary) is also equal to Es to a good approximation.
Thus, from equation (17.51),
Vs Ns
V p = Np …(17.52)

Now, if the transformer is 100% efficient, then from energy considerations,

Input power = output power
Vp Ip = VsIs
Vs Ip
Vp = I s …(17.53)

From equations (17.52) and (17.53), we get

Ns Ip
Np = Is
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  429
From this relation we see that, in a step up transformer (Ns > Np) so, Ip > Is. This implies Vs > Vp. The
gain in voltage in secondary and loss in current in it are at same ratio. So that IsVs is more or less
constant. This means we obtain high voltage at low current in step up transformer. The reverse
happens in case of step down transformer.

Efficiency of Transformer
The efficiency of transformer is defined as the ratio of output power to input power. It is denoted by
. Transformers are the most highly efficient electrical devices. Most of the transformer have
efficiency between 99% to 98.5%.
Output power is developed in secondary coil and input power is supplied from primary coil.
Therefore,
Output power (Pout) = IsVs
Input power (Pin) = IpVp
IsVs
So,  = I V
p p

It is usually expressed in percentage, So

IsVs
 = I V  100%
p p

Eddy Current
Instead of a closed conducting loop, if a
conducting sheet or block is subjected to time
varying magnetic flux, a voltage is induced in this
body which gives rise to currents circulating in
appropriate paths as shown in Fig. 17.15. These
currents are referred to as eddy currents or I
Foucault current. These currents may be large
even for small induced emf because the resistance B

of conductor is quite low.

Fig. 17.15: Eddy current
Applications of Eddy Current
i. Eddy currents are used in electric brake.
ii. The heating effect of eddy current is employed in the construction of induction furnace.
iii. It is used a dead-beat galvanometer. The electromagnetic damping principle is used in such
galvanometer.
iv. High frequency a.c. ( 50 MHz) is used in deep heat treatment.
v. It is used in inductive motor.
vi. It is used in car speedometer.

Energy Losses in Transformer

Although transformers are very efficient devices, some energy losses do occur because of the
following four factors.
i. Resistance of the windings: The copper wire used as winding has resistance so heat loses (I2R) occur
in them. This is called copper loss.
430 Principles of Physics - II
ii. Eddy currents: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in soft iron core and causes
heating. This is called as iron loss. This effect can be minimized by using laminated iron core.
iii. Hysteresis loss: The magnetization of the core is repeatedly reversed by alternating magnetic field.
The resulting expenditure of energy in core appears as heat and this is known as hysteresis loss. This
effect can be minimized by using silicon iron core.
iv. Flux linkage: The flux due to primary may not all link the secondary if the core is badly designed or
has air gaps in it. This causes flux leakage and is known as magnetic loss.

Tips for MCQs

1. Magnetic Flux:
 
i. It is scalar quantity. The scalar product of magnetic field strength B and area vector A gives the
   
magnetic flux  = B . A = BA cos . (where  is the angle between B and A)

ii. The direction of area vector A is always taken perpendicular to the plane of A.
 
iii. The magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero. i.e.  = ∮ B . d A = 0
2. Electromagnetic induction:
i. Faraday's first law: Whenever the magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit changes, an emf
induced in it. This law gives the cause of emf.
ii. Faraday's second law: The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the closed circuit. This law gives the magnitude of emf.
3. Lenz law: The direction of induced current is such that it opposes the cause which produces it. It
gives the direction of emf. It is based on conservation of energy.
4. Information about induced emf, current, charge and power.
Induced emf Induced current Induced charge Induced power
d E N d E E2 d 2 1
E = – N dt I = R = – R . dt q = Idt = –R d P = IE = R = N2  dt  . R
 
Exists in both open and Exists only when Exists only when Exists in both open or
closed circuits circuit is closed circuit is closed closed circuit
5. Fleming Right hand rule: This rule gives direction of induced current, magnetic field and motion of
conductor. In stretched fingers of right hand in mutually perpendicular direction.
a. Thumb shows direction of motion of conductor.
b. First finger shows direction of magnitude field.
c. Second finger shows direction of current.
6. Magnitude of induced emf:
i. For a conducting rod moving in a uniform magnetic field, E = Blv sin , where  is the angle
 
between l and B .
1 1
ii. For a conducting rod rotating with angular velocity  in a uniform magnetic field, E = 2 Bl2 = 2

B. 2f. l2 = Bl2f = BAf

Here, A = l2 is the area swept by the rod in one rotation.
Br2
iii. For a disc of radius r rotating in uniform magnetic field, E = 2 = BAf.
iv. For a rectangular coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field, E = BAN sint = E0 sint
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  431
7. Self induction:
i. Magnetic flux,  = LI
dI
ii. Induced emf in the coil, E = – L dt
iii. The SI unit of L is Henry or weber/ampere.
0N2A
iv. For a solenoid, L = l
0N2A
v. For a plane circular coil, (L)=  2r
vi. Self inductance of straight wire is zero.
1
vii. The energy stored by a inductor, U = 2 LI2
B2
viii. Magnetic energy density, U =
20
8. Mutual induction
dI
i. The emf induced by neighbouring coil, E = – M dt
ii. The mutual inductance of two long coaxial solenoids each of length l , area of cross-section A
2
0N1N2 r1
wound in air is, M = 2r2 , r2 is radius of bigger coil or r2 > r1
9. Eddy Current:
i. Transformer do not make the use of eddy current.
ii. It is produced in conducting sheet or block due to time varying magnetic field.
10. Transformer:
i. It is based on principle of mutual induction.
Vs Ns Ip
ii. Relation of alternating voltage, alternating current and number of turns in two coils. V = N = I
p p s
iii. Frequency of a.c. is not altered by the transformer.
output power
iv. Efficiency,  = intput power  100%

Worked Out Problems

–3 2
1. [HSEB 2067] A coil of 100 turns each of area 2  10 m has a resistance of 12 . It lies in horizontal
–3 2
plane in a vertical magnetic flux density of 3  10 Wbm . What charge circulates through the coil of
its end are short circuited and the coil is rotated through 180º about a diameter.
SOLUTION
Given, = NAB cos 0° – NAB cos 180°
No. of turns (N) = 100 = NAB + NAB = 2 NAB
Area (A) = 2 × 10–3 m2 = 2 × 100 × 2 × 10–3 × 3 × 10–3
Resistance (R) = 12  = 0.0012
Magnetic flux density (B) = 3 ×10–3 T = 1.2 × 10–3 Wb
Charge (q) = ? Then, we have;
We have,  1.2 × 10–3
Charge (q) = R = 12
Magnetic Flux () = NAB cos 
Then,  q = 10–4 C
 = 1 – 2 = NAB cos 1 – NAB cos 2 Hence, the required charge is 10–4 C.
432 Principles of Physics - II
2. [HSEB 2073] A straight conductor of length 15 cm is moving with uniform speed of 10 ms-1 making
an angle of 30º with uniform magnetic field of 10-4 Tesla. Calculate the emf induced across the
length.

SOLUTION
Given, Induced emf (E) = ?
Length of conductor (l) = 15 cm = 0.15 m We have,
Velocity of conductor (v) = 10 ms–1 E = Blv sin 
Angle () = 30º = 10–4 × 0.15 × 10 × sin 30º
Magnetic field (B) = 10–4 T = 7.5 × 10–5 V/m

3. A metal aircraft with a wing span of 40 m files with a ground speed of 1000 kmh-1 in a direction
due east at constant altitude in a region of the northern hemisphere where the horizontal
component of the earth's magnetic field is 1.6 × 10-5 T and the angle of dip is 71.6°. Find the potential
difference in volts that exists between the wing tips.
SOLUTION
Given,  BV = BH tan 
BH = 1.6 × 10-5 T = 1.6 × 10-5  tan (71.6°) = 4.8 × 10-5 T
Angle of dip () = 71.6°  p.d. between wing tips,
E=? In this case, the wing of aircraft intersects the
Length of wing span (l) = 40 m vertical component of geomagnetic lines of
1000 × 1000 2500 force, so,
v = 1000 km/h = 60 × 60 = 9 m/s 2500
E = BV l v = 4.8 × 10-5 × 40 × 9 = 0.53 V
BV
∵ tan  = B
H

4. A square copper loop, 10.0 cm on a side, is located in a region of changing magnetic field. The
direction of the magnetic field makes an angle 37 with the plane of the loop. The time-changing
field has the following time dependence: B (t) = 0.10 T + (1.00  10–3 T/s) t. Find the induced emf in
the copper loop for times t > 0.
SOLUTION
Given, dB
Side of the square (l) = 10.0 cm = 0.1 m dt = 1.00  10–3 Ts–1
 Area (A) = l2 = (0.1)2 = 0.01 m2 From Faraday's law of electromagnetic
Angle between the field and normal of the loop, induction, we have
 = 90 – 37 = 53 d dB
E = dt (BA cos ) = A cos  dt
Magnetic field (B) = 0.10 + 1.00  10–3 t
Induced emf (E) = ? = A cos  (1 × 10–3 )
dB d = 0.01 × cos 53° × 1 × 10–3
Here dt = dt (0.10 + 1.00  10–3 t)  E = 6.02 × 10–6 V
5. A satellite, orbiting the earth at the equator at an altitude of 400 km, has an antenna that can be
modeled as a 2.0 m long rod. The antenna is oriented perpendicular to the earth’s surface. At the
equator, the earth’s magnetic field is essentially horizontal and has a value of 8.0  10–5 T; ignore
any changes in B with altitude. Assuming the orbit is circular; determine the induced emf between
the tips of the antenna.
SOLUTION
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  433
Given, Induced emf (E) = ?
Height (h) = 400 km = 400  103 m We know that
Length of antenna (L) = 2.0 m ..
. E = vBL . . . (i)
Magnetic field (B) = 8.0  10–5 T,
The gravitational force between the satellite
Mass of earth (M) = 5.97 × 1024 kg. and the earth provides necessary centripetal
force i.e., 6.67 × 10–11 × 5.97 × 1024
GMm mv2 = 400 × 103 + 6.38 × 106
x2 = x , where M be the mass of earth, m = 7664 ms–1.
be the mass of satellite and x = h + R From (i) we get
GM E = 7664  8.0  10–5  2.0 = 1.2 V
or v = x

7. When a wheel with metal spokes 1.2 m long is rotated in a magnetic field of flux density 5 × 10-5 T
normal to the plane of wheel, an emf of 10-2 V is induced between the rim and axle. Find the rate of
rotation of the wheel. [4]
SOLUTION
Given, r 2fr
= B. r . 2 = B. r . 2
Length of metal spokes, r = 1.2 m
Magnetic flux density, B = 5 × 10–5 T = B. r2 f = BA f
Induced e.m.f., E = 10–2 V E E
f = BA =
Rate of rotation, f = ? B  r2
In such case, we have 10–2
= = 44.2 rev/sec
0+v 5 × 10–5 ×  × (1.2)2
E = B.l. vav.= B. r.  2 
   f = 44.2 rev/s

8. Find the emf induced in a straight conductor of length 25 cm, on the armature of a dynamo and 12
cm from the axis, when the conductor is moving in a uniform radial magnetic field of 0.5 T. The
armature is rotating at 1000 revolutions per minute. [4]
SOLUTION
Induced emf (E) = ? We have,
Length of conductor (l) = 25 cm = 0.25 m E = Blv = B.l..r
Distance from axis (r) = 12 cm = 0.12 m = B.l. 2 f. r
Magnetic flux density (B) = 0.5 T = 0.5 × 0.25 × 2 × 1000/60 × 0.12
Frequency (f) = 1000 rev/min = 1.57 V.
= 1000/60 rev/sec

9. The current in an inductor of self inductance 40 mH is to be increased uniformly from 1A to 11 A in

4 milliseconds. What is the emf produced in the inductor during this process?
SOLUTION
Given, Now, induced emf is,
I1 = 1A, I2 = 11 A dI
E = – L dt = – 40  10–3  2.5  103 = – 100 V
dt = 4 ms = 4  10–3 s
L = 40 mH = 40  10–3 H The negative sign tells that it opposes the
The change of current with respect to time, changes. The induced emf has the magnitude
dI I2 – I1 11 – 1 100 V.
dt = dt = 4  10–3 = 2.5  10 As
3 –1

10. Two plane coils having number of turns 1000 and 2000 and radii 5 cm and 10 cm respectively are
placed coaxially in the same plane. Calculate their mutual inductance. (0 = 4 × 10–7 H/m)
SOLUTION
434 Principles of Physics - II
Given,
Number of turns of interior coil (N1) = 1000 Number of turns of exterior coil (N2) = 2000
Radius of interior coil (r1) = 5 cm = 5× 10–2 m Radius of exterior coil (r2) = 10 cm = 10 × 10–2m
For experimental physibility, outer coil is considered as the primary coil. The fluctuation of current in
it induces emf in the inner coil. So, inner coil is considered as the secondary. So, mutual induction is
taken as,
0N1N2r12 4 × 10–7 ×1000 × 2000 ×  × (5 ×10–2)2
M = 2r2 = 2 × 10 × 10–2 = 0.099 H

11. An air-filled torodial solenoid has a mean radius of 15.0 cm and a cross-sectional area of 5.00 cm2.
When the current is 12.0 A, the energy stored is 0.390 J. How many turns the winding have?
SOLUTION

1 µ0N2A 
or U = 2 
Given,
 2r  I
2
Mean radius (r) = 15 cm = 15 × 10–2 m
Cross – sectional area (A) = 5 cm2 = 5 × 10–4 m2 4 rU
or N2 =
I = 12 A 4 × 10–7 × A I2
Energy stored (U) = 0.390 J r×U 1/2
 N =  10–7 × A I2
Number of turns (N) = ?  
We know that 15 × 10 -2 × 0.390 1/2
=  10–7 × 5 × 10-4 × (12)2
1
U = 2 LI2
 
 N = 2850

12. [HSEB 2052] A step down transforms, a supply line voltage 220 volts into 100 volts. Primary coil has
500 turns. The efficiency and power transmitted by the transformer are 80% and 80 kW. Find (a) the
number of turns in the secondary coil; (b) power supplied.
SOLUTION
Given, or, Ns = 227
Ep = 220 V Es = 100 V (b) Power supplied (Pin) = ?
Np = 500,  = 80 %, We know that
Pout
 =  P  × 100%
Pout = 80 kW = 80 × 103 W
(a) Number of turns in secondary coil (Ns) = ?  in 
We know that 80 × 103
or, 80% = P × 100%
Ns Es in

Np = Ep  Pin = 105 W
Es 100
 Ns = E Np = 220 × 500
 p  

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] The armature of a small generator consists of a flat, square coil with 120 turns and sides with a
length of 1.60 cm. The coil rotates in a magnetic field of 0.0750 T. What is the angular speed of the coil
if the maximum emf produced is 24.0 mV?
Ans: 10.4 rad/s

2. [UP] In figure a conducting rod with length L = 30.0 cm moves in

× × × × × × × ×
→ × × × ×L× × × ×
a magnetic field B of magnitude 0.450 T directed into the plane
a b
× × × × × × × ×
× × × × v× × ×B×
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  435
of the figure. The rod moves with speed v = 5.00 ms–1 in the
direction shown. What is the motional emf induced in the rod?
Ans: 0.675 V

3. [UP] Two coils have mutual inductance M = 3.25 × 10-4

H. The current I1 in the first coil increases at a
uniform rate of 830 As–1 (a) What is the magnitude of the induced emf in the second coil? Is it
constant? (b) Suppose that the current described is in the second coil rather than the first. What is the
magnitude of the induced emf in the first coil?
Ans: (a) 0.270 V, Yes (b) 0.270 V

4. [UP] Two toroidal solenoids are wound around the same form so that the magnetic field of one
passes through the turns of the other. Solenoid 1 has 700 turns and solenoid 2 has 400 turns. When
the current in solenoid 1 is 6.52 A, the average flux through each turn of solenoid 2 is 0.0320 Wb. (a)
What is the mutual inductance of the pair of solenoids? (b) When the current in solenoid 2 is 2.54 A,
What is the average flux through each turn of solenoid 1?
Ans: (a) 1.96 H (b) 7.11 × 10–3 Wb
5. [UP] When the current in a toroidal solenoid is changing at a rate of 0.0260 As–1, the magnitude of the
induced emf is 12.6 mV. When the current equals 1.40 A, the average flux through each turn of the
solenoid is 0.00285 Wb. How many turns does the solenoid have?
Ans: 238
6. [UP] At the instant when the current in an inductor is increasing at a rate of 0.0640 As-1, the
magnitude of the self-induced emf is 0.0160 V. (a) What is the inductance of the inductor? (b) If the
inductor is a solenoid with 400 turns, what is the average magnetic flux through each turn when the
current is 0.720 A?
Ans: (a) 0.25 H (b) 4.5 × 10–4 Wb
7. [UP] An inductor used in a d.c. power supply has an inductance of 12.0 H and a resistance of 180 .
It carries a current of 0.300 A.
a. What is the energy stored in the magnetic field ?
b. At what rate is thermal energy developed in the inductor ?
Ans: (a) 0.540 J (b) 16.2 W
8. [UP] It has been proposed to use large inductors as energy storage devices.
a. How much electrical energy is converted to light and thermal energy by a 200 W light bulb in a
day?
b. If the amount of energy calculated in part (a) is stored in a inductor in which the current is 80.0
A, what is the inductance?
Ans: (a) 1.73 × 107 J (b) 54.1 × 102 H
9. [UP] An inductor with an inductance of 2.50 H and a resistance of 8.00  is connected to the
terminals of a battery with an emf of 6.00 V and negligible internal resistance. Find

a. the initial rate of increase of current in the circuit;

b. the rate of increase of current at the instant when the current is 0.500 A.
Ans: (a) 2.40 As–1 (b) 0.8 As–1
10. A transformer has 500 turns in the primary coil and 100 turns in the secondary coil. What is the
output voltage if the input voltage is 4000 V? If the transformer is assumed to have an efficiency of
100%, what primary current is required to draw 2000 watts from the secondary? [HSEB 2060]
Ans: 800 V, 0.5A
P X Q
11. [ALP] In figure the coil PQRS is rotated about the axis XY at 50 rev s-1.
Calculate the maximum emf induced in the coil. What is the
instantaneous emf in the coil when its plane is (i) parallel to the
B = 0.4 T
direction of B (ii) 60° to B (iii) 90° to B ? (N=5 turns, l=10 cm and b = 5 cm)
Ans: (i) 3.14 V (ii) 1.57 V (iii) 0

S Y R
436 Principles of Physics - II
12. [ALP] A circular metal disc of area 3.0 × 10-3 m2 is rotated at 50 rev/s about an axle through its center
perpendicular to its plane. The disc is in a uniform magnetic field of flux density 5.0 × 10-3 T in the
direction of the axle. Between which points on this disc is the maximum emf induced? What is the
value of this emf?
Ans: 7.5 × 10-4 V
13. [ALP] A flat search coil containing 50 turns each of area 2.0 × 10-4 m2 is connected to a galvanometer;
the total resistance of the circuit is 100 . The coil is placed so that its plane is normal to a magnetic
field of flux density 0.25 T. (a) What is the change in magnetic flux linking the circuit when the coil is
moved to a region of negligible magnetic field? (b) What charge passes through the galvanometer?
Ans: (a) 2.5 × 10-3 Wb (b) 2.5 × 10-5 C
14. [ALP] A 2.0 H solenoid is connected in series with a resistor, so that resistance is 0.5 , to a 2.0 V d.c.
supply. What is (i) the final current? (ii) the initial rate of current with time, (iii) the rate of change of
current with time when the current is 2.0 A?
Ans: (i) 4 A (ii) 1 A s-1 (iii) 0.5 As-1
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. State the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
 Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction are:
i. Induced emf is produced due to the change of magnetic flux linked with a circuit and,
ii. The magnitude of induced emf is proportional to rate of change of magnetic flux linked the
circuit.
d
i.e.  = –N dt

2. What is electromagnetic induction? What are its uses?

 It is the production of electromotive force across an electrical conductor in a changing magnetic field.
Its discovery was credited by Michael Faraday in 1831. It has many applications in technology
including electrical components such as inductors and transformers, and devices such as electric
motors and generators.
3. What is magnetic flux?
 The magnetic flux linked with a surface held in a magnetic field is defined as the number of magnetic
lines of force crossing the surface normally. It is a scalar quantity and is denoted by . Quantitatively,

the magnetic flux through a plane area A placed in a uniform magnetic field B is the dot product of
 
magnetic field vector B and area vector A.
   
  = B . A = BA cos , where  is the angle between B and A.
4. What is the elementary idea of electromagnetic induction?
 When magnetic flux changes through a coil, a current is induced in the coil. faster the relative motion
between the magnet and the coil, greater is the rate of change of magnetic flux through the coil and
larger is the current induced in it.
5. Does electromagnetic induction occur, if both coil and magnet move with same velocity along same
direction?
 If both the coil and the magnet move with the same velocity in the same direction, there is no change
in flux linked with the coil. Hence, electromagnetic induction doesnot occur. Hence, no emf is
induced.
6. Does emf induce in open circuit?
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  437
 Yes. Induced emf is set up whenever the magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes even if the
circuit is open. However, the induced current flows only when the circuit is closed.
7. Induced emf is also called back emf. Why?
 According to Lenz's law the direction of induced current in a circuit is such that it opposes the causes
or the change which produces it. Because of the opposing nature of induced emf in any change in
applied emf, it is called back emf.
8. A student asserted that if a permanent magnet is dropped down a vertical copper pipe, it eventually
reaches a terminal velocity even if there is no air resistance. Why should this be?
[HSEB 2068]
 If a permanent magnet is dropped down a vertical copper pipe, currents are induced in pipe which
ultimately induces the magnetic field opposite of the field of dropping magnet. So, the copper pipe
opposes the motion of the magnet (by Lenz law) and the speed ultimately decreases. At a certain
condition, the weight of the magnet and the induced magnetic force become equal and opposite,
hence attain terminal velocity.
9. A copper ring is suspended by a thread in a vertical plane. One end of magnet is brought
horizontally towards the ring. How will the position of the ring be affected? [HSEB 2070]
 The ring will move away from the magnet, when a copper ring is
suspended in a vertical plane and one end of the magnet is brought
horizontally towards the ring. As the magnetic flux changes in the circular
coil, current is induced and so magnetic field is produced in such a
direction that opposes the direction of motion of its original source. Thus, S N N
the coil is repelled out due to the repulsive force between magnet and
induced coil.
10. Two closely wound circular coils have the same number of turns, but one has twice the radius of the
other. What is the ratio of self inductances of the two coils? [HSEB 2059]
 The self-inductance of a closely wounded circular coil (i.e. toroidal coil) is given by,
A (r2)
L = 0 N2 l = o N2 l …(i)

where N is the number of turns, A = r2 is the area of the coil, I is the current flowing in the windings
and l is the mean length.
As all other quantities are constant for a case in equation (i), L  r2. As one has twice the radius of the
other, the ratio of the self-inductions of these two coils is 4:1.
11. A sheet of copper is placed between the poles of an electromagnet with the magnetic field
perpendicular to the sheet. When it is pulled out, a considerable force is required, and the force
required increases with speed, why?
 Currents is induced in the copper sheet, when a sheet of copper is placed between the poles of an
electromagnet with the magnetic field perpendicular to the sheet and pulled out. Induced current
also produces the magnetic field. Induced field, thus produced, opposes the motion of sheet and a
considerable force is required to pull it. When the motion or velocity of sheet increases, the magnetic
field produced also increases and more force is required to pull it.
12. Pairs of conductors carrying current into or out of the power supply components of electronic
equipments are twisted together. Why? [HSEB 2070]
 Twisting of pairs of conductors carrying current into or out of the power supply components of
electronic equipments becomes non-conductive. Hence it reduces the self induction of the coil
significantly, ideally zero. The current in every part of coil is equal and opposite. So, the magnetic
field around the one part is cancelled by the magnetic field around the opposite part. Since the self-
induction is reduced significantly, the power loss will be minimum.
13. A bar magnet falls through copper ring. Will its acceleration be equal to 'g'? Justify.
438 Principles of Physics - II
 No, the acceleration of a bar magnet will not equal to acceleration due to gravity 'g' when it falls
through copper ring. When bar magnet falls through copper ring, at first its acceleration increases
due to gravity but after some time. As the falling speed increases, the flux linked with the copper ring
increases. The current induced in the ring opposes the downward motion of the manet. Hence
downward acceleration can not reach equal to g.
14. Mention two types of loss in a transformer.
 Two types of loss in a transformer are:  
a. Copper losses: Energy lost in winding the wire of transformer is known as copper loss. This is
due to the resistance R of copper wire, when current flows through these wires, power loss (I2 R)
takes place. This loss appears as heat produced in the primary and secondary coils. Copper losses
can be reduced by using thick wires for the windings.
b. Flux losses: In actual transformer, the coupling between primary and secondary coils is not
perfect. It means the magnetic flux linked with the primary coil is not equal to the magnetic flux
linked with the secondary coil. So, certain amount of electrical energy supplied to the primary
coil is wasted. It is minimized by designing the core for maximum linkage between the primary
and secondary coils.

15. Why can't a transformer be used to change the value of d.c. voltage? [HSEB 2061]
 A transformer is device for converting ac current at low voltage to high voltage or vice-versa. It
works on the principle of mutual induction. When primary coil of the transformer is connected to a
dc current, this produces constant magnetic flux. Consequently, the flux linked with the secondary
coil of the transformer is not changed. If there is no change in magnetic flux, emf is not induced in the
secondary coil. That's why a transformer can't be used to change the value of dc voltage. However, it
is to be noted that d.c. is passed through the transformer at the condition of switch is ON or OFF
rapidly.

16. What is eddy current? Write down its uses.

 When a metallic piece is placed in a changing magnetic field, the induced currents are set up in the
metal piece. These currents are called eddy currents or Foucault's currents. The direction of eddy
currents is given by Lenz law. Eddy currents produce heat due to which there is loss of power which
can be reduced by use of laminated core.
Following are some useful uses of eddy currents:
 Eddy current damping
 Induction heating
 Energy meters
 Electromagnetic brakes
 Induction motors.

17. Birds sitting on a high tension line wire fly off when current is switched on. Why? [HSEB 2075]
 When a high tension current is switched on, induced current is set up in the body system of the bird,
the nerve and circulatory systems being conducting. Then, the birds experience repulsive force due
to electromagnetic induction, consequently the birds fly off.

18. What are step up and step down transformers?

 Step up transformer: It is a transformer that increases the voltage in the alternating current circuit.
Number of turns in secondary coil is greater than the number of turns in primary coil. In this
transformer,
Ns > Np, So, Es > Ep.
Step down transformer: It is the transformer that decreases the voltage in alternating current circuit.
In this transformer, number of turns in secondary coil is lower than the number of turns in primary
coil, i.e. Ns < Np, so, Es > Ep.
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  439
19. Does a transformer work in dc?
 Transformer does not work in d.c. It works in the principle of electromagnetic induction. The voltage
is induced in secondary coil due to the change in magnetic flux in primary coil. The current in the
primary coil produces the magnetic flux around it. The flux varies in the secondary coil only when
the flux produced in the primary coil fluctuates. To fluctuate the flux in primary coil, it should be
connected to alternating current source, not by the direct current source.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction is reverse effect of Oersted discovery on magnetic effect
of current. Justify.
2. What is magnetic flux density? Write its unit and dimensional formula.
3. What is the major consequence of Lenz’s law?
4. Write Flemings right hand rule.
5. What is the need of non-inductive coils?
6. Write down the most general formula of the self-inductance of a coil.
7. Write three factors on which the mutual inductance between a pair coils depends.
8. A train is moving with uniform velocity from north to south. Will any induced emf appear across the
ends of the axle?
9. Is eddy current usually unwanted? Write your view.
10. When a fan is switched off a spark is produced in the switch. Why?
11. What is the major source of alternating current?
12. Define one tesla.
13. What do you mean by flux linkage?
14. A circular loop is located in a uniform and constant magnetic field. Describe how an emf can be
included in the loop in this situation.
15. An electric bulb joined in series with an inductor does not light up fully just after the current is
switched on. Why?
16. Why are the primary and secondary coils of a transformer wrapped on an iron core that passes
through both coils?
17. How are the energy losses reduced in a transformer?.
18. A loop of wire is placed in a uniform magnetic field. For what orientation of the loop is the magnetic
flux a maximum? For what orientation is the flux zero?
19. When a small magnet is moved toward a solenoid, an emf is induced in the coil. However, if the
magnet is moved around inside a toroid, there is no induced emf. Explain.
20. Could a current be induced in a coil by rotating a magnet inside the coil? If so, how?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. State and give the mathematical proof of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
2. State the laws of electromagnet induction. Derive an expression for the emf induced in a conductor
moving in a uniform magnetic field. (HSEB 2053)
3. State and explain Lenz’s law. (HSEB 2059)
4. State Lenz’s law and explain how this law leads to the conservation of energy principle.
(HSEB 2062, 2072)
5. State and explain Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Derive an expression for the emf
induced in a coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field. (HSEB 2057, 2064, 2067)
6. Derive an expression for energy stored in an inductor.
7. What is electromagnetic machine? Describe the principle, construction and working of a.c. generator.
8. Describe the principle, construction and working of d.c. generator.
440 Principles of Physics - II
9. What are eddy currents? Write down the advantages and disadvantages of eddy currents.
10. What is an ideal transformer? Describe principle, construction and working of a transformer.
11. Describe the construction and explain the action of a simple form of a transformer. What are
transformer losses? How these losses are minimized?

Numerical Problems
1. A metal rod 0.5 m long is perpendicular to a field of flux density 0.6 T and moves at right angles to
the field with a speed of 2 m/s. calculate the emf induced in the rod.
Ans: 0.6 V
2. A coil of area 50 cm2 is perpendicular to a uniform field of flux density 10-3 Wm-2. (i) What is flux
passing through the coil.(ii) if the magnetic field drops to zero in 3 s, what is the induced emf.
Ans: 5  10-6 weber, 1.67  10-6 V
3. A horizontal rod PQ of length 1.5 m is perpendicular to a uniform horizontal field B of 0.1 T.
Calculate the induced emf if any in PQ when the rod is moved through the field with a uniform
velocity of 4 m/s (a) in the direction of B, (b) perpendicular to B and upwards. Which end of PQ has
higher potential?
Ans: 0, 0.6 V, P has higher potential
4. When a wheel of metal spokes 1.2 m long is rotated in a magnetic field of flux density 5  10-5 T
normal to the plane of wheel, an emf of 10-2 V is induced between the rim and the axle. Find the rate
of rotation of wheel.
Ans: 44.2 rev/s
5. A coil of 100 turns and cross sectional area 2  10-3 m2 is placed in a field of 8 x 10-3T so that the flux
enters all the turns normally. Calculate the average induced emf the field is reversed in 1/50 sec.
Ans: 0.16 V
6. A rectangular coil of 100 turns and area 4  10-2 m2 is rotated about a horizontal axis at a constant rate
of 50 rev/ s in a horizontal magnetic field of 0.2 T perpendiculars to the axis. Calculate (i) the
maximum value of the induced emf in the coil, (ii) the induced emf when the plane of the coil is 30o
to the horizontal (iii) the induced emf when the plane of the coil is vertical.
Ans: 251.3 V, 217.6 V, 0
7. A jet plane is travelling due west at the speed of 1800 kmh-1. What is voltage difference developed
between the ends of the wings 25m long, if the earth’s magnetic field at the location is 5  10-4 T and
the dip angle is 30o.
Ans: 3.5 V
8. A rectangular coil of area 20 cm2 and containing 50 turns rotates at 3000 rpm in a uniform magnetic
field 0.2 T perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Calculate the peak value and average value of the
emf induced in the coil.
Ans: 6.28 V
9. Calculate the emf induced in a straight conductor of length 20 cm in the armature of a dynamo at 10
cm from the axis of rotation when the dynamo is rotating at 1000 rpm in a radial magnetic field of 0.5
T.
Ans: 1.05 V
10. A straight conductor of length 15 cm is moving perpendicular to its length with a uniform speed of
10 ms-1 making an angle of 30o with a uniform magnetic field of 10-4 T. Calculate the emf induced
across its length.
Ans: 7.5  10-5 V
11. Five turns of wire wound closely about the center of a long solenoid of radius 20 mm. If there are 500
turns per meter in the solenoid. Calculate the mutual inductance of the coils.
Ans: 4  10-6 H
12. An air filled toroidal solenoid has a mean radius of 15.0 cm and a cross sectional area of 5.00 cm2.
When the current is 12.0 A, the energy stored is 0.390 J. How many turns do the winding have?
Ans: 2850
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  441
13. A rod of iron and length of 1 m fixed at one end is rotating with angular velocity 200 rad s–1 about the
fixed end in a magnetic field of 0.2 T. Find the induced emf between the centre and far end of the rod.

Ans: 20 V
14. A coil has an inductance of 5 mH, in it current changes from 0.1 A to 4.1 A in 0.5 s. Calculate the
induced emf
Ans: 40 mV
15. In a car spark coil, emf of 4  104 V is induced in the secondary when the primary current changes
from 4 A to 0 A in 10 s. Find the mutual inductance between the primary and secondary windings
of this spark coil.
Ans: 0.1 H
16. A step up transformer is used on a 120 V line to provide a potential difference of 2400 V. If the
primary has 75 turns, how many turns must the secondary have?
Ans: 1500
17. A step down transformer converts a voltage of 2200 V into 220 V in the transmission line. Number of
turns in primary coil is 5000. Efficiency of transformer is 90% and its output power is 8 kW. Calculate
(i) number of turns in secondary coil (ii) input power.
Ans: (i) 500 (ii) 8.9 kW
18. A transformer having efficiency 90% is working on 100 V and at 2.0 kW power. If the current in the
secondary coil is 5 A, calculate (i) the current in the primary and (ii) voltage across the secondary coil.

Ans: (i) 20 A (ii) 360 volt

19. A step-down transformer is used on 220 V to provide a current of 0.5 A to a 15 W lamp. If the
secondary has 20 turns, find the number of turns in the primary coil and also the current flowing
through it.
Ans: 147, 0.068 A
20. A coil of inductance 0.4 H is connected to a 6 V battery. Find the rate of growth of current in the coil.
Ans: 15 A/s
21. When a current of 20 A is passed through a coil of 1000 turns, a total magnetic flux of 100 Weber is
produced. Calculate the energy stored in the magnetic field of the coil.
Ans: 106 J

Multiple Choice Questions

1. When the current changes from + 2 A to – 2 A in 0.05 second, an emf of 8 V is induced in a coil. The
coefficient of self-induction of the coil is
a. 0.8 H b. 0.1 H
c. 0.2 H d. 0.4 H
2. The magnetic flux through a circuit of resistance R changes by an amount   in a time  t. Then the
total quantity of electric charge Q that passes any point in the circuit during the time  t is
represented by
1  
a. Q = R . b. Q = R
t
 
c. d. Q = R .
t t
3. A train is moving on a parallel rail track in a vertical magnetic field of 2  10–5 tesla. If speed of the
train is 60 km h–1, then induced emf between the axles when distance between the rail track is 1.5 m is
a. 5  10–4 V b. Zero
c. 5 V d. 10 V
4. A coil of resistance 400  is placed in a magnetic field. If the magnetic flux  (W) linked with the coil
varies with time t (in second) as
 = 50 t2 + 4,
442 Principles of Physics - II
The current in the coil at t = 2 second is:
a. 1 A b. 0.5 A
c. 0.1 A d. 2 A
5. The magnetic flux linked with a coil of N turns of area of cross-section A held with its plane parallel
to the field B is
NAB
a. 2 b. NAB
NAB
c. 4 d. 0

6. The rate of change of current of 10 A s–1 in a coil produces an emf of 5 V. Then, the self-inductance of
the coil in henry is
a. 0.5 b. 0.25
c. 1 d. 1.25
e. 2
7. The magnetic flux (in weber) linked with a coil of resistance 10  is varying with respect to time t as 
= 4 t2 + 2 t + 1. Then the current in the coil at time t = 1 second is
a. 0.5 A b. 2 A
c. 1.5 A d. 1 A
8. According to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which of the following is true?
a. Conservation of charge b. Conservation of magnetic flux
c. Conservation of energy d. Newton's law of equal and opposite forces
9. The core of a transformer is laminated to reduce
a. flux leakage b. output power
c. hysteresis d. eddy current
10. In an ideal transformer the number of turns of primary and secondary coil is given as 100 and 300
respectively. If the power input is 60 W, the power output is
a. 100 W b. 300 W
c. 180 W d. 60 W
11. A transformer is used to light a 100 W and 10 V lamp using a 220 V main supply. If the supply
current is 0.5 A, then the efficiency of the transformer is
a. 100 % b. 99 5
c. 90.9 % d. 87.7 %

12. In an ac generator, a coil with N turns, all of the same area A and total resistance R, rotates with
frequency to in a magnitude field B. The maximum value of emf generated in the coil is
a. NABR b. NAB
c. NABR d. NAB
Answers
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (d) 10. (d) 11. (c) 12. (b)

Hints to Challenging Problems

 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  443

HINT: 1 ii. For E to be maximum, sin t = 1.

Given, So, Emax = NBA 
Number of turns, N = 120 Emax
 = NBA
Length, l = 1.60 cm = 1.60 × 10–2 m
B = 0.0750 T, A = l2 HINT: 2
= (1.60 × 10–2)2 = 2.56 × 10–4 m2 Given,
Emax = 24 mV = 24 × 10-3 V Length, l = 30.0 cm = 30.0  10–2 m
i. E = NBA  sin t Magnetic field, B = 0.450 T
444 Principles of Physics - II
Speed, v = 5.00 ms–1 We know that
Induced emf, E = Blv N
L = I
HINT: 3
Given, I×L
or  = N
M = 3.25 × 10–4 H
dI
dt = 830 As
-1
HINT: 7
dI Given,
a. Induced emf in the second coil, E2 = M dt L = 12 H
dI R = 180 
b. dt = 830 As–1 I = 0.30 A
dI 1
Induced emf in the first coil, E1 = M dt a. Energy stored in the magnetic field, U = 2 LI2

HINT: 4 b. Thermal power developed in the inductor,

Given, P = I2R
Number of turns in solenoid 1, N1 = 700 HINT: 8
Number of turns in solenoid 2, N2= 400 Given,
Current in solenoid 1, I1= 6.52A Power, P = 200 W
Magnetic flux through solenoid 2, 2 = 0.032 Wb Time, t = 24 hrs = 24 × 3600 s.
N22 Current, I = 80.0 A
a. Mutual inductance, M = I a. We know that
1

b. Current in solenoid 2, I2 = 2.54 A P =U

t
MI2
Then, use I2 in 1 = N or U = Pt = 200 × 24 × 3600 = 1.73×107 J
1
1
HINT: 5 b. Now, U = 2 LI2
Given, 2U
dI So, L = I1
dt = 0.0260 As
–1

E = 12.6 mV = 12.6 × 10–3 V HINT: 9

I = 1.40A, Given,
 = 0.00285 Wb Inductance, L = 2.50 H
E Resistance, R = 8 
find L from L = dI
  Emf, E = 6 V
dt dI
L×I a. Initial rate of increase of current, dt = ?
and use L in N =
 The circuit is L –R circuit in which emf of the
HINT: 6 source is given by
Given, dI
E = IR + L dt
dI
dt = 0.064 As
–1
Initially, I = 0. So, we can write
E = 0.016 V dI
E = L dt
E
a. Inductance of inductor, L = dI dI E
  or dt = L
dt
b. N = 400 turns b. I = 0.5 A
I = 0.720 A We have,
 =? dI
E = IR + L dt
 Electromagnetic Induction  Chapter 17  445
dI E – IR We know that
or dt = L
Emax = B  r2f
HINT: 10 = B A f (∵ A =  r2)
Given,
HINT: 13
Np = 500,  = 100 %, Pout = 2000 W, IP = ?
Given,
Ns = 100
N = 50 turns A = 2 × 10-4 m2
Ep = 4000 V
R = 100  B = 0.25 T
Es = ? (a) Change in flux,   = 1  1
We know that 1 = NAB cos 
Es Ns 2 = NA × 0 × cos 
Ep = Np (b) Charge passed,  q = ?
Ns 100
 Es = N  Ep = 500 4000 = 800 V

 p   ∵ Induced emf = dt
For 100% efficient transformer, we have 
or I × R =
Input power = Output power t
or, Pout = EP × IP q 
or .R=
HINT: 11 t t
Given, 
or  q = R
N = 5 turns,
A = l × b = (10 × 10-2) × 5 × 10 -2 m2 HINT: 14
= 5 × 10-3 m2, Total resistance (R) = 0.50 
B = 0.4 T L=2H
f = 50 rev/s E=2V
We have, E
(i) Final current (I) = R
∵ Emax = E0 =  NAB = 2  f NAB
dI
i. Plane of coil is parallel to B, so  = 90° (ii) Initial rate of change of current dt = ?
 E = E0 sin 90°
 
dI
ii.  = 90 - 60° = 30° (Angle between B and normal ∵ E = L dt
of the plane of coil)
dI E 2
E = E0 sin 30°  dt = L = 2 = 1 As-1
iii. Plane of coil makes 90° with B then  = 0
dI
∵ E = E0 sin 0° = 0 (iii) Rate of change of current dt = ? for I = 2 A
 
HINT: 12 For current I = 2 A, E = ?
Given, E = I × R = 2 × 0.5 = 1 V
A = 3 × 10-3 m2 Now,
f = 50 rev/s dI
B = 5 × 10-3 T ∵ E = L dt
 = 0° dI E
Maximum emf is between centre and rim of  dt = L
the disc and Emax = ?

 ALTERNATING
CURRENTS

18.1 Introduction
Many electrical devices that we come across in our daily life need electric energy source to operate. A
simple example of such source is a dry cell, which finds its extensive use in the operation of many
electrical devices such as radio receiver, torch light, remote controller, etc. If the dry cell is not
connected with proper polarity, the device does not function at all. However, we do not really need
specific polarity while operating devices such as electric rice cooker, electric fan etc. This means, the
polarity plays a vital role for the proper functioning of some electrical devices while it is of no
importance in some other electrical devices. The electric source which has fixed polarity i.e. marked
with positive and negative signs at the terminals is known as direct current (d.c.) source. The electric
source which does not have fixed polarity and reverses periodically is called alternating current (a.c.)
source.
The current in a circuit which flows unidirectionally and has almost constant value is known as
direct current. Most of our electric devices work with direct current. While, alternating current is one,
whose magnitude varies continuously and reverses the polarity periodically. Same property is true
for the alternating voltage. Resistor is a basic element to get the output from d.c. circuit, while
resistor, inductor and capacitor are the basic elements for a.c.
Here are some basic properties of alternating current.
i. The magnitude of current or voltage varies continuously with time.
ii. The polarity reverses periodically.
iii. It has certain frequency of oscillation.
The symbol of a.c. source is  . Note that, polarity is not marked on a.c. source because the
polarity of the a.c. source changes periodically.
I(t)

18.2 Alternating Current +ve max

We have discussed in chapter 17 that a coil rotating in a t

magnetic field induces an emf which varies sinusoidally with
time. Such emf leads to an sinusoidally varying current with –ve max
time and is known as alternating current. This means the
current flows alternately one way and then the other in the wire Fig 18.1: Alternating current vs time
446 Principles of Physics - II
in which it is flowing. The plot of such current versus time is as shown in Fig. 18.1.
The graph shows that the current increases from zero to a positive maximum value and then starts to
decrease, reaches to zero again and then starts to increase to I(t)
a negative maximum value and back to zero and the cycle
continues. This variation of current from zero to positive
maximum and back to zero again and from zero to negative
maximum and back to zero again is called one complete negative t
half cycle
cycle of the alternating current. The variation of current positive
half cycle
from zero to positive maximum and back to zero is called
positive half cycle and that from zero to negative maximum one cycle

and back to zero is called negative half cycle. The time taken Fig. 18.2: Different cycles of a.c.
by the alternating current to complete one complete cycle is called time period (T). If  be the
angular frequency then,
2
T=

The period of the alternating quantity (current, voltage) can be measured between any two
corresponding points on the waveform as shown in Fig. 18.3
V(t)
T
O T
t
O t

T
T
(i) (ii)
Fig. 18.3: Time period of alternating quantity
The number of cycles completed per unit time by the a.c. is called its frequency its unit is hertz (Hz).
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second
The period and frequency are related by formula,
1 
f=T=
2
I(t) I(t) I(t) 50 cycles
1 cycle 2 cycles

t t

T=1sec T = 1 sec.
T=1sec
(a) 1 cycle per second = 1 Hz (b) 2 cycles per second = 2 Hz (c) 50 cycles per second = 50 Hz
Fig. 18.4: Relation between frequency and cycle

Instantaneous A.C.
Since the alternating current (quantity) changes its value continuously, we are interested on a
particular value of the quantity at a particular instant of time. The value of alternating quantity
(current/voltage/power) at a particular instant of time in the cycle is called instantaneous value of
a.c. There are uncountable number of instantaneous values that exist in a cycle.
At any instant, the instantaneous voltage of a alternating source is represented as,
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  447

V(t) = Vo sin t
where, Vo = peak value of voltage
and instantaneous alternating current is given by
I(t) = Io sin t
where, Io = peak of current

Peak value of A.C.

The peak value of alternating quantity is the value of voltage or current at the positive or negative
maximum with respect to zero. The peak value for alternating voltage is denoted by Vo and that for
alternating current is denoted by Io. These are also called as amplitudes of alternating quantity.
I(t) V(t)

Io Vo
t t
Io Vo

(i) Peak value of current (ii) Peak value of alternating voltage

Fig. 18.5: Peak value of ac

Average or mean value of A.C.

A sinusoidally alternating quantity has its value changing from zero to positive maximum and back
to zero from zero to negative maximum and back to zero over a cycle. So, if we take the average of all
the values over a cycle, it would be zero. So, for such quantities their average is defined over a half
cycle only and is calculated as the ratio of sum of all the values of instantaneous a.c. over half cycle to
the half-time period.
If I be the alternating current whose instantaneous value is given by I(t) = Io sin t then,
T/2
 I(t)  dt

0
Average of Iinst = Iav = T/2

 dt

0
Here T = time period
T/2

 Io sin t dt
0
 Iav = T/2

 dt

0
T/2
Io  sin t dt

0
= T
2
T
2Io – cos t 2
= T 
   0
448 Principles of Physics - II

2 Io  T
= – cos 2 + cos 0 [∵ T = 2]
T  

2Io
= [–(–1) + 1]
T
2Io
= 2
2
2Io
 Iav = = 0.637 Io ... (18.1)

Similarly, the average alternating voltage is,
Vav = 0.637 Vo ... (18.2)
This average value is the approximate output of d.c. power supply. And thus, average value of a.c.
can also be defined as the value of d.c. which when passes through a circuit sends same amount of
charge as is done by a.c. current in the same circuit in same time.

18.3 RMS Value of A.C.

The value of an alternating quantity say current changes continuously from zero up to a positive
peak, through zero to negative peak and back to zero again. So, for most of the time it is less than the
peak value. Thus, using peak value for the calculation of its effect is not a good measure.
Further, we could use average value of a.c. to measure the effect. However, the measurement done
using such values does not match with the actual value. For example: the power calculated using the
average value does not match the experimental value. For this reason, rms value of a.c. is defined.
This value of a.c. is equivalent to a steady d.c. that produces same effect as is done by the d.c. in any
circuit component. RMS value refers to root mean square value of alternating quantity. It is the
effective value of a.c.

RMS current (Irms)

RMS value of alternating current is defined as the steady d.c. value which dissipates energy in a given resistor
at the same time as is done by a.c. It is denoted by Irms.
The instantaneous current through a resistor of resistance R fed with a.c. source is,
I = Io sin t ... (18.3)
Heat produced in the resistor in small time dt is,
dH = I2 R dt (Joule's law of Heating)
Total heat produced over a cycle is,
T T
H =  0
dH =  0
I2 R dt
T T
=  0
Io2 sin2t Rdt = Io2R  0
sin2t dt
T
1  cos 2t dt
= Io2R  0  2 
Io2R  T T
= 2  dt   cos 2t dt
 0 0 
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  449

Io2R sin 2tT 

= 2 T  
  2 0 
Io2R 1
= 2 T  sin 2T  sin 0}
 2 { 
Io2R 1
= 2 T  sin 4  sin 0} ... T = 2 
 2 {    
Io2R
= 2 T

 Power delivered over a cycle = Rate of heat produced over a cycle.

2
H IoR
 P= T = 2 ... (18.4)

For steady d.c. current, equivalent power is,

P = I2rms R ... (18.5)
Comparing equations (18.4) and (18.5), we get,
Io
Irms = = 0.707 Io ... (18.6)
2
This current which is 0.707 times the peak current is called rms current. Similarly, root mean square
voltage is,
Vo
Vrms = = 0.707 Vo
2

18.4 Phasors
Any sinusoidal wave form can be represented by a vector rotating anti-clockwise with an angular
frequency , which is known as phasor. Here, the angular frequency of the phasor is equal to the
angular velocity of the alternating quantity. This type of phasor representation is used to study the
phase relationship between two sinusoidally varying quantities having same frequency.
Consider a sine wave given by
I = Io sin t ... (18.7)
The wave form for such wave is as follows:
I
Io A
q
q (t) O

Fig. 18.6: Representing a.c. by phasor

In order to draw phasor, a point is maked on the wave form which represents the value of
alternating quantity at that instant of time.
The angle traversed by the alternating quantity at that instant of time can be calculated by simple
formula,  = t
450 Principles of Physics - II
Then on a cartesian co-ordinate axis, a line whose inclination on x-axis is  is drawn as shown in Fig.
18.6. Since  changes with time, such lines drawn can rotate from 0º to 360º about x-axis.
OC
In figure OA is the phasor for the wave defined by equation (18.7) In Fig. 18.7, sin  = OA

 OC = OA sin  y
Here, OC is the projection of OA on y-axis and this projection of OA C A
q
defines the value of alternating quantity at that instant of time. The angle
q x
made by phasor with x-axis at any instant represent its phase angle. The O B
length of phasor gives amplitude of alternating quantity and projections
gives the value of alternating quantity at that instant of time.
Fig. 18.7: Phasor diagram
Phase shift between two wave forms
When two alternating quantities have same frequency but having a constant phase difference are
plotted against time, we often get confused to define which wave form leads or lags the other. In
such case, one wave form is considered the reference wave form and other wave form leads or lags
that wave form can be found by following simple logic.
The wave form which passes positively through y-axis first leads or, the wave form which passes
positively through y-axis last lags.
For example, consider following two wave forms A and B which are plotted against time as in Fig.
18.8 (i) and (ii)
y y
A B B A

O x
p p x
2 2
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 18.8: Phase shift between two waves

a. Here, if A is reference, B lags A by 90 or 2 because B passes through +ve y-axis later than A.

b. If B is reference, A leads B by 90 because A passes through +ve y-axis first.

Similarly in Fig.18.8(ii)

If A is reference, B leads A by 90 or 2 because B passes through +ve y-axis first.

If B is reference, A lags B by 90 because A passes through positive y-axis later than B.

18.5 A.C. Through Resistor

Let us consider a pure resistive circuit consisting of a resistor of resistance R which is supplied
with a sinusoidally varying voltage source as shown in Fig.18.9.
Let instantaneous voltage supplied by the source be given by,
V(t) = Vo sin t ... (18.8)
Where Vo = Peak value of a.c. voltage
Applying Kirchhoff's rule in the above circuit,
V(t) – VR(t) = 0 ... (18.9)
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  451

Where VR(t) is the instantaneous voltage drop across the resistor.

If IR(t) be the current through resistor at any instant of time, then,
V(t) = IR(t) . R
V(t) Vo sin t
or, IR(t) = R = R
or,IR(t) = Io sint ... (18.10)
Vo
Where, Io = R
From equations (18.8) and (18.10), we see that,
For t = 0, V = 0 and I = 0

t = 2 , V = Vo and I = Io

t = , V = 0 and I = 0
and so on.
A plot of voltage and current as a function of time is as
shown in Fig. 18.10.
V(t) VR (t)
Notice that in above graph at t = 0, the voltage VR and
current IR across the resistor is zero. And Both VR and IR
reach maximum VoR and IoR respectively at the same Fig. 18.9: A.C. through purely resistive circuit

  T T
time at t = 2 ( i.e. t = 2  = ; one quarter time of its complete cycle) . Thus, we say that current
2 4
and voltage in a purely resistive circuit are in same phase.
The behaviour of IR(t) and VR(t) can also be represented with a phase or diagram as shown in
Fig. 18.10.
y

VOR VR(t) VR(t) VOR

IOR IR(t)
IR(t) IOR
t wt
O x
O
(ii) Phasor diagram
(i) Plot of V R(t) vs I R(t)
Fig. 18.10: Phase relation between VR (t) and IR (t)
In the diagram, OA represents VR(t) with its peak value VoR and OB represents IR(t) with its peak
value IoR.

18.6 A.C. Through Inductor

Let us consider a purely inductive circuit with an
inductor of inductance L connected to an a.c.
generator as shown in Fig. 18.11. V(t) VL (t)
Since the inductor is connected to an a.c. source, an
emf is induced in the inductor which varies
Fig. 18.11: A.C. through purely inductive circuit
sinusoidally.
Let the instantaneous voltage supplied by source is,
V(t) = Vo sin t ... (18.11)
452 Principles of Physics - II
If VL is the induced emf then, at any instant the magnitude of induced emf is,
dI
VL(t) = L dt ... (18.12)
From Kirchhoff's voltage rule,
V(t) = VL(t)
dI
or, Vo sin t = L dt
or, Vo sin t dt = L dI ... (18.13)
Integrating equation (18.13) we get,
 Vo sin t. dt =  LdI
Vo
L  sin t. dt =  dI
Vo – cos t
or, I= L 
  
– Vo
or, I= cos t
L
–Vo
or, I = X cos t ... (18.14)
L

or, I = Io (– cos t)

Vo
where, X = Io is the peak value of current and XL = L is the inductive reactance.
L


 I = Io (–) sin 2 – t
 

I = Io sin (t – 2 ) ... (18.15)
From equations (18.11) and (18.15) we see that,
when, t = 0, V = Vo sin 0 = 0

I = Io sin (t – 2 ) = – Io
 
when t = 2 , V = Vo sin 2 = Vo
 
I = Io sin 2 – 2  = 0
 
when t = , V = Vo sin = 0

I = Io sin  – 2 = Io and so on.
 
A plot of voltage and current as a function of time is as shown in Fig. 18.12.

From graph it is seen that, voltage is ahead of current by 2. This means, voltage leads the current by

a phase factor of 2. The corresponding phasor diagram for inductive circuit is shown in Fig. 18.12.
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  453
y

VoL VR (t) VL(t)

Io I(t)

wt x
t
O O
p/2 w
I(t)

Fig. 18.12: Phase relation between VL(t) and I(t)

18.7 A.C. Through Capacitor

Let us consider a purely capacitive circuit as shown in Fig. 18.13 with a capacitor of capacitance C
connected to an a.c. source which supplies alternating voltage given by,
V(t) = Vo sin t ... (18.16)

+Q
V(t) Vc (t)
–Q

Fig. 18.13: A.C. through purely capacitive circuit

Let VC(t) be the voltage across the plates of capacitor and Q(t) be the charge on it at any instant of
time t. In capacitor the voltage changes at a rate equal to rate of change of electrical charge on the
plates.
Using Kirchhoff's voltage rule in the above circuit, we get,
V(t)  VC(t) = 0
or, V(t) = VC(t)
 VC(t) = Vo sin t
Q(t)
But, VC(t) = C

 Q(t) = C Vo sin t ... (18.17)

Differentiating equation (18.17) with respect to time,
dQ d(sin t)
dt = CVo dt
or, I(t) = CVo  cos t.
or, I(t) = Vo (C) cos t.
1
But XC = is the capacitive reactance of the capacitor.
C
Vo
 I(t) = X cos t
C


or, I(t) = Io sin t + 2 ... (18.18)
 
Vo
where, X = Io is the peak value of current.
C
454 Principles of Physics - II
From equations (18.16) and (18.18) we see that,
for, t = 0, VC = Vo sin t = 0

I = Io sin 2  = Io
 
 
for, t = 2 VC = Vo sin 2 = Vo

 
I = Io sin 2 + 2 = 0
 
for t =  VC = Vo sin = 0

I = Io sin  + 2  = – Io and so on.
 
A plot voltage and current as a function of time is as shown in Fig. 18.14(i) and the
corresponding phasor is as shown in Fig. 18.14 (ii).
VoC
VC (t) V(t)
Vo
I(t) I(t) Io
Io w
wt
t
O p/2 O

(i) (ii)
Fig. 18.14: (i) Plot of VC(t) and I(t) and (ii) Phasor diagram

It is seen from graph that, the current is ahead of the voltage across the capacitor by 2 . This means,

current leads the voltage by a phase factor of 2 .
The corresponding phasor diagram for capacitive circuit is as shown in Fig. 18.14 (ii).
Notice in above graph that at t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero while the current in the

circuit is at a maximum. In fact, I(t) reaches maximum before VC(t) by one quarter of a cycle  = 2 .
 

Thus we say that, current leads the voltage by 2 is capacitive circuit.

18.8 A.C. Through R–L Series Circuit

Suppose an alternating voltage V(t) is applied across a resistor of resistance (R) is series with an
inductor of inductance L as shown in Fig. 18.15 (i).
The applied a.c. voltage is given by
V(t) = Vo sin t ... (18.19)
Due to this alternating voltage, the current I(t) also takes alternating form which flows through each
component and let it be given by,
I(t) = Io sin (t – )
Where, Io is the amplitude of alternating current and  is the phase factor and so, Io = IoR = IoL.
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  455

Vo
VoL Vo
VR(t)
R VoL
B VoR
VL (t) V(t)
V(t) L VL(t) A Io
f
wt f VOR
O I
O VR (t)
(i)
(ii)
Fig. 18.15: (i) A.C. through R-L circuit (ii) Phasor diagram
Let VR(t) and VL(t) be the instantaneous voltage (alternating) across resistor and inductor with their
respective amplitudes VoR and VoL. As discussed in preceding topics, VR(t) across R is in phase with

I(t) and VL(t) leads the current by 2 . So the phasor diagram for such circuit is as shown in Fig. 18.15
(ii).
As the voltage alternates, both VR and IR change along the same direction. In phasor diagram, OA

represents such case. But VL is ahead of I(t) by 2 . So, in phasor, OA and OB representing I(t) and VL
are perpendicular to each other.
Here, V(t) = VR(t) + VL(t)
But Vo  VoR + VoL
Referring to Fig. 18.15 (ii), vector sum of VoL and VoR equals Vo.
2 2 2
i.e. Vo = VoL + VoR
But, VoR = IoR and VoL = Io XL
2 2 2
 . Vo = Io (R2 + XL)
Vo Vo
or, Io = = ... (18.20)
R2 + XL
2
R2 + 2L2

The quantity R2 + 2L2 is total effective resistance offered by the LR circuit and is known as
the impedance of LR circuit.
Thus, impedance (Z) = R2 + 2L2
From our assumption,  is the angle between Vo and Io.
VoL Io XL XL
Thus, from Fig. 18.15(iii) tan  = V = I R = R
oR o

L
 tan  = R

L
  = tan–1  R  .
 
In terms of impedance, the instantaneous current through circuit can be written as,
Vo
I(t) = sin (t – )
R + 2L2
2

Vo
or, I(t) = Z sin(t – ) ... (18.21)

A plot of voltage and current as a function of time is as shown in Fig. 18.16.

456 Principles of Physics - II
From graph it is seen that, voltage is ahead of current by . This means voltage leads the current by a
phase factor of . The corresponding phasor diagram for inductive circuit is shown in Fig. 18.15(ii).
V or I

V0L V(t)
I0
I(t)
O
t

Fig. 18.16: Plot of VC(t) and I(t)

18.9 A.C. Through R-C Circuit

Suppose an alternating voltage V(t) is applied across a resistor of resistance (R) in series with a
capacitor of capacitance (C) as shown in Fig. 18.17(i).
The applied a.c. voltage is given by,
V(t) = Vo sin t ... (18.22)
Due to this alternating voltage, the current I(t) is also alternating and same current flows through
each component which is given by
I(t) = Io sin (t + ) ... (18.23)
Where Io is the amplitude of alternating current and  is the phase factor.
Let VR(t) and VC(t) be the instantaneous voltage across the resistor and capacitor with their respective
amplitudes VoR and VoC.
Here, V(t) = VR(t) + VC(t)
But Vo  VoR + VoC

The voltage VR across R is in same phase with I(t) but VC across C lags behind I(t) by 2. So, the
corresponding phasor diagram for the case is as shown Fig.18.17(ii).
Io
VR (t) C
VoR VOR, I
R Vo O C
A 
f
V(t) VC (t) wt VOC VOC
O VO
B VoC
B A
(i) (ii)
Fig. 18.17: (i) A.C. through R-C circuit (ii) phasor diagram
In above phasor diagram, OC represents the phasor for VoR and IR = Io because both of them are in

same phase. But, VC lags behind I(t) by 2. So, OB representing VoC must be perpendicular to OC
representing I(t).
Referring to Fig. 18.17(ii), vector sum of VoR and VoC equals Vo.
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  457

2 2 2 2 2 2
 Vo = VoC + VoR = Io XC + Io R2
2
2 Vo
or, Io = 2
(R2 + XC )
Vo
 Io = 2
R2 + XC
2
The quantity (R2 + XC) is the effective resistance offered by the circuit and is known as impedance
of the R-C circuit.
2
Thus, impedance (Z) = (R2 + XC)
1
But, XC =
C
1
 Z= R2 +
2C2
Also, as per our supposition,  is angle between Vo and Io.
VoC Io XC XC
Thus, tan  = V = I R = R
oR o

1
tan  = ... (18.24)
CR
In terms of impedance, the instantaneous current through circuit can be written as,
Vo V or I
I(t) = Z sin (t + )

Vo
I(t) = sin (t + )
1 VoC
R2 + 2 2 Io
C I(t)
V(t)
t
It is seen from graph that, the current is ahead of the voltage O
across the capacitor by . This means current leads the voltage
by a phase factor of .
The corresponding phasor diagram for capacitive circuit is as Fig. 18.18: Plot of VC(t) and I(t)
shown in Fig. 18.17 (ii).
Notice in above graph that at t = 0, the voltage across the capacitor is zero while the current in the
circuit is at a maximum. In fact, Io(t) reaches maximum before VC(t) by . Thus we say that, current
leads the voltage by  in this circuit.

18.10 L-C-R Series Circuit in A.C.

Fig. 18.19(i) shows a resistor of resistance R, capacitor of capacitance C and inductor of inductance L
connected in series with an a.c. source.
The instantaneous voltage supplied by the source is,
V(t) = Vo sin t ... (18.25)
The instantaneous current in the circuit is given by,
I(t) = Io sin (t + ).
458 Principles of Physics - II
Let V(t) = VR(t) + VL(t) + VC(t)
But, Vo  VoR + VoC + VoL.
The voltage VR across R is in phase with I(t), so the corresponding phasor is denoted by OA in Fig.

18.19(ii). Similarly, VC across C lags behind I(t) by 2 so, corresponding voltage and current in phasor
are OA = I and OB = VC which must be perpendicular to each other (i.e. OAOB). Finally, VL across

L leads I(t) by 2 , so their corresponding lengths in phasor are represented by OA and OC and again,
OA and OC are perpendicular to each other. The phasor diagram for the circuit is shown in Fig. 18.19
(ii).
y
Vo C VL
VR VC VL VoL
A
R C L C VoR
VoL–VoC f
Io V
wt (VoL– VoC)
x 90°
O  VoR
O
VoC I(t) A
B VC
(i) (ii) B
Fig. 18.19 (i) A.C. through L-C-R circuit and (ii) phasor diagram
The phase relationship between the supply V(t) and the circuit current I(t) depends on the relative
value of inductance and capacitance and whether the inductive reactance (XL) is greater or less than
capacitive reactance (XC). The phasor above shows the case in which XL > XC. In this case, since L and
C carry same current, it follows that VoL > VoC. So, length of VoL is greater than VoC in above phasor.
In Fig. 18.19(ii) above, VoL and VoC are 180º out of phase, so their resultant is, (VoL – VoC) and is in the
direction of VL (in this case).
The vector sum of (VoL – VoC) and VoR equals the applied voltage. i.e.
2 2
Vo = (VoL – VoC)2 + VoR
But, VoL = IoXL, VoC = IoXC and VoR = IoR
2 2
 Vo = Io [R2 + (XL – XC)2]
1 2
Vo = Io R2 + L –
2 2
or,
  C 
Vo
 Io = ... (18.26)
1 2
R2 + L –
 C
1 2
In this equation, the factor, R2 + L – = Z is the impedance of the LCR circuit.
 C
Also, from Fig. 18.19(ii), the phase factor is obtained as,
VoL – VoC Io (XL – XC) XL – XC V or I
tan  = VoR = IoR = R
V(t)
L – 1  I(t)
XL – XC  C  O
  = tan–1  R  = tan–1 ... (18.27) t
   R 
Inductive

V or I

I(t)
V(t)
O
t

Capacitive
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  459

In above equation,
i. If XL > XC, then tan  will be +ve and  is also a positive angle
between 0 to 90º. In this case Io lags behind V by . Such circuit is
called inductive circuit as shown in figure aside.
ii. If XL < XC, then tan  will be negative and  will have a negative
value. In this case, I leads ahead V by . Such circuit is called
capacitive circuit as shown in figure aside.
iii. If XL = XC, then from equation (18.26)
Vo
Io = R and is the maximum current in the circuit.

The impedance is minimum and is given by Z = R. This means, the I or V

circuit is purely resistive only. V(t)
I(t)
(XL – XC)
Also, the phase factor  = tan–1 R =0 t

This means V and I are in same phase. This condition in which the
inductive reactance will be equal to capacitive reactance and the circuit Plot of V(t) vs I(t)
offers minimum resistance allowing maximum current is known as electrical resonance in LCR
circuit as shown in figure aside.
Thus, At resonance, XL = XC Imax
1
or, L =
C
I
1 
or, 2 = LC

1
or, 42f2 = LC f f0
Fig. 18.20 Resonance curve
1 1
or, f2 = 2 LC
4
1 1
 f= LC ...(18.28)
2
This frequency is known as resonant frequency.

18.11 Power in LCR Circuit

In series LCR circuit, the instantaneous power delivered by a.c. source is given by
P(t) = I(t) V(t)
P(t) = Io sin (t + ) Vo sin t.
Vo
But, Io = Z

Vo
So, P(t) = Z sin (t + ) Vo sin t.
2
Vo
P(t) = Z [sin (t + ) sin t]
460 Principles of Physics - II
2
Vo 1
 P(t) = Z . 2 . 2 sin (t + ) . sin t

Using the identity 2 sin A sin B = cos (A – B) – cos (A + B)

We get,
2
Vo
P(t) = 2Z [cos (t +  – t) - cos (t +  + t)]
2
Vo
P(t) = 2Z [cos  – cos (2t + )] ... (18.29)

If dW be the small workdone is small time dt, then instantaneous power is defined as,
dW
P = dt

or, dW = P.dt .... (18.30)

T T
Thus, total workdone over a cycle of a.c. is given by W = ∫ dW = ∫P.dt.
0 0

2
T Vo
W = ∫ 2Z [cos  – cos(2t + )] dt.
0

Vo
2
 T T 
= 2Z (∫ cos  dt – ∫ cos (2t + ) dt)
0 0
 
2
Vo T
= 2Z cos  (t)0 – 
T sin(2t +) 

  2 0 
2
Vo sin (2T + ) – sin (2  0 + )
= 2Z cos . (T – 0) –  
  2 

2  sin 2  2 +  
Vo      sin 
= 2Z Tcos  – –
  2 2 
2
Vo
= 2Z Tcos  – sin(4 + ) + sin 
 2 2 

2
Vo sin  sin 
= 2Z Tcos  – + ∵ sin (4 + ) = sin 
 2 2 
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  461
2
Vo
W = 2Z . Tcos 

The average power of the a.c circuit is given by

2
W Vo Tcos 
Pav = T = 2Z . T
2
Vocos 
Pav = 2Z ... (18.31)

Vo Vo
Pav = 2 Z cos 

Vo
= 2 Io cos 

Io Vo
= cos 
2 2
Pav = Irms Vrms cos  ... (18.32)

Special cases
i. Power consumption across resistor: In this circuit, I and V are in same phase i.e.  = 0,
so, Pav = Irms Vrms cos 0° = Irms Vrms (maximum power is consumed)
This is the case across the resistor.
2
Vo
In resistor, Z = R, So, Pav = 2R .
ii. Power consumption across inductor: In pure inductor,  = 90º
So, Pav = Irms Vrms cos 90º = 0
No power is consumed in pure inductor.
iii. Power consumption in capacitor: In capacitor,  = 90º
So, Pav = Irms Vrms cos 90º = 0
No power is consumed in capacitor.

18.12 Q Factor in LCR Circuit

Q factor is defined as the voltage magnification of the circuit at resonance.
V
Current resonance is given by, Im = R , where Im = maximum current in resonant circuit.

V = ImR
and voltage across inductance or capacitor is given by: ImXL or ImXC respectively.
Voltage across L or C
Voltage magnification = Applied voltage
VL VC Im XL Im XC
= V or V = I R or I R
R R m m

XL XC rL 1
= R or R = R or
rCR
462 Principles of Physics - II
2frL 1
= R or
2frCR
2L 1 1 1
= or 1 (... f = LC )
2 LCR 2
2  CR
2 LC
1 L2 1 LC
= R LC or R C2
In both cases, voltage magnification is found equal. So,
1 L 2 frL 1
 Q factor = R C = R = 2frCR

18.13 Wattless Current

The average power over a cycle of a.c. is given by
Pav = VrmsIrms cos  ... (18.32)
Here, cos  is the power factor and  is the phase factor.
In a resistive circuit, Irms and Vrms are in same phase so that  = 0.
Thus, from equation (18.32),
Pav = Vrms Irms.
In a purely inductive circuit, and purely capacitive circuit, Vrms and Irms are 90º out of phase.
And from equation (18.32), Pav = Vrms Irms cos 90º = 0 (for reactive circuits)
In inductive circuits, the energy taken from source is stored in the magnetic field of inductor in one
quarter cycle and the stored energy is returned to the source in second quarter cycle. So, the mean
power over a cycle is zero. Similarly, in capacitive circuits too, Vrms and Irms are 90º out of phase and
hence Pav = 0.
In capacitive circuits, energy taken from the source is stored in the electric field due to the p.d.
between the charged plates of capacitor in one quarter cycle. And, during the next quarter cycle, the
capacitor discharges and the energy is returned to source. So, mean power over a cycle is zero.
Suppose, Vrms leads Irms by a phase factor . The phasor for this situation is as shown in Fig. 18.21.
y y

Vrms
Vrms
Vrms sin f

f f Irms
x x
Irms Vrms cos f
Fig. 18.21: Phasor diagram between Irms and Vrms
Vrms can be resolved into two components, Vrms cos  along x-axis and Vrms sin  along y-axis.
Referring to Fig. 18.21, we see Vrms cos  and Irms are in phase and hence (Vrms cos ) correspond to
purely resistive part of circuit and causes power loss. But Vrms sin  and Irms are 90º out of phase and
hence Vrms sin  correspond to purely reactive part of the circuit and do not cause power loss. So,
Vrms sin  is called as wattless component of voltage and the current which is 90º out of phase with
the voltage is called wattless current. Thus, the current in an a.c. circuit is said to be wattless current
when the average power consumed in such circuit corresponds to zero.
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  463

18.14 Choke Coil

A choke is an inductor used to block high frequency alternating current (a.c.) in an electrical circuit
while passing low frequency or direct current (d.c.). It is preferred over L R
resistance in an a.c. circuit because it has large value of self inductance
and hence power dissipation is zero for choke coil.
Choke coil is used in series with the fluorescent lamp in a.c. circuit. It 
decreases the voltage across the lamp to make it safe without any
Fig. 18.22 Choke coil
appreciable loss of power. The schematic circuit for the choke coil in
series with the resistor is shown in Fig. 18.22.

Tips for MCQs

1. Alternating current and alternating voltage
i. Magnitude changes continuously and direction is reversed periodically.
ii. Instantaneous value of alternating current is, I = I0 sin t
iii. Instantaneous value of alternating voltages , V = V0 sin t
iv. Relation between peak value and rms value,
I0
a. Irms = = 0.707 Io
2
V0
b. Vrms = = 0.707 Vo.
2
2. Parameters of Various a.c. circuits
S.N. Parameter R circuit L circuit C circuit RL circuit RC circuit LCR circuit
1. Alternating V=Vosint V=Vosint V=Vosint V= Vosint V= Vosint V= Vo sint
voltage and I= Iosint I = Io sin I = Io sin I =Iosin(t–) I = Iosin(t+ ) I = Io sin (t  )
current
( ) ( 
t – 2

t + 2 )
2. Phase zero   Lags by , tan Leads by , Leads by ,
lags by 2 Leads by 2
difference of XL XC XL – XC
= R tan  = R tan = R
current w.r.t.
voltage XC – Xl
or, R

3. Reactance Zero XL = L 1 XL = L 1 XL – XC
XC = XC =
C C or, XC – XL
4. Impedance Z=R Z = XL Z = XC 2 2 Z = R2 + (XL – XC)2
Z= R2 + XL Z = R2 + XC

5. Power factor 1 Zero Zero R R R

(cos) 2 2 R2 + (XL – XC)2
R2 +X L R2 +X C

6. Average VrmsIrms Zero Zero VrmsIrms cos  VrmsIrmscos  VrmsIrmscos 

Power

3. Information regarding a.c.

464 Principles of Physics - II

Physical quantity Symbols Dimensions Units Remarks

Vo
rms voltage Vrms [ML2T-3 A-1] V Vrms =
2
Io
rms current Irms [A] A Irms =
2
Reactance:
Inductance XL [ML2T-3 A-2] Ω XL = ω L
Capacitance XC [ML2T-3 A-2] Ω XC = 1/ ω C
Depends on elements present in the
Impedance Z [ML2T-3 A-2] Ω
circuit.
Resonant 1
fo [ T-1] Hz fo = for L-C-R series circuit.
frequency 2 LC
oL 1
Quality factor Q Dimensionless Q= R = for L-C-R series circuit.
oCR
Power factor = cos ,  is the phase
Power factor cos  Dimensionless difference between voltage applied and
current in the circuit.

Worked Out Problems

1. The voltage across the terminals of an a.c. power supply varies with time according to equation V =
V0 sin t. The voltage amplitude is Vo = 45.0 V. What is (a) the root-mean-square potential
difference Vrms? (b) the average potential difference Vav between the two terminals of the power
supply?
SOLUTION
Given, We know that,
Voltage amplitude (Vo) = 45.0 V Vo 45.0
 Vrms = =
rms potential difference (Vrms) = ? 2 2
Average potential difference (Vav) = ?  Vrms = 31.8 V
The voltage is alternating in nature, so the average
value is zero, i.e., Vav = 0.
2. [HSEB 2071] A circuit consists of a capacitor of 2 F and a resistor of 1000 . An alternating emf of
12 V (rms) and frequency 50 Hz is applied. Find the current flowing, the voltage across capacitor
and the phase angle between the applied emf and current.
SOLUTION
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  465

Given, 12
=
Capacitance of capacitor (C) = 2 F = 2 × 10–6 F 1
10002 +  
2

Resistance of resistor (R) = 1000   2 × 50 × 2 × 10–6

emf (V) = 12 V (rms) = 6.38 × 10–3 A
Frequency (f) = 50 Hz 1 6.38 × 10–3
Current (I) = ? VC = IXC = I = = 10.2 V
2fC 2 × 50 × 2 × 10–6
Voltage across capacitor (VC) = ? VC VC
Phase angle () = ?  = tan–1  V  = tan–1  I 
 R  R
We have, current,
10.2
V V = tan–1  6.38 × 10–3 × 1000 = 57.9°
I = =  
R2 + XC2 1 2
R2 + 
 2fC
3. a. Compute the reactance of a 0.450 H inductor at frequencies of 60.0 Hz and 600 Hz.
b. Compute the reactance of a 2.50 F capacitor at frequencies of 60.0 Hz and 600 Hz.

c. At what frequency is the reactance of a 0.450 H inductor equal to that of a 2.50 F capacitor?

SOLUTION
a. Given, We know that,
Inductance (L) = 0.450 H 1
or XC =
Inductive reactance (XL) = ? 2fC
We know that For f = 60.0 Hz, we have,
XL = L 1
XC =
or, XL = 2 f L 2 × 60 × 2.50 × 10–6
For f = 60 Hz,  XC = 106 .
XL = 2  60.0  0.450 = 170 . for f = 600.0 Hz
For f = 600 Hz, we have, 1
XC = = 106.1 
XL = 2  600  0.450 = 1700 . 2 × 600 × 2.5 × 10–6
b. Given, c. Given,
Capacitance (C) = 2.50 F = 2.50  10–6 F Inductance (L) = 0.450 H
Capacitive reactance (XC) = ? Capacitance (C) = 2.50 F = 2.50  10–6 F

Frequency (f) = ? 1 1
or, f = =
Given condition, XC = XL 2 LC 2 0.45 × 2.5 × 10–6
1  f = 150 Hz
or, = 2 f L
2 f C

4. [HSEB 2059] The maximum capacitance of a variable capacitor is 33 pF. What should be the self-
inductance to be connected to this capacitor for the natural frequency of the LC circuit to be 810
kHz. Corresponding to A.m. broadcast band of Radio Nepal?
SOLUTION
Given, 1
Resonant frequency =
Capacitance (C) = 33 pF = 33 × 10–12 F 2 LC
Let, L be the self-inductance connected with the 1 1
capacitor, or, L = =
42f2C 42 (810 × 103)2 × 33 × 10–12
The natural frequency of this LC circuit is f = = 1.17 × 10–3 H
810 kHz = 810 × 103 Hz. Hence, the required inductance is 1.17 × 10–3 H.
466 Principles of Physics - II
5. [HSEB 2072] A coil having inductance and resistance is connected to an oscillator giving a fixed
sinusoidal output voltage of 5 V rms. With the oscillator set at a frequency of 50 Hz, the rms current
in the coil is 1 A and at a frequency of 100 Hz, the rms current is 0.625 A. Determine the inductance
of the coil.
SOLUTION
Given,
Voltage (V) = 5.0 V ~
Frequencies (f1) = 50 Hz, f2 = 100 Hz
Currents (I1) = 1 A, I2 = 0.625 A L R
Inductance (L) = ?
Now, Impedance at frequency, 50 Hz Similarly,
V 5 Zr2 = R2 + 42 fr2 L2
Z1 = I = 1 = 5 
1 Subtracting equation (i) from (ii), we get,
Impedance of frequency, 100 Hz Z22 – Z12 = 4 2 (f22 – f12 2) L2
V 5 Z22 – Z12 82 – 52
Z2 = I = 0.625 = 8  or, L2 = = 2 = 0.0001317
2 4  (f2 – f1) 4 (1002 – 502)
2 2 2

Again, Z1 = R2 + 12 L12  L = 0.0114 H

or, Z12 = R2 + 42 f12 L2

6. [HSEB 2063] An inductor, a resistor and capacitor are connected in series across an a.c. circuit. A
voltmeter reads 60 V when connected across the inductor, 16 V across the resistor and 30 V across
the capacitor:
i. What will the voltmeter read when placed across the series circuit?
ii. What is the power factor of the circuit?

SOLUTION
Given, ii. Power factor (cos ) = ?
VL = 60 V VC = 30 V We know that,
i. Voltmeter reading across series circuits (V) = ? VR 16
Power factor (cos ) = V = 34 = 0.47
Voltmeter reading (V) = (VL – VC)2 + VR2
= (60 – 30)2 + (16)2 = 34 V

6. A coil connected to an a.c. source of frequency 50 Hz, draws a current of 4.0 A with 240 W of power
loss. If the voltage across the coil is 100 V. Calculate its inductance.

SOLUTION
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  467

Given, Now, the impendence of the circuit with

Frequency (f) = 50 Hz inductance L,
2
Current (Irms) = 4.0 A Z= R2 + XL ... (i)
Power loss (P) = 240 W Also,
Voltage (Vrms) = 100 V Vo Vrms 100
Inductance (L) = ? Z= I = I = 4 = 25 
o rms
When there is power loss in a circuit, it must From (i),
contain resistance. In this condition, the 2
inductor is not ideal, it possesses the Ohmic 252 = R2 + XL
2
resistance (R) too.  XL = 625 – R2 = 625 – 225 = 400
So, XL = 20 
P = I2R 2fL = 20
P 240 10 20
 R = I2 = (4)2 = 15  L= = = 0.064 H
2f 2  50

7. [HSEB 2068] An alternating voltage 10 V (rms) and 4 kHz frequency is applied to a resistor of
resistance 5  in series with a capacitor of capacitance 10 F. Calculate the rms potential differences
across the resistor and the capacitor.
SOLUTION
Given, Then, in case of R-C circuit, we have
Voltage (Vrms) = 10 V Vrms 10 10
I= = = 6.39 = 1.56 A
Frequency (f) = 4 kHz = 4 × 1000 Hz 2 5 2 + (3.98)2
R2+ X C
Resistance (R) = 5 
Then,
Capacitance (C) = 10 µF = 10 × 10–6 F
p.d. across resistor (VR) = I × R = 1.56 × 5 = 7.8
p.d. across resistor (VR) = ?
V
p.d. across capacitor (VC) = ?
Also, p.d. across capacitor (VC) = I × XC = 1.56 ×
Now, we have,
3.98 = 6.2 V
1 1
XC = = = 3.98  Here, the required p.d across resistor and
2fC 2 × 4 × 1000 × 10 × 10–6 capacitor are 7.8 V and 6.2 V respectively.

8. [HSEB 2068] A circuit consists of an inductor of 200 H and resistance of 10  in series with a
variable capacitor and a 0.10 V (r.m.s.), 1.0 MHz supply. Calculate (i) the capacitance to give
resonance (ii) the quality factor of the circuit at resonance.
SOLUTION
Given, 1
or, = 1256.6
Inductance (L) = 200 µH = 200 × 10–6 H 2fC
Resistance (R) = 10  1
or, = 1256.6
Emf (E) = 0.10 V 2 × 106 ×C
Frequency (f) = 1 MHz = 106 Hz  C = 1.26 × 10–10 F
Now, For (i); we have Hence, the required capacitance is 1.26 × 10–10 F.
XL = ωL Again, we have,
= 2fL = 2 × 106 × 200 × 10–6 = 1256.6  1 L 1
In resonance condition; we have Quality factor (Q) = R C = 10
XC = XL 200 × 10–6
1 1.26 × 10–10 = 125.97 ≃ 126
or, ωC = 1256.6
Hence, required value of quality factor is 126.

9. [HSEB 2070] An iron cored coil of 2 H and 50  resistance placed in series with a resistor of 450 
and 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply is connected across the arrangement, find
468 Principles of Physics - II
i. The current flowing the coil,
ii. Its phase angle relative to the voltage supply
iii. The voltage across the coil.

SOLUTION
Given,
Inductance ( L) = 2 H Resistance of coil (r) = 50 
Resistance of wire (R) = 450  Emf (V) = 200 V
Frequency of a.c. (f) = 50 Hz Current (I) = ?
Phase angle () = ? Voltage a cross coil (VL) = ?
Now,
V V 200
I= = = = 0.25 A
(R + r)2 + XL2 (R + r)2 + (2fL)2 (450 + 50)2 + (2 × 50 × 2)2
Now,
VL = IXL = 0.25 × 2 × 50 × 2 = 156.5 V
VL 156.5
 = tan–1  V  = tan–1  0.25 × 450 = 54.3°
 R  
10. A 150  resistor is connected in series with a 0.250 H inductor. The voltage across the resistor is
VR = (3.80 V) cos [(720 rad/s) t]. (a) Derive an expression for the circuit current. (b) Determine the
inductive reactance of the inductor. (c) Derive an expression for the voltage VL across the inductor.
SOLUTION
Given,  I = 0.0253 cos (720 t)
a. Circuit current (I) = ? b. Inductive reactance (XL) = ?
Given, we know that,
VR = 3.80 cos (720 t) … (i) XL =L = 720 × 0.250
We know that  XL = 180 
VR = Vo cos t … (ii) c. Voltage across inductor (XL) = ?
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get, Since, in inductor the voltage leads the current
Vo = 3.80 V by 90o so, we can write,
 = 720 rad/s VL = Vo cos (720 t + /2) = – I0 XL cos (720 t)
Now, = 2.0253 × 180
Vo 3.80  VL = – 4.50 sin (720 t)
I = Io cos t = R cos (720 t) = 150 cos (720 t)

11. In an L–R–C series circuit, R = 300 , L = 0.400 H and C = 6.00  10–8 F. When the a.c. source operates
at the resonance frequency of the circuit, the current amplitude is 0.500 A. (a) What is the voltage
amplitude of the source? (b) What is the amplitude of the voltage across the resistor, across the
inductor, and across the capacitor? (c) What is the average power supplied by the source?
SOLUTION
Given, Now,
Resistance (R) = 300  Vo = IoZ = IoR = 0.5 × 300 = 150 volt
Inductance (L) = 0.4 H b. Voltage amplitude across resistor (VR) = ?
Capacitance (C) = 6  10–8 F Voltage amplitude across inductor (VL) = ?
Current amplitude (Io) = 0.5 A Voltage amplitude across capacitor (VC) = ?
a. Voltage amplitude of the source (Vo) = ? VR = IoR = 0.5 × 300 = 150 V
At the resonance frequency (Z) = R
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  469

1  L 0.4
VL = Io XL = Io L = IoL  = Io = 0.5 ×
 LC C 6 × 10–8
0.4  VC = 1290 V
= 0.5 × 6 × 10-8 c. Average power supplied by source (Pav) = ?
 VL = 1290 V We know that,
Now, 1
Pav = 2 VI cos 
1
VC = Io XL = Io At resonance, cos  = 1 and V = IR
C
1 1 1
1 L So, Pav = 2 × I R × I = 2 I2 R = 2 × (0.50)2 × 300
= Io 1 = Io C
C  Pav = 37.5 W
LC

12. [HSEB 2054] A constant a.c. supply is connected to a series circuit consisting of a resistance of 300 
in series with a capacitance 6.67 F, the frequency of the supply being 3000/2 Hz. It is desired to
reduce the current in the circuit to half its value. Show how this could be done by placing an
additional resistance.
SOLUTION
Given, or, R + r = (4R2 + 3 XC2 )1/2
Resistance (R) = 300  or, r = (4R2 + 3 XC2 )1/2 – R
Capacitance (C) = 6.67  F = 6.67 × 10-6 F V
I =Z
3000
Frequency (f) = Hz
2 V
= (R2 + X 2)1/2
Let r be the additional resistance that can C
reduce the current to half of its original value. If Also,
I be the original current and I' be the current V
when additional resistance is added in the I' =
I
{ (R+r) C}
2 + X 2 1/2

circuit so that I' = 2 , then we can write, 1

  1 22
I V = 4 × (300)2 + 3 × 
or, 2 =  2fC  – 300
{(R+r)2 + XC2 }1/2 1
2
=4 × 9 × 104+ 3 ×   
1 V V 1 2
– 300
or, 2 × (R2 + X 2 )1/2 =
{ (R+r) 2 + XC2 }1/2  2 × 3000 × 6.67 × 10 
 
-6

C
2
or, (R + r)2 + XC2 = 4 (R2 + XC2 ) = { 36 × 104 + 3 × (50)2}1/2 – 300
or, (R + r)2 = 4 R2 + 3XC2  r = 306.1 

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] A 5.00 H inductor with negligible resistance is connected across an a.c. source whose voltage
amplitude is kept constant at 60.0 V but whose frequency can be varied. Find the current amplitude
when the angular frequency is (a) 100 rad/s; (b) 1000 rad/s; (c) 10,000 rad/s.
Ans: (a) 0.12 A (b) 1.2 × 10 – 2 A (c) 1.2 × 10 – 3 A
2. [UP]
a. What is the reactance of a 3 H inductor at frequency 80 Hz?
b. What is the inductance of an inductor whose reactance is 120  at 80 Hz?
c. What is the reactance of a 4 F capacitor at a frequency of 80 Hz?
470 Principles of Physics - II
d. What is the capacitance of a capacitor whose reactance is 120  at 80 Hz?
Ans: (a) 1508  (b) 0.239 H (c) 497  (d) 16.6  10 – 6 F
3. [UP] The wiring for a refrigerator contains a starter capacitor. A voltage of amplitude 170 V and
frequency 60.0 Hz applied across the capacitor is to produce a current amplitude of 0.850 A through
the capacitor. What capacitance C is required?
Ans: 13.3 F
4. [UP] You want the current amplitude through a 0.450 mH inductor (part of the circuitry for a radio
receiver) to be 2.60 mA when a sinusoidal voltage with amplitude 12.0 V is applied across the
inductors. What frequency is required?
Ans: 1.63  10 6 Hz
5. [UP] A 250  resistor is connected in a series with a 4.80 F capacitor. The voltage across the
capacitor is VC = (7.60 V) sin [(120 rad/s)t].
Determine the capacitive reactance of the capacitor. Derive an expression for the voltage across the
resistor.
Ans: 1736 , V R = 1.10 sin (120 t) V

6. [UP]You have a 200  resistor, a 0.400 H inductor, and a 6.00 F capacitor. Suppose you take the
resistor and inductor and make a series circuit with a voltage source that has voltage amplitude 30.0
V and an angular frequency 250 rad/s. (a) What is the impedance of the circuit? (b) What is the
current amplitude? (c) What are the voltage amplitudes across the resistor and across the inductor?
(d) What is the phase angle  of the source voltage with respect to the current? Does the source
voltage lag or lead the current?
Ans: (a) 224  (b) 0.134 A (c) 26.8 V, 13.4 V (d) 26.6°

7. [UP] In a series L–R–C circuit, the components have the following values: L = 20.0 mH, C = 140 nF
and R = 350 . The generator has an rms voltage of 120 V and a frequency of 1.25 KHz. Determine (a)
power supplied by the generator; (b) the power dissipated in the resistor.
Ans: (a) 9.06 W (b) 7.32 W

8. [UP] An L-R-C series circuit consists of a source with voltage amplitude 120 V and angular frequency
50.0 rad s–1, a resistor with R = 400 , an inductor with L = 9.00 H, and a capacitor with capacitance
C. (a) For what value of C will the current amplitude in the circuit be a maximum? (b) When C has
the value calculated in part (a), what is the amplitude of the voltage across the inductor?
Ans: (a) 4.44 × 10 - 5 F (b) 135 V

9. [ALP] An iron cored coil of inductance 3 H and 50  resistance is placed in series with a resistor of
550 , and a 100 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply is connected across the arrangements. Find the current
following in the coil and the voltage across the coil. [HSEB 2053]
Ans: 0.089 A, 84 V

10. A circuit consists of a capacitor of 10 F and a resistor of 1000 . An alternating emf of 12 V (rms) and
frequency 50 Hz is applied. Calculate the current flowing and voltage across the capacitor.[HSEB,2057]
Ans: 0.01 A, 31.8 V

11. [ALP] In a series L-C-R circuit, R = 25 . L = 30 mH and C = 10 F and these elements are connected
to 240 a.c. (rms) 50 Hz source. Calculate the current in the circuit and voltmeter reading across a
capacitor . [HSEB, 2062]
Ans: 0.77 A and 245.3 V

12. [ALP] A 50 V, 50 Hz, a.c. supply is connected to a resistor of resistance 40  in series with a solenoid
having inductance 200 mH with same resistance. The potential difference across the ends of the 40 
resistor is found to be 20 V. Find the resistance of the wire of the solenoid. [HSEB, 2064]
Ans: 37.83 
13. [ALP] A coil of self inductance of 0.20 H and a resistance of 50.0  is to be supplied with current of
1.00. A form a 240 V, 50 Hz, supply and it is desired to make the current in phase with the potential
difference. Find the value of the components that must be up in series with the coil.
Ans: 190  and 50.6  F
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  471

14. The maximum capacitance of a variable capacitor is 33 pF. What should be the self-inductance to be
connected to this capacitor for the natural frequency of the L-C circuit to be 810 kHz corresponding
to A.M. broadcast band of Radio Nepal? [HSEB, 2059]
Ans: 1.17 × 10 – 3 H
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Differentiate between a.c. and d.c.
 Some important differences between d.c. and a.c. are as follows.
Direct Current (d.c.) Alternating Current (a.c.)
1. The magnitude of direct current is constant 1. The magnitude of alternating current
in a circuit over time continuously. varies periodically over time.
2. The positive and negative terminals of d.c. 2. The polarities of a.c. reverse periodically.
are fixed. They are not altered for a source. So, no polarity is fixed in a source.
3. d.c. is symbolized by a cell. 3. a.c. is symbolized by sine curve,

2. Which one is more dangerous a.c. or dc. Why?

 Alternating current (a.c.) is more dangerous than direct current (dc). The direct current has constant
magnitude of current (or voltage) in the circuit, whereas the magnitude of current (or voltage) varies
in a.c.. Suppose the 220 V d.c. means the value is constant over time. However 220 V a.c. means it is
the rms value. In such condition a.c. voltage fluctuates from 0 V to 220 2 ( = 311 V). Hence, a.c.
provides the greater shock for same magnitude of dc.
3. Define rms value of a.c..
 RMS refers to the root mean square. The average value of a.c. is zero over one complete cycle. The
direct average of positive and negative cycle of alternating magnitude of a.c. is zero, so the mean
value is taken by squaring its magnitude. rms means the square root of the mean of squares of the
instantaneous current over a complete cycle.
Io
Irms = I2 or, Irms = .
2
4. What are the basic properties of a.c.?
 The basic properties of a.c. are:
i. The magnitude of current or voltage varies continuously with time.
ii. The polarity reverses periodically.
iii. It has certain frequency of oscillation.
5. What do you mean by rms value of an A.C. current? [HSEB 2056]
 The rms value of a.c. is the steady current (dc), which on passing through a resistance for a given
time will produce the same amount of heat as the alternating current does in the same resistance for
the same time. It is also called as virtual or effective value. If Io be the peak value of a.c., then its rms
Io
value is given by Irms =
2
Vo
Similarly the r.m.s value of a.c. voltage is Vrms = .
2
6. What is meant by impedance of an a.c. circuit? [HSEB 2054]
 The net opposition offered by the a.c. circuit to the alternating current is called impendence of an a.c.
circuit. When an a.c. current passes through a LCR circuit i.e., circuit containing inductor, capacitor
472 Principles of Physics - II
and resistor, then each of the components offers different resistances which differ from each other.
Inductor (L) offers reactance XL which is directly proportional to the frequency (f) of an ac. Similarly,
capacitor (C) offers reactance XC which is inversely proportional to the frequency (f) of an ac, and
resistance offered by resistor does not depend upon frequency.
Hence, the net resistance offered by LCR circuit is given by,
1 2
Z= R2 + (XL – XC)2 = R2 +L – (where  = 2f)
 C
which is known as impedance of an a.c. circuit. It plays same role as played by resistance in d.c.
2 2
circuit. Similarly, the impedance of LR circuit is Z = R2 + X L and CR circuit is Z = R2 + X C .
7.Fluorescent tubes often use an inductor to limit the current through the tube. Why is it better to use
inductor than a resistor for this purpose? [HSEB 2059]
 The electrical power consumed in an a.c. circuit is given by
Pav = Irms × Vrms × cos ,
The value of phase angle in pure inductor is 90°, the power consumed is Pav = Irms × Vrms × cos 90° =
0. Due to this reason, an inductor is used to limit the current through the tube of fluorescent light.
But, resistor consumes the power in an electric circuit. If a resistor is used for this purpose, there will
be wastage of power (P = I2R) by Joule's law of heating due to zero phase difference between the
voltage and current. Thus, unlike resistor, inductor plays a significant role for controlling the current
without loss of any power. That's why, inductor is better to use than a resistor in fluorescent tubes.
8.The emf of an a.c. source is given by the expression, E = 300 sin 314 t volts. Write the values of peak
voltage and frequency of source. [HSEB 2074]
 Given E = 300 sin(314t)
Peak voltage (Eo) = ?
Frequency (f) = ?
Comparing this equation with
E = Eo sin t
Here, Eo = 300 V and  = 314
Here, 2f = 314
 f = 50 Hz
9.At high frequencies, a capacitor becomes a short-circuit and an inductor becomes an open circuit.
Explain.
1
 The capacitive reactance XC is given by, XC = , where f is frequency and C is capacitance of a
2fC
capacitor.
If f   (very high), XC  0, So, capacitor acts as short circuit.
The inductive reactance for inductor XL is given by, XL = 2 fL, L = inductance of inductor.
If, f   (very high), XL  , so inductor act as open circuit.
10. Why do we prefer a choke coil to rheostat in an a.c. circuit? [HSEB 2053]
 Choke coil is a coil of wire with high inductance and low resistance. It is used in a.c. circuit to control
the current without significant loss of electrical energy in the form of heat. The power consumed in
choke coil is Pav = Irms × Vrms × cos  Since,  = 90°, then Pav = Irms × Vrms × cos 90° = 0. It means the
current in a choke is wattless. If a resistor is used for limiting current in a circuit, there is always
wastage of power by Joule's law of heating. The power loss is given by P = I2R. Also, there is gradual
potential drop across the resistor. Hence, choke coil is preferred to a resistance in an a.c. circuit to
change the magnitude of the current without consuming power from the source.
11. A 220 V a.c. is more dangerous than 220 V d.c. Why? [HSEB 2070]
 The root mean square voltage and peak value of voltage are related as
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  473

Vo
Vrms =
2
or, Vo = 2 Vrms
12. Alternating current passes through a capacitor whereas direct current does not. Explain this fact on
the basis of capacitive reactance.
 The capacitive reactance of a capacitor is given as,
1
XC = , where f = frequency of current and C is capacitance of a capacitor. So, the peak value of
2fC
220 V a.c. is 2 times greater than 220 V d.c. Hence, a 220 V a.c. is more dangerous than 220 V d.c.
For a d.c. current, f = 0, XC =  i.e., for d.c. current the reactance of a capacitor becomes infinite and
acts as insulator which blocks current. For alternating current, f is more and XC is less i.e., the
capacitor has low reactance for alternating current. So, a.c. easily passes through it.
13. What is meant by wattles current? [NEB 2075]
 The electrical power consumed in an a.c. circuit is given by,
Pav = Irms × Vrms × cos ,
cos  is called the power factor and  is the phase difference between the current and voltage. Since,
the value of phase angle in pure capacitor and inductor is 90°, the power consumed is Pav = Irms ×
Vrms × cos 90° = 0, no power is consumed, even though a.c. flows through them. Hence, current
flowing in pure capacitor and inductor is called wattles current. Since the electric circuit containing
pure inductor or pure capacitor does not consume any power, current of any such a.c. circuit is said
to be wattles current.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What are the properties of alternating current?
2. Define time period and frequency of a.c.
3. What are the advantages of a.c. over d.c.?
4. Why do we find rms value of a.c.?
5. What does 50 Hz a.c. mean?
6. What are reactance and impendence? Give its S. I. units.
7. What do you mean by power factor?
8. A bulb connected in series with a solenoid and a.c. source glows. If a soft iron core is introduced in
the solenoid, will the bulb glow more? Explain.
9. What is a phasor diagram?
10. A low power factor of power transmission circuit implies large power loss. How?
11. Some electrical appliances operate equally well on a.c. or d.c., and other work only on a.c. or only on
d.c. Give examples of each, and explain the differences.
12. A bulb and a capacitor are joined in series to an a.c. source. What will happen if frequency of the
source is increased?
13. Why is alternating current usually transmitted at high practicable voltage?
14. Why is the long distance transmission of a.c. economical?
15. Does capacitor allow d.c.to pass through?
16. What is the unit and dimensional formula of LC?
17. What will be the shape of graph between inductive reactance and frequency of a.c. supply?
474 Principles of Physics - II
18. Can we use 20 cycle per second alternating current for lighting purpose? What happens if frequency
is decreased below 10 Hz?
19. What does mean that voltage in LR circuit lead current by 90º?
20. When does LCR series circuit have minimum impedance?
21. What is the frequency of direct current?
22. Why alternating current measuring instruments have a non-linear scale?
23. What are the uses of choke coil?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Define peak value and mean value of a.c. and derive the relation between them.
2. Define peak value and root mean square value of a.c. and derive the relation between them.
3. Discuss the phase relationship between the voltage and current in the a.c. circuit containing
inductance and resistance. What is power factor of the circuit? (HSEB 2052)
4. An alternating emf is applied across a capacitor. Show that the current in it leads to the applied emf
by 90°. (HSEB 2056)
5. An alternating emf is applied across a inductor. Show that the current in it lags the applied emf by
90°.
6. An alternating emf is applied across a resistor. Show that the current and the applied emf are in the
same phase.
7. An a.c. passes through a circuit containing a resistor and an inductor in series. Derive an expression
for the phase relation between the current and the voltage. (HSEB 2058)
8. Discuss the phase relationship between the voltage and current in the a.c. circuit containing capacitor
and resistor in series and hence derive an expression for the impedance of the circuit.
(HSEB 2060)
9. Find an expression for impedance of an a.c. circuit containing a resistance and a capacitor in series.
Also discuss the phase relation of current and emf in that circuit. (HSEB 2061)
10. Derive the condition for resonant frequency of an L-C-R alternating current series circuit.
(HSEB 2065)
11. Derive an expression of current flowing through an a.c. circuit containing a resistor and capacitor in
series combination. What is the power factor of this circuit? (HSEB 2066)
12. Discuss the phase relationship between the current and voltage in the a.c. circuit containing capacitor
and resistor in series and hence derive an expression for the impedance of the circuit.
(HSEB 2067)
13. Find the impendence of L-C-R circuit in series. (HSEB 2055)
14. Obtain an expression for average power consumption in L-C-R series circuit.
15. What is resonance? Obtain an expression for resonance frequency in L-C-R series circuit.

Numerical Problems
1. A 50 mH inductor is connected to 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. Calculate the rms value of the current in
the circuit.
Ans: 12.74 A
2. A series circuit contains a resistor of 20 , a capacitor and an ammeter of negligible resistance. It is
connected to a source of 200 V, 50 Hz. If the reading of ammeter is 2.5 A, calculate the reactance of
the capacitor.
Ans: 77.46 
3. A 10 F capacitor is in series with a 50  resistance and the combination is connected to a 220 V, 50
Hz line. Calculate (i) the capacitive reactance, (ii) the impedance of the circuit and (iii) the current in
the circuit.
Ans: (i) 318.5  (ii) 322.4  (iii) 0.68 A
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  475

4. A resistance of 10 , an inductance of 0.2 H and a capacitance of 100 F are connected in series across
a 200 V, 50 Hz supply main. Determine (i) impedance (ii) current (iii) voltage across R, L and C, (iv)
power factor and angle of lag and (v) power consumed in watts.
Ans: (i) 32.6 , (ii) 6.13 A, (iii) 61.3 V, 386 V, 196 V, (iv) 0.31, 72° and (v) 380 W
5. An alternating current I is given by I = 5 sin 314 t. Find (i) the maximum value of current, (ii)
frequency, (iii) time period, and (iv) instantaneous value of a.c. when time t = 4 ms.
Ans: (i) 5 A (ii) 50 Hz (iii) 0.02 s (iv) 4.76 A
6. A coil of inductance 1 H and resistance 50  is connected to 230 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. (i) Find the
maximum current in the coil, and (ii) find the time lag between the voltage maximum and minimum.
Ans: (i) 1.02 A, (ii) 4.49  10 –3 s
7. A 60 F capacitor, 0.3 H inductor and a 50  resistor are connected in series with 120 V, 60 Hz source.
Calculate the (i) impedance, (ii) current, and (iii) power dissipated in the circuit.
Ans: (i) 85.13  (ii) 1.41 A (iii) 99.4 W
8. An L-R-C series circuit is connected to a 120 Hz a.c. source that has Vrms = 80.0 V. The circuit has a
resistance of 75.0  and an impedance at this frequency of 105 . What average power is delivered to
the circuit by the source?
Ans: 43.5 W
9. A voltage across the terminals of an a.c. power supply varies with time. The voltage amplitude is 45.0
V. what is (a) the root mean square potential difference Vrms? (b) the average potential difference Vav
between two terminals of the power supply?
Ans: 31.0 V, 0
10. An alternating voltage of 10 V rms and frequency 50 Hz is supplied (i) a resistor of 5 ohm, (ii)an
inductor of 2 H and (iii) a capacitor of 1 µF. Calculate the rms current flowing in each case.
Ans: 2 A, 0.016 A, 0.0031 A
11. An alternating current of 0.2 A rms and frequency 100/2π Hz flows, if a circuit considering of series
arrangement of a resistor R of 20 Ω an inductor L of 0.15 H and a capacitor of 500 µF. Calculate the
a.c. voltage (i) across each component, (ii) across R and L together, (iii) across R and C together (iv)
total voltage across R, L, and C. What power is dissipated in each component?
Ans: 4.0V, 3.0 V, 5.0 V, 1.0 V, 4.1 V, 0.8 W
12. A 50 V, 10 W lamp is to run 100 V, 50 Hz a.c. mains. Calculate the inductance of the choke coil
required.
Ans: 1.38 H
13. A series circuit contains a resistor of 20 Ω a capacitor and an ammeter or negligible resistance. It is
connected to a source of 200 V, 50 Hz. If the reading of ammeter is 2.5 A. Calculate the reactance of
the capacitor.
Ans: 77.46 Ω
14. A coil of inductance 0.50 H and resistance 100 Ω is connected to 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply. Find the
maximum current in the coil. Also, find the lag between the maximum voltage and maximum
current.
Ans: 1.52 A, 3.194 × 10 - 3 s
15. In a series LCR circuit, R = 25, L = 30 mH and C = 10 F. These elements are connected to 240 V
(rms) 50 Hz a.c. supply. Calculate the current in the circuit and voltmeter reading across the
capacitor.
Ans: 0.774 A, 246.37 V
16. A 50 Ω resistance, 3 mH inductor and 2 µF capacitor are connected in series to a 110 V, 5000 Hz a.c.
source. Calculate the value of the current in the circuit.
Ans: 0.44 A
17. An inductor, a resistor and a capacitor are connected in series across an a.c. circuit. A voltmeter reads
60 V when connected across the inductor, 16 V across the resistor and 30 V across the capacitor: (i)
what will the voltmeter reads when placed across the series circuit? (ii) What is the power factor of
the circuit?
Ans: 34 V, 0.47
476 Principles of Physics - II
18. The wiring of a refrigerator contains a starter capacitor. A voltage of amplitude 170 V and frequency
60 Hz is applied across the capacitor to produce a current amplitude of 0.85 A. What capacitance C is
required?
Ans: 13.3 µF
19. A radio tuning LCR circuit contains an inductor of 0.5 mH and a variable capacitor. What should be
the value of the variable capacitor to tune a radio signal transmitted at 90 MHz of frequency.
Ans: 6.25  10 - 15 F
20. A 150 Ω resistor is connected is connected if series with a 0.250 H inductor. The voltage across the
resistor is VR = (3.80V) cos [(720 rad/s) t]. (a) Derive the expression for the circuit (b) Determine the
inductive reactance is the inductor. (c) Determine the expression for the voltage, VL across the
inductor.
Ans: I = ( 0.0253 A) cos 720 t, 180 Ω, V L = - (4.56V) sin720 t
21. In an LCR series circuit, R = 300 Ω, L = 0.400 H, and C = 6.00 µF. When the a.c. source operates at the
resonance frequency of the circuit, the current amplitude is 0.500 A. (a) what is power factor? (b)
What is the amplitude if the voltage across the resistance, across the inductor and across the
capacitor? What is the average power supplied by the source?
Ans: 150 V, 1290 V 1290 V, 37.5 W
22. A coil of self inductance of 0.20 H and a resistance 50.0 ohm is to be supplied with current of 1.00 A
from a 240 V, 50 Hz, supply and it is desired to make the current in phase with the potential
difference of the source. Find the values of the components that must be put in series with the coil.
Ans: 190 ohm, 50.6 µF

Multiple Choice Questions

1. An alternative current of 1.5 mA rms and angular frequency  = 100 rads–1 flows through a 10 k
resistance and a 0.50 F capacitor in series. The rms potential difference across the capacitor is
a. 4.8 V b. 15 V
c. 30 V d. 34 V
2. In a LCR series circuit, the a.c. voltages across R, L and C come out as 10 V, 10 V and 20 V
respectively. The voltage across the entire combination will be
a. 30 V b. 10 3 V
c. 20 V d. 10 2 V
3. In a series resonant circuit, the a.c. voltages across resistance R, inductance L and capacitance are 5
V, 10 V and 10 V respectively. The a.c. voltage applied to the circuit will be
a. 25 V b. 20 V
c. 10 V d. 5 V
4. The time taken by a.c. of 50 Hz in reaching from zero to the maximum value is
a. 50  10–3 s b. 5  10–3 s
c. 1  10 s
–2 d. 2  10–2 s
5. In an LCR series a.c. circuit, the voltage across each of the components L, C and R is 50 V. The voltage
across the LC combination will be
a. 50 V b. 50 2 V
c. 100 V d. 0 V (zero)
6. In a LCR circuit, capacitance is changed from C to 2C. For the resonant frequency to remain
unchanged, the inductance should be changed from L to
a. 4 L b. 2 L
c. L/2 d. L/4
 Alternating Current  Chapter 18  477

7. In a.c. voltage V is applied across a series combination of R, L and C. If VRL, VLC and VRC be the
voltage drops across resistor and inductor and capacitor and resistor and capacitor respectively, then
a. VRL < V b. VRC < V
c. VLC < V d. VLC = V
8. A circuit has a resistance of 12 ohm and an impedance of 15 ohm. The power factor of the circuit will
be
a. 1.25 b. 0.125
c. 0.8 d. 0.4
9. The self-inductance of the motor of an electric fan is 10 H. In order to impart maximum power at 50
Hz, it should be connected to a capacitance of
a. 1 F b. 2 F
c. 4 F d. 8 F
10. Antenna is
a. Inductive b. Capacitive
c. Resistive above its resonant frequency d. Resistive at resonant frequency
11. In an a.c. circuit, the emf (e) and the current (i) at any instant are given respectively by:
e = Eo sin t
i = Io sin (t – )
The average power in the circuit over one cycle of a.c. is:
EoIo
a. Eo Io b. 2
EoIo EoIo
c. 2 sin  d. 2 cos 

12. A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series with an a.c. source. If the potential drop across the
capacitor is 5 V and that across resistor is 12 V, the applied voltage is
a. 13 V b. 17 V
c. 5 V d. 12 V
13. A charged capacitor C = 30 F is connected to an inductor L = 27 mH. The angular frequency of their
oscillations is
a. 9.1  103 rad s–1 b. 3.0  103 rad s–1
c. 1.1  103 rad s–1 d. 0.3  103 rad s–1

Answers
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (c)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 b. For  = 1000 rad/s, Io = ?
Given,  Io = Vo = Vo
Inductance (L) = 5 H XL L
Voltage amplitude (Vo) = 60 V c. For  = 10000 rad/s, Io = ?
a. Current amplitude (Io) = ?  Io = Vo = Vo
 = 100 rad/s XL L
We know that HINT: 2
Vo = I o X L a. Given,
Vo Vo Inductance (L) = 3 H
or Io = X =
L L Frequency (f) = 80 Hz
478 Principles of Physics - II
Inductive reactance (XL) = ? or V = I (2 f L)
We know that V
or f =
XL = L 2I L
or XL = 2 f L HINT: 5
b. Given, Given,
Inductive reactance (XL) = 120  R = 250 
Frequency (f) = 80 Hz C = 4.80  F = 4.80 × 10-6 F
Inductance (L) = ? VC = 7.60 sin (120 t) . . . (i)
We know that a. Capacitive reactance, XC = ?
XL = L The a.c. voltage is given by
or XL = 2 f L VC = Vo sin  t . . . (ii)
XL comparing (i) and (ii), we get
or L =
2 f  = 120 rad/s
c. Given, Now, we know that
Capacitance (C) = 4 F = 4  10–6 F 1
Frequency (f) = 80 Hz XC =
C
Capacitive reactance (XC) = ?
We know that b. Expression of voltage across resistor, VR = ?
1 We know that
XC = Vc
C VR = I R = X R
c
1
or XC =
2fC HINT: 6
d. Given, Given,
Capacitive reactance (XC) = 120  Resistance (R) = 200 
Frequency (f) = 80.0 Hz Inductance (L) = 0.400 H
Capacitance (C) = ? Capacitance, C = 6  F = 6 × 10-6 F
We know that Voltage amplitude (Vo) = 30.0 V
1 1 L Angular frequency () = 250 rad s–1
XC = = R
C 2 fC a. Impedance of the circuit, Z = ?
1 For R – L series circuit, impedance is given by
or C =
2 f XC Z = R2 + XL2
HINT: 3
V = R2 + (L)2
Given,
b. Current amplitude, Io = ?
Voltage amplitude (Vo) = 170 V
We know that
f = 60 Hz
Vo
Current amplitude (Io) = 0.85 A Io = Z
Capacitance (C) = ?
c. Voltage across resister, VR = ?
We can write,
Voltage across inductor, VL = ?
1
Vo = IoXC = Io  VR = IR
C
Also,
Io
or C =
2 f Vo VL = I XL = I 
d. Phase angle,  = ?
HINT: 4
We know that
Given,
XL
Inductance (L) = 0.450 mH = 0.450  10–3 H tan  = R
Current (I) = 2.60 mA = 2.60  10–3 A
Since  is positive so the source voltage leads
Voltage (V) = 12.0 V
the current.
Frequency (f) = ?
 V = I XL
 Alternating Currents  Chapter 18  479

HINT: 7 We know that

Given, VL = I XL
L = 20 mH = 20 × 10-3 H V V
 VL = R XL = R  × L
C = 140 nF = 140 × 10-9 F
R = 350  HINT: 9
Vrms = 120 V Given,
f = 1.25 k Hz = 1.25 × 103 Hz Inductance, L = 3 H
a. Power supplied by generator, Pav = ? Resistance of in coil, r = 50 
Average power supplied by source, Resistance of Resister, R = 550 
Pav = Vrms Irms cos  Voltage of source, V = 100 V
Vrms f = 50 Hz
= Vrms × Z cos 
Total Resistance of the circuit, R1 = R + r
2
Vrms = 550 + 50 = 600 
= Z cos  . . . (i) Current in the coil, I = ?
XL – Xc Voltage across the coil, VL = ?
∵ tan  = R We know that
But XL = L= L × 2  f V
I =Z
Also,
1 1 But total impedance of the circuit is given by
XC = =
C 2  f C 1 2
Z= R12 + XL2 = R12 + 
So, 2fL
157 - 909 Hence,
tan  = 350
V
I =Z
or  = tan-1 ( 2.15)
  = – 65.04° Now,
The impedance of the circuits is given by  VL = I XL 
Z = R2 + (XL – XC)2 HINT: 10
From (i), we have Given,
V2 C =10 F = 10 × 10–6 F = 10-5 F
Pav = Z cos  R = 1000
b. Average power dissipated by the resister, Vrms = 12 V
PR = ? f = 50 Hz
Vrms 2 I = ?, VC = ?
∵ PR = Irms2 R =  Z  × R
  Impedance of the circuit
HINT: 8 Z = XC2 + R2
Given,
=  1 2 + R2
Voltage amplitude (V) = 120 V 2fC
Angular frequency () = 50.0 rad s–1 Now,
Resistance (R) = 400  Vrms
 I= Z
Inductance (L) = 9 H
a. Capacitance (C) = ? Also,
For maximum current, we must have 1
VC = IXC = I ×
XL = XC 2fC
1 HINT: 11
or L =
C Given,
1 R = 25 L = 30mH = 30 × 10–3 H
or C = 2
L C = 10 F = 10 × 10–6 F Vrms = 240 V
b. Voltage amplitude across inductor, VL = ? f = 50 Hz, I =?
480 Principles of Physics - II
Voltmeter reading across capacitor (VC) = ? required capacitance in series with inductor. So
Impedance of the circuit, Z = (XL – XC)2 + R2 total resistance,
But XL = 2 fL = 9.42 R2 = R + R1
1 Impedance in the circuit,
and XC = Z = (R + Rl)2 + (XL – XC)2
2fC
V  Z = R + R1
 Current in the circuit, I = Z Now,
Also, VC = I XC V
Z= I
HINT: 12
Given, 240
or R + R1 = 1
V = 50 volt,
f = 50 Hz, or R1 = 240 – 50
R = 40 , L = 200 mH = 200 × 10-3 H  R1 = 190 
VR = 20 V Now,
Resistance of solenoid, r = ? XL = XC
If I be the currents in the circuit, we have 1
or 2 fL =
VR 20 2fC
I = R = 40 1
or C = 2 2
 I = 0.5 A 4 F L
Also, HINT: 14
V Given,
I = C = 33 pF = 33 × 10–12 F
{(R+r)2 + XL2}1/2
50 f = 810 kHz = 810 × 103 Hz
or 0.5 = 1 1
{(40 + r)2 + (2fL)2}1/2  XC = =
C 2fC
HINT: 13 1
Given,   = = 5957.2 
2 × 810 × 103 × 33 × 10-12
L = 0.20 H
If L is the required inductance then, we can
R = 50  write
I = l A, V = 240 volt, f = 50 Hz XL = 2 fL
Here, the current is in phase with the potential = 2  × 810 × 103 L
difference and therefore we can have
= 5086800L 
XL = XC
Now,
Let R1 be the required resistance while C be the
XL = XC


Alternating Currents  Chapter 18  481
 ELECTRONS

19.1 Introduction
In the quest to study the properties of matter, some of the natural observations led to the conclusion
that electric charge is also a fundamental property as the mass. Every material particle that
surrounds us has charge on them. But, this property is not visible in the bulk matter usually. This is
because every matter consists of equal amount of positive and negative charges. So, they become
electrically neutral but they are not chargeless. If we rub a plastic cover of our pen on our hair and
take it near a piece of paper, the paper is attracted towards the pen. What makes the plastic to attract
the piece of paper? The answer to this question is, the interaction between charges and is a proof for
the existence of charge in any matter. There are two types of charges: positive charge and negative
charge. Fundamentally, a positive charge is carried by proton and negative charge is carried by
electron of an atom. Electron can be transferred from one body to another body easily because of its
low binding capacity in an atom. Likewise, electron can be deposited on a matter and conduct
through a conductor. Also the beam of electron can be produced experimentally.

19.2 Particle Nature of Electricity

Except hydrogen atom, all atoms contain three subatomic particles: proton, neutron, and electron.
Protons and neutrons are relatively heavier than electron and they lie at the nucleus of an atom; the
electron revolves around the nucleus. Proton is positive charge particle, neutron is chargeless and
electron is negative charge particle. As the electron remains at the orbit, it is easier to remove from
the atom. Moreover, in conductors, valence electrons are almost free from the nuclear attraction. If
we rub a body, it gets charged. It means, the body either gains electrons or loses electrons. The body
which loses the electrons possesses positive potential and the body which gains the electrons
possesses the negative potential. If we connect two plates with different potentials using a
conducting wire, the electric charge flows from higher potential to lower potential, it means the
charge particles (always electrons) flow from negative plate to positive potential plate
(conventionally, current flows from positive plate to negative plate). In reality, flow of charge depicts
the flow of charge particles. Since the electron are fundamental particles and responsible to carry the
charge, so the charge transfer is always quantized, i.e. q =  ne, where e = 1.6  10–19 C and n is
positive integer.
482 Principles of Physics - II
Electricity is produced due to the flow of such charged particles. The charge particles possess a fixed
value of charge, every electron possess charge of 1.6 × 10–19 C on magnitude. Since the electricity is
the flow of such fundamental charged particles, it has a particle nature.

19.3 Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment

After the discovery of electron, investigating its properties became the very important aspect of
physicist. One of the prominent physicist of those times, Robert Andrew Millikan conducted series of
experiments principally based upon the Stoke's law of viscous force and finally came to a conclusion
which provided basics for quantization of charge. This important discovery on this particle nature of
electricity awarded him with the prestigious Nobel prize of 1923. In his experiment, a charged non-
volatile oil drop was allowed to fall in a viscous medium (air) trapped in between two metal plates
kept at a distance sufficient enough to make the oil drop achieve the terminal velocity. The oil drop
has to be non-volatile and viscous, so that its geometry is preserved during its motion and the Stoke's
law remains valid. This was also ensured by conducting the experiment under isothermal condition.
The motion of the oil drop was studied under following two cases:
i. Motion under the effect of gravity alone.
ii. Motion under the combined effect of gravity and the electric field.
The experimental set up for the Millikan's oil drop experiment is as shown in Fig.19.1.
Doubled wall chamber

Atomizer

(dry gas)

+ H A
H.T. W2
W1 Clock oil
Battery
S X-rays
Source
of light
M W3
B Water
K

Fig. 19.1: Apparatus arrangement for Millikan's oil drop experiment

In his experiment, he used two metal plates placed parallely and maintained at a high potential
difference of nearly 10,000 V by connecting to high tension battery (HTB), so that the region between
the plates is a region of uniform electric field. The upper plate has a hole H at its centre through
which small charged oil drops are sprayed in the region between the plates. The oil drops are
charged due to friction with air when squeezed through the atomizer. The whole arrangement is
kept inside double walled jacket in which cold water keeps on circulating so that the internal
temperature remains constant (isothermal condition). This jacket also helps to prevent the zigzag
motion of oil drop which would otherwise arise due to the convection current of air set up by the
external conditions.
The jacket is also provided with three openings W1, W2 and W3 in the form of windows. One of the
window say W1 has an electric bulb to illuminate the region between the plates. The other window
W2 has a source of X-ray that may be used to charge the oil drop, if the friction with the air is not
 Electrons  Chapter 19  483

sufficient enough to charge it. The window W3 has a travelling microscope fitted to it which would
help to calculate the terminal velocity acquired by oil drop by measuring the distance travelled by it.

Experimental procedure and calculations

This experiment is done in two steps:
i. Motion under the effect of gravity alone
First of all, the charged oil drop is allowed to fall under the effect of gravity alone by switching off
the electric field and its terminal velocity is calculated. Let  be the density of the oil drop and r be its
radius. When the oil drop acquires the terminal velocity, the net force acting on it must be zero. The
forces acting in the upward direction are the upthrust and viscous force and the force acting on the
downward direction is its weight.
For, Net force = 0
Upthrust + viscous force – weight = 0
Upthrust + viscous force = weight . . . (19.1)
Here,
Upthrust (U) = Volume of air displaced × density of air × acceleration due to gravity
= Volume of oil drop × density of air × acceleration due to gravity
4
= 3 r3g

Viscous force (Fv) = 6rv1 where v1 is the terminal velocity of oil drop
Weight (W) = Mass of oil drop × acceleration due to gravity
Here, volume of oil drop is equal to the volume of air displaced. So,
= Volume of oil drop × Density of oil drop × Acceleration due to gravity
4 Fv1
= 3 r3g

Thus, equation (19.1) can be written as, U

4 3 4 3
v1
3 r g + 6rv1 = 3 r g
4
or, 6rv1 = 3 r3( – )g . . . (19.2)

9 v1
or, r= 2 ( – )g . . . (19.3) W

ii. Motion under the combined effect of gravity and electric field Fe
In the second case, the experiment is conducted by applying the electric field. An
identical oil drop which is negatively charged is selected and its motion is studied U
under the combined effect of gravity and electric field.
v2
Let q be the total charge on the oil drop and E be the strength of the electric field. If
the strength of the electric field is strong enough to cause the oil drop to move in
upward direction with a terminal velocity v2, Fv2
Again, net force on oil drop = 0 . . . (19.4)
The forces in upward directions are upthrust and electric force. The viscous force W
484 Principles of Physics - II
acts in downward direction as the oil drop is moving in upward direction and the weight also acts in
downward direction.
So, equation (19.4) can be written as,
Electrostatic force + upthrust – Viscous force – Weight = 0
4 4
or, qE + 3 r3g – 6rv1 – 3 r3g = 0

4
or, qE = 3 r3( – )g + 6rv1 . . . (19.5)

Using equation (19.2) in equation (19.5) we get,

6r (v1 + v2)
q= E . . . (19.6)

Using the value of r from equation (19.3) in equation (19.6), we get,

6 9v1
q= E (v + v2) . . . (19.7)
2( – )g 1
If the oil drop moves in downward direction even after applying electric field (i.e. electric field is
weak), then equation (19.7) becomes,
6 9v1
q= E (v – v2) . . . (19.8)
2( – )g 1
Equations (19.7) and (19.8) are the expression for total charge carried by an oil drop. Through the
series of experiments conducted for the oil drop of different sizes, it was found that the value of
charge q was an integral multiple of some small unit of charge equivalent to charge carried by an
electron i.e. (1.6 × 10—19 C). This means, total charge q on the oil drop could be expressed as
q = ne where n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
Thus, Millikan came to a conclusion that, the charge on any object exists as a multiple of small units
called quantum of charge. Each quantum of charge is equivalent to 1.6 × 10—19 C. This fact is known
as quantization of charge. Before this experiment, the existence of subatomic particles was not
universally accepted.
Note
If the oil drop remains stationary in region between the plates, then, viscous force will be zero. At this condition,
net force on the drop is,
Fnet = 0
or, mg – qE = 0
or, mg = qE
V
or, mg = q  d 
 
Where, V is p.d. between two plates and d = separation between them.

19.4 Motion of Electron in Uniform Electric Field

Electrons are negative charge particles. They are deflected by electric field. Since they are negative
charge particles, they are attracted towards the positively charged plate. So, we observe them
travelling in the opposite direction of electric field. The nature of electrons in an electric field is
explained below.
 Electrons  Chapter 19  485

vy

vx

Fig. 19.2: Deflection of electron in electric field

Consider two parallel conducting plates in which upper plate is maintained at positive potential and
lower plate is earthed so that a uniform electric field is produced between these plates. Let V be the
potential difference between two plates and d be their distance of separation as shown in Fig. 19.2. A
horizontal beam of electrons with initial velocity u is allowed to enter into the field, perpendicular
with the direction of the field.
In such motion of electron, the velocity along horizontal direction is uniform, i.e., acceleration along
x-direction, ax = 0. For the electron of initial velocity u along horizontal direction, the equation of
motion is written as,
1
x = ut + 2  0  t2

x = ut …(19.9)
Where x is the horizontal distance travelled by the electron.
Also, the displacement of electron along y-direction is
1
y = 0  t + 2 at2

1
 y = 2 at2 …(19.10)

In the electric field, the electric field provides the mechanical force to deflect the electrons. So,
ma = eE
eE
a= m …(19.11)

Where, a is the acceleration of electron in the field, m is the mass of electron and E is the electric field
between two plates. Also,
V
E= d …(19.12)

Where, V = potential difference between two plates

d = separation of two plates
From equations (19.11) and (19.12), we get,
486 Principles of Physics - II
eV
a = md …(19.13)

Now, using the equations (19.9) and (19.13) in equation (19.10), we get,
1 eV x 2
y = 2 md u
  
eV
y = 2mdu2 x2 …(19.14)
 
Equation (19.14) is the form of equation of parabola. Hence, we can conclude that, motion of electron
in electric field is parabolic in nature.
We can also determine the angle of deflection of electrons in the electric field. To find the angle,
components of velocity (vx and vy) are to be calculated,
Here, vx = u
and
vy = uy + at
vy = 0 + at
eV x
vy = md  u

eV
 vy = mdux
 
vy eV 1
 The deflection, tan  = v = mdux u
x    
eV
 tan  = mdu2x
 
eV
  = tan–1 mdu2x …(19.15)
 
Total velocity of electron at any point in the electric field,
v = vx2 + vy2
eVx 2
= u2 + mdu2 …(19.16)
 
After crossing the electric field, the electron continues it's motion in a straight line path tangent to the
parabola, because at that point the applied electric field terminates and thus, no force acts to change
the velocity. Gain in Kinetic Energy is given by,
K.E. = (K.E.)f – (K.E.)i
1 eE D 2 1
= 2 m u2 +  mu   – 2 mu2
  
1 2E D 2
= 2 m  mu 
 
2 E2 D2
K.E. = mu2 …(19.17)

19.5 Motion of Electron in Uniform Magnetic Field

When a charged particle is in motion, magnetic field is induced around it. If electron moves in
magnetic field, its induced magnetic field which interacts with the applied magnetic field and the
 Electrons  Chapter 19  487

electron deflects from its original path. The magnitude of magnetic force experienced by electron and
its path of deflection can be explained at different angles of projection in the field.
i. When electron enters the field parallelly or antiparallely, i.e.  = 0º or  = 180º.
The magnitude of magnetic force is,
F = Bev sin  …(19.18)
For  = 0º or 180º, sin  = 0
F =0
The electron does not experience any magnetic force, if it enters into the field parallelly or anti-
parallelly.
ii. When electron enters the field perpendicularly, i.e.  = 90º, the magnitude of magnetic force is,
F = Bev sin 90º
F = Bev …(19.19)
The electron experiences maximum force in the magnetic field. Since the force is always

perpendicular to velocity vector v , it obeys the circular path as shown in Fig. 19.3. In this condition,
the magnetic force provides the centripetal force to the electron,
mv2
i.e. Bev = r

mv
r = Be …(19.20)

Here, r is the radius of circular path followed by electron in magnetic field.

Also, from equation (19.20), we get, Uniform magnetic field
v Be
r =m
B-inward
Be v
 =m Electron beam
v P Circular path
v
Where,  is angular velocity of electron. r
2 Be Q
=m F F
T v
F
2m
T = Be …(19.21)
O
Fig. 19.3 : Circular motion in uniform magnetic field

Here, T is the time period of revolution of electron in the uniform magnetic field. The frequency of
1 Be
revolution of electron is, f = T = .
2m
iii. When electron enters at any oblique angle : In this condition, the component of velocity
which is parallel to field tends to move the electron in linear path, whereas the perpendicular
component of velocity tends to move the electron in circular path. Due to the combined effect,
electron obeys a helical path (i.e. spiral path) as shown in Fig. 19.4.
The initial velocity of electron in the magnetic field can be resolved into two components along x-axis
(i..e vx) and along y-axis (i.e. vy). In the given condition, the component vx (= v cos ) tends to move
the electron along the direction of magnetic field, whereas the component vy (= v sin )
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field tends to move the electron in circular path. The
488 Principles of Physics - II
combined effect makes the electrons to move Y
in a helical path as shown in Fig. 19.4. v
Therefore, the centripetal force provided by
the magnetic field perpendicular to the
component vy, we write, vy = vsin
2
mvy
r = Bevy

mvy r
B
r = Be  X
x vx = vcos 
 The radius (r) of the helical path is
given by, Fig. 19.4: Spiral motion of charged particle
mvy in uniform magnetic field
r = Be

mv sin 
or, r= Be . . . (19.22)

Let T be the time period, then,

circumference of the circle 2r 2 mv sin 
T = = = × , (using equation 19.22)
speed along circle v sin  v sin  eB
2m
 T = eB . . . (19.23)

Hence, it is clear that time period of revolution of electron is independent of speed of the particle as
well as angle of projection but depends on m, B and e.
The linear distance travelled by the particle during this time period is called pitch of helix. Also, the
pitch is defined as linear distance between two consecutive turns of a helical path. So,
Pitch (x) = horizontal velocity  time period (T)
2m
= v cos  × eB , from (19.23)

2  m v cos 
x = eB . . . (19.24)

This principle is used in focusing a beam of charged particles in electron microscope or TV picture
tube.
The above relations are true for any charged particle whether positive or negative. For more general
case, if a particle containing charge q is projected at same angle into the uniform magnetic field, the
radius of path, time period of revolution and pitch of its path are written as,
mv sin 
r= Bq
2m
T = qB

2  m v cos 
x = qB

Cross Fields
A region of uniform electric field and magnetic field applied simultaneously perpendicular to each other such
that a charge particle entering normally into this region passes undeviated is called cross-field.
 Electrons  Chapter 19  489

In such fields, the deviation, produced on the charge +

particle due to magnetic field is equal to that by electric

No deflection
field. This is possible when, electrostatic force = v P
magnetic force B

i.e. qE = Bqv E v = E/B

Q
E
or, v=B …(19.25)
-
So, on such fields, the velocity of particle is equal to the B E
ratio of electric field to magnetic field.
Fig. 19.5: Cross-fields

19.6 Specific Charge of Electron

Electron is a negative charge particle. Its charge is considered as the fundamental charge of nature.
The charge of an electron was first measured by R.A. Millikan in 1909 from his famous Millikan's oil
drop experiment and he was awarded with Nobel Prize in 1923. After the discovery of charge of
electron, many queries about the nature and properties of charge were solved. This experiment
proved the concept of quantization of charge. Millikan found the charge of an electron to be –1.6 ×
10–19 C. But, the mass of electron could not be measured by any experiment. However, it was possible
by employing result of already designed experiment of J.J. Thomson that had determined the charge
to mass ratio of electron, which finally paved the way for determining the mass of electron from
calculation.
The charge to mass ratio of an electron is called the specific charge of the electron. Similarly, the charge to mass
ratio of a proton is called specific charge of the proton. According to J.J. Thomson's experiment, the
specific charge of an electron is,
e
m = 1.76 × 10 C/kg
11

From Millikan's oil drop experiment,

e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
 Solving these, the mass of electron can be determined to be, m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg.

19.7 Determination of Specific Charge (e/m) of an Electron by

J.J. Thomson's Experiment
The ratio of charge and mass of a charged particle is called its specific charge. In 1897, Sir J.J.
Thomson devised an experiment for measuring the ratio of charge (e) and mass (m) for an electron.
This experiment is based on principle of cross fields. The simplified form of the apparatus for
determining the specific charge of an electron is as shown in the Fig. 19.6.
The experiment set up consists of an evacuated glass tube provided with a cylindrical anode (A) with
a hole (H) at its centre and a cathode (C) in the form of filament which are maintained at a potential
difference of V volts. The electrons are emitted from filament cathode when suitable current is
passed which then accelerate towards the anode and pass through hole 'H' provided to it. The
electron beam then travels straight along the horizontal axis of the, tube and strikes at the middle of
the fluorescent screen at the other end of tube at point O (say).
490 Principles of Physics - II
+V' T
O'
A
C B
H d
O

L.T.B.
Q 

V O''

H.T.B. Deflection

Fig. 19.6: Thomson's apparatus for determination of e/m for electron

A uniform magnetic field is applied to the beam of electrons by using Helmholtz coil as shown in Fig.
19.6 (shown by dotted lines). The magnetic field is into the plane of paper and perpendicular to it. As
soon as the electron beam enters the region of uniform magnetic field, a magnetic force (Fm) acts in
the downward direction as decided by Fleming's left hand rule. The beam is then deflected
downwards and strikes the fluorescent screen at point O' (say). If v be the velocity of electron with
which it enters the field region then, the magnetic force experienced by it is given by,
Fm = Bev (19.26)
The magnetic field is then switched off and a uniform electric field (E) is applied to the electron beam
by using two parallel metal plates maintained at a potential difference of V' volts and separated by a
distance d. The electric field is parallel to the plane of paper and upward. The beam of electron
entering this region of electric field experiences force (Fe) in upward direction and hence is deflected
downward. Let the beam strikes the fluorescent screen at O''. The magnitude of electric force is given
by,
eV'
Fe = eE = d (19.27)

Finally, electric and magnetic fields are applied simultaneously perpendicular to each other and the
fields are so adjusted that, the electron beam is neither deflected upward nor downward. Rather it
passes straight along the axis of tube and strikes at point O again, where it had striked in the absence
of both fields. In this condition,
Fm = Fe
e V'
or, Bev = d [Using equations (19.26) and (19.27)]

V'
or, v = Bd (19.28)

In this way, Thomson made the cross fields arrangements for his experimental study.
When the electron is accelerated between the potential difference of electrodes C and A, it gains
kinetic energy given by,
K.E = eV
1
or, 2 mv = eV
2

e v2
m = 2V (19.29)

Further, from equation (19.28), we get,

e V'2
m = 2B2d2 V (19.30)
 Electrons  Chapter 19  491

e e
Thus, by knowing the values of V', B, V and d, we can calculate the value of m . The value of m for
electron calculated by J. J Thompson was 1.76 × 1011 C/kg.
e
The ratio m is of fundamental importance for the determination of mass of electron as there are no
 
other known experiments devised for accurate measurement of its mass. However, the charge on
electron is determined by famous Millikan's oil drop experiment. Moreover, the constant e and m
appear combinely in almost all equations and hence for the mathematical simplicity, we use the
e
value combinely as ratio m .
 

19.8 Conduction Through Gases

The flow of charged particles in a material medium is known as electric conduction. Atmospheric gas
is electrically neutral. Although, the gas contains many positive ions and free electrons, they move
randomly and recombine frequently. So, they do not produce any specific pattern of flow of charge
particles. If strong electric field is applied using electrodes of high potential difference in presence of
low pressure of gas, positive ions are drawn towards the negative terminals and the negative charge
particles are drawn towards the positive terminals. This movement of charge particles produces a
current through the gas, which is known as ionizing current. The passage of current so produced in
presence of high potential difference and low pressure is called the electric discharge through a gas. Depending
upon several factors, the discharge may radiate visible High
light. Tension

Electric discharge phenomena can be observed in a (–) (+)

special type of device called the discharge tube.

Discharge tube consists of a glass tube with two
C A
electrodes maintained at high potential difference (10
kV to 15 kV) at two end of the tube of length about 30 To manometer
cm to 50 cm and diameter 3 cm to 5 cm as shown in Fig.
19.7. It is also provided with a vacuum pump to vary Vacuum
the pressure of gas inside it and a pressure gauge to Pump
measure the pressure in it. When the pressure of gas is Fig. 19.7: Discharge tube
reduced to 10 mm of Hg, discharging appears in the form of light (glow).
At low pressure and high voltage, the ions in the gas collide with the other gas molecules in the
discharge tube. Due to the collision, the electrons are excited to higher energy state, but the excited
electrons de-excite in very short interval of time emitting the visible light.
The patterns of visibility in the tube are different at different pressures. At low pressure, dark spaces
may be produced into the tube. They are called Faraday's dark space. Actually, such types of dark
spaces are produced when discharging electrons travel through the positive ion clouds. In the
positive ion clouds, the speed of moving electrons drastically decrease and can not excite the gas
molecules. Hence, the dark spaces are formed at these regions of tube. Furthermore, no discharging
phenomenon occurs at very low pressure (10–4 mm of Hg), since there is very less number of gas
molecules to be excited.
492 Principles of Physics - II

Pressure Figure Observations Conclusion

Above 100 No discharge takes place Atoms are not still excited
mm of Hg
Irregular thin lines travel Discharging phenomena
from cathode plate to starts into the tube. The
At 10 mm C A anode. These lines are motion of electrons and
of Hg called streamers. Sparks
ions are zig-zag.
and crackling noise are
produced.
The discharge fills the tube. Discharging takes place
Regular lines travel from almost uniformly
cathode plate to anode throughout the tube
At 5 mm
C A plate. This is called Geissler depends on nature of gas
of Hg
used in the tube. For
discharge.
example air gives red,
hydrogen gives blue etc.
The regular discharge A cloud of positive ions
leaves the cathode plate and appears near the cathode
a new glow appears on plate. The electrons ejected
cathode plate. The new from cathode plate
accelerate towards the ion
glow is called negative glow
cloud so that gas atoms
and linear glow towards
excite and negative glow
anode plate is called appear. In the cloud, ejected
positive column. A dark electrons suddenly loss
At 2 mm
– C A +

space appears between kinetic energy due to the

of Hg Negative glow
Faraday's
dark space
Positive column
negative glow and positive attraction to positive ions.
column which is called So, electrons lose their
Faraday's dark space. ionizing capacity. So,
Faraday's dark space
appears. After crossing the
ion cloud, these electrons
accelerate towards the
anode plate. So, positive
column appears.
Negative glow shifts A few clouds of positive
slightly away from the ions travel towards the
surface of cathode plate and cathode plate. The sizes of
Crooke dark space
a new glow appears on the
clouds are different.
At 1 mm – C +
plate. This new glow is
of Hg Cathode glow Positive column called cathode glow. A dark
space appears between
Negative glow Faraday's dark
space

cathode glow and negative

glow, that is called the
Crookes dark space.
Faraday's dark space Hence, the width of
Crooke dark space
becomes larger in size. The Crookes dark space,
At 0.1 mm – C +
positive column is broken Faraday's dark space and
into equally spaced dark bands in striations are
of Hg Cathode glow Striations
alternate bright and dark
Negative glow Faraday's dark
different.
space
bands. These bands are
called striations.
 Electrons  Chapter 19  493

The Crookes dark space fills The glow on the wall of

the tube. Faraday's dark tube predicts that there
space and all glow must be the invisible rays
About 10–2 – +
disappears. The inner travelling from cathode
plate to anode plate. These
mm of Hg discharge tube around the
Cathode rays
invisible rays are called
anode plate glows.
cathode rays because of
their origination from
cathode plate.
At 10–4 Discharging phenomenon No particles are sufficient
mm of Hg stops. for discharging.

19.9 Discharging Mechanism

The discharging phenomenon is a continuous conduction of electricity through gas by the formation
and movement of charge carriers such as electrons and ions due to an applied electric field. When an
orbital electron gains energy by means of radiation or collision by other particles, it jumps to the
higher energy states (upper electronic orbits). If the absorbed energy is sufficiently high to remove
the electron, the atom gets ionized. The atom which losses electron from its orbit is called positive
ion. If the atom gains excess electrons, it becomes negative ion. The detached electron from the atom
becomes free to travel in space. This electron is called free electron. If the absorbed energy is not
sufficient to ionize the atom, the electron may jump to the higher energy state. This phenomenon is
called excitation. The excited electron remains at higher energy state for very short duration, then
returns to lower energy state by emitting electromagnetic radiation to the surrounding. This reverse
phenomenon of excitation is called de-excitation.
In de-excitation process, an electron (i.e. by the atom) loses energy in the form of electromagnetic
radiation of certain wavelength. If the wavelength of radiation so emitted lies within the visible
range (i.e. 400 nm to 700 nm), our eyes can detect them. The discharging mechanism in gases relies
on both excitation and ionization of gas molecules.

Formation of ions and free electrons

Many gas molecules are originally ionized due to the absorption of cosmic rays and collision with
neighbouring molecules. When an electric field is applied, the positive ions move along the direction
of electric field and the free electrons move opposite of the electric field. The electrons being light
and is swept away very fast by an electric field as compared to the slow moving, heavy positive ions.
These moving ions and electrons collide to other molecules of gases and further ionization and
excitation takes place. Thus, large number of ions and free electrons are produced in gases.

Liberation of electrons from Cathode plate

The positive ions gain kinetic energy from electric field. Then, they accelerate towards the cathode
plate and finally strike on its surface. The collision of positive ions on the cathode plate liberates
more electrons from its surface. These liberated electrons are accelerated away from the cathode and
ionize the gas further by collision.

Formation of dark space

When the free electrons travel through the positive ions cloud, they get slowed down and hence lose
their ionizing capacity. Thus, there is no emission of light for some distance beyond the cathode glow.
This region appears dark.
494 Principles of Physics - II
At about 2 mm of Hg pressure of gas in discharge tube, an ion cloud is formed near the cathode plate,
so only one dark space is formed. This dark space is called Faraday's dark place. If the pressure of
gas is further reduced, many ion clouds are formed into the tube. Free electrons speed up between
the ion clouds and slow down at the vicinity of cloud. Therefore, glows appear between the clouds
and dark spaces appear in the cloud regions. About 1 mm of Hg, Faraday's dark space shifts away
from the cathode plate and a new dark space appears in that place. This newly formed dark space is
called Crookes dark space. The successive process of ionizing, losing ionizing power, accelerating for
some distance and again ionizing, occurs repeatedly inside the tube till the discharged electrons
reach the anode plate. Thus, many alternate dark and bright bands are formed, which are called the
striations.

Cathode rays and termination of discharging

As the pressure of gas is gradually lowered from 1 mm of Hg, the mean free path of particles
increases and hence the length of Crookes dark space increases. At about 10–2 mm of Hg, the mean
free path becomes larger than the length of discharge tube. Then, the Crookes dark space fills the
entire tube, only the electrons (cathode rays) coming out of the cathode strike the wall of the tube
and this impact causes fluorescence. If the pressure is still reduced, the ions are insufficient to emit
electrons from cathode plate. So, the current through the gas gradually decreases and finally, the
discharging is terminated.

19.10 Cathode Rays and Their Production

The flow of charge particles can be detected experimentally through a special tube, called discharge
tube. This tube is an evacuated tube containing positive and negative electrodes at two sides and low
pressure of gas is maintained in it. A high tension battery is connected across two electrodes of the
tube. At low pressure of gas 10–2 mm of Hg and an applied potential difference of 10 kV to 15 kV,
charge particles flows from cathode plate to anode plate. This phenomenon of flow of charge
particles from cathode plate to anode plate is known as discharging and the rays of particles so
produced are known as cathode rays.
C A
+

Cathode rays

Fig. 19.8: Cathode rays

The invisible rays emitted from the cathode plate of a discharge tube when pressure is maintained about 10–2
mm of Hg under the high potential difference 10 kV to 15 kV are called cathode rays. Actually, the cathode
streams are the rays of electrons. They are independent of nature of gas filled in the tube.

Properties of Cathode Rays

i. Cathode rays travel in straight lines and cast shadow of obstacles placed in their paths. When an
object is placed in the path of cathode rays inside the tube, it casts a shadow on the wall opposite to
the cathode.
Metal object Shadow

Cathode –

+
Anode
Fig. 19.9: Shadow produced by cathode rays
 Electrons  Chapter 19  495

ii. They produce fluorescence when they strike the glass wall of the discharge tube.
iii. Each particle of cathode rays carries negative charge whose charge is equal to charge of an electron.
Hence, they are the stream of electrons.
iv. Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic and electric fields. This property is the good evidence that
the cathode is possess mass.
Electric Plates
S
–
– + – +
Cathode Anode

(i) + (ii)
N

Fig. 19.10: (i) Deflection of cathode rays in magnetic field (ii) Cathode rays deflected towards positive plate

v. They ionize the gas and make them conducting which is the electrical effect of the rays.
vi. They affect the photographic plate.
vii. Cathode rays can travel with a speed nearly equal to the speed of light (about 90% of speed of light).
viii. The energetic cathode ray can produce X-rays when they strike a metallic target like tungsten,
platinum etc. in a vacuum.
ix. Their penetrating power is low, they can however penetrate very thin sheets of paper.
x. They produce heat when they fall upon matter. This is because the kinetic energy of cathode rays is
converted into heat.
xi. They possess mechanical energy. When the cathode rays impinge upon light mica plates fitted upon
a wheel, the wheel begins to rotate proving that the rays possess mechanical energy. This also
indicates that the cathode rays produces the mechanical pressure.
Light paddle
wheel

– +

Fig. 19.11: Mechanical pressure exerted by cathode rays

xii. Production of positive rays is always associated with production of cathode rays.
xiii. The characteristics of cathode rays do not depend upon the nature of electrodes and the nature of gas
present in the cathode rays.
High Tension Battery
Canal Rays or Positive Rays
At about 1 mm of Hg, many positive ion clouds are (–) (+)
formed. If holes are drilled at the cathode plates, the
streams of faint luminous glow appear in these
holes. This evidence shows that there must be some (–) (+)
particles coming out through the holes. Obviously,
the particles are attracted towards the cathode plate To manometer
should have positive charge in them. These streams Positive Cathode
rays rays
of positive ions are called canal rays or positive rays. Vacuum pump
Canal rays are deflected by electric and magnetic Fig. 19.12: Production of positive rays
field.
496 Principles of Physics - II

Tips for MCQs

1. About Electrons
i. The charge of an electron, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C, negative nature and its mass, me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg.
e
ii. Its specific charge m = 1.76 × 1011 C / kg.
 
1
iii. It is the fundamental particle in nature and its spin is 2 .
iv. It is deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
v. Its rest mass is 0.51 MeV.
vi. It was identified by J.J. Thomson, in 1897.
vii. Its charge was measured by American Physicist Robert Millikan.
2. Electron in uniform electric field
i. It moves against the direction of electric field.
eV
ii. Its path in electric field is parabolic in nature, and the equation of path, y = 2mdu2 x2.
 
2E2D2
iii. Change of kinetic energy of electron, Ek = mu2 .

iv. The velocity, momentum and kinetic energy are changed in electric field.
F eE
v. Acceleration produced is, a = m = m .

3. Electron in uniform magnetic field

i. When electron is initially moving parallel to the magnetic field,  = 0, F = Bev sin 0 = 0, then the
velocity, momentum and kinetic energy remains constant.
ii. If an electron incident normally in the magnetic field,  = 90º, F = Bev. Since the force is always

perpendicular to velocity vector v , it moves in circular path. In such condition the electron
experiences maximum force.
mv p 2mEk
a. The radius of circular path, r = Be = Be = Be
2m
b. The time period of revolution, T = Be
1 Be
c. The frequency of revolution, f = T =
2m
Be
d. The angular frequency,  = 2f = m
iii. If an electron enters into the magnetic field, with certain oblique angle,  the path is helical /
spiral.
a. Helical path is the superposition of linear motion and circular motion.
mv sin 
b. The radius of a circle, r = Be
2m
c. Time period of revolution, T = Be
Be
d. Frequency of revolution, f =
2m
Be
e. Angular frequency,  = m
 Electrons  Chapter 19  497

2mv cos  2r

f. The pitch of helical path, = v cos  × T = =
Be tan 
E
4. The speed of electron in cross field, v = B

5. Millikan's oil drop experiment

i. Proves the quantum nature of charge, q = ne
6d 9v1
ii. The charge of electron is determined from, q = (v + v2) and q = ne
V 2( – )g 1
6. About Cathode rays
i. Beam of electrons, which are deflected with electric and magnetic fields.
ii. They are discovered by Sir William Crookes.
iii. Cathode rays are produced from Cathode plate of discharge tube, but positive rays are
produced due to the ionization of gas molecules but not from anode plate.
iv. They can be produced about 0.01 mm of Hg gas pressure in discharge tube.
v. Discharging phenomena occur in low pressure and high potential difference between electrodes.
It is impossible at very high and very low pressure of gas.

Worked Out Problems

1. An electron has velocity of 4 × 106 ms–1 and moves in a circular orbit in a magnetic field of flux
density 0.4 Tesla. What will be the radius of the orbit? Given e = 1.6 × 10–19 C and me = 9 × 10–31 kg.
SOLUTION
Given, 9 × 10–31 × 4 × 106
= 0.4 × 1.6 × 10–19
Initial velocity (v) = 4 × 106 ms–1
Magnetic field (B) = 0.4 T 3.6 × 10–24
= 0.64 × 10–19
Electronic charge (e) = 1.6 × 10–19 C
Mass of electron (me) = 9 × 10–31 kg = 5.6 × 10–5 m
Radius of orbit (r) = ?  The radius of orbit is 5.6 × 10–5 m.
mev
We know, r = Be

2. An electron having 450 eV of energy moves at right angles to a uniform magnetic field of flux
density 1.50 × 10–3 T. Find the radius of its circular orbit. Assume that the specific charge, e/m = 1.76
× 1011 Ckg–1.
SOLUTION
Given, mv
Now, the radius of path, r = Be
Magnetic field (B) = 1.50 × 10–3 T
Kinetic energy, Ek = 450 eV V
1 or, r = B(e/m)
2 mv = 450 eV
2
1.26 × 107
1 = 1.50 × 10–3 × 1.76 × 1011
2 mv = 450 × 1.6 × 10 J
2 –19
1.26 × 107
2 × 450 e = 2.64 × 108
v2 = m (e = 1.6 × 10–19 C)
= 4.77 × 10–2 m
= 2 × 450 × (e/m)
 The radius of circular orbit is 4.77 × 10–2 m.
= 2 × 450 × 1.76 × 1011 = 1.584 × 1014
v = 1.26 × 107 ms–1
498 Principles of Physics - II
3. Two plane metal plates 4 cm long are held horizontally 3 cm apart in a vacuum, one being vertically
above the other. The upper plate is at a potential of 300 V and the lower is earthed. Electrons having
a velocity of 107 m/s are injected horizontally midway between the plates and in a direction parallel
to the 4 cm edge. Calculate the vertical deflection of the electron beam as it emerges from the
plates.(e/m for electron = 1.8  1011 C kg–1)
SOLUTION
Given, = 1.8 × 1011 × 10 4
Separation between plates (d) = 3 cm = 0.03 m  a = 1.8 × 1015 m/s2
P.d. between plates (V) = 300 V The time taken by an electron for the above
Velocity of electron along X axis (vx) = 107 ms–1 deflection is same as the time taken to travel the
Length of plate (D) = 4 cm = 0.04 m length of the plate. So we can write,
vy
e D v
vx = t
m = 1.8 × 10 C kg
11 –1
+ + +

D vx
V  t = v y
Electric field intensity (E) = d x 3cm
300 0.04 vx
= 0.03 = 104 V/m     =
107 4cm
Vertical deflection of electron (y) = ?     = 4 × 10–9 s
The vertical deflection of the beam of electron is 1
Hence, from (i), we get y = 2 at2
given by,
1 1 2
y = 2 at2 = 2 × 1.8 × 1015 × (4 × 10–9)

The vertical acceleration of the electron is given  y = 1.44 × 10–2 m

by,  The vertical deflection of the electron is 1.44 ×
F eE e V 10–2 m.
a= m = m =m ×d

4. An oil drop of mass 3.25  10–15 kg falls vertically with uniform velocity, through the air between
vertical parallel plates which are 2 cm apart. When a p.d. of 1000 V is applied to the plates, the drop
moves to the positively charged plate, being inclined at 45 to the vertical. Calculate the charge on
the drop.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of oil drop (m) = 3.25 × 10–15 kg
Separation between plates (d) = 2 cm = 2 × 10–2 m
P.d. between plates (V) = 1000 V
Charge on the drop (q) = ?
Angle of inclination () = 45°
Let v be the terminal velocity of an oil drop moving towards positive plate making angle  = 45° with
the vertical. Let its horizontal component v1= v sin  and vertical component v2 = v cos . Then, we
can write,
qE = 6rv1 . . . (i)
and mg = 6rv2 . . . (ii) – vv12
+
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get, – +
qE v1 vsin  – +

mg = v2 = v cos  = tan  – +
– +
mg v
or q = tan  × E – +
– vv21 +
mg× d d
= tan 45° × V
 Electrons  Chapter 19  499

1 × 3.25 × 10–15× 9.8 × 2 × 10–2

= 1000
 q = 6.37 × 10–19 C
5. An electron with a velocity of 107 ms-1 enters a region of uniform magnetic flux density of 0.10 T, the
angle between the direction of the field and the initial path of the electron being 25°. By resolving
the velocity of the electron find the axial distance between two turns of the helical path. Assume
that the motion occurs in vacuum and illustrate the path with a diagram: (e/m = 1.8 × 1011 C kg-1)
SOLUTION
Given,
Velocity of an electron (v) = 10–7 m/s
Magnetic flux density (B) = 0.10 T
 = 25° ,
Axial distance between two turns of helical path,
x =?
e
m = 1.8 × 10 Ckg
11 –1

v2 = v sin 
The electron does not feel any force due to component v1 = v cos  along B, but it feels perpendicular
force due to component v2 = v sin  and therefore, electron travels in a circular path of radius r, where
magnetic force provides necessary centripetal force i.e.,
mv22
Bev2 = r
mv2 mr 2
or, Be = r = r = m × T
2m
 T = Be
The distance between two turns of helical path (x) is equal to the linear distance travelled in the same
x
time period T. So, v1 = T
or, x = v1 × T
2m 2
= vcos  × Be = vcos  × e
B× m
2
= 107 × cos 25° × 0.1 × 1.8 ×1011
 x = 3.16 × 10–3 m
6. An electron having 500 eV energy enters at right angle to a uniform magnetic filed of 10-4 T. If its
specific charge is 1.75 × 1011 Ckg-1, calculate the radius of its circular orbit.
SOLUTION
Given, Radius of orbit = ?
1 We have,
Energy, 2 mv2 = eV = 500 eV = 500 × 1.6× 10–19 J mv v
r = Be =
2 × 500 × 1.6 × 10–19 B  e/m
or, v = 9.1 × 10–31 = 1.32 × 107 m/s 1.32 × 107
= 10–4 × 1.75 × 1011 = 0.76 m
Magnetic field (B) = 10–4 T
Specific charge (e/m) = 1.75 × 1011 C kg–1
500 Principles of Physics - II
7. [NEB 2074] An electron moves in a circular path of radius 20 cm in a uniform magnetic field of 2 ×
10–3 T. Find the speed of electron and period of revolution. (Mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg)
SOLUTION
Given 0.20 × 2 × 10–3 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 9.1 × 10–31
Radius (r) = 20 cm = 0.20 m
Magnetic field (B) = 2 × 10–3 T v = 7.03 × 107 ms–1
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10–31 kg Also, period of revolution
Speed of electron (v) = ? 2m
T = Be
Period (T) = ?
We have, 2 × 9.1 × 10–31
= 2 × 10–3 × 1.6 × 10–19
mv
r = Be
= 1.78 × 10–8 s
rBe  The period of revolution = 1.78 × 10–8 s.
v = m

8. [HSEB 2070] Calculate the radius of a water drop which would just remain suspended in an electric
field of 300 V/cm and charged with one electron.
SOLUTION
Given, 4
3 r g = qE
3
Electric field (E) = 300 V/cm = 30000 V/m
Charge (q)= 1.6 × 10–19 C 3qE
r3 =
Density of water () = 1000 kgm–3 4g
When the drop suspended in air, the upward 3 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 30000
=
electric force must balance the downward 4 × 1000 × 9.8
weight of the drop, r3 = 1.17 × 10–19
So,  r = 4.89 × 10–7 m
mg = qE  The radius of water drop is 4.89 × 10–7 m

9. [HSEB 2066] In Millikan-type apparatus, the horizontal plates are 1.5 cm apart. With the electric
field switched off an oil drop is observed to fall with the steady velocity 2.5  102 cm/s. When the
electric field is switched on the upper plate being positive, the drop just remains stationary when
the p.d. between plates is 1500 V. (a) Calculate the radius of the drop (b) How many electronic
charges does it carry? (Given, density of oil = 900 kgm-3 and viscosity of air = 1.8  10-5 Nsm–2,
Neglect air density)
SOLUTION
Given, 1500 × 102
= 1.5 = 105 V/m
Distance (d) = 1.5 cm = 1.5 × 10–2 m
Terminal velocity (v) = 2.5 × 10–2 cm/s 4
Again, we have, qE = mg = 3 r3g
= 2.5 × 10–4 m/s
Potential difference (V) = 1500 V 4
3 r g
3
Now, For (a): We have,
q= E
9 v 9 1.8 × 10–5 × 2.5 × 10–4
r = 2 ( – )g = 2× (900 – 0) × 9.8 4 ×  × (1.5 × 10–6)3 × 900 × 9.8
= 3 ×105
= 2.29 × 10–3 × 10–5
× 10–4
= 2.29 × 10–12
= 1.5 × 10–6 m = 127.23 × 10 C
–20

Hence, the radius of the drop is 1.5 × 10–6 m. But, q = ne

Again, or, 12.723 × 10–19 = n × 1.6 × 10–19
For (b): we have,  n = 8
V 1500 Hence, the required number of electrons is 8.
E = d = 1.5 × 10–2
 Electrons  Chapter 19  501

10. [NEB 2075] An electron moving with a speed of 107 m/s is passed into a magnetic field of intensity
0.1 T normally. What is the radius of the path of the electron inside the field? If the strength of the
magnetic field is doubled, what is the radius of the new path? (e/m = 1.8  1011 C/kg) [4]
SOLUTION
Given, 107
= 0.1 × 1.8 × 1011
Speed of electron (v) = 107 m/s
Magnetic flux density (B) = 0.1 T = 5.6 × 10–4 m
e Again on doubling magnetic field,
Specific charge of electron ( m ) = 1.8 × 1011 C mv v
r' = B'e = B' e/m
kg–1
Radius of path (r) = ? 107
= 2 × 0.1 × 1.8 × 1011
We have,
mv v = 2.78 × 10–4 m
r = Be = B e/m

Challenging Problems
1. A beam of electron is under potential difference of 1.36 × 104 V applied across two parallel plates 4
cm apart and a magnetic field 2 × 10–3 T at right to each other. If two fields produce no deflection in
the electronic beam, calculate

i. the velocity of electrons

ii. the radius of the orbit in which the beam will move, if the electric field is made zero. [Given,
mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg] [HSEB 2067]

Ans: (i) 1.7 × 108 m/s (ii) 0.48 m

2. [ALP] In the ionosphere, electrons execute 1.4  106 revolutions in a second. Find the strength of the
magnetic flux density in this region. (given: mass of electron = 9.11  10–31 kg, electronic charge =
1.6  10–19 C)
Ans: 5 × 10–5 T

3. [ALP] In a Millikan’s oil drop experiment, the horizontal plates are 1.5 cm apart. With the electric
field switched off, an oil drop is observed to fall with a steady velocity of 2.5  10–2 cm/s. When the
field is switched on, the upper plate being positive, the drop just remains stationary when the p.d.
between the plates is 1500 V. Calculate the radius of drop and the number of electronic charges it
carries.

Given, Oil density,  = 900 kgm–3, Viscosity of air,  = 1.8  10–5 Nsm–2, Density of air,  =1.293
kg/m3) [HSEB 2067]
Ans: (a) 1.5 × 10–6 m (b) 8

4. [ALP] An electron beam after being accelerated from rest through a p.d. of 5000 V in a vacuum is
allowed to impinge normally on a fixed surface. If the incident current is 50 A, determine the force
exerted on the surface assuming that, it brings the electron to rest.[e = 1.6  10–19 C, m = 9.11  10–31 kg]
Ans: 1.2 × 10–8 N

5. Electrons are accelerated from rest by a p.d. of 100 V. What is the final velocity? The electron beam
now enters normally a uniform electric field of intensity 105 Vm-1. Calculate the flux density B of a
uniform magnetic field applied perpendicular to the electric field, if the path of the beam is
unchanged from its original direction. (Assume e/me = 1.8 × 1011 Ckg-1)
Ans: 6.0 × 106 m/s, 1.7 × 10–2 T
502 Principles of Physics - II
6. A beam of proton accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 2000 V, enters a region of
uniform magnetic field which is perpendicular to the direction of the proton beam. If the flux density
is 0.2 T, calculate the radius of the path, which the beam describes. (Proton mass = 1.7 × 10-27 kg.
Electronic charge = –1.6 × 10–19 C) Ans: 0.033 m

7. In an evacuated tube, electrons are accelerated from rest through a potential difference of 3600 V.
These electrons travel as a narrow beam through a field free before entering a uniform magnetic
field, the flux lines of which are perpendicular to beam. In the magnetic field, electrons describe a
circular arc of radius 0.10 m. Calculate (i) the speed of the electrons entering the magnetic field (ii) the
magnitude of the magnetic flux density. If an electron describes a complete revolution in a magnetic
field, how much energy will it acquire? (e/m = 1.8 × 1011 Ckg-1) Ans: (i) 3.6 × 107 m/s (ii) 2 × 10–3 T

8. Give an account of a method, by which the charge on an electron is found to be -1.60 × 10–19 C,
calculate the potential difference in volt necessary to be maintained between two horizontal
conducting plates, one 5 mm above the other, so that a small oil drop, of mass 1.31 × 10-14 kg with
two electrons attached to it, remains in equilibrium between them. Which plate would be at the
positive potential? (g = 9.8 ms-2)
Ans: 2006 V
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is an electron? Write any three properties of electron.
 Electron is a fundamental charge particle which possesses the negative charge. It is denoted by e. Its
charge is 1.6 × 10–19 C.
Any three properties of an electron are:
i. It is negatively charged particle which contains both charge and mass.
ii. It is deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
iii. It ionizes the gas.
2. What are cathode rays? Do they deflect in the magnetic field?
 The invisible rays emitted from the cathode plate of a discharge tube when pressure is maintained at
about 10–2 mm of Hg under the high potential difference 10 kV to 15 kV are called cathode rays.
Actually, the cathode rays are the rays of electrons. Cathode rays are deflected by electric and
magnetic fields.
3. Differentiate between cathode rays and alpha rays.
 Some important differences between the cathode rays and alpha rays are as follows:
Cathode Rays Alpha Rays
1. Cathode rays are the rays of negatively 1. Alpha rays are the rays of positively charged
charged particles, the rays of electrons. particles, the rays of alpha particles.
2. Mass of individual particle in cathode rays 2. Mass of individual particle in alpha rays is
is very small. relatively large.
3. These rays deflect towards the positively 3. These rays deflect towards the negatively
charged plate. charged plate.
4. These rays have low ionizing power and 4. These rays have high ionizing and low
high penetrating power. penetrating power.

4. What is the difference between the deflection of the electron due to electric and magnetic fields?
 Electron is a negatively charged fundamental particle. It is influenced by both electric and magnetic
fields.
 Electrons  Chapter 19  503

a. If a moving electron is incident into the electric field, it follows the parabolic path and travels against
the electric field.
b. If a moving electron is incident into the magnetic field, its path depends upon the angle of incidence
into the field.
i. If the electron is incident parallel or anti-parallel to the field, it is not deflected.
ii. If the electron is incident perpendicular to the field, it follows circular path.
iii. If the electron is incident with certain angle  (0 <  < 90), it follows helical path.
5. What do you mean by cross field?
 When uniform electric field and magnetic fields are simultaneously applied perpendicularly in space,
a charge particle entering into these regions does not get deflected. This field region is known as
cross field. In cross field region,
Force of electric field (Fe) = Force of magnetic field (Fm)
i.e. eE = Bev
6. Which property of cathode ray shows that it possesses the mass particles?
 The cathode rays are deflected by electric and magnetic fields. Electric and magnetic fields deflect
only mass particle but not the electromagnetic radiation. This property of cathode ray shows that it
possesses the mass particles.
7. How can mass of an electron be determined?
 Millikan's oil drop experiment determines the charge of an electron, i.e. e = 1.6 × 10–19 C. Also, J. J.
e
Thomson's experiment determines the specific charge of an electron, i.e. m = 1.76 × 1011 Ckg–1. By
solving above expressions, the mass of electron can be determined.
i.e. m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg.
8. Differentiate between electronic charge and specific charge of an electron.
 Electronic charge of an electron is the charge of an electron, i.e. e = 1.6 × 10–19 C.
e
Specific charge of an electron refers to the charge to mass ratio of an electron. i.e, m = 1.76 × 1011
Ckg–1.
9. What are the properties of cathode rays?
i. Cathode rays travel in straight lines and cast shadow of obstacles placed in their paths.
Whenever an object is placed inside the tube, it casts a shadow on the wall opposite to the
cathode. This experiment showed that the cathode rays travel in straight lines. Further, since the
shadow falls on the wall opposite to the cathode, it shows that the rays travel from cathode
towards the anode.
ii. They produce fluorescence when they strike the glass wall of the discharge tube.
iii. They carry negative charge whose charge is equal to charge of an electron. Hence, they are the
stream of electrons.
iv. Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic and electric fields.
Deflection of cathode rays in an electric field indicates negative charge on its particles
When the metal plates are given opposite electric charges, the beams of cathode rays are
deflected towards the positively charged plate. This shows that the particles in the cathode rays
carry negative charge.
v. They are emitted at right angles from the surface of the cathode and enter at right angles into the
surface of anode.
vi. They ionize the gas and make them conducting which is the electrical effect of the rays.
vii. They damage the photographic plate.
504 Principles of Physics - II
10. The value of e/m is constant for cathode rays but not for positive rays, why? (NEB 2074)
 e/m is the charge to mass ratio of a particle or any ion. Cathode rays are the beam of electrons. The
value of e/m of cathode ray is equal to the e/m of an electron, which is constant
e 1.6 × 10–19 C
(i.e. m = 9.1 × 10–31 = 1.76 × 1011 kg ).

But the positive rays contain many positive ions whose neither charge nor the mass is same. That is
why, e/m varies in accordance with their values of charge and mass.
11. An electron and a proton move with the same speed in a uniform magnetic field. Compare the radii
of their circular paths.
mv
 The radius of circular path of charge particle while revolving in a magnetic field is, Be

The magnitude of charge of an electron and a proton is the same. For an electron and a proton, when
they move with same speed in a uniform magnetic filed, the radii are,
mev mp v
re = Be and rp = Be

re me
Where re and rp are the radii of circular path of electron and proton respectively. Then, r = m
p p

This means, r  m. Since the mass of electron is smaller than the proton, the radius of its circular path
is also small.
12. Beams of electrons and protons having the same initial kinetic energy enter normally into an electric
field, which beam will be more curved, justify. [HSEB 2072]
 The transverse deflection of an electron in an electric field is,
eV
y = 2mdu2 x2
eV
y = 1 x2
4d 2 mu2
 
eV 1
y =  4d x2 E
  k
1
For the identical condition, y  E .
k

If kinetic energy is also equal for both electron and proton, trajectory of particles is also equally
curved.
13. Explain why electric discharge through a gas takes place in low pressure. (HESB 2071)
 Gas is, in general, poor conductor of electricity. At high pressure, free charge particles in gas do not
respond to the electric field. There may be some ionization due to cosmic rays etc, but regular
recombination of ions of opposite polarity prevents from discharging. As the pressure decreases, the
mean free path of charged ions increases. Then, the charge ions can collide on the cathode plate so
that electric discharge through gases is possible.
14. On what factors does the voltage applied across the discharge tube for electric discharge through a
gas depend?
 If the potential difference between the electrodes of discharge tube is gradually increased, discharge
occurs in the gas at a certain stage. This discharging potential depends on the following factors:
i. nature of gas used
ii. pressure of gas
iii. distance between two electrodes and,
iv. nature of the material of the gas.
 Electrons  Chapter 19  505

15. What is the importance of Millikan's Oil drop experiment? [HSEB 2067]
 This experiment has great importance in atomic physics. It determines the fundamental value of
charge. It concludes that the charge on any object exists as a multiple of small units called quantum
of charge. Each quantum of charge is equivalent to 1.6 × 10–19 C. This fact is known as quantisation of
charge.
16. Write down expression for acceleration of a moving charge Q in parallel and perpendicular magnetic
field? (HSEB 2069)
i. When electron enters the field parallelly or antiparallely, i.e.  = 0º or  = 180º.
The magnitude of magnetic force is,
F = Bev sin 
For  = 0º or 180º, sin  = 0
 F=0
The electron does not experience any magnetic force, if it enters into the field parallelly or anti-
parallelly.
ii. When electron enters the field perpendicularly, i.e.  = 90º, the magnitude of magnetic force is,
F = Bev sin 90º
F = Bev
17. Cathode rays can not be regarded as electromagnetic waves. Why?
 Electromagnetic waves are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. These wave particles have
the rest mass zero. On contrary, cathode rays deflect in both electric field and magnetic field.
Moreover, cathode rays possess mass, they are the beam of electrons.
18. Water can not be used in place of clock oil in Millikan's oil drop experiment. Why?
 Non-volatile and viscous liquid is necessary to perform Millikan's oil drop experiment. This type of
liquid has low vapour pressure so that it reduces the problem of evaporation. Water is volatile liquid,
that may evaporate along the path and radius of drop may not remain constant. Also, the drop of
liquid must be very small in size so that it should acquire terminal velocity to apply stokes law. This
is also impossible in water drop. A clock oil is appropriate to perform this experiment.
19. When cathode rays strike a metal, it gets heated up. How?
 Cathode rays are beam of electrons, i.e. beam of mass particles. When they collide on a metal, their
momentum is changed. On changing momentum, force is exerted onto the metal plate.
Consequently, the kinetic energy Ek = p2/2m, is also changed. The loss of kinetic energy of electrons
is transformed into heat energy so that the metal plate becomes heated.
20. Why does colour appear in the discharge tube at low pressure?
 Cathode rays excite the atoms after collision. In excitation, orbital electron jumps to higher energy
state and returns to ground state emitting electromagnetic radiations. As the excitation energy of
electron depends on the initial kinetic energy of discharging electrons, the emitted radiations also
have the different wave length i.e. different energy), which ultimately contrast in colour in the
discharge tube.
21. Which property of cathode rays forces us to believe that cathode rays consists of electrons?
 Cathode rays are deflected in electric and magnetic fields. When the specific charge (e/m) of cathode
rays are measured, it is found exactly equal to the specific charge of an electron which confirms that
the cathode rays are the streams of electrons.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Does an electron deflect in electric and magnetic field?
2. What is the difference between deflection of the electron due to electric and magnetic fields?
506 Principles of Physics - II
3. What is the charge of an electron?
4. What is the specific charge of an electron?
5. What do you mean by particle nature of electricity?
6. What happens when an electron enters into the electric field?
7. What do you mean by electric discharge?
8. How will you make a gas conducting?
9. Why are cathode rays not regarded as electromagnetic radiation?
10. What is the importance of the ratio e/m?
11. An electron and a proton enter a transverse electric field with the same velocity. Name the particle
whose trajectory is more curved?
12. Will it be possible to produce discharge between earth and moon? If not why?
13. "The value of specific charge of cathode rays is constant but it is not constant for positive rays" Why?
14. An electron beam passes through a region of crossed electric and magnetic fields of intensity E and B
respectively. For what value of the electron speed, the beam will remain undeflected?
15. What is specific charge?
16. What are positive rays? Why are they called canal rays?
17. What are the main differences between the cathode rays and positive rays?
18. Which type of liquid is used in Milliken’s oil drop experiment and why?
19. A charged particle is not deflected in a region. Do you think no field present there?
20. What is the value of specific charge of hydrogen ion?
21. What is the ratio of specific charge of a proton and an α-particle?
22. What are the main differences between the cathode rays and positive rays?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Show that, electron motion in magnetic field is circular. Prove that frequency and time period are
independent with the velocity of electron.
2. Show that, the path of an electron moving through a transverse uniform electric field is parabola.
3. What are cathode rays? How they are produced? Discuss the important properties of cathode rays.
How will you prove that, cathode rays are not electromagnetic waves?
4. Describe the theory of Millikan's oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
5. Describe an experiment to determine the specific charge of an electron.
6. Describe an experiment to determine the ratio of the charge to mass (e/m) for an electron. Show how
the result is derived from the observations.
7. Discuss the trajectory of a charged particle when it is moving in a uniform magnetic field and hence
discuss how the specific charge of the particle is obtained.
8. Describe the phenomenon of electrical discharge through gases.
9. Show that electron motion in magnetic field is circular. Prove that frequency and time period are
independent with the velocity of electron.

Numerical Problems
1. A cathode ray tube is operating at 10 kV. Calculate the speed of electron.
Ans: 5.9 × 107 ms-1
2. An electron moves at right angle to uniform magnetic field 10-3 T. Find the radius of the circular path
if the velocity of the electron is 3 × 107ms-1.
Ans: 17.06 cm
 Electrons  Chapter 19  507

3. A beam of electron remains undeflected when passes through a cross field of strength 100 Vm-1 and 5
× 10-4 T. Find the velocity of electrons.
Ans: 2 × 105 ms-1
4. An ion for which the charge per unit mass is 4.40 × 107
C/kg, has velocity of 3.52 × 105 m/s and
moves in a circular orbit in a magnetic flux density 0.4 T. What will be the radius of the orbit?
(Ans: 2 cm)
5. An electron moves in a circular path of radius 20 cm in a magnetic field of 2 × 10-3 T.
i. What is the speed of electron?
ii. What is the p.d. through which the electron must be accelerated to acquire this speed?
(e = 1.6 × 10-19 C m= 9.11 × 10-31 kg)
(Ans: 7.2 x 107m/s, 13642.1V)
6. What is the ratio of the speed of a proton and α-particle when accelerated from rest through same
p.d.?
(Ans: 2:1)
7. A stream of electrons moving with a velocity of 109 cm/s passes between two parallel plates. The
intensity of the electric field between these plates is 300 V/cm. Find the intensity of the magnetic
field required so that, there is no deflection of the electrons.
Ans: 3 × 10-3 T
8. An electron entering a magnetic field of 10-2 T with a velocity of 107 m/s describes a circle of radius 6
× 10-3 m. Calculate e/m of the electron.
Ans: 1.67 × 1011 Ckg-1
9. A stream of electrons moving with a velocity of 6 × 106 ms-1 passes between two parallel plates. The
intensity of magnetic field is 5 × 10-4 T. Calculate the strength of the electric field at right angles to the
magnetic field required to keep the beam undeflected.
Ans: 3000 V/m
10. An electron beam passes through a magnetic field of 2 × 10-3 T and an electronic field of 3.4 × 104
V/m both acting simultaneously. If the path of the electron remains undeflected, calculate the speed
of the electrons. If the electric field is removed, what will be the radius of the circular path? Mass of
an electron is 9.1 × 10-31 kg.
Ans: 1.7 × 107 ms-1, 0.0483 m
11. Electrons are accelerated through a potential difference of 3000 V, enter a region of uniform magnetic
field, the direction of the field being at right angles to the motion of the electrons. If the flux density is
0.01 T, calculate the radius of the electron path. (e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, m = 9.00 × 10-31 kg)
Ans: 0.018 m
12. If the specific charge of proton is 9.6 × 107 Ckg-1, find the specific charge for an alpha particle.
Ans: 4.8 × 107 Ckg-1
13. In a Millikan's oil drop experiment, a drop is observed to fall with a terminal speed 1.4 mm/s in the
absence of electric field. When a vertical electric field of 4.9 × 105 v/m is applied, the droplet is
observed to continue to move downward at a lower terminal speed 1.21 mm/s. Calculate the charge
on the drop. (Density of oil = 750 kg/m3, viscosity of air = 1.81 × 10–5 kg/ms, density of air = 1.29
kg/m3)
Ans: 5.16×10–19 C
14. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 2000 V and then it enters a uniform
magnetic field of 0.02 Tesla in a direction perpendicular to it. Find the radius of the path of the
electron in the magnetic field. Mass of an electron is 9.1 × 10–31 kg, charge of an electron is 1.6×10–19C.
Ans: 7.5×10–4 m
15. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 2KV and then it enters a uniform
magnetic field of 0.02T, in a direction perpendicular to it. Find the radius of the path of the electron in
the magnetic field. (mass of electron = 9.1×1031kg)
Ans: 7.5×103m
508 Principles of Physics - II
16. Two plane metal plates 4 cm long are held horizontally 3cm apart in a vacuum, one being vertically
above the other. The copper plate is at a potential of 300V and the lower is earthed. Electrons having
velocity of 107m/s are injected, horizontally midway between the plates and parallel to the 4cm edge.
Calculate the vertical deflection of the electron beam as it emerges from the plates. (e/m for electron
= 1.8×1011C kg-1.)
Ans: 1.44  102m
17. In a Milliken- type apparatus the horizontal plates are 1.5 cm apart. With the electric field switched
off an oil drop is observed to fall with the steady velocity 2.5×10-2 cms.-1 when the field is switched on
the upper plate being positive, the drop just remains stationary when the potential difference
between the plates is 1500V. Calculate the radius of the drop and the number of electronic charges.
(Given – density of oil = 900 kg m-3 and viscosity of air = 1.8×10-5NSm2, Neglect air density)
Ans: 1.5  106m, 8

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The ratio of specific charge of a proton to that of an -particle is:
a. 4 : 1 b. 1 : 2
c. 1 : 4 d. 2 : 1
2. An electron enter in magnetic filed with velocity 2 × 106 ms–1 perpendicular to the field of 2 × 10–5 T.
What is the radius of the path of electron?
a. 0.57 m b. 7.5 m
c. 2.4 m d. 0.24 m
3. An electron is moving with a velocity v and enters a uniform electric field perpendicularly. Its
trajectory within the filed will be:
a. Parabolic b. Circular
c. Hyperbolic d. Elliptic
4. An electron enters in a magnetic filed of 10–3 T normally with velocity 106 m/s. The radius of path of
electron is:
a. 11.4 cm b. 11.4 mm
c. 5.7 cm d. 5.7 mm
Answers
1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 mv
 r = Be
Given,
V = 1.36 × 104 V HINT: 2
d = 4 cm = 4 × 10–2 m Given,
B = 2 × 10–3 T Number of revolutions in one second,
m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg f = 1.4 × 106 rev/s
(i) For no deflection, we must have Magnetic flux density, B = ?
Magnetic force = Electric force m = 9.11 × 10–31 kg
or Bev = eE e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
E V V For an electron to be in circular path, the
or v = B = dB (∵E=d) magnetic force provides necessary centripetal
(ii) If r is the radius of path then we have force i.e.,
mv2 mv2
Bev = r
r = Bev
 Electrons  Chapter 19  509

mv nmev – 0
or B = e × r or F = t (as final velocity is zero)
m × r m × 2f nmev
= e×r = = t
e
HINT: 3 1
But, eV = 2 mev2
Given,
d = 1.5 cm = 1.5 × 10–2 m 2eV
v = 2.5 × 10-2 cm/s or v = me
= 2.5 × 10–4 m/s
nme 2eV
V = 1500 V So, F = t × me
density of oil,  = 900 kg/m3,  = 1.8 × 10–5 HINT: 5
Nsm–2 Given,
density of air,  = 0 (neglected) V = 100 V
a. Weight of drop = upward force Final velocity, v = ?
or, mg = viscous force + upthrust e
Due to negligible density of air, no upthrust E = 105 Vm–1, m = 1.8 × 1011 Ckg–1
acts so we can write
2eV
mg = 6   rv i. To find speed of electron, v = m
4
or × 3 r3g = 6 rv E
ii. Then, B is determined from, B = v
9v HINT: 6
or, r =
2( – )g Given,
For,  = 0, then, V = 2000 volt
9v Flux density, B = 2.2 T
r=
2g Radius of the path, r = ?
b. In this case, the weight of the drop must be We have,
equal to upward electric force i.e., mv2
mg = qE Bev = r
4 V mv
or 3 r3g = ne × d  r = Be . . . (i)
4 Again,
3 r g ×d
3
1
or n = e×V eV = 2 mv2
HINT: 4
2eV
Given,  v = m . . . (ii)
V = 5000 V From (i) and (ii), we get
incident current, I = 50 × 10–6 A
m 2eV 1 m
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C r = Be m = B 2V e
Force exerted, F = ?
HINT: 7
me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
Given,
We have,
V = 3600 V
q ne
I = t = t radius of circular path, r = 0.10 m
2eV
n I i. To find speed of electron, v =
or t = e m
ii. Then, the magnetic field is determined from,
Now,
mv v
Force on the surface due to electrons = rate of B = er = e
change of momentum of the electrons
m×r
510 Principles of Physics - II
iii. Electric force is the conservative force so the Number of electrons, n = 2
work done for this force is zero in one complete g = 9.8 ms–2
cycle. Hence, energy acquired by an electron is For the oil drop to be in equilibrium, its weight
zero. should be equal to upward electric force i.e.,
HINT: 8 mg = qE
Given, V
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C or mg = ne × d
Separation between the plates, d = 5 mm mg × d
= 5 × 10–3 m or V = ne
Mass of oil drop, m = 1.31 × 10–14 kg


 PHOTONS

20.1 Introduction
Before Planck's discovery of particle nature of light, the light was solely described in terms of a wave.
It was believed that the light energy is emitted from a source continuously. But, the concept of
continuous emission of light from the source could not explain many observable facts in nature like
black body radiation. So, Planck studied the nature of light and discovered that light travels in the
form of the tiny discrete packets which were named quantum or photon. On the basis of quantum
nature of light, many phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect, pair production, which
were unsolved until these date, were solved theoretically and experimentally.

20.2 Quantum Nature of Light

Before 1900, the energy was considered as a continuous spectrum of radiations in which the light
wave contains all wavelength from zero to infinity. However, this concept could not verify many
experimental facts in nature. Later on, in 1900, Max Planck put forward an interesting and
revolutionary idea on his quantum theory of radiation. According to this theory, energy is emitted or
absorbed in discontinuous (i.e. discrete) units rather in continuous form. In each step of emission of
radiation, a tiny packet or bundle of energy is emitted or absorbed. These bundles were called
photons or quanta (in singular: quantum). The theory about the quantum nature of energy is called
Planck's quantum theory. According to this theory, the energy of every quantum (or photon) is
directly proportional to its frequency f,
Ef
E = hf, where, f = frequency of photon
Where, h is proportionality constant and it is called Planck's constant. The experimental value of
Planck's constant (h) is 6.62 × 10–34 Js.
For a light photon moving with speed c and wavelength  is written as,
c
f=

So, the energy of photon,
hc
E= …(20.1)

In 1905, Einstein explained photoelectric effect on the basis of Planck's quantum theory.
512 Principles of Physics - II

Properties of Photon
i. A photon is the building block of all the electromagnetic radiations.
ii. Its speed is equal to the speed of light (3  108 m/s) in vacuum but changes when travelling from one
place to another in different media and hence, wavelength also changes but frequency remains the
same.
iii. Its rest mass (mass in stationary condition) is zero but have dynamic mass (mass in motion). So, its
total energy is equal to kinetic energy of photon.
iv. Its charge is zero. So, it is not deflected by magnetic and electric fields.
hc
v. The energy of each photon of frequency f is E = hf = .

vi. It has both particle and wave nature.
vii. It exerts force and pressure when strikes on a surface.

20.3 Photoelectric Effect

Photo refers to light and electric refers to electricity. The term
photoelectric refers to the conversion of light energy to electricity.
Therefore, the photoelectric effect is defined as the phenomenon of
emission of electrons from a material surface when light of suitable wavelength
(or frequency) falls upon it. Here, the light involves not only visible light
but also all types of electromagnetic radiation. The electrons emitted by
photoelectric effect are called photoelectrons and the current so
Fig.20.1: Photoelectric effect
produced is called "photoelectric current". This effect is the evidence of
particle nature of radiation.
i. Work function: The minimum amount of energy required to eject out an electron from the surface of material
is known as work function. It is denoted by 0. The work functions of alkali metals have small value, so
they are used to produce photoelectricity, but the work functions of insulators like wood, plastic are
very large, so it is impossible to produce photoelectricity in these materials.
According to Planck's theory, work function
0 = hf0 …(20.2)
where, f0 is called threshold frequency
ii. Threshold frequency: The minimum frequency of an incident light which can eject out the electrons from the
surface of material is known as threshold frequency. It is denoted by f0. The corresponding energy is called
threshold energy and is equivalent to work function.
iii. Threshold wavelength: The longest wavelength of incident light which can eject out the electrons from the
surface of material is known as threshold wavelength. It is denoted by 0.
The threshold frequency and threshold wavelength are related as,
c
f0 = …(20.3)
0
Also, work function can be related to threshold wavelength as,
hc
0 = …(20.4)
0

Photoelectric effect: Evidence of particle nature of light

The phenomena; interference, diffraction, and polarization of light, ensure that light shows the wave
picture. According to this picture, light is an electromagnetic wave which consists of electric field
and magnetic field propagating mutually perpendicular to each other. If this wave concept is applied
 Photons  Chapter 20 513
to explain the photoelectric phenomenon of light, a contradiction arises. According to wave theory,
the free electrons on the surface of metal should continuously absorb the light energy, so greater the
intensity of light is exposed; the greater would be the kinetic energy of photoelectron. However, it is
experimentally impossible. The experimentally observed fact is that the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of light.
Besides the above facts, the photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process. As soon as the light falls
on the surface of material, the electrons are emitted readily at an interval of about 10–9 s. If light
possesses sole wave property, the ejection of electron may take hours long time.
In view of the above contradiction, light must show the particle property. This concludes that the
wave theory of light fails to explain the basic features of photoelectric effect.

Demonstration of photoelectric effect

The apparatus arrangement to demonstrate the
Ultraviolet rays
photoelectric effect is shown in Fig. 20.2 This Q
arrangement consists of an evacuated quartz bulb
(Q) with two zinc plates A and B, a – B + Photoelectric current
A
microammeter and a d.c. power supply. The plate
A Micro ammeter
A is connected to the negative terminal and the
plate B is connected to the positive terminal of
– +
power supply. As soon as the light of appropriate
wavelength is allowed to fall on plate A, V
Fig. 20.2: Demonstration of photoelectric effect
deflection in microammeter is observed. If the
light is blocked, no current appears in the electric circuit. This evidence shows that electrons are
ejected from the metal surface, when light of appropriate wavelength falls upon it. The current so
produced is called photoelectric current. The magnitude of current depends on the intensity of beam
of incident light and the electric potential provided by power supply.

20.4 Einstein's Equation of Photoelectric Effect

When light falls on the surface of a material, it interacts with the orbital electrons. If the energy of
incident photon is smaller than the work function of the material, the electron is not emitted out. To
emit out the electron from the surface of material, the energy of incident photon (E = hf) must be
equal to or greater than the work function (0). When the energy of incident photon is sufficiently
greater than the work function, the photoelectron gains the kinetic energy. This phenomenon of
photoelectric effect was firstly described and formulated by Albert Einstein. Einstein was awarded
with Nobel Prize in 1921, for his discovery of photoelectric effect.
Einstein's formulation on photoelectric effect is based on the principle of conservation of energy. He
used the Planck's theory to find the energy of incident photon (E = hf). According to Einstein's theory
of photoelectric effect, the incident energy of photon is imparted into two forms (a) some part of
energy is used to eject the electron from the orbit of atom (i.e. provide the work function 0) and (b)
1
remaining part is transferred as kinetic energy of photoelectron 2 mvmax. Therefore,
2
 
1 2
hf = 0 + 2 mvmax …(20.5)

where, f = frequency of incident photon

m = mass of photoelectron
514 Principles of Physics - II
vmax = maximum velocity of photoelectron
1
or, 2 mv max = hf – 0 . . . (20.6)
2

As we have, 0 = hf0, we get,

1
2 mv max = hf – hf0 . . . (20.7)
2

This is the famous Einstein’s photoelectric equation for which, he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1921.
Later on, R.A. Millikan experimentally verified it and was also awarded Nobel Prize in 1923.
If  and 0 are the respective wavelength corresponding to incident frequency and threshold
frequency, equation (20.7) becomes,
1 hc hc
2 mv max =  – 0
2

1
 1 1 
2 mv max = hc  – 0 . . . (20.8)
2

Accelerating potential and stopping potential

If light of suitable wavelength is allowed to fall on the cathode plate of quartz bulb as in Fig. 20.3(i)
the photoelectrons travel to the anode plate. If the positive potential is gradually increased across
two plates keeping intensity and frequency of light fixed, the photoelectric current also increases in
the circuit till a stage is reached, when photoelectric current becomes maximum and does not
increase further. This positive potential in photoelectric circuit which increases the photoelectric
current is called accelerating potential and the maximum possible photoelectric current is called
saturation current.
Alternately, if the polarity of power supply is reversed in quartz bulb as in Fig. 20.3(ii), the
photoelectron should move towards the cathode plate. If the negative potential is gradually
increased in the cathode plate, the electrons are repelled and photoelectric current decreases until it
becomes zero. The value of retarding potential at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called cut off
or stopping potential for a given frequency of incident light. Stopping potential is denoted by Vs or Vo. At
stopping potential, even an electron of maximum kinetic energy fails to reach at cathode plate. It is a
kind of critical potential, below which the photoelectric current is possible and above which the
current stops completely.
Ultraviolet rays Ultraviolet rays
B B

– Q + Photoelectric current Q
P P
A Micro ammeter A

– + + –

V V
Fig. 20.3(i): Accelerating potential Fig. 20.3 (ii): Stopping potential

For a photoelectron of maximum kinetic energy, the work done by stopping potential must be equal
to its kinetic energy.
Hence,
1
2 mv max = eVs …(20.9)
2
 Photons  Chapter 20 515
Where, vmax = Velocity of most energetic electron
m = mass of electron
e = charge of electron.

20.5 Laws of Photoelectric Emission

A physicist, Lenard summed up all the experimental observations in the form of laws called Lenard’s
laws of photoelectric emission which are as follows:
1. The photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process which occurs almost instantly when the metal surface
is exposed to radiation of suitable frequency. It is found that time lag between the incidence of
radiation and emission of electron is less than 10–8 s.
2. The number of photoelectrons emitted and hence the photocurrent depends on the intensity of radiation
exposed but is independent of frequency of incident radiation.

(photocurrent) 
The intensity of radiation can be varied by changing the
distance between source of radiation and cathode plate. The

Ip
greater the intensity, greater will be the number of photons
interacting with the electrons and hence greater will be the
number of electrons emitted. This consequently increases the Intensity (L) 
photocurrent. A plot of intensity and photocurrent is as Fig. 20.4: Relation of
shown in Fig. 20.4. photocurrent and intensity
However, for a constant intensity, if we vary the frequency (by using different colours of light
radiation), the photocurrent remains constant.
3. The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons emitted is independent of intensity but
depends on frequency of light.
It is observed that, the photoelectrons are emitted when a light of suitable frequency falls on
metal surface. This means, the photon must have energy greater than or equal to the energy
with which the electron is bound to metal surface (work function) to eject an electron.
A part of photon energy equal to work function is used to eject electrons and remaining energy
is used to impart kinetic energy to emitted electrons. Since, work function for a material is
constant, we can say that,
kinetic energy of photoelectrons  energy of photon
Kinetic energy

1
i.e. 2 mv2  hf

Thus, we can say that greater the frequency greater will be the
kinetic energy of emitted electrons. A plot of kinetic energy and
frequency is as shown in Fig. 20.5. The graph shows that f0 frequency 
emission of electron is impossible when frequency of photon is
below f0. Since intensity is concerned with number of photons Fig.20.5: Relation of kinetic
energy and frequency
incident per unit area per unit time, it has nothing to do with
energy of photoelectron.
4. The stopping potential is independent of intensity of radiation but depends on the
frequency of radiation.
As we discussed earlier, the energy of photons and hence the frequency is directly proportional
to the kinetic energy of photoelectrons. So, for greater frequency of radiation, the kinetic energy
516 Principles of Physics - II
of photoelectrons is greater. The more energetic photoelectrons
require larger retarding potential to stop them from reaching

potential 
Stopping
the collector. So, we can write,
frequency of photons  kinetic energy of electrons  stopping
potential
1 f0 frequency 
i.e. f  2 mv2max  e Vs.
Fig.20.6: Relation of stopping
potential and frequency
A plot of stopping potential versus frequency is as shown in
Fig.20.6.

IP

L1 IS1
L1 > L2, IS1 > IS2
L2 IS2

 VS

Fig.20.7: Relation of intensity and photo electric current

For a constant frequency but different intensities of radiation, if we gradually increase the
retarding potential, the photocurrent gradually decreases and becomes minimum at certain
potential called stopping potential. The value of stopping potential does not depend on
intensity. A plot of photocurrent versus stopping potential at constant frequency but varying
intensity is shown in Fig.20.7.

IP

IS f1 > f2
f1

f2

VS2 V S1 VS

Fig.20.8: Relation of stopping potential and frequency

For constant intensity, but different frequency of incident radiation, a plot of stopping potential
versus photocurrent is as shown in Fig.20.8.
Note
i. Any other electromagnetic waves having wavelength shorter than the ultraviolet rays can produce photo
electric effect from any metal.
ii. Visible rays can cause the photo electric effect, only from alkali metals such as Na, K, Cs.
iii. Infrared rays can cause the effect only from caesium (Cs) which has the lowest value of work function nearly
1.8 eV.
iv. In the photoelectric effect, one energetic photon can liberate only one electron. Hence this process is called one
to one interaction.
 Photons  Chapter 20 517

20.6 Millikan's Verification of Einstein's Equation of

Photoelectric Effect
According to Einstein, the maximum K.E. of the emitted photoelectrons depends upon the frequency
of the photons.
1
2 mv max  hf . . . (20.10)
2

Whenever the polarity of the emitter and collector is reversed such that the collector is at negative
potential, the emitted photo-electrons have to do work against this negative potential in the expenses
of its own kinetic energy in order to reach the collector. If the negative potential of the collector is
increased to a value called stopping potential (Vs) such that even the fastest moving electrons are
repelled, then in this situation,
1
2 mv max = eVs . . . (20.11)
2

From equation (20.10) and equation (20.11) we can write,

eVs  hf
or, Vs  f . . . (20.12)
This equation shows that stopping potential is directly proportional to the frequency of photon and
hence a plot of stopping potential and frequency of photon must be a straight line.
This fact was experimentally verified by Robert A. Millikan. In this experiment, he took three
different photosensitive metals, Na, K, Li mounted on a cylindrical wheel which could be rotated
about an axis. This structure was kept inside an evacuated glass tube provided with a strong
electromagnet that could be used to turn the wheel. The tube also had a knife N, that could be used
to remove the metal oxides from the surface of metal. The monochromatic light was allowed to fall
on different metals and the emitted electrons were collected by the collector maintained at negative
potential as shown in Fig.20.9. The negative potential of the collector was gradually increased to a
maximum magnitude called stopping potential at which even the fastest moving electrons could not
reach the collector. Now, the frequency of incident light was changed to a higher value and the value
of stopping potential also had to be changed to a greater value. This procedure was repeated by
taking different colors (frequency) of light and allowing them to fall on each of the three metals
marked on the wheel.
A plot of incident frequency and stopping potential for each three metals were as shown below.
The graph is a straight line with negative y-intercept and thus its equation must be in the form of
y = mx + (–c) . . . (20.13)
Now, according to Einstein's photoelectric equation,
1
2 mv max = hf – hf0 . . . (20.14)
2

From equations (20.11) and (20.14) we get,

eVs = hf – hf0
h –h
or, V s = e f +  e f0  . . . (20.15)
 
h –h
This equation is analogous to equation (vi) with y = Vs, m = e , x = f and c =  e f0
 
518 Principles of Physics - II
Thus, his experiment successfully verified Einstein's photoelectric equation.
A closer look an equation (20.15), shows that Vs is actually proportional to (f – f0) as shown in
Fig. 20.10.
Further, the slope of the line, AB is,
BC Vs
m = AC =
f
h Vs
or, e = f
Vs
or, h= ×e …(20.16)
f
Thus, by knowing the slope of line AB, the value of h can be determined experimentally and its value
is found to 6.62 × 10–34 Js which is a constant.
Similarly, the slope of this line can be used to calculate the work function ( = hf0) of the material.
h
We have,  = e f0 × e

From equation (20.16), we can write,

h Vs
 = e f0 × e = f ×e
f 0
In this way, the value of work function of the material can be determined experimentally.
Evacuated glass chamber
C

M A θ a
Vs →

K b B
G Na
W
N
Light
D

O
M f0 f1 f2 f→
Li –hf0
mA
e

Fig. 20.10: Graph between stopping potential

and frequency of incident light

Fig. 20.9: Millikan's apparatus for photoelectric effect

20.7 Photocell
Photocell is an electric energy source that converts light energy into an electric current. It works on
the principle of photoelectric effect. The construction and working of photocell is described below.
It is an evacuated glass bulb which contains a cylindrical electrode called cathode C, which is
connected to the negative terminal of secondary cell (rechargeable cell) and a thin rod, called anode
A, and is connected to positive terminal of the cell as shown in Fig. 20.11. The cathode plate is coated
with barium or cesium oxide. The work function of barium or cesium oxide is comparatively very
 Photons  Chapter 20 519
low, so the visible light can eject the electrons from the cathode plate. Anode
is allowed to collect the emitted electrons from the cathode. A micro-ammeter
is connected to measure current in the circuit. The rechargeable cell
connecting across the anode A and cathode C gets charged while the cathode
is exposed to light. The charged cell is used as the electric source to drive the
electrical appliance. It is an alternative source of electricity. The current and
power produced in a photocell depends on (a) light intensity (b) surface area
exposed (c) distance from light source.

Tips for MCQs

1. About photons Fig.20.11: Photocell
hc
i. Energy of a photon, E = hf =

v2
ii. It has zero rest mass, mo = m 1 – c2 , for v = c, mo = 0, but in motion, it has dynamic mass.

iii. It is not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.

hc
iv. From Einstein's mass-energy equivalence, E = hf = = mc2

hf h
So, m = c2 =
c
E h
v. Momentum of photon, p = mv = mc = c =

2. Work function and threshold frequency
hc
i. Work function (0) = hf0 =
0
ii. Work function is usually expressed in electron volt (eV) unit.
iii. For photoelectric effect, incident energy (hf) must be greater than or equal to work function (o)
i.e. hf  0.
iv. The work function of metal decreases when the temperature of the metal increases.
3. Photoelectric effect
i. One photon ejects one electron, i.e. it is a one to one phenomenon.
ii. Cesium is the best metal for photoelectric effect.
iii. This effect is based on conservation of energy.
iv. This effect establishes the particle nature of light.
v. Photoelectric effect is instantaneous process. The photoelectron is emitted as soon as the light
fall upon the material (~ 10–9 s).
vi. Photoelectric current depends on the intensity of incident radiation, but not the frequency of
radiation above f0.
vii. Kinetic energy of photoelectron depends on frequency of incident radiation, but not the
intensity.
4. Einstein's photoelectric equation
i. The energy of incident photon is imparted into energy against work function and kinetic energy
1 2
of photoelectron. i.e. hf = 0 + Ek and (Ek = 2 mvmax )
520 Principles of Physics - II
ii. The kinetic energy deduced from Einstein's equation is the maximum value of kinetic energy of
photoelectron.
5. Stopping potential
i. Stopping potential (Vs) depends on the nature of material.
ii. It depends on frequency of incident radiation but is independent of intensity of radiation.
1 2
eVs = hf – 0 = 2 mvmax

6. Intensity is directly proportional to : (a) number of photons falling per unit time, (b) number of
electrons emitted per unit time, (c) photoelectric current, (d) square of distance between bulb and
plate and
Nhf
i. I = At , N = total number of photo electron

P Nhf
A = At
Nhf N nhc
 Power (P) = t =  t hf = nhf =
  

Worked Out Problems

1. For caesium the value of 0 is 1.35 electronvolt. (a) What is the longest wavelength that can cause
photo-electric emission from a cesium surface? (b) What is the maximum velocity with which
photoelectrons will be emitted from a cesium surface illuminated with light of wavelength 4.0 × 10-7
m? [e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, m = 9 × 10-31 kg, h = 6.6 × 10-34 Js]
SOLUTION
Given, From photoelectric equation, we have,
Work function (0) = 1.35 eV = 1.35 × 1.6 × 10-19 1 2

= 2.16 × 10-19 J 2 me vmax = hf – 0

(a) 0 = ? 1 2 hc
2 me vmax =  – 0
We know that,
0 = hf0 1 2
or, 2 × 9 × 10-31 × vmax
hc hc
or, 0 = or 0 = 6.6 × 10 -34 × 3 × 108
0 0 = – 2.16 × 10 -19
4 × 10-7
6.6 × 10 -34 × 3 × 108
= 2.16 × 10-19 = 9.17 × 10-7 m 2
or, 4.5 × 10-31 × vmax = 4.95 × 10 -19 – 2.16 × 10 -19
(b) vmax = ? (if  = 4 × 10 -7m) 2.79 × 10 -19
or, vmax = 4.5 × 10 -31 = 7.87 × 10 m/s
5
me = 9 × 10-31 kg

2. When ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 400 nm falls on a certain metal surface, the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is 1.10 eV. What is the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons when light of wavelength 300 nm falls on the same surface?
SOLUTION
Given,
For 1 = 400 nm = 400 × 10-9 m,
Maximum K.E. (E1) = 1.1 eV = 1.1  1.6  10-19 J
For, 2 = 300 nm = 300  10-9 m,
Maximum K.E. (E2) = ?
 Photons  Chapter 20 521

From photoelectric equation, we have, 107 107

= 19.86 × 10-26  3 – 4  + 1.76 × 10-19
E1 = hf1 - 0 and, E2 = h f2 - 0  
Subtracting, we get, 1
= 19.86 × 10 -19 × 12 + 1.76 × 10 -19
E2 – E1 = h (f2 – f1)
c c = 1.65 × 10 -19 + 1.76 × 10 -19
or, E2 = h  –  + E1
2 1 = 3.41 × 10 -19 J
1 1
= hc  –  + E1
3.41 × 10 - 19
2 1 = 1.6 × 10 -19 eV
1 1
= 6.62 × 10 -34 × 3 × 108 300×10-9 – 400×10-9  E2 = 2.1 eV
 
+ 1.1 × 1.6×10 -19
3. A photon has momentum of magnitude 8.24 × 10-28 kgm/s. (a) what is the energy of this photon?
Give your answer in joule and electron volt. (b) What is the wavelength of this photon?
SOLUTION
Given, 2.47 × 10 -19
 E = 2.47 × 10 -19 J = 1.6 × 10 -19 eV
Momentum (p) = 8.24 × 10-28 kgm/s
(a) Energy of a photon (E) = ?  E = 1.54 eV
We know that, (b) Wavelength of the photon () = ?
E = m c2 From de- Broglie wave equation, we have
=mc×c h 6.62 × 10-34
 = p = 8.24 × 10-28
=p×c
= 8.24 ×10-28 × 3 × 108   = 804 × 10-9 m

4. A 75 W light source consumes 75 W of electrical power. Assume all this energy goes into emitted
light of wavelength 600 nm. (a) calculate the frequency of the emitted light. (b) How many photons
per second does the source emit?
SOLUTION
Given, we have
Power (P) = 75 W En = nhf
Wavelength () = 600 nm En nhf
= 600 × 10 -9 m = 6 × 10 -7 m or t = t
(a) f = ? n
we have or P =  t  hf
 
c = f
c 3 × 108 or n= P
 f = = 6 × 10 -7 = 5 × 1014 Hz
 t hf
(b) Number of photons per second, 75
= 6.62 × 10-34 × 5 × 10 14
n
t =? = 2.3 × 1024 photons/sec.
5. 400 nm wavelength of light falls on a photo sensitive material of work function 2.3 eV. Compute
the maximum energy of photoelectrons.
SOLUTION
Given, c
h = 0 + Ek
Wavelength () = 400 nm = 400 × 10-9 m. 
Work function (0) = 2.3 eV = 2.3 × 1.6 × 10-19 J 6.62 ×10-34 × 3 × 108
Ek = 400 × 10-9 – 2.3 × 1.6 × 10-19
Maximum energy (Ek) = ?
We have, = 1.285 × 10-19 J
hf = 0 + Ek 1.285 × 10–19
= 1.6 × 10–19 = 0.803 eV
522 Principles of Physics - II
6. [NEB 2074] Radiations of wavelength 5400 Å fall on a metal whose work function is 1.9 eV. Find the
energy of the photoelectrons emitted and their stopping potential. Planck's constant = 6.62 × 10–34 JS.
SOLUTION
Given, 6.62 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
= 5400 × 10–10 – 3.04 × 10–19
Wavelength () = 5400Å = 5400 × 10–10 m
Work function (0) = 1.9 eV = 3.68 × 10–19 – 3.04 × 10–19
= 1.9 × 1.6 × 10–19 = 3.04 × 10–19 J = 0.64 × 10–19
Planck's constant (h) = 6.62 × 10 –34 Js  Energy of photoelectron (Ek) = 6.4 × 10–18 J
Kinetic energy (Ek) = ? (for photoelectron) Now,
Stopping potential (V0) = ? eVs = Ek
We know, Ek 6.4 × 10–18
Vs = e = 1.6 × 10–19 = 0.4 V
hc
Ek = – 0  Stopping potential = 0.4 V.


7. [HSEB 2075] Sodium has a work function of 2 eV. Calculate the maximum energy and speed of the
emitted electrons when sodium is illuminated by a radiation of 150 nm. What is the threshold
frequency of radiation for which electrons are emitted from sodium surface?
SOLUTION
Given, 6.62 × 10–34 × 3 × 108
= 150 × 10–9 –2 × 1.6 × 10–19
Work function (0) = 2 eV = 2 × 1.6 × 10–19 J
Maximum Kinetic Energy (K.Emax) = ? = 1.004 × 10–18J
Speed of electron (vmax) = ? 2 × K.Emax
Threshold frequency (fn) = ? vmax = m
Wavelength of light () = 150 nm =150×10–9 m 2 × 1.004 × 10–18
From = 9.1 × 10–31 = 1.483 × 106 m/s
Einstein photo-electric equation Again, For threshold frequency
hf = 0 + K.Emax 0 = hf0
c 0 2 × 1.6 × 10–19
or, K.Emax = h – 0
 or, f0 = h = 6.62 × 10–34 = 4.8 × 1014 Hz

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] A photon of green light has a wavelength of 520 nm. Find the photon's frequency, magnitude of
momentum, and energy. Express the energy both in joules and electron volts.
Ans: 5.76 × 1014 Hz, 1.27 × 10-27 Ns, energy (3.82 × 10-19J, 2.39 eV)

2. [UP] The predominant wavelength emitted by an ultraviolet lamp is 248 nm. If the total power
emitted at this wavelength is 12.0 W, how many photons are emitted per second?
Ans: 1.5 × 1019 proton/ sec

3. [UP] A clean nickel surface is exposed to light of wavelength 235 nm. What is the maximum speed of
the photoelectrons emitted from this surface? [0 = 5.1 eV]
Ans: 2.5  105 m/s

4. [UP] What would the minimum work function for a metal have to be for visible light (400 nm to 700
nm) to eject photoelectrons?
Ans: 1.77 eV
 Photons  Chapter 20 523
5. [UP] When ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 254 nm falls upon a clean copper surface, the
stopping potential necessary to stop emission of photoelectrons is 0.181 V. (a) What is the photo-
electric threshold wavelength for this copper surface? (b) What is the work function for this surface?
Ans: (a) 2.64 × 10-7 m (b) 4.70 eV

6. [UP] An excited nucleus emits a gamma ray photon with an energy of 2.45 MeV. (a) What is the
photon frequency? (b) What is the photon wavelength?
Ans: (a) 5.92 ×1020 Hz (b) 5.06 × 10-13 m

7. [ALP] When light of frequency 5.4 × 1014 Hzis shone on to a metal surface the maximum energy of
the electrons emitted is 1.2 × 10-19 J. If the same surface is illuminated with light of frequency 6.6 ×
1014 Hz, the maximum energy of the electrons emitted is 2.0 × 10-19 J. Use this data to calculate a value
for the Planck constant.
Ans: 6.67 × 10 -34 Js

8. [ALP] The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from a metallic surface is 1.6 × 10-19 J
when the frequency of the incident radiation is 7.5 × 1014 Hz. Calculate the minimum frequency of
radiation for which electrons will be emitted. Assume that Planck's constant = 6.6 × 10-34 Js.
Ans: 5.1 × 1014 Hz

9. [ALP] Light of frequency 5.0 × 1014 Hz liberates electrons with energy 2.31 × 10-19 J from a certain
metallic surface. What is the wavelength of ultra-violet light which liberates electrons of energy 8.93
× 10-19 J from the same surface? (Take the velocity of light to be 3.0 × 108 ms-1 and Planck's constant
(h) to be 6.62 × 10-34Js).
Ans: 0.2 × 10-8 m

10. [ALP] The photoelectric work function of potassium is 2 eV and the surface is illuminated with
radiation of wavelength 350 nm. What potential difference have to be applied between a potassium
surface and the collecting electrode in order just to prevent collection of electrons? What would be
the kinetic energy of the electrons? [HSEB 2057]
Ans: 2.47  10–19 J

11. [ALP] The maximum kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from a metallic surface is 1.6  10–19 J
when the frequency of the radiation is 7.5  1014 Hz. Calculate the minimum frequency of the radiation
for which electrons will be emitted. Assume that h = 6.6  10–34 Js. [HSEB 2055]
Ans: 5 × 1014 Hz
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is photoelectric effect?
 Photoelectric effect is defined as the phenomenon of emission of electrons from a material surface
when light of suitable wavelength (or frequency) falls upon it. Here, the light involves not only
visible light but all types of electromagnetic radiation. The electrons emitted by photoelectric effect
are called photoelectrons and the current so produced is called "photoelectric current". This effect is
the evidence of particle nature of radiation.
2. Alkali metals are preferred in photoelectric effect. Why?
Or, Why are metals like Na, Li, and K suited for photoelectric emission.
 Alkali metals like Na, K, Li have relatively low work function (0). So, visible light can easily eject out
the electrons from their surfaces. In photoemitter cells, photo conducting cell, etc,. visible light is
used to get the photoelectric current.
524 Principles of Physics - II
3. What is the difference between 'thermionic emission' and ' 'photoelectric emission'?
 Some important differences between 'thermionic emission' and 'photoelectric emission' are as
follows:
Thermionic Emission Photoelectric Emission
1. Heat energy is absorbed by the material to 1. Light energy is absorbed by the material to
eject out the electrons in thermionic emission. eject out the electrons in photoelectric
emission.
2. Thermionic emission is temperature 2. Photoelectric emission is light frequency and
dependent. intensity dependent.
3. The emitted electrons are called thermo 3. The emitted electrons are called
electrons. photoelectrons.

4. If the intensity of light falling on the emitting substance of a photoelectric cell be increased, what will
be the effect on current flowing from the cell?
 The intensity of light means the width of light beam (i.e. number of light photons) that comes from
the source. High intensity contains large number of light photons and vice-versa. In photoelectric
effect, one photon interacts to one electron whatever the energy of photon. Therefore, large intensity
of light can produce large number of photo electrons. It means, photoelectric current increases when
intensity of light that falls on the electron emitting substances increases.
5. Which is more energetic, a photon of microwave or a photon of ultravoilet?
 The energy of photon is inversely proportional to its wavelength i.e.,
hc 1
E= , i.e. E 
 
microwave > ultraviolet
So, Emicrowave < Eultraviolet
It means, the photon of ultraviolet is more energetic than the photon of microwave
6. What do you mean by the work function of cesium is 1.6 eV?
 Work function is the minimum energy required to eject out the electron from the surface of a
substance. As per the particular example of cesium, at least 1.6 eV light energy is required to eject out
electron from the cesium surface. If the energy of light photon is smaller than 1.6 eV, photoelectric
effect does not occur in cesium.
7. How does the work function of metal surface affect the kinetic energy of photoelectron?
 From Einstein's photoelectric equation,
1
2 mv max = hf – 0
2

where, f = frequency of incident radiation

0 = work function of metal
Clearly, if work function of metal increases, the kinetic energy of photoelectron decreases.
8. What is meant by threshold frequency in photoelectric effect? Does it depend upon the intensity of
incident light?
 The minimum value of frequency of incident radiation for photoelectric effect which is sufficient to
eject out the electrons from the surface of a material is called threshold frequency (f0). The electron
ejected out by the light with frequency equal to threshold frequency has zero kinetic energy.
Threshold frequency does not depend on the intensity of light.
9. What is meant by momentum of photon?
 The momentum of a photon is the product of kinetic (dynamic) mass of the photon and velocity of
light. i.e. momentum (p) = mkinetic C
 Photons  Chapter 20 525
hf
=  c2  c
 
hf
p = c

In Einstein's mass-energy relation, E = mc2

hf = mc2
hf
m = c2

where 'm' is kinetic mass of photon, while rest mass is zero.

10. Define thermionic emission. In what sense it is different from photoelectric emission?
 When a metal is heated, its free electrons get sufficient thermal energy. Then, these electrons leave
the metal surface. This method of removal of electrons is called thermionic emission. In thermionic
emission, electrons are emitted due to the absorption of heat energy by metal, however, electrons are
ejected due to the exposure of light energy on the metal surface.
11. Valence electrons are called free electrons in metal, why don't they emit out spontaneously? Why
does external energy (light or heat) require to eject them out?
 Free electrons in a metal are free in the sense that they move inside the metal in a constant potential.
They are not free to come out of the metal, so additional energy is needed to overcome such potential
provided by the nucleus and the surrounding electrons. Hence, heat or light energy must be supplied
to eject these electrons.
12. Why do different metals have different work functions?
 The energy distribution of free electron in different metal is different, i.e. electric potential provided
by the nucleus of different metal is different due to their charge distribution. Therefore, the energy
required to eject an electron is different in metals. Thus, the average binding energy of electrons is
also different in these metals. Hence, different metals have different work functions.
13. How does wave theory of light fails to explain the photoelectric effect?
 The classical theory (wave theory) of radiation could not explain the main features of photoelectric
effect. This theory explains the continuous absorption of energy from radiation, which could not
explain: (i) the independence of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron with intensity of light. (ii)
the existence of threshold frequency (iii) the instantaneous nature of phenomena.
14. What is a photocell?
 Photocell is an electric device which converts light energy into electric energy. It works on the
principle of photoelectric effect. When light beam of suitable wave length is exposed on a
photosensitive material, photoelectrons are ejected. These photoelectrons are exploited to move in a
conducting wire.
15. What happens to the wave length of a photon after it collides with an electron?
 In photoelectric effect, photon transfers whole energy to eject and to move away the photoelectron
from material. So, the incident photon disappears. But in Compton effect, a photon transfers a part of
its energy to the colliding electron, so its energy decreases and consequently wave length increases
hc
(as E = ).

16. Ultraviolet light is incident on two photo sensitive materials having work functions W1 and W2 (W1 >
W2). In which case, will the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons be greater? Why?
 The kinetic energy of photo electron is, Ek = hf – 0
where 0 is work function of a metal.
i. For first metal Ek1 = hf – W1, and
ii. For second metal, E k2 = hf – W2
526 Principles of Physics - II
If W1 > W2 , E k1 < E k2
Hence, the kinetic energy the emitted electrons will be greater for the photosensitive material having
smaller work function W2.
17. How does 'stopping potential' in photoelectric emission depend upon (i) the intensity of the incident
radiation (ii) the frequency of the incident radiation?
 (i) Stopping potential does not depend, on the intensity of incident radiation. Intensity of radiation
varies the number of emission of photoelectrons but does not change the kinetic energy of
photoelectrons. (ii) Stopping potential depends on the frequency of incident radiation, i.e. eVs = hf –
0. 0 is constant for a material So, Vs  f.
18. What is the effect on the velocity of photoelectrons, if the wavelength of incident light is decreased?
 According toe Einstein's Photoelectric equation the kinetic energy of photoelectron is,
hc
Ek = hf – 0 = – 0

1
For constant 0 ; Ek 

1 1
2 m v max  
2

1
v2max 

1
 vmax 

As the wavelength of incident light decreases, the velocity of photoelectron increases.
19. If ultraviolet rays and x-rays are incident on a metal surface, in which case greater stopping potential
is measured?
 The stopping potential for a metal is,
hc
eVs = hf – 0 = – 0

work function 0 is constant for a metal. So,
1
Vs 

The wavelength of x-rays is shorter than the ultraviolet rays. Hence, greater stopping potential is
measured write the metal is exposed with x-rays.
20. Can a photon have mass? Explain.
 The rest mass of photon is zero. However, the mass and energy are inter convertible quantities.
Einstein's mass-energy formula gives relation between them, E = mc2. It means,
E hf
m = c 2 = c2

This equivalent mass of photon is called dynamic mass. Therefore, photon has non zero dynamic
mass.
21. If the frequency of the incident radiation on the cathode of a photocell is doubled, how will the
following change.
i. Kinetic energy of the electrons? ii. Photoelectric current? iii. Stopping potential?
 (i) Kinetic energy of photoelectron becomes more than double of its original energy. As the work
function of the metal is fixed, so incident photon of higher energy will impact more energy to the
photoelectron. (ii) Increase in frequency of incident radiation has no effect on photoelectric current.
(iii) With the increase in frequency, the kinetic energy of photoelectron increases, so stopping
potential also increases.
 Photons  Chapter 20 527

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What do you mean by quantum nature of radiation?
2. Define (i) photon (ii) work function (iii) threshold frequency
3. What is quantum theory of radiation? How does it explain photoelectric effect?
4. Alkali metals are used as a photoelectric plate, why?
5. What are photoelectrons?
6. What is a photon? Mention its main features.
7. How many photons are required to eject one photoelectron?
8. What is the effect of increase in intensity on photoelectric current?
9. How many electron volt make one joule?
10. Can photoelectric effect be explained on the basis of wave theory of radiation? Explain.
11. What is meant by work function of a metal?
12. Write down the laws of photoelectric emission.
13. Which photon is more energetic blue one or red one?
14. Human skin is relatively insensitive to visible light, but ultraviolet radiation can cause severe burns.
Does this have anything to do with photon energies? Explain.
15. What is the rest mass of a photon? What is its significance?
16. What is the relation between momentum and energy of a photon?
17. The work function of silver is 4.73 eV. What does it mean?
18. Define threshold frequency. Is it the same for all metals? Why?
19. "When the intensity of incident light is increased there is no increase in the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons" why?
20. What is a photo cell?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is photoelectric effect? Discuss the Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
2. Establish Einstein’s photoelectric equation. Use this equation to establish laws of photoelectric of
emissions.
3. What is photoelectric effect? Discuss Einstein’s photoelectric equation. Does the work function of a
metal depend in intensity of light?
4. Discuss photoelectric effect and derive Einstein's photoelectric equation. What is stopping potential?
5. Explain photoelectric effect to write Einstein's photoelectric equation. Describe Millikan's laboratory
method to determine Planck's constant.
6. Explain Millikan's experiment for the verification of Einstein's photoelectric equation.
7. What is work function of a metal? Does it depend on the intensity of incident light? Discuss Einstein's
photoelectric equation.
8. What is photoelectric effect? Derive Einstien's photoelectric equation. Define various terms used in it.

Numerical Problems
1. What is the energy associated with a photon of wavelength 900 nm?
Ans: 2.2 × 10-19 J
2. Calculate the wavelength associated with a photon of energy 19.8 × 10-16 J.
Ans: 1 × 10-10 m
528 Principles of Physics - II
3. The work function of a metal is 2 eV. What is its threshold frequency?
Ans: 4.8 × 1016 Hz
4. Find the threshold wavelength if the work-function of a metal is 1.6 eV.
Ans: 7.76 × 10-7m

5. What energy is carried by one quantum of sodium light of wavelength 5893 Å ?

Ans: 3.36 × 10-19 J
6. Light of wavelength 4 × 10-7 mfalls on a sodium surface. What is the maximum energy of the emitted
electron in electron volts? (The work function of sodium = 2.3 eV, h = 6.62 × 10-34 Js)
Ans: 0.3 eV
7. A photon of green light has wavelength of 520 nm. Find the photon's energy. Express the energy both
in joules and electron volts.
Ans: 2.38 eV
8. The predominant wavelength emitted by an ultraviolet lamp is 248 nm. If the total power emitted at
this wavelength is 120 W, how many photons are emitted per second?
Ans: 149.8 x 1025
9. A clean nickel surface is exposed to light of wavelength 235 nm. What is the maximum speed of the
photoelectrons emitted from this surface? ( = 5.1 eV)
Ans: 0.25 x 10-17J

10. What is the mass, momentum and energy of a photon of wavelength 1 Å ?

Ans: 2.2 × 10-32 kg, 6.6 × 10-24 kgm/s, 19.8 × 10-16 J
11. Calculate the frequency of a photon with energy 7.5 eV.
Ans: 1.8 × 1015 Hz
12. The power output of an FM radio transmitter is 150 kW and it operates at a frequency of 99.7 MHz.
How many photons per second does the transmitter emit?
Ans: 2.27 × 1030 photons/s
13. The work function of sodium metal is 2.3 eV. What is the longest wavelength of light that can cause
photo-electrons?
Ans: 5397 Å

14. The photoelectric threshold wavelength of a metal is 5000 Å . Find (i) the value of work function in
eV, (ii) the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, in eV ejected by the light of wavelength
4000 Å .
Ans: (i) 2.47 eV, (ii) 0.62 eV
15. The work function of molybdenum is 5 eV. When a light of unknown wavelength falls upon it the
maximum velocity of the ejected photoelectron is 1.62 × 106 m/s. Find the incident wavelength.
Ans: 1000 Å
16. The threshold wavelength for producing photoelectrons from a metal surface is 372 nm. What is the
work function of this surface, in eV?
Ans: 3.34 eV
17. The kinetic energy of the most energetic photoelectrons is doubled when the wavelength of the
incident radiation is reduced from 400 nm to 310 nm. What is the work function of metal?
Ans: 0.9 eV
18. Sodium has a work function of 2 eV. Calculate the maximum energy and speed of the emitted
electrons when sodium is illuminated by radiation of wave length 150 nm. (Given mass of electron =
9.1 × 10–31 kg)
Ans: 1.48 × 106 m/sec. and 9.96 × 10–19 J
19. Electrons with maximum kinetic energy of 3 eV are ejected from a metal surface by ultra-violet
radiation of wavelength 1.5 × 10–7 m. Determine work function, threshold wavelength and the
stopping potential for the metal (Planck's constant, h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js)
Ans: 5.275 eV, 2.35 × 10–7 m, 3V
 Photons  Chapter 20 529
20. When ultraviolet light with a wavelength of 400 nm falls on a certain metal surface, the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electrons is 1.10 eV. What is the maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons when light of wavelength 300 nm falls on the same surface?
Ans: 2.137 eV

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Emission of electrons from the surface of metal by action of light on it is:
a. Thermionic emission b. Photoelectric emission
c. Electronic emission d. Cold emission
2. Emission of electrons due to light is called:
a. Thermionic emission b. Photoelectric emission
c. Both a and b d. none.
3. The wavelength of a particle having mass m and moving with velocity v is given by:
h hv
a. mv b. m

hm mv
c. v d. h
4. The dimensional formula for Plank's constant is:
a. M1L2T–1 b. M1L2T2
c. MLT–2 d. M2L2T–1
5. Photoelectric effect is based on the principle of conservation of:
a. Energy b. Momentum
c. Angular momentum d. Power
6. The UV photon is incident on a metal of photoelectric work function 2 eV and produces a
photoelectron of energy 2 eV. The wavelength associated with photon is:
a. 9300 Å b. 6200 Å
c. 4900 Å d. 3100 Å
7. If the  of electron is 1Å and Planck's constant h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js, then find the momentum of electron:
a. 3.3 × 10–22 kg ms–1 b. 6.6 × 10–24 kg ms–1
c. 6.6 × 10 kg ms
–22 –1 d. 6.6 × 10–34 kg ms–1
8. Planck's constant is given as 6.6 × 10 Js. The minimum wavelength of x-rays emitted by x-rays tube
–34

operating at 30 kilovolt in Å will be nearly:

a. 0.2 b. 0.4
c. 0.6 d. 0.8
9. Threshold frequency of a metal whose work function is 4.5 eV is:
a. 1.09 × 1015 Hz b. 1.09 × 1012 Hz
c. 1.09 × 10 Hz
6 d. 0.09 × 103 Hz
10. What is the wavelength of an electron?
h h
a. mv b. mv
2
h 2
c. d. mv
2mv
11. Einstein's photoelectric equation states that Ek = E – W. In this equation Ek refers to:
a. K.E. of all the emitted electrons b. Mean K.E. of the emitted electrons
c. Maximum K.E. of the emitted electrons d. Minimum K.E. of emitted electrons
530 Principles of Physics - II
12. In an experiment on photoelectric effects, stopping potential is 1.0 V when light of wavelength 6520
Å is incident on the emitting surface. The shopping potential is 2.9 V for light of wavelength 3260 Å.
The work function of the metal is
a. 0.9 eV b. 1.9 eV
c. 5.8 eV d. Cannot be deduced from the given data.
13. If in a photoelectric experiment, the wavelength of incident radiation is reduced from 6000 Å to 4000
Å, then
a. Stopping potential will decrease.
b. Stopping potential will increase
c. Kinetic energy of emitted electrons will decrease
d. The value of work function will decrease.
14. Graph of maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons against v, the frequency of the radiation
incident on the metal, is a straight line of slope equal to:
a. work function b. stopping potential
h
c. e d. h

15. The work functions for metals A, B and C are respectively 1.92 eV, 2.0 eV and 5 eV. According to
Einstein's equation, the metals which will emit photoelectrons for a radiation of wavelength 4100 Å
is/are
a. none b. A only
c. A and B only d. All the three metals
16. The time taken by a photoelectron to come out after the photon strikes is approximately
a. 10–16 s b. 10–1 s
c. 10 s
–4 d. 10–10 s
17. The momentum of a photon of energy 1 MeV in kg m s–1, will be
a. 0.33 106 b. 7  10–24
c. 10–22 d. 5  10–22
18. A non-monochromatic light is used in an experiment on photoelectric effect. The stopping potential
is
a. Related to the mean wavelength.
b. Related to the longest wavelength.
c. Related to the shortest wavelength.
d. Not related to any of the wavelength.
19. The work function of a substance is 4.0 eV. The longest wavelength of light that can cause
photoelectron emission from this substance is approximately.
a. 540 nm b. 400 nm
c. 310 nm d. 220 nm
20. The surface of a metal is illuminated with the light of 400 nm. The kinetic energy of the ejected
photoelectrons was found to be 1.68 eV. The work function of the metal is:
(hc = 1240 eV nm)
a. 3.09 eV b. 1.42 eV
c. 1.51 eV d. 1.68 eV
21. Maximum velocity of the photoelectrons emitted by a metal surface is 1.2  106 m s–1. Assuming the
specific charge of the electron to be 1.8  1011 C kg–1, the value of the stopping potential in volt will be
a. 6 b. 4
c. 3 d. 2
 Photons  Chapter 20 531
22. A monochromatic source of light emits photons of frequency 6  1014 Hz. The power emitted by the
source is 8  10–3 W. Calculate the number of photons emitted per second.
(Take h = 6.63  10–34 Js)
a. 6  1014 b. 4  1015
c. 2  10 16 d. 1  1017
23. The energy of a photon of wavelength 390 nm is nearly
a. 6.6 eV b. 3.2 eV
c. 5.5 eV d. 1.2 eV
24. A steel ball of mass m is moving with a kinetic energy K. The de Broglie wavelength associated with
the ball is
h h
a. 2mK b. 2mK
h
c. d. meaningless
2mK
25. The de Broglie wavelength of an electron moving in the nth Bohr orbit of radius r is given by
2r
a. n b. nr
nr nr
c. d.
2 
Answers
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b)
14. (d) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (d) 18. (c) 19. (c) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (c) 25. (a)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 HINT: 3
Given, Given,
 = 520 nm = 520  10–9m  = 235 nm = 235  10–9 m, h = 6.62  10–34 Js
c 3 × 108 0 = 5.1 eV = 5.1  1.6  10–19 J
i. f = = 520 × 10–9
 m = 9.11  10–31 kg
h vmax = ?
ii. Momentum (p) =
 From photoelectric equation, we have
iii. Energy (E) = hf 1
2 me v max = hf – 0
2
HINT: 2
Given, hc
= – 0
 = 248 nm = 248  10–9 m 
P = 12.0 W 2 hc 
n
or vmax = m   – 0
Number of Photons per second  t  = ?
  HINT: 4
Since energy of each photon is hf, so energy of Given, max = 700 nm = 700 × 10-9 m
n - photons estimated is E = nhf The minimum work function is associated to
E the longest wavelength, so
 P = t
c
nhf min = h
max
or P = t
HINT: 5
n P
or t = hf Given,
 = 254 nm = 254  10–9 m
P VS = 0.181 V
= hc
(a) threshold wavelength, 0 = ?
532 Principles of Physics - II
From photoelectric equation, we have h = 6.6 × 10-34 Js
1 f0 = ?
2 mv max = hf - hf0
2
From photoelectric equation, we have
hc hc Emax = h f – h f0
or eVs = – or h f0 = h f – Emax
 0
hc hc Emax
or = – eVs  f0 =f– h
0 
hc HINT: 9
or 0 = hc Given,
– e Vs
 f1 = 5 × 1014 Hz
(b) Work function, 0 = ? E1 = 2.31 × 10 -19 J
We know that E 2 = 8.93 × 10 -19 J
hc 2 = ?
0 = h f0 = From Photoelectric equation, we can write
0
E1 = hf1 – 0
HINT: 6
E2 = hf2 – 0
Given,
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get
E = 2.45 MeV
E2 – E1 = h (f2 – f1)
= 2.45 × 1.6 × 10 -19 × 106 J
E2 – E1 c
= 3.92 × 10-13 J or h = 2 – f1
E
(a) f = h E2 – E1 c
or + f1 =
c
h 2
(b)  = f
HINT: 10
Given,
HINT: 7
Given, 0 = 2 eV = 2  1.6  10–19 J = 3.2  10–19 J
f1 = 5.4 × 1014 Hz  = 350 nm = 350  10–9 m
E1 = 1.2 × 10-19 J e = 1.6  10–19 J
f2 = 6.6 × 1014 Hz Vs = ?
E2 = 2 × 10-19 J Now,
h =? eVs = hf – 0
From Photoelectric equation, we can write Find VS and use it in
E1 = hf1 – 0 hc
or = 0 + eVs
E2 = hf2 – 0 
Subtracting (i) from (ii), we get Maximum K.E. = eVs
E2 – E1 = h (f2 – f1) HINT: 11
E2 – E1 Given,
or h = f – f
2 1 E1 = 1.6  10–19 J when f1 = 7.5  1014 Hz
HINT: 8
f0 = ?
Given, We know,
Emax= 1.6 × 10-19 J hf1 = hf0 + E1
f = 7.5 × 1014 Hz or hf0 = hf1 – E1


 SEMICONDUCTOR

21.1 Introduction
In the modern world electricity has become a vital part of life. We use electricity as a way of
transferring energy from place to place for heating, lighting, moving things from place to place. For
this purpose, we use different types of materials depending up on their conducting properties. These
conducting properties in turn have their tremendous use in the realm of modern science and
technology. It is the study of conducting properties of materials that has helped us to design the
instruments such as magnetic levitating trains, magnetic resonance imaging, and many other devices
that help us to probe into the world ranging from the atomic to cosmos. In this chapter, we shall
discuss the conduction properties of different materials. Especially, the mechanism of conduction in
the semiconductors and their use will be dealt in depth here.

21.2 Band Theory of Solids

The electrons revolving round the nucleus in particular orbits carry particular energy of that orbit.
So, in an isolated atom, the electrons possess discrete energies as determined by Bohr’s theory. But,
in a crystal there are many atoms that are arranged in a regular pattern. In a crystal, the inter-atomic
spacing decreases and atoms interact with all other neighboring atoms. So, the electrons in different
orbit do not possess defined energy. For example, the electrons in valence orbit of different atoms
now have different energies that it would have when the atom is isolated. In fact, some of the valence
electrons have slightly less energy while others have slightly more energies than in the case of
isolated atoms. The valence electrons in different atoms now have different energies that differ by
very small amount. The energy difference is so small that, it constitutes a continuous range. In
another word, it can be said that energy level of different atoms splits up into many separated levels
due to atomic interaction which are so closely spaced that they may be treated as a continuous band
of allowed energy states. The energy of electrons can change almost continuously in these bands.
However, the electrons in the inner orbits are less affected by this interaction. The plot of inter-
atomic spacing with energy is as shown in Fig. 21.1.
534 Principles of Physics - II

Fig. 21.1: Energy bands in crystalline solid

The range of energy possessed by the electrons in an orbit due to atomic interaction is known as
energy bands. There are following important energy bands in solids according to band theory.

Valence band
Valence band is the range of energies possessed by the electrons in the valence orbitals. This is the
band that valence electrons actually occupy. The electrons in this band are known as valence
electrons. This band is completely or partially filled but is never completely empty.

Conduction band
Conduction band is the range of energies possessed by the electrons that have jumped from the
valence band when excited. The electrons in these bands have enough energy to move freely in the
material and are responsible for the conduction of electricity. So, these electrons are known as
conduction electrons. Thus, the range of energy possessed by the conduction electrons is known as
conduction band. This band can be empty or partially filled depending upon the material but are
never completely filled.

Forbidden band
The energy gap between the valence and conduction band is known as forbidden band. This is also
known as band gap and is the characteristic of different materials. This gap corresponds to the
energy that must be supplied to excite a valence electron to make it conduction electron. Larger the
band gap, the greater is the bond between the valence electrons and the nucleus. And so, greater
amount of energy has to be supplied to valence electrons in order to excite them to conduction band.
This band is completely empty as there are no allowed energy states. This means, the electrons are
forbidden to be in this band and hence the name forbidden band.
Classification of solids on the basis of band theory:
S. N. Conductors Insulators Semiconductors
1. In such materials, the There is large bad gap The band gap is very small.
valence band and the between the valence band
conduction band overlap and conduction band.
each other, i.e. there is no
band gap.
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  535

2. Large number of conduction There are no electrons in Some of the conduction

electrons is available owing the conduction band and electrons are always
to no band gap. So, these hence these materials are available at room
materials are good conductor bad conductors of temperature. The thermal
of electricity. electricity. Very high energy at room
electric field has to be temperature is sufficient
supplied to make the enough to overcome the
valence electrons jump to band gap in such materials.
the conduction band.

3. Since the valence and These have completely The conduction band of
conduction band overlap, filled valence band and such materials is
there are plenty of free completely empty completely empty at
electrons available in the conduction band. absolute zero and hence
conduction band. serves as perfect insulator
at this temperature.
However, at room
temperature, both valence
band and conduction band
are partially filled.

4. Examples:metals like copper, Examples: Nonmetals like Examples: Germanium,

sodium , silver, etc. diamond, paper, glass, air Silicon, graphite etc.
etc.,

Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Band Energy
Band Energy

Band Energy

Overlapping region 1
Forbidden
5.5 eV Band Valence Band

Valence Band
Valence Band

21.3 Semiconductors
Semiconductors are those substances whose electrical resistivity is intermediate
between those of good conductors and good insulator. These substances usually form
the Group IV - elements of the periodic table. Semiconductor in a bulk is regular crystal
of these elements which bind each other with covalent bond. Out of many
semiconductor elements, Silicon and Germanium are the most studied in terms of their
use in modern electronics. Both of these elements have four electrons in their
outermost orbit each of which are involved in the covalent bonding with other atoms
to form a crystalline structure as shown in Fig. 21.2 (i) and (ii). The figure shows, the
covalent bonding between the electrons in Ge and Si.
536 Principles of Physics - II

Ge Ge Ge Si Si Si

Ge Ge Ge Si Si Si

Ge Ge Ge Si Si Si

(i) (ii)
Fig. 21.2: (i) Ge-atoms in a crystal (ii) Si-atoms in a crystal
Practically, there are no free electrons (charge carriers) in them. This is the case when the
temperature is at absolute zero. And hence, such materials behave as perfect insulator at absolute
zero of temperature. In terms of band theory, the conduction band of such materials is completely
empty at absolute zero. The band gap between conduction band and valence band is however very
small for such materials (1.12 eV for Si a 0.67 eV for Ge). When the temperature is slightly raised,
even at room temperature; the covalent bonds are broken and the electron acquire enough energy to
jump to conduction band owing to small band gap. The electrons in the conduction band are those
dissociated from their parent atoms which are free to move about the crystal. This means, the
semiconductor now becomes conducting. The number of these electrons increases rapidly with
temperature. But, only the electrons in the conduction band don't tell about the electrical conduction
in the semiconductors which shall be discussed in this chapter.

21.4 Charge Carriers in Semiconductor

As discussed above, when the electrons from valence band jump to the conduction band, these leave
behind a vacancy for an electron. This vacancy of electron in the valence band is called hole. This
vacancy can be occupied by an electron from neighbouring atom, leaving it again with a vacancy.
This vacancy has an effective positive electronic charge and behaves as an apparent free particle with
a charge +e. So, this vacancy can travel through the material and serve as an additional current
carrier. This means there are two types of charge carrier in a semiconductor; one the electrons in the
conduction band and the other holes in the valence band.

21.5 Types of Semiconductor

The electrical sensitivity of semiconductor tremendously varies when small concentration of suitable
impurities is added. The process of adding suitable impurities to pure semiconductor is known
doping. These semiconductors added with impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors where as
the pure form of semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors.
Semiconductor

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

(Pure form of semiconductor) (Impurity added semiconductor)
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  537

Intrinsic Semiconductor
A semiconductor in its pure form and free from all kind of impurities is called intrinsic
semiconductor. That means, pure Silicon (Si) and pure Germanium (Ge) are intrinsic semiconductor.
The Silicon and Germanium each has 4 electrons in its outermost orbit. Each of these valence
electrons forms a covalent bond with neighbouring atoms in a crystalline structure and form a
perfect diamond like structure. That is, all the electrons of Si or Ge are bonded and hence are not
available for conduction. However, even at room temperature, these electrons get enough thermal
energy to excite them to the conduction band thereby breaking covalent bond. These electrons in
conduction band account for the electrical conductivity. If the temperature is increased, more
electrons break the covalent bonds and become available for conduction. This means, conductivity of
semiconductor increases with temperature i.e. resistivity decreases with temperature. So,
semiconductors are said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
After the electrons jump to the conduction band, empty spaces are left behind in the valence band.
These empty spaces are called holes. So, in intrinsic semiconductor number of holes in valence band
is equal to number of electrons in conduction band.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
These are the semiconductors obtained by adding suitable impurities to pure form of semiconductor.
This process of adding impurities to pure semiconductor is called doping. Such process also can lead
to increased carrier concentration. Depending upon the impurities used for doping, extrinsic
semiconductors can be classified into following two categories.
i. p-type ii. n-type

P-type semiconductor
These are the semiconductors obtained by doping trivalent impurities such as indium, aluminium,
Gallium etc. to pure form of Silicon or Germanium. When a trivalent impurity say indium (In) is
added to a Silicon crystal three of its valence electrons share covalent bonding with three
neighbouring Silicon (host) atoms but the fourth bond with the Silicon is incomplete. So, the indium
atom robs an electron from neighbouring covalent bond and possesses eight electrons in its valence
shell as shown in Fig. 21.3. Meanwhile, a vacancy of electron called hole is created in the covalent
bond from where electron has been robbed. Thus, for every trivalent impurity added to the Silicon
crystal a hole will be created and hence accepts electron from Silicon crystal. So, it is also called
acceptor atom. The number of acceptor atoms is equal to number of holes. At higher temperatures,
the electrons can get knocked out of the bond and rise to conduction band. And again, this process
also creates a hole for each transition. Hence, holes are greater in number than conduction electrons
in such materials and are called majority charge carriers. Conduction electrons are called minority
charge carriers in p-type semiconductor. Since the majority charge carriers are the positive holes, it is
called P-type (or p-type) semiconductor. This can be remembered as (P-for positive). Though we call
it positive type, the material as a whole is electrically neutral. However, the concentration of the
positive holes is more.
538 Principles of Physics - II

Si Si Si

Si In Si

hole
Si Si Si

Fig. 21.3: p-type crystal formed by doping Indium (In) in Silicon (Si) crystal

N-type semiconductor
When a pure form of semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurities such as arsenic (As),
antimony, phosphorus etc, the resulting semiconductor is N-type (or n-type) semiconductor. Such
impurities have five valence electrons in their outer most orbits, four of which are engaged in the
covalent bonding with the Silicon atoms. The fifth electron is unattended as shown in Fig. 21.4 and
hence is available for conduction. As such impurities provide free electrons for conduction, they are
called donor impurities. Again, due to temperature effects, some of the covalent bonds are broken
and electrons free from such bonds jump to conduction band leaving behind corresponding hole in
the valence bond. However, the number of conduction electrons in conduction band are greater and
are known as majority charge carriers. And holes in valence band are called minority charge carriers.
Since majority charge carriers are the negatively charged electrons, these are called n-type
semiconductor. It can be remembered as n for negative, however the material as a whole is
electrically neutral.

Si Si Si

Si As Si

free electron

Si Si Si

Fig. 21.4: N-type crystal formed by doping arsenic (As) in the Silicon (Si) crystal
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  539

21.6 P-N Junction Diode (Semiconductor diode)

When a pure form of a semiconductor is doped with p-type material at one end and n-type of
material at another extreme end the resulting semiconductor material is called P-N junction (or p-n
junction) diode. A p-n junction diode can also be formed by fusing a p-type semiconductor with n-
type semiconductor forming a continuous structure. The surface of contact between two types of
material is called a p-n junction. The block diagram for p-n junction diode is as shown in Fig. 21.5 (i)
and its circuit symbol is as shown in Fig. 21.5 (ii).

p n
p n
(i) (ii)
Fig. 21.5: (i) Block diagram for p-n junction diode (ii) Symbolic representation
A junction diode is called so, because it consists of two electrodes. P-side of the semiconductor acts
as anode and n-side acts as cathode. In Fig. 21.5 (ii), the arrow head represents p-side (anode) and
bar represents n-side (cathode). The conventional current flows in the direction of arrow head.
The p-side of diode has higher concentration of positive charges (holes) and n-side of diode has
higher concentration of negative charges (free electrons). These are known as majority charge
carriers. However small concentration of negative charge carriers (electrons) exists in p-type and that
of positive charge carriers (holes) exists in n-type which are the minority charge carriers in them
respectively.
As we know, the charges always flow from higher concentration region to lower concentration
region; as soon as the junction diode is formed; positive charge (holes) from p-side start to diffuse
towards n-side and negative charge (free electrons) diffuse towards p-side from n-side.
Actually, the free-electrons is n-side occupy conduction band but holes in p-side occupy valence
band.
When the free electrons from conduction band of n-side diffuse towards p-side, the n-side near to
junction leaves behind a positive immobile ion where as the p-side near to junction becomes negative
after accepting the diffused electron.
Similarly, when electrons from valence band of n-side move towards p-side, it recombine with a hole
resulting a negative immobile ion near the junction of p-side. And the n-side near the junction
becomes positive. It seems as if, the hole of the p-side has diffused to n-side to recombine with the
electron so as to leave behind a negative immobile ion.
The result is that, the p-side of the semiconductor near the junction is left with negative immobile
ions and the n-side of the semiconductor near the junction is left with positive immobile ions. This
process continues till equilibrium is reached. Due to the formation of these immobile ions, the
electrons in the n-region are pushed away from the junction and holes in the p-side are pushed away
from the junction due to electrostatic repulsive force.
p-type Depletion layer
n-type l
p n

(i)
After diffusion
(ii)

Fig. 21.6: (i) Diffusion of charge particles in a diode (ii) Formation of depletion layer
540 Principles of Physics - II
Thus, near the junction on its either side, a region is formed which is practically devoid or depleted
of free charge carriers. This region is known as depletion layer or region as shown in Fig.21.6(ii). In
this region an electric field is set up due to the difference in potential that is directed from n to p
region which is responsible to stop further diffusion of charge particles. This potential difference
which acts as a barrier for the further diffusion of charge carrier is known as potential barrier.
The barrier potential is found to depend upon the concentration of free charge carriers. Smaller the
concentration, greater the distance that charge particles have to travel to suffer collision with holes or
electrons where they get annihilated or recombined. And the potential barrier will be weak. If the
concentration is greater then, the charge particles will have to travel small distances and the barrier
potential will be stronger. This barrier potential also depends on the nature of crystal and
temperature as the charge concentration up turn depends on the temperature.

21.7 Working of a P-N Junction Diode

A junction diode should be connected to suitable external voltage for its operation. The process of
applying external voltage to the junction diode is known as biasing of junction diode. Biasing can be
done in following two ways.
i. Forward biasing ii. Reverse biasing
p n
Forward biasing
A p-n junction diode is said to be forward biased if its
p-side is connected to positive terminal and n-side is
connected to negative terminal of the external voltage
source as shown in Fig.21.7.
During forward bias condition, the free electrons that
are abundant in the n-region experience electrostatic
repulsive force of the applied field and hence move Fig. 21.7: Forward biasing in semiconductor diode
towards the junction region. In this process they leave behind positive fixed ions on the right side of
the junction in the n-region. These immobile positive ions attract electrons from the negative
terminal of the battery and a flow of charge is maintained.
Similarly, the free holes are pushed toward the junction due to repulsive force of the field which
leaves behind the negative immobile ions of left hand side of junction in the p-region. The positive
terminal of battery attracts electrons from these negative ions thus creating holes again in the p-
region. And the same cycle is true for the holes in p-region and electrons in n-region. In this way, a
continuous current is set up in the circuit. Thus, a diode conducts in forward biased condition. In this
condition, the current inside the semiconductor is due to the recombination of holes and electrons
where as in the external circuit, the current is due to electrons only. The width of the depletion layer
decreases in forward biased condition. p n

Reverse biasing
A p-n junction diode is said to be reversed biased, if
its p-side is connected to negative terminal and n-side
is connected to positive terminal of the external
voltage source as shown in Fig.21.8.
Due to the applied reverse voltage, the free
conduction electrons abundant in n-region are pulled Fig. 21.8 Reverse biasing in semiconductor diode
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  541
toward the positive terminal and the holes abundant in p-region are pulled towards the negative
terminal of the battery. The result is that, the junction region towards p becomes more negative and
that toward n become more positive. This is to say, the width of the depletion layer continuously
increases till the barrier potential equals the applied potential. At this condition, the applied
potential and barrier potential are in the same direction and are thus added which prevents the
recombination of holes and electrons. This means no charge particle can cross the barrier and hence
the current in the circuit is zero. So, a p-n junction diode does not conduct in reverse bias condition.
However, a semiconductor diode has minority charge carriers on the either side of the junction even
at ordinary temperature, i.e. at higher (or room) temperature, p-side always has small concentration
of free electrons and n-side has small concentration of holes. So, a small current is always present in
the circuit due to flow of these minority charge carriers even in the reverse bias condition.

21.8 Diode Characteristics and Its Study

Diode characteristics refer to the current and voltage relationship especially the variation in current
due to the external voltage. A plot of current as a function of voltage is known as I-V characteristics
of diode.
The circuit arrangement to study the I-V characteristics both for forward and reverse biased
condition are shown in Fig. 21.9 (i) and 21.9 (ii) respectively.
+ – – +
V V

D D

– +
mA A
+ –

K V Rh K V Rh
(i) (ii)

Fig. 21.9: (i) Forward biased diode (ii) Reverse biased diode
During the forward biased condition, when the applied voltage is gradually increased from zero,
current in the circuit also increases from zero. This current can be recorded by a milliameter (mA)
connected to the circuit as shown in Fig.21.9 (i). The current slowly increases upto a certain value of
applied voltage which is 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V If(mA)
T
for Germanium diode. After the applied voltage
reaches this value there is abrupt rise in current and Forward bias

this particular value of voltage is called knee voltage.

The I-V characteristics for forward biased condition is S
VB
shown by right part of the graph in Fig. 21.10 (i). VR (Volt)
(volt) Vf (Volt)
(volt)
A O Vk
In reversed biased condition, the reverse current due
Fig. 21.10(i): I-V characteristics of diode
to majority is zero (however small current always exists
due to minority charge carriers) for zero of the applied voltage.
When the applied reverse voltage is slightly increased, there is small current in the circuit due to
minority charge carriers which is almost constant for wide range of voltage applied. This current is
known as saturation current. This current is in the range of nanoampere for Silicon diode and in the
range of microampere for Germanium diode. However, when the reverse voltage is applied beyond
542 Principles of Physics - II
a particular value, the current rises sharply due to breakdown of diode. There are two types of
breakdown occurring in a junction diode.
i. Avalanche break down ii. Zener breakdown

i. Avalanche breakdown
Under reverse biased condition, the conduction in diode takes place due to minority charge carriers.
In moderately doped semiconductor diodes when the reverse bias voltage is increased, the minority
charge carriers tend to accelerate and their kinetic energy increases. These energetic minority carriers
collide with stationary atoms and impart some energy to valence electrons present in the covalent
bonds. These electrons after acquiring energy break their covalent bonds and jump to conduction
band to become free conduction electrons. And these electrons further knock some of the valence
electrons out. In this process, holes are also created due to vacancy left behind in valence shell. And
in this way, charge carrier multiplication takes place and hence huge current is observed. This is
known as avalanche breakdown.
If(mA)
T
ii. Zener breakdown
Forward bias
Zener breakdown occurs in junction diodes which are
heavily doped. In such diodes, the depletion layer is
S
very thin. So the electrons (minority) in valance band of VB
(volt)
VR (Volt) (Volt)
Vf (volt)
A
p-type material tunnel to the conduction band of n-type O Vk

material giving rise to a reverse current. This is known

Avalanche
Reversed bias Zener
as the zener effect and is the quantum tunneling effect. breakdown breakdown
B
A typical I-V characteristic curve showing forward
IR (A)
current and reverse current in zener and avalanche
Fig. 21.10 (ii): I-V Curve
breakdown is as shown in Fig.21.10 (ii).

21.9 Semiconductor Diode as Rectifier

A rectifier is an electric circuit that converts alternating signals to unidirectional signals. A rectifier
circuit can be constructed using one or more diode so as to convert half or both the cycles of a.c. if
half wave of a.c. is converted to d.c., then the circuit is called half wave rectifier and if both the cycles
of a.c. are converted to d.c. then it is called full wave rectifier.

a. Half wave rectifier

The half-wave rectifier circuit using a p-n junction diode (D) with a load resistor (RL) is as shown in
Fig. 21.11 (i). The diode is connected in series with the secondary of a transformer and the load
resistor RL. The primary of the transformer is fed with the a.c. supply.
The a.c. voltage across the secondary windings changes polarity after every half cycle of the input
a.c. wave. During the positive half cycles of input a.c. voltage, the upper end of secondary (S1) is
positive with respect to the lower end (S2) and hence the diode D is forward biased condition.
Therefore, diode conducts current. If the forward resistance of the diode is assumed to be zero, the
input voltage during positive half cycles is directly applied to the load resistor RL and the waveforms
of output voltage and output current are of same shape as that of input a.c. voltage. A typical graph
for input a.c. voltage and rectified output d.c. is as shown in Fig.21.11 (ii).
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  543

Input a.c.
S1

Voltage
Input a.c. Voltage

A Time

~ S RL Output d.c.
P
Voltage

Output d.c.
B

Voltage
S2 Time
(i)
(ii)

Fig. 21.11 (i): Circuit diagram for half wave rectifier (ii) nature of input and output signal
During the negative half cycles of the input a.c., the upper end of secondary is negative with respect
to its lower end. So the diode is reverse biased and does not conduct.
Thus, in a half wave rectifier, the output voltage developed across a load resistor is a series of
positive half cycles of alternating voltage.

b. Full wave rectifier

A full wave rectifier is a circuit that rectifies both the cycles of the input a.c. voltage. The full wave
rectifier circuit using two diodes (D1 and D2) and a load resistor (RL) is as shown in Fig. 21.12(i).
S1 D1
Input a.c.
Voltage

Time
Input a.c. S RL
~ P
Voltage
Output d.c.
B Voltage A
Output d.c.
Voltage

S2 D2
Time

(i) (ii)

Fig. 21.12 (i): Circuit diagram for full wave rectifier (ii) nature of input and output signal
The primary (P) of transformer is feed with input a.c. signal. The diodes D1 and D2 are connected
across the secondary of a transformer which is central tapped. When an additional wire is connected
across the exact middle of the secondary winding of a transformer, it is called a central tapped
transformer. The wire used is known as central tap. (The central tapped transformer divides the a.c.
signal into two parts. The upper part of the secondary winding produces a positive voltage say V1
and the lower part of the secondary winding produces a negative voltage V2)
During the positive half cycle, the upper end of the secondary winding is positive while the lower
end is at negative potential. So, the diode D1 is forward biased and becomes conducting. But, D2 is
reversed biased and does not conduct. Thus, during the positive half cycle, there is current in the
circuit in the direction shown by arrow along the load resistor as shown in Fig. 21.12(i) and hence
output voltage appears across it.
During the negative half cycle, upper end of the winding of secondary is negative while its lower
end is at positive potential. So, D1 is reversed biased and does not conduct, while D2 is forward
biased and hence conducts. During this cycle also, there is current along the load RL in the direction
shown by dotted arrow as in Fig. 21.12(i) and is along the same direction as is during the positive
half cycle.
544 Principles of Physics - II
Thus, in both the cycles of input a.c. signal there is current in the same direction (i.e. unidirectional)
along the load which is d.c. In this way a full wave rectifier converts both the cycles of a.c. into d.c.
and hence known as full wave rectifier. The input and output wave form for full wave rectification is
as shown in Fig. 21.12(ii).

21.10 Filter Circuits

A diode conducts in a forward bias condition and does not conduct at reverse bias condition.
However, due to the presence of minority charge carriers in both the p and n side of diode, a small
current always persists in the circuit. So, the
output of the rectifier is not completely free L
from the a.c. signals. Such output d.c. signals
C
containing a.c. component due to minority rectifier output RL
filtered output

carriers are called pulsating d.c. Such

pulsating d.c. are not desired and hence the
a.c. components should be filtered from
Fig. 21.13: Rectified signal through filters
pulsating d.c., so as to obtain perfect d.c.
Such circuits used to remove a.c. components from pulsating d.c. are called filter circuits. There are
many types of filter circuits, among which L-C filter is discussed below.
L-C filter: In this type of filter, an inductor is connected in series to the output of rectifier and a
capacitor is connected in parallel to the load RL as shown in Fig. 21.13.
We know,
impedance of inductor = XL = L = 2fL
So, the inductor offers high resistance to a.c. but provides easy access to d.c.
1
Similarly, impedance of capacitor = XC = . So it will offer low resistance to a.c. But  for d.c. is 0.
L
Therefore, XC for d.c. = . This means, capacitor provide infinite resistance to d.c.
Thus, the rectifier output containing pulsating d.c. first passes from inductor where a.c. is blocked.
Secondly, the d.c. if still contains a.c., will bypass through capacitor C and hence rectifier output has
perfect d.c.

21.11 Zener Diode

A zener diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode preferably a
Silicon diode that operates in reverse bias condition in the reverse
breakdown voltage region without being damaged, whereas a
normal p-n junction diode operates in forward biased condition Fig.: 21.14 (i): Symbolic
only. The circuit symbol for zener diode is as shown in Fig. 21.14 (i) representation of Zener Diode
and the name zener is given in honour of the inventor Clarence
Melvin Zener, an American scientist. Silicon is preferred to Germanium for the manufacture of such
diodes because of their capability of operating at high temperature and currents.

Zener diode as a voltage regulator

The process of maintaining a constant output voltage across the load is known as voltage regulation
or voltage stabilization. In the case where the applied voltage from the power supply keeps on
fluctuating, it is desired to regulate or keep it steady for the proper working and durability of the
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  545
electrical appliances. For this purpose, a zener R
I IL
diode can be suitably connected to a circuit, so that +
VR
a steady output is maintained. Iz
The circuit arrangement in order to understand the Vin RL Vout
action of zener diode as voltage regulator is as
Vz
shown in Fig. 21.14 (ii). It consists of a zener diode
—
of zener voltage (Vz) arranged parallel to a load
Fig. 21.14 (ii): Circuit diagram of zener diode as a
resistor RL across which the constant output is voltage regulator
desired. The fluctuating supply from any source is
passed through a series resistor R and across the zener diode as shown in Fig. 21.14 (ii). This series
resistor R tends to absorb the voltage fluctuation so as to maintain constant voltage across the load.
The zener diode is so connected that it is in reverse biased condition and hence comes to it full
operation.
Let Vin be the supplied input voltage and I be the total current through the circuit. If Iz and IL be the
currents through diode and load respectively, then I = Iz + IL.
If Vin is greater than zener voltage (Vz) then, the voltage equal to Vz appears at the zener diode and
the excess voltage appears across the series resistor R. Actually, if the voltage across the zener diode
tends to increase beyond zener voltage, the resistance of the zener diode decreases significantly as a
result there is sharp rise in current which helps to maintain a constant voltage across it. The excess
voltage is dropped across the series resistor R. As a result, the ouput voltage lowers back to normal
value i.e. Vout can't exceed Vz rather it is always equal to Vz.
Here, I = Iz + IL
Vo Vz
The load current IL = R = R
L L

Since Vz and RL are constant, IL is also constant. This means, if I increases, there is proportional
increase in Iz only.
Now if the voltage across the diode tends to decrease, the current through the diode also decreases.
So that the voltage drop across the series resistor is very less. Thus, the output voltage is again raised
to normal. But, when the supply voltage decreases below certain value, the circuit will not work.

21.12 Transistor
A transistor is a three terminal semiconducting device essentially consisting of two p-n junctions in a
single material. This type of transistor also known as bipolar transistor has a n or a p type material
sandwiched between two p or n type materials as shown in Fig. 21.15(i) and 21.15(ii).
If the n-type material lies between two p-type materials, the transistor is called as p-n-p transistor
and if a p-type material lies between two n-type materials, the transistor is known as n-p-n transistor.
The middle region of the transistor is usually thin as compared to its adjacent regions and is known
as the base of the transistor. Among the two regions, one is slightly wider than the other. The former
wider part is called collector and the later is called emitter. So, in terms of width; collector region >
emitter region > base region.
546 Principles of Physics - II
Base Emitter Collector
Emitter Collector
(i) p n p
OR
Base

(ii) Base Emitter Collector

Emitter Collector
n p n
OR
Base

Fig. 21.15: (i) Block diagram and Circuit symbol of p-n-p transistor
(ii) Block diagram and Circuit symbol of n-p-n transistor
What differentiates these regions is the level of doping done to them. The emitter is heavily doped
and hence supplies (emits) charge carriers to base, so the name emitter. The base is very lightly
doped. The collector is doped in such a way that, its doping level lies between emitter and base.
As the name suggests, its major function is to collect the charge carriers from the base.
The circuit symbols n-p-n and p-n-p transistor are as shown in Fig. 21.15 (i) and 21.15 (ii).

21.13 Working of a Transistor

The main function of transistor is amplification and switching. Amplification means the
magnification of an input signal by transferring energy to it from an external source, where as
switching refers to the controlling of a relatively large current between or voltage across two
terminals by means of small control current or voltage applied at a third terminal. So, for proper
functioning of a transistor, it is necessary to maintain proper polarity between the junctions. This
process is known as biasing of the transistor. The biasing of transistor is done in such a way that, the
emitter base junction is always forward biased and collector base junction is always reverse biased. The
emitter current (IE) is always equal to sum of collector current (Ic) and base current (IB).
i.e. IE = IC + IB

i. n-p-n transistor
In this type of transistor a p-type material sandwiched between two n-type materials serves as the
base, whereas the n-type materials act as emitter and collector. For its proper functioning n-p
junction is forward biased and p-n junction is reversed biased. i.e. in n-p junction n and p are
connected respectively to negative and positive terminal of the external voltage source where as in p-
n junction p and n are connected respectively to negative and positive terminal of the voltage source
as shown in Fig. 21.16.
Forward bias Reverse bias
n p n
C E C

E B
B IE IC
IE IC IB
IB

VEB VCB
VEB VCB
Fig. 21.16: Working of n-p-n transistor
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  547
Symbolically, the circuit diagram can be represented as shown in Fig. 21.16. Usually, an arrow is
shown in the emitter that indicates the conventional direction of current in the n-p-n transistor, the
direction of current is emitter can be remembered as (not pointed in)
N-region usually abundant with free electrons (majority charge carriers) pushes the electron towards
base due to the forward biasing field which constitutes emitter current IE. The electrons after
reaching the base, recombine with the holes present in it. Since the base is lightly doped, only few
electrons (nearly 5%) recombine with hole and constitute base current (IB). This current is very small
owing to the fact stated above. The remaining electrons (nearly 95%) cross into collector region and
constitute collector current (IC). In this way, almost all of the emitter current flows through the
collector circuit. Thus, it is always true that, IE = IB + IC. It is to be noted that, the charge carriers are
the electrons both within the transistor and external circuit. The electrons entering collector region
are attracted by the positive potential of VCB where they gain energy to enter the emitter region
again.

ii. p-n-p transistor

In this type of transistor a n-type material sandwiched between two p-type materials serves as the
base where as the p-type materials act as emitter and collector. For its proper functioning p-n
junction is forward biased and n-p junction is reversed biased, i.e. in p-n junction, p and n are
respectively connected to positive and negative terminal of the voltage source where as in n-p
junction n and p are connected respectively to positive and negative terminal of the voltage source as
shown in Fig. 21.17.
Symbolically, the circuit representation is as shown in Fig. 21.17. The direction of current is shown by
an arrow in the emitter and the direction can be remembered as (pointed in).
P-region usually abundant with holes pushes the holes towards base due to the external bias voltage
which constitutes emitter current. Since the n-type base is lightly doped, only small number of holes
recombines with electrons to constitute base current. The majority holes then cross to the collector
region to constitute collector current (IC). In this case also, almost emitter current flows through the
collector circuit and IE = IB + IC. Thus, within the p-n-p transistor, current is due to the holes, however
in the external circuit, current is due to electrons. When the holes from p-region are forced to base,
negative ions are left in this region. So, the electrons from p-region are attracted to the positive VEB.
Similarly, when the holes reach to collector region (p-region), it becomes more positive and hence
electrons are attracted from negative terminal of VCB. Thus, current in external circuit is due to
electrons only.
p n p
IE E C IC
IE C IC
E B
B
IB
IB

VEB VCB
VEB VCB
Fig. 21.17: Circuit diagram for working of p-n-p transistor

21.14 Transistor Configuration

A transistor is a three terminal device, so there are basically three possible ways to connect it within
an electric circuit with one terminal being common to both input and output. Each method of
connection responds differently to its input signal within a circuit. This method of arrangement of a
548 Principles of Physics - II
transistor in a electric circuit is known as transistor configuration. The three possible ways for
transistor configuration are as follows.
i. Common base configuration.
ii. Common collector configuration
iii. Common emitter configuration
Out of these configurations, only common emitter configuration will be discussed here in detail.

Common emitter (C-E) configuration

This is the circuit arrangement in which the emitter is common to both the input and output. The
input is applied between the base and emitter and output is taken from the collector and emitter. The
circuit arrangement for common emitter configuration for n-p-n transistors is as shown in Fig. 21.18.
IC
mA

IB
mA

V BB V CC
Rh 1 Rh 2
V BE IE V CE

K1 K2

Fig. 21.18: Circuit diagram for transistor characteristics

Characteristics for CE configuration

Characteristics refer to different set of curves plotted between the different set of voltages and their
corresponding values for currents in a transistor. To state in a simple way, characteristic curves are
the curves of current plotted against the voltages. Basically, there are three types of characteristics
curves which are discussed below.

i. Input characteristics
It is the curve obtained between base current (IB) and base emitter voltage (VBE) when emitter-
collector voltage (VCE) is kept constant. To study this characteristic, the potentiometer Rh2 is adjusted
for a suitable voltage VCE. Then, by sliding the potentiometer Rh1, the base current (IB) is measured as
a function of base-emitter voltage (VBC). For different VBE, corresponding base currents (IB) are noted.
The variation of IB with VBE for constant VCE is as shown in Fig. 21.19.
IB (mA)

3
1V

V
CE =

2
10
=
V

CE
V

VBE (volt)
0 0.7 1.4 2.1
Fig. 21.19: Input characteristics
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  549
The ratio of change in base voltage (VBE) to change in base current (IB) which is actually the slope
of (IB Vs VBE) curve defines the resistance offered by the input part. Since the emitter base junction is
always forward biased, the resistance offered is very low.

ii. Output characteristics

It is the curve obtained between the collector current (IC) and collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the
base current is constant. To study this characteristic, the potentiometer Rh1 is adjusted to obtain the
suitable constant value IB. Then, by sliding the potentiometer Rh2, collector current (IC) is measured
as a function of VCE. For different collector-emitter voltage (VCE), corresponding collector current IC
are measured. The variations of IC with VCE for different constant values of IB is as shown in Fig.
21.20.
IC

4 mA IB = 20 mA

3 mA IB = 15 mA

2 mA IB = 10 mA

1 mA IB = 5 mA

VCE
0 1V
Fig. 21.20: Output characteristics
The graph shows that for each constant values of IB, the collector current varies with VCE only
between 0 V to 1 V. After than the current (IC) becomes more or less constant.

iii. Transfer characteristics

A curve obtained for collector current (IC) against base current (IB) when the collector-emitter voltage
is constant is called transfer characteristic. The variation IC with IB at constant VCE is as shown in Fig.
21.21. It is a straight line passing through origin showing linear relationship between IC and IB.
IC IC (mA)
The slope of this line is gives the current gain which is also VCC = 6 V
IB
known as transfer ratio or current amplification factor () in CE
configuration.
IC
i.e.  =
IB
Similarly, for common-base configuration current amplification
factor is denoted by  and is defined as the ratio of change in
IB(A)
O
IC
collector current to the change in emitter current i.e.  = . Fig. 21.21: Transfer characteristics
IE

21.15 Transistor as an Amplifier

An amplifier is an electronic circuit that is used to get a large output signal from a small input signal.
The amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor in CE configuration is as shown in Fig. 21.22.
550 Principles of Physics - II
IC

IB Input Signal

RC Output

IE

Output signal
VBB VCC

(i) (ii)

Fig. 21.22: (i) Circuit diagram of a transistor as an amplifier (ii) nature of input and output signal through a transistor
A d.c. source VBB connected to the input of the circuit which maintains a forward bias between
emitter base junction in n-p-n transistor at all circumstances. An input a.c. signal is fed to the input
part of the circuit, whose output is taken across the collector load resistance RC as shown in Fig. 21.22
(i).
During positive half-cycle of a.c., the forward bias voltage increases, as a result more electrons flow
from emitter region to the base and then to collector. This results in increased collector current and
hence greater voltage is dropped across RC.
During the negative half-cycle of a.c., the forward bias voltage of input part decreases. As a result,
few electrons flow from emitter to collector via base. This results in smaller collector current (IC) and
smaller voltage drop across the load resistor RC. Smaller change in current in input,  times larger
change in output. Hence, the voltage is amplied.
But over a complete cycle of a.c. input, the change in collector current (IC) is much greater than the
input base current and hence an amplified output is always obtained across the load.

Relation between  and 

We know, for any transistor,
IE = IB + IC
So, IE = IB +  IC
Dividing both sides by Ic, we get,
IE IB IC
= +
IC IC  IC
IC
But, =  is the current amplification factor for common base configuration.
IE
IC
and =  is the current amplification factor for common emitter configuration.
IB
1 1 1 1
 = +1 Also, –1=
   
1 1+ 1– 1
or, = or, =
   
 
or, =  =
1+ 1–
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  551

21.16 Logic Gate

In electronics, we may use a set of rules to have different function of a device. Such set of rules are
derived from a special mathematics called Boolean Algebra (Coined after Mathematician Bool).
Basically, a logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function. A logic
gate performs a logical operation on one or more binary inputs and produces a single binary output.
Logic gates are built using diodes or transistors acting as electronic switches. The other like
components may be vacuum tubes, electromagnetic relays, fluidic logic, pneumatic logic, optics
molecules or mechanical elements.
Logic gates are part of complex circuit called logic circuits. Some of the devices using logic circuits
are, multiplexer, de-multiplexer, registers, ALU, computer memory, microprocessors etc.

Boolean algebra
Boolean data: A set of data with only two possible values is called Boolean data. Boolean data type is
mostly used in computer programming. The two possible values or states may be true or false; 0 or 1;
on or off; high or low; as per the requirement.
Boolean Algebra is a logical formulation of truth values or set correlation.
Boolean expression is an expression in a programming language that produces a Boolean value when
evaluated.

Truth table
A truth table is a mathematical table used in logical analysis which sets out the operational function
of a device using functional values and logical expressions. A truth table has one or more columns
for each input variable and one final column showing all possible results based on the relation.
The logic which is always true regardless of input is called logical true.
The output value is never true, that is always false regardless of the input value is called logical false.
The various types of logic gates along with their symbol Boolean algebra and truth table are
tabulated below.

Boolean
Type Symbols Circuit diagram Truth table
algebra
+5 V
INPUT OUTPUT (Y)
A A D1 A B A AND B
Y
B
0 0 0
AND Y =A . B Y
RL
0 1 0
Output is ON, if all
1 0 0
inputs are ON B D2
1 1 1

D1
A INPUT OUTPUT (Y)
A A B A OR B
Y Y
B RL
0 0 0
OR Y =A + B
Output is ON, if either B D2
0 1 1
or all inputs are ON 1 0 1
1 1 1
552 Principles of Physics - II
+VCC

RC
Y
A Y INPUT OUTPUT (Y)
RB A NOT A
NOT Output is OFF, if 
Y=A A 0 1
input is ON and vice- 1 0
versa

+VCC

R1
INPUT OUTPUT (Y)
A
D1 R2
Y
A B A NAND B


RB
0 0 1
A Y=A.B
NAND Y
B B
0 1 1
D2

Reverse result of 1 0 1
AND gate
1 1 0

+VCC

A
D1 RC
Y
INPUT OUTPUT (Y)
RB A B A NOR B
A
Y
0 0 1
NOR B  B D2
Y =A + B 0 1 0
Reverse result of
1 0 0
OR gate
1 1 0

NAND Gate as universal gate

NAND gate is a combination of NOT gate and AND gate in which the output of AND gate is
connected to the input of NOT gate. When suitably combined with other types of gates, NAND get
can be used to design all three basic gates. So, this gate is called universal gate.

i. NOT gate from NAND gate

A NAND gate serves as a NOT gate, when its input are simply joined together as shown in Fig.
21.23.

A
Y
C B

Fig. 21.23 NOT gate by NAND gate

Since, both the input of AND gate are joined together, there is only one input. The truth table for
such case is as follows.
Input (A = B = C) Output Y
0 1
1 0
The truth table justifies that, the gate combination is a NOT gate.
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  553

ii. OR gate from NAND gate

OR gate can be obtained from NAND gate when output of two NOT gates formed from two NAND
gates is connected to two inputs of a NAND gate as shown in Fig. 21.24.
A
_____
Y = A.B = A + B

Fig. 21.24: OR gate by NAND gate

The truth table of obtaining an OR gate from a NAND gate is given below:
A B  B ¯¯¯
Y = Ā B̄ = A + B
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
From the truth table, it is clear that the output of the combination is high (1) if one or all of inputs are
high (1) which is the condition of OR gate. So, the above arrangement behaves as an OR gate which
is obtained from the NAND gate.

iii. AND gate from NAND gate

When the output of a NAND gate is connected to input of a NOT gate, formed from NAND gate, we
get AND gate as shown in Fig. 21.25.
_____
A C = A.B
Y = A.B
B

Fig. 21.25: AND gate by NAND gate

The truth table of obtaining an AND gate from a NAND gate is given below:
A B C Y
0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1
From this truth table, it is clear that output is high (1) only when all the input are high (1) which is
the condition of AND gate. So, the above arrangement behaves as an AND gate which is obtained
from the NAND gate.

21.17 Nanotechnology
Nanotechnology refers to the study of materials, their structures and control of the phenomena that
help for the design and production of the devices with enhanced properties. The word 'nano' is not a
mere indication of the measurement scale of the order of nanometer (10-9m) but it simply refers to the
554 Principles of Physics - II
size which is very small particularly below 100 nm in a measurement scale. The size is often found to
be compared with a strand of human hair, which is about 80,000 nm wide.
The term nanotechnology was coin ed in 147 AD by Norio Tanguichi of Tokyo Science University to
describe semiconductor process such as thin film deposition that deal with control on the order of
nanometers. According to Norio, "Nanotechnology is the science mainly consisting of the processing
of separation, consolidation and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule." And this
definition still stands as the basic statement today. Nanotechnology basically deals with the
understanding and control of matter at dimension between 1 and 100 nm approximately, where
unique phenomena enable to devise novel applications. This field of science involves imaging,
measuring, and modelling and manipulating matter at this length scale. At nanoscale, unusual
physical, chemical and biological properties can emerge in materials which differ significantly from
the properties of the bulk material. These peculiar properties form the basis in the design of devices
with superior characteristics.
This multidisciplinary scientific education which encompasses physics, chemistry, material science,
biochemistry, biotechnology and many more, is the forefront of modern research. Some of the basic
applications of this field of study are discussed below.
i. Medicine: Researchers are developing customized nanoparticles the size of molecules that can
deliver drugs directly to diseased cells in our body.
ii. Electronics: It is used to increase the capabilities of electronics devices while we reduce their
weight and power consumption.
iii. Food: Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is
grown to how it is packaged.
iv. Fuel Cells: Nanotechnology is being used to reduce the cost of catalysts used in fuel cells to
produce hydrogen ions from fuel such as methanol and to improve the efficiency of membranes
used in fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions from other gases such as oxygen.
v. Solar Cells: Companies have developed nanotech solar cells that can be manufactured at
significantly lower cost than conventional solar cells.
vi. Space: Nanotechnology may hold the key to making space-flight more practical. Advancements
in nanomaterials make lightweight spacecraft and a cable for the space elevator possible.
vii. Fuels: Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by
making the production of fuels from low grade raw materials economical, increasing the
mileage of engines, and making the production of fuels from normal raw materials more
efficient.
viii. Better Air Quality: Nanotechnology can improve the performance of catalysts used to
transform vapors escaping from cars or industrial plants into harmless gasses.
ix. Cleaner Water: Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different
problems in water quality.
x. Chemical Sensors: Nanotechnology can enable sensors to detect very small amounts of
chemical vapors.
xi. Fabric: Making composite fabric with nano-sized particles or fibers allows improvement of
fabric properties without a significant increase in weight, thickness, or stiffness

Tips for MCQs

1. About band theory:
i. There are two types of energy bands in solids: Valence energy band and conduction energy band.
The separation of these energy bands is called forbidden gap.
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  555
ii. The conduction band always lies above the forbidden gap and valence band lies below the
forbidden gap.
iii. The maximum energy possessed by an electron in the energy band at 0 K temperature is called
Fermi energy and the corresponding energy level is called Fermi level.
iv. At 0 K, conduction energy band is complete empty.
2. Characteristics of semiconductor:
i. Its resistivity is greater than conductor and smaller than insulator. Likewise, its conductivity is
greater than insulator and smaller than conductor.
ii. Its forbidden energy gap is quite small about 1 eV, (however it varies over a certain range).
iii. It behaves a perfect insulator at 0K.
iv. The conductivity of semiconductor can be increased by (i) raising temperature (ii) by doping
trivalent or pentavalent impurities.
v. Holes and free electrons are the charge carriers in a semiconductor.
3. About holes and free electrons in semiconductor:
i. Holes are vacancy in valence band, which behaves as positive charge particles and the magnitude
of charge is equal to that of an electron.
ii. Holes acts as a virtual charge because of no physical charge in it.
iii. Free electrons are the mobile electrons in conduction band.
iv. Electron are real charge particles.
v. The mobility of electrons is greater than that of holes.
vi. Holes act as positive charge carriers and free electrons act as negative charge carriers.
vii. The effective current in the semiconductor is the sum of hole current and electron current.
4. p-type and n-type semiconductor:
i. p-type semiconductor:
a. It is made by doping trivalent impurities like Indium, Boron, Aluminium, etc. in semiconductor.
b. Holes are majority charge carriers and electrons are minority charge carriers.
c. It is called acceptor type, because it accepts the electrons for conduction.
ii. n-type semiconductors:
a. It is made by doping pentavalent impurities like Arsenic, Antimony, Phosphorus, etc, in
semiconductor.
b. Free electrons are the majority charge carriers and holes are minority chare carriers.
c. It is called donor type because the dopped impurity atom donates the electron.
d. Both p-type and n-type semiconductors are electrically neutral.
e. The electrical conductivity in semiconductors is written,  = e + n.
5. p-n junction diode:
i. p-n junction diode is the suitably joined p-type and n-type semiconductor.
ii. It can be compared with capacitor in which the depletion region acts as diectric between two
capacitor plates.
iii. Two important process occur during formation of p-n junction: diffusion and drifting.
iv. Electric field is set up across the depletion layer due to the accumulation of charge forming two
different polarities.
v. The value of barrier potential is about 0.7 V in Silicon and 0.3 V in Germanium.
vi. In forward biasing, conduction takes place in low voltage. However, the conduction doesnot
occur in low voltage in reverse biasing. At large voltage, conduction occurs in reverse biasing is
due to minority change carrier. Conduction occurs due to majority charge carriers in forward
biasing.
556 Principles of Physics - II
6. Half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier:
i. Rectifiers convert a.c. into d.c., but the magnitude of voltage or current is not steady.
ii. Half wave rectifier converts half cycle of a.c. into d.c. signal, whereas the full wave rectifier
converts full cycle of a.c. signal into d.c. signal.
iii. The efficiency of half wave rectifier is about 40.6% and efficiency of full wave rectifier is about
81.2%.
7. Zener diode:
i. It is the special heavily doped diode which works in reverse biased condition.
ii. It is used in voltage regulation.
iii. A junction diode can be used as a rectifier, capacitor and off switch, whereas Zener diode can be
used as stabilizer.
8. p-n-p transistor and n-p-n transistor
i. It is used as an amplifier and an oscillator.
ii. Transistor has three parts, emitter (E), base (B), and collector (C).
iii. Emitter-base junction are always forward biased and collector base junction is reverse biased.
iv. The current relation is IE = IB + IC.
v. There are three types of configuration in transistor: Common base (CB), Common emitter (CE)
and Common collector (CC).

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is a semiconductor?
 Semiconductor is a solid substance that has a conductivity between conductor and insulator, either
due to the addition of an impurity or because of temperature effect. The conductivity of
semiconductor is smaller than conductors like metals and greater than insulators like plastics. The
semiconductor materials contain four electrons in their valence orbit, so they form covalent bonding
in crystal formation.
2. What are the energy bands in solids?
 Solids have two energy bands: Valence energy band and conduction energy band. The valence
energy band is the outermost electron orbital of an atom of any specific material that electrons
actually occupy. Conduction energy band is a delocalized band of energy levels in a crystalline solid
which is partially filled with electrons. These electrons have great mobility and are responsible for
electrical conductivity.
3. What forbidden energy gap?
 The energy difference between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band is
called forbidden energy gap. Electrons are not found in this gap, hence the name forbidden. Such
type of gap is found in semiconductors and insulators. Forbidden gap separates the conduction
energy band and valence energy band in solids.
4. Write any three characteristics of semiconductors.
 There are several characteristics of semiconductor. Three of them are written below.
i. Its conductivity is smaller than conductors and greater than insulators. Also, its resistivity is
greater than conductors and smaller than insulators.
ii. It behaves perfect insulator of zero Kelvin. Also, the conductivity increases as the temperature
increases.
iii. Its forbidden energy gap is quite small about 1 eV.
5. What is charge carrier? What type of charge carries are found in semiconductors?
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  557
 A charge carrier is a particle free to move carrying electric charge. In semiconductors, holes and free
electrons are charge carriers. Holes are positive charge carriers and free electrons are negative charge
carriers.
6. What are holes in semiconductors?
 Holes are the vacancy created in the valence band of semiconductor when an electron on acquiring
energy jumps from valence energy band to conduction energy band. Electrons comes to fulfill the
holes in valence band, hence it is considered positive charge carriers. It acts as the virtual charge
because there is no physical charge on it.
7. Distinguish between hole current and electron current.
 When an electron from a nearby covalent bond jumps to fill vacancy, the vacancy shifts in a direction
opposite to that in which the electron jumps. This gives rise to hole current. On the other hand,
electron current is constituted by the drift of free electrons.
8. What is doping in semiconductor?
 The process of addition of a desirable impurity atoms deliberately to a pure semiconductor to modify
its properties in a controlled manner is called doping in semiconductor. The doping of a
semiconductor increases its conductivity to a great extent. Trivalent or pentavalent impurities can be
dopped in pure semiconductors to increase holes or free electrons.
9. What are dopants? Give examples.
 The impurities which are added to increase the conductivity of semiconductors are called dopants.
There are two types of dopants used in tetravalent Silicon or Germanium.
i. Trivalent dopants: They increases the number of holes when appropriately dopped in semi-
conductors. Examples; Indium (In), Boron (B), Aluminium (Al) etc.
ii. Pentavalent dopants: They increases the number of free electrons when appropriately dopped in
semiconductors. Examples: Arsenic (As), Anti-mony (Sb) and Phosphorus (P), etc.
10. Does p-type or n-type semiconductor crystal is electrically charged? Explain.
 No. In these semiconductors, the charge carriers can be increased by dopping trivalent or pentavalent
impurities. In p-type semiconductor, trivalent impurities are dopped to enhance the number of holes.
In n-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurities are dopped to increase the concentration of free
electrons. However, the semiconductor materials (Silicon and Germanium) and added material both
are chargeless. When they mix, net charge is still zero, only the conductivity will be changed.
11. Why does a pure semiconductor behave like an insulator at absolute zero temperature?
 For a pure semiconductor at a temperature of absolute zero (-273.15o C)the valence band is usually
full and there are no electrons in the conduction band. It is difficult to provide additional energy
required for lifting electron from valence band to conduction band by applying electric field. Hence,
the conductivity of a pure semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is zero and it behaves like an
insulator.
12. What happens to the conductivity of semiconductor with the rise in temperature? Compare with the
conductivity of metals.
 When semiconductors are heated, valence electrons jump to the conduction band creating more holes
in valence band and consequently more free electrons in conduction band. With the increase in
temperature, the concentration of charge carriers increases resulting in increase in conductivity of
semiconductors. However, the conductivity of metal decreases with the increase in temperature.
13. Why temperature coefficient of resistance of a semiconductor is negative?
 With the increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers (electrons and holes) increases.
As more charge carriers are made available, the conductivity of a pure semiconductor increases i.e.
resistivity of a pure semiconductor decreases with the rise in temperature. Thus, semiconductors are
said to have negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
14. What do you mean by donor and acceptor impurities?
558 Principles of Physics - II
 Donor impurities (such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or phosphorous) when added to a pure
semiconductor lattice, form n-type extrinsic semiconductor. The pentavalent impurities are called
donor impurities as such impurities donate electrons to the lattice. Acceptor impurities (such as
boron, gallium, indium or aluminium) when added to a semiconductor lattice form p-type extrinsic
semiconductor. The trivalent impurities are called acceptor impurities because such impurities accept
electrons from the lattice.
15. What are the differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
 Differences between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors are as follows:
Intrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic semiconductor
1. Impurity are not added in intrinsic 1. A small amount of impurity is doped in a
semiconductor. pure semiconductor for preparing
extrinsic semiconductor.
2. The number of free electrons in the 2. The number of electrons and holes are
conduction band is equal to the number not equal.
of holes in the valence band.
3. Electrical conductivity is low. 3. Electrical conductivity is high.
4. Electrical conductivity is a function of 4. Electrical conductivity depends on
temperature alone. temperature as well as on the amount of
impurity doped in the pure
semiconductor.
16. What are the differences between half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier?
 Differences between half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier
Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier
1. These type of rectifier converts only one 1. It converts entire a.c. into fluctuating d.c.
half of a.c. into d.c. signal, either that is it covert both half cycle to d.c.
positive or negative cycle
2. As it rectifies a.c. partially its efficiency 2. Its efficiency is almost double of half
is also less. Maximum efficiency is wave rectifier. Efficiency is 81.2 %.
40.6%
3. Half wave rectifier needs only single 3. It consists of more than one diode
diode for rectification.
4. During reverse bias condition (i.e. 4. Positive half cycle is converted by one
negative half of input cycle), diode D is diode and negative half cycle is
reverse biased. This results into no converted by other diode
current in the circuit
17. What is depletion region?
 Generally, depletion refers to reduction or decrease in quantity of something. However,
in semiconductor physics, the depletion region refers to a region where flow of charge carriers are
decreased over a given time and finally results in empty mobile charge carriers or full of immobile
charge carriers
18. What are the differences between p-type and n-type semiconductor
p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor
1. In p type semiconductor, trivalent 1. In n type semiconductor, Pentavalent
impurity like Al, Ga, In etc. are added. impurity like P, As, Sb, Bi etc. are added.
2. Holes are majority carriers and 2. Electrons are majority carriers and holes
electrons are minority carriers are minority carriers
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  559

3. Impurity added creates a vacancy of 3. Impurity added creates electrons called

electrons called holes and is known as free electrons and is known as donor
acceptor atom. atom.
4. The electron density is much greater 4. Electrons are majority charge carriers.
than the hole density. (i.e. holes are the
majority charge carriers.)
19. What is p-n junction diode? How do free electrons and holes flow in p-n junction diode?
 If p-type semiconductor is joined with n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction diode is formed. The
region in which the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined is called p-n junction. This p-n
junction separates n-type semiconductor from p-type semiconductor.
In n-type semiconductors, large number of free electrons is present. Near the junction free electrons
and holes are close to each other. Hence, the free electrons from n-side are attracted towards the
holes at p-side. Thus, the free electrons move from n-side to p-side. Similarly, holes move from p-side
to n-side.
20. Explain the mechanism of formation of positive and negative ions at p-n junction.
 The free electrons that are crossing the junction from n-side provide extra electrons to the atoms on
the p-side by filling holes in the p-side atoms. The atom that gains extra electron at p-side has more
number of electrons than protons. We know that, when the atom gains an extra electron from the
outside atom it will become a negative ion.Thus, each free electron that is crossing the junction from
n-side to fill the hole in p-side atom creates a negative ion at p-side. Similarly, each free electron that
left the parent atom at n-side to fill the hole in p-side atom creates a positive ion at n-side.
21. What is Zener diode?
 A zener diode is a p-n junction semiconductor device designed to operate in the reverse breakdown
region. The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is carefully set by controlling the doping level
during manufacture.Zener diodes are the basic building blocks of electronic circuits. They are widely
used in all kinds of electronic equipments. Zener diodes are mainly used to protect electronic circuits
from over voltage.
22. What are the applications of Zener diode?
 Some important applications of zener diodeis as follows:
i. They are normally used as voltage reference
ii. They are used in voltage stabilizers or shunt regulators.
iii. They are used in switching operations
iv. They are used in clipping and clamping circuits.
iv. They are used in various protection circuits
23. Draw a circuit diagram for a p-n junction diode in forward bias. Sketch the voltage-current graph for
the same.
+ – I
 V

P n A

R
+ – O V
Vk
Fig: Forward biasing of p-n junction
Fig: I-V curve in forward biasing

24. In a transistor, emitter-base junction is always forward biased. Why?

 The proper application of d.c. voltage across three terminals of a transistor (Emitter, Base and
Collector) is called biasing of transistor. The voltage is applied either in emitter-base junction or in
560 Principles of Physics - II
collector-base junction in such a manner that emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-
base junction is reverse biased. When emitter-base junction is made forward biased its resistance
decreases. The current flows through the junction beyond the knee voltage, i.e. charge from emitter
cross base to reach collector. Hence, emitter-base junction is always forward biased in transistor.
I
E C
Forward
B biased of E-
B junction

V
VK
25. Give the circuit symbol and truth table of NAND gate.
 NAND gate is the combination of AND and NOT gate in such a way that the output of AND gate is
connected to the input of a NOT gate. The symbolic representation of the NAND gate is shown in
figure below. This gate produces high output if any one of the input is low.
If A and B represent the inputs and Y represents the output of NAND gate, then Y = A.⎯
⎯ B. The truth
table for NAND gate is given by:

Inputs Output
A.B
A B Y = ⎯⎯⎯⎯
A. B A

0 0 0 1 Y
B
0 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 Fig. Symbol of NAND gate

1 1 1 0

26. What are logic gates? Give truth table for a two-input AND gate.
 The logic gates are the electronic circuits which give the logic decisions. AND gate is an electronic
circuit which gives high output when all of the inputs are high. The symbol of two inputs AND gate
is given below which consists of two inputs named A and B and one output say Y.
The truth table for two-inputs AND gate is given below:
Inputs Output
A B Y = A.B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
A
Y = A.B
B

Fig. Symbol of AND gate

27. What is the biasing of transistor? Write its proper biasing.
 Transistor Biasing is the process of setting a transistors d.c. operating voltage or current conditions to
the correct level so that any a.c. input signal can be amplified correctly by the transistor. In transistor
biasing, emitter base junction is forward biasing and base collector junction is reverse biasing.
28. What is nanotechnology?
 Nanotchnology is the branch of technology that deals with dimensions and tolerances of less than
100 nanometres, especially the manipulation of individual atoms and molecules. Nanotechnology is
helping to considerably improve, even revolutionize, many technology and industry sectors:
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  561
information technology, homeland security, medicine, transportation, energy, food safety, and
environmental science, and among many others.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What are the basic properties of semiconductor?
2. Why do Ge and Si behave like semiconductor?
3. What do you mean by doping? Why is it done?
4. Why are n-type semiconductors so called?
5. Why are p-type semiconductors so called?
6. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor change with rise in its temperature?
7. What happens if both, the emitter and collector of a transistor are forward biased?
8. What are valance band, conduction band and forbidden energy gap?
9. What do you mean by biasing of a junction diode?
10. What is the advantage of a semiconductor over a metal?
11. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.
12. Distinguish between an n-type and p-type semiconductors.
13. Electrons and holes in a semiconductor move in opposite direction when a cell is connected. Why
don’t they recombine resulting zero current?
14. Is there any hole in an n-type semiconductor?
15. What are merits and demerits of half wave rectifier?
16. What are merits and demerits of full wave rectifier?
17. What is a zener diode?
18. What is a p-n junction? Give its circuit symbol.
18. What is depletion layer in the p-n junction?
20. Can there be any current flow across a reverse biased p-n junction? Explain.
21. Why is a transistor so named?
22. What will happen if emitter and collector terminals of a transistor are interchanged?
23. What is avalanche breakdown?
24. What happens if the base of a transistor is doped heavily?
25. What happens if the emitter of a transistor is doped lightly thick?
26. Can you exchange the emitter and collector of a transistor? Explain.
27. Why are most of the transistors n-p-n type and not p-n-p type?
28. What are the types of a logic gates.
29. What is truth table?
30. Under what conditions, the output of an OR gate is high?
31. Under what conditions, the output of an AND gate is high?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is band theory of metals? What are the differences among conductor, semiconductor and bad
conductor in terms of energy band?
2. What are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors? What is doping? Explain the process of doping in
semiconductor.
3. Discuss the working of p-n junction diode when it is (i) forward biased and (ii) reversed biased.
4. What is a junction diode? Explain full wave rectifier produced by a filter circuit. (HSEB 2054)
562 Principles of Physics - II
5. Explain the characteristics of a diode and discuss its application as a full wave rectifier. (HSEB 2055)
6. What are n-type and p-type semiconductors? Describe with a neat diagram the working mechanism
of a full wave rectifier for a junction diode. (HSEB 2067)
7. What is a junction diode? Explain its working as a half wave rectifier. (HSEB 2061)
8. What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Explain the formation of potential barrier and depletion region
in p-n junction. [HSEB 2072]
9. What do you mean by avalanche effect and zener effect? Describe with necessary circuit diagram the
use of zener diode as a voltage regulator. (HSEB 2065)
10. What is a transistor? How is it formed?
11. Describe the working of n-p-n transistor with proper diagram.
12. Describe the working of p-n-p transistor with proper diagram.
13. How is an n-p-n transistor formed? Discuss the input and output characteristics of the transistor in
CE configuration. (HSEB 2060)
14. Define  and  parameter of a transistor. Establish the relation between them.
15. Explain a n-p-n transistor in CE configuration as an amplifier.
16. Explain how a transistor can be used as a switch.
17. Name the three basic logic gates. Draw an equivalent circuit for each gate and prepare the truth table
for each gate.
18. Give the logic symbol, truth tale and Boolean expression for NOT gate.
19. Explain the working of a NAND gate with its truth table.
20. Explain the working of a NOR gate with its truth table.
21. Explain how the NAND gate can be used to obtain all three basic gates.
22. Write a note on Nanotechnology.
Numerical Problems
1. Find the value of  if  = 200.
Ans: 0.99
2. The emitter current in a common base transistor is 10 mA and  = 0.95. Find the base current and
common collector current.
Ans: 0.5 mA, 9.5 mA
3. The base current of a transistor is 105 A. Find the values of , IE and .
Ans: 19.5, 2.155 A, 0.95
4. In a n-p-n transistor, 1010 electrons enter the emitter in 10-6 s. 2% of the electrons are lost in the base,
calculate the values of  and .
Ans. 0.98, 49
5. The input voltage of a transistor is 1mV and its output is 150mV. Calculate its voltage gain.
Ans: 150

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The depletion layer in a p-n junction is caused by
a. drift of holes. b. diffusion of charge carriers.
c. migration of impurity atoms. d. drift of electrons.
2. During reverse biasing, thickness of depletion layer
a. decreases. b. increases.
c. may increases an decreases. d. remains constant.
3. Which get is an inverter?
a. NOT gate b. OR gate
c. NAND gate d. AND gate
 Semiconductor  Chapter 21  563
4. A transistor is essentially a
a. voltage operated device. b. current operated device .
c. power driven device. d. resistance operated device.
5. Holes are majority charge carriers in
a. n-type semiconductors. b. ionic solids.
c. p-type semiconductors. d. metals.
6. When a semiconductor is doped with a donor impurity, then
a. the hole concentration increases. b. the hole concentration decreases.
c. the electron concentration increases. d. the electron concentration decreases.
7. The avalanche breakdown in p-n junction is due to:
a. shift of Fermi level. b. cumulative effect of conduction band electron
collision.
c. widening of forbidden gap. d. high impurity concentration.
8. In the depletion region of unbiased p-n junction diode there are only
a. electrons. b. holes.
c. both electrons and holes. d. only fixed ions.
9. The energy gap between the conduction band and the valence band of certain material is 0.7 eV. The
material is
a. an insulator b. a conductor
c. semi conductor d. semimetal
10. In a diode when current flows from p to n side it is called
a. forward biased b. reverse biased
c. biasing opposite d. negative biased

11. The impurity atom with which pure Silicon is doped to make p-type semiconductor is
a. Indium b. Phosphorus
c. Antimony d. Arsenic
12. In a transistor circuit, the emitter-base circuit of a n-p-n transistor is always
a. reverse biased b. neutral biased
c. forward biased d. not biased

Answers
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (c)


564 Principles of Physics - II
 ATOMIC MODELS

22.1 Introduction
Every matter is composed of discrete units, called atoms. The word atom comes from ancient Greek
objective 'atomos', its meaning is indivisible. Before nineteenth century, this was the part of
Philosophy, then it entered into the scientific mainstream and is explained in subject of atomic theory.
In the beginning days of atomic theory, it was considered that atom is the most fundamental unit of
matters, so it was named atomos. After the discovery of three different sub-atomic particles; electron,
proton and neutron, the concept of 'uncuttable atom' has been changed. On the basis of
electromagnetic theory and radioactivity, physicists discovered that the so called "indivisible" atom
actually is composed of subatomic particles.
The different theories regarding the divisibility of an atom and its constituent particles have been
presented by different physicist at different times which are atomic models. The validity of these
theories has been tested through different experiments. But all the models are not successful enough
to describe the experimentally observed facts. So, different models of atoms have been given
modifying the pre-existing models and overcoming their shortcomings or drawbacks. The following
are the important atomic models.
Thomson’s atomic model Rutherford’s atomic model

Bohr’s atomic model Sommerfeld relativistic atomic model

Vector atomic model

In this chapter, we will focus on Rutherford's and Bohr's atomic model.

22.2 Rutherford's Atomic Model

A British Physicist, Ernest Rutherford proposed a model of the atomic structure known as
Rutherford's model of atoms. He conducted an experiment where he bombarded -particles in a thin
sheet of gold (will be described briefly in chapter 24). In this experiment, he studied the trajectory of
the -particles after interaction with a thin sheet of gold. From the experiment, he proposed a model,
which his somehow similar to what we accept today; the nucleus (a dense matter) at the center and
electrons revolving around it. Although it could not explain many phenomena regarding the stability
of atom, it is the basis of the quantum mechanics and helped the future development of quantum
mechanics.
566 Principles of Physics - II
Rutherford's experiment was unable to explain the following phenomena:
i. Rutherford's model was unable to explain the stability of an atom. In his model, electrons
revolve at a very high speed around a nucleus of an atom in a fixed orbit. According to classical
theory, an accelerated charge particle must continuously lose energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation. So, the orbiting electrons must finally collapse into the nucleus
thereby losing all of its energy at some instant of time. And, stable atoms must not exist.
However, the electrons revolving in fixed orbits do not emit electromagnetic radiation. And the
stable atoms too exist. This fact could not be explained by Rutherford's atomic model.
ii. This model did not mention anything about the arrangement of electrons in the orbit.

22.3 Bohr's Atomic Model

Although the Rutherford atomic model had given the basic idea about the structure of atom, it could
not explain the stability of atom and the atomic spectra that are produced in electron transition from
one atomic orbit to another. Afterward Neil Bohr, in 1913, modified the classical concept given by
Rutherford by adding the early quantum concepts. To explain the newly combined theory regarding
the classical and quantum concepts, Bohr proposed the following three basic postulates.
1. An electron in an atom revolves in certain stable orbit without radiation of energy. It means an
atom has certain specific energy state and they have definite total energy. These are called the
stationary states of the atom.
2. The electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular momentum
h
of that electron is some integral multiple of . It means the angular momentum of the orbiting
2
electron is quantized.
nh
i.e. angular momentum, L = where, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .
2
and h = Planck's constant
If m be the mass and v be the speed of an electron in an atom, that revolves in a specified orbit
of radius r, the angular momentum of that electron is,
nh
mvr =
2
This is known as Bohr's quantization condition. E2
hf = E2 – E1
3. Electron might make a transition from one energy
state to another energy state by absorbing or E1
radiating energy. When electron transits from
Ze
higher energy state to lower energy state, it radiates
that energy in the form of photon and absorbs the
energy in reverse transition. The emitted or
absorbed photon has the energy equal to the energy
difference between the initial and final energy
states. Fig. 22.1: Electron transition in an atom
If Ei and Ef be the energies of the initial and final energy states, then the energy of emitted
photon is.
hf = Ei - Ef, where, f = frequency of emitted radiation
This is known as the Bohr's frequency condition.
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  567

Bohr's theory of hydrogen atom

Bohr's theory can be applied to hydrogen atom, which is a one
electron system and also to hydrogen like ions- He+, Li++, Be+++.
Bohr postulated that an electron revolves around the nucleus e F
in a specified orbit. In this condition, the electrostatic force Ze
between the nucleus and electron in orbit provides the
centripetal force required to revolve around nucleus as shown v r
in Fig. 22.2. The gravitational attraction between electron and
nucleus is negligible. Fig. 22.2: Revolving of an electron
around nucleus
Let Ze be the charge of nucleus and e be the charge of an
electron that revolves around the nucleus through an specified orbit of radius r. The electrostatic
force between the nucleus and the electron when separated with distance r (i.e. radius of orbit) is,
1 Ze. e
Fe = . . . (22.1)
40 r2
Where Z = atomic number of an atom and 0 = permitivity of free space
Then, the centripetal force for electron to revolve it around the nucleus is,
mv2
Fc = r . . . (22.2)

where
m = mass of an electron
v = speed of electron
r = radius of orbit
Since the centripetal force required by the electron is provided by the electrostatic force of attraction
between the nucleus and the electron. So, we write,
mv2 1 Ze2
r = 40 r2 . . . (22.3)

i. Radii of Bohr's stationary orbit

From the Bohr's second postulate,
h
mvr = n
2
nh
v= . . . (22.4)
2mr
Substituting the value of v from equation (22.4) in equation (22.3), we get,
m nh 2 1 Ze2
r 2mr = 40 r2
m n2h2 1 Ze2
. 2 2 2 =
r 4 m r 40 r2
n2h2 1 Ze2
=
42mr3 40 r2
n2h2 Ze2
=
mr 0
568 Principles of Physics - II
0 n2h2
 r= . . . (22.5)
mZe2
In general, for nth orbit,
 0 n2 h2
rn = . . . (22.6)
mZe2
This equation gives the radii of permitted orbits. The radii of permitted orbit are proportional to the
square of principal quantum number (i.e. rn  n2), provided other parameters are constant.
The radii of stationary orbits are in the order of square of natural numbers, i.e. r1: r2: r3: . . . : rn = 12: 22:
32: . . . : n2. Thus, the stationary orbits are not equally spaced. Consecutive orbits nearer the nucleus
are closer than the farther orbits.
The radius of hydrogen atom is.
0n2h2
rn = (Here, Z = 1 in hydrogen atom)
me2
Using,
0 = 8.85 × 10–12 Fm–1
h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js
m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
e = 1.6 × 10–19 C
We get,
8.85 × 10– 12 × n2 × (6.62 × 10–34)2
rn =
 × 9.1 × 10–31 × (1.6 × 10–19 )2
rn = 0.53 × 10–10 n2
rn = 0.53 n2 Å
For first orbit, n = 1,
r1 = 0.53Å
This is the radius of lowest orbit of hydrogen atom and is known as Bohr radius.

Velocity of electron
From Bohr's second postulate,
h
mvr = n
2
nh
v=
2mr
In general, the speed of electron in nth orbit is,
nh
vn = …(22.7)
2mrn
Also, the radius of the nth orbit,
0 n2h2
rn = . . . (22.8)
m Ze2
Substituting the value of rn in equation (22.8) in equation (22.7), we get,
nh mZe2
vn = ×
2m 0n2h2
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  569
Ze2
vn = . . . (22.9)
20nh
This equation gives the speed of electron in nth orbit of an atom. Providing other parameters constant,
1
vn  n. i.e. the speed of electron decreases as it goes to higher energy states. The speed is maximum
for the innermost orbit. The speed of electron in hydrogen atom is,
e2
vn = . . . (22.10)
20nh
Using the values of e, 0 and h in equation (22.10), we get,
(1.6 × 10–19)2
vn = 2 × 8.85 × n × 6.62 × 10–34

2.19 × 106
= n
1 1
vn = 137 c n
 
Where c = speed of light in vacuum.
1
So, speed of an electron in the innermost orbit of hydrogen atom (i.e. n = 1) is 137 of the speed of
light in vacuum.

Frequency of revolution of electron

The frequency of revolution of an electron around the nucleus is the number of revolution completed
by the electron in one second.
The speed of electron (v) can be expressed in terms of angular velocity () and radius (r) of the orbit.
i.e. v = r
= r. 2f, where, f = frequency of revolution
v
f = . . . (22.11)
2r
For innermost orbit of hydrogen atom,
v = 2.19 × 106 ms–1
r = 0.53 Å = 0.53 × 10–10 m
2.19 × 106
So, f =
2 × 0.53 × 10–10
f = 6.56 × 1015 Hz

22.4 Energy of Electron

An electron revolving around the nucleus possesses both kinetic energy and potential energy. The
kinetic energy is due to the motion of electron in any orbit, whereas the potential energy is due to its
position in the field of nucleus. So, the total energy is the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy.
i.e. Total energy of the electron E = Ek + EP
We have, kinetic energy of nth orbit,
1 2
Ek = 2 mvn . . . (22.12)
570 Principles of Physics - II
Using the value of vn from equation (22.9) in equation (22.12), we get,
1 Ze2 2
Ek = 2m 
20nh
mZ2e4
Ek = 2 . . . (22.13)
80 n2h2
The potential energy Ep of electron in the electric field of nucleus is written as,
1 Ze
Ep = – e  . . . (22.14)
 0 rn 
4
 Electric potential energy = qV
Here, q = e and V is provided by nucleus. The negative sign indicates that the electron is bound to
the nucleus. Using the value of rn from equation (22.6) in equation (22.14), we get.
1 Ze2
Ep = –
40 
 0n h 
2 2

mZe2
mZ2e4
=– 2 . . . (22.15)
40n2h2
mZ2e4 mZ2e4
Now, total energy, E= 2 – 2
80n2h2 40 n2h2
mZ2e4
E=– 2
80 n2h2
The general form of total energy of an electron in an atom is,
mZ2e4
 En = – 2 . . . (22.16)
80n2h2
Total energy of an electron is indicated by negative sign. It shows that, the electron is bound to the
nucleus and some work should be done to separate it from the nucleus. Here, kinetic energy of
nucleus has been neglected based on assumption that nucleus is heavy compared to electron.
For a hydrogen atom, Z = 1
So, total energy of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom is,
me4
En = – 2 . . . (22.17)
80 n2h2
Using,
m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
e = 1.6 × 10-6 C
0 = 8.85 × 10–12 Fm–1
h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js
Then,
9.1 × 10–31 × (1.6 × 10–19)4
En = – 8 × (8.85 × 10–12)2 × n2 × (6.62 × 10–34)2

– 13.6 × 1.6 × 10–19

En = n2 joule
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  571
– 13.6
or, En = n2 eV [... 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J]

1
i.e. En  – n2

As n increases, En becomes less negative. It means the energy of electron possesses greater energy in
higher energy state.
At n = , En = 0, which shows that the maximum energy of electron is zero. It means electron gets
free from the nucleus.
13.6
Numbers of orbit n Total energy En = n2 eV
–

n=1 E1 = – 13.60 eV
n=2 E2 = – 3.40 eV
n=3 E3 = – 1.51 eV
n=4 E4 = – 0.85 eV
n=5 E5 = – 0.54 eV
... ...
n= E = 0
The energy of various energy states of hydrogen atom can be visualized by energy diagram as
shown in Fig (22.3). The lowermost energy state, n = 1, is called ground state (ground level) of a
hydrogen atom. All other energy states above the ground state are called excited states. The energy
state of n = 2 is called first excited state, n = 3 is called second energy state and so on. The difference
of energy that possesses by the electron in different energy states are indicated by the spacing of
energy levels. Larger the spacing between n= E = 0 eV
the energy states greater the energy Continum
state
required for the transition of electrons in n=4 E4 = - 0.85 eV
these orbits. The space between n = 1 and n=3 E3 = – 1.50 eV
n = 2 is the largest. It means maximum
energy is required for the transition of n=2 E2 = – 3.40 eV

electron from 1  2 energy state than E1 = – 13.60 eV

n=1
required for any other two consecutive
Fig. 22.3: Energy level diagram
energy states.

Energy emitted during electron Transition

Let E be the energy emitted in moving an electron from a higher energy level (n2) to lower energy
level (n1). Then,
E = En2 – En1 . . . (22.18)
Where En1 and En2 are the energies corresponding to principal quantum numbers n1 and n2
respectively.
The energy of energy states n1 and n2 are,
mZ2e4
En 1 = – 2 2
80n1h2
572 Principles of Physics - II
mZ2e4
and En2 = – 2 2
80n2h2
Substituting the values of En2 and En1 in equation (22.18), we get,
mZ2e4 mZ2e4
E =– 2 2 – – 2 2


80n2h2  80n1h2
mZ2e4 mZ2e4
= 2 2 – 2 2
80n1h2 80n2h2
mZ2e4  1 1
= 2 n2 – n2
80h2  1 2
1 1
E = 13.6Z2  2 – 2 eV
 n1 n2
For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
1 1
 E = 13.6  – eV . . . (22.19)
n2
2 2
 n1
Frequency and Wavelength of Emitted Radiation
When an electron jumps from higher energy state to lower energy state, energy is radiated to the
surrounding. The emitted radiation is quantum of energy and such quantized energy packet is called
photon. The frequency and wavelength of radiation so emitted can be determined using the Bohr's
third postulate of atomic model. According to this postulate,
hf =En2 – En1
Where f = frequency of emitted radiation
mZ2e4 mZ2e4
hf = – 2 2 – – 2 2


80n2h2  80n1h2
mZ2e4 mZ2e4
or, hf = 2 2 – 2 2
80n1h2 80n2h2
mZ2e4  1 1
or, f= – . . . (22.20)
80h3 n1 n2
2 2 2

This is the required expression for frequency for emitted radiation.

c
Also, f =

Where, c = Speed of light
 = Wavelength of radiation
Now, equation (22.20) becomes,
c mZ2e4  1 1 
= –
 82h3 n2 n2
0  1 2
1 mZ2e4  1 1 
or, = –
 82ch3 n2 n2
0  1 2
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  573
1  me4  2  1 1 
or, = Z –
 82ch3 n2 n2
 0   1 2 
1 1 1
 = RZ2  2 – 2
 n n  1 2 
Where, R is called Rydberg constant after the name of the Swedish spectroscopist J. Rydberg.
me4
R= 2
80ch3
9.1 × 10–31 × (1.6 × 10–19)4
or, R = 8 × (8.85 × 10–12)2 × 3 × 108 × (6.62 × 10–34)3

R = 1.097 × 107 m–1

For hydrogen atom, Z = 1
1 1 1
= R  2 – 2 . . . (22.21)


n n 1 
2

1 _ _
The term is denoted by  and it is called wave number. Wave number () is defined as the number

of waves formed in unit distance.
_ 1 1
  = R  2 – 2 . . . (22.22)
n1 n2
This relation is known as Rydberg formula for the spectrum of the hydrogen atom. It is very useful
in the study of origin of spectral lines.

22.5 Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom

When hydrogen atom absorbs energy from its surrounding, the electron in its lower energy state
jumps to higher energy states. The electron that jumps to higher energy states is called excited
electron. The excited electron stays at the higher energy for very short period (~ 10–8 s). Then, it
returns to lower energy state immediately. The electron may return directly from excited state to
ground state or through other lower energy. In the de-excitation, it loses the energy to the
surroundings. The amount of energy radiated in de-excitation is equal to the difference of energy in
corresponding energy states. In each transition of electron, electromagnetic radiation of definite
wavelength is emitted, which is known as spectral line. These lines may or may not be visible.
The wavelength of emitted radiation depends on the difference of energy between the energy level
through which the electron jumps, greater the energy difference of energy states, shorter the
hc
wavelength of emitted radiation (i.e. E = ). The spectral lines of different wavelengths are known

as spectral series. Hydrogen spectrum was studied systematically by many scientists in different
periods. These series are named after the name of scientists who studied the corresponding series.
The spectral series for hydrogen atom is shown in Fig. 22.4. The energy level diagram including the
spectral series is also known as Kossel diagram.
574 Principles of Physics - II

+
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6

n=7
Fig. 22.4: Spectral series in hydrogen atom
The wavelength of radiation emitted when electron jumps in different energy states are
explained clearly by using the following relation.
1 1 1

⎯= = R n 2 – n 2 . . . (22.23)
  1 2 

The relation in equation (22.23) explains the complete spectrum of hydrogen atom. The spectral
series is a group of different spectral lines. They are different due to difference in energy or
wavelength or frequency.
i. Lyman series: The spectral series of hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from higher
energy states to ground state is called Lyman series. It lies in the ultraviolet region of
electromagnetic spectrum. So, for Lyman series n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4, . . . . This series was
discovered by Lyman in 1915. The wavelengths of spectral lines of Lyman series are,
1 1 1
= R12 – n2
  
a. The longest wavelength: The wavelength of the first member of Lyman series, n1 = 1 and
n2 = 2
If  is the longest wavelength, we have,
1 1 1
= R12 – 22
  
4 4
  = 3R = 3 × 1.097 × 107 = 1.216 × 10–7 m  1216 Ǻ
b. The shortest wavelength (s): The wavelength of the last member of this series, n1 = 1 and
n2 = 
1 1 1
  = R12 –  = R (1 – 0)
s  
1 1
or s = R = = 0.9115 × 10–7 m = 911.6 Ǻ
1.097  10–7
Therefore, the ratio of shortest and longest wavelength of Lyman series
1
s R 3
= = 4 =4

3R
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  575
In this way, other wavelengths between n1 = 1 to n2 =  can be found out.
ii. Balmer series: The spectral series of hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from higher
energy states to first excited state is called Balmer series. It lies in the visible region of
electromagnetic spectrum. So, for Balmer series, n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4 . . . This series was
discovered by Balmer in 1885. The wavelength of spectral lines in Balmer series is given by
1 1 1
⎯ = = R 22 – n 2

  2 

For first member of Balmer series, n1 = 2 and n2 = 3

1 1 1 5R
 = R 22 – 32 = 36
  
36
or,  = 5R
36
or,  = 5 × 1.097 × 107  6563 × 10-10 m = 6563 Å.
The longest wavelength or wavelength of first member of Balmer series. This line is also called
H–line.
36
 =  = 5R = 6563 Ǻ
For H– line, we have,
n1 = 2 and n2 = 4
64 16
  = 12R = 3R
36
 5R 108 27
 = = 80 = 20
 16
3R
In the same way, we can find out for H and H when n2 = 4 and n2 = 5 respectively.
Similarly, for n1 = 2 and n2 = 
4
s = R
This is the shortest wavelength of a line in the Balmer series.
iii. Paschen series: The spectral series of hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from higher
energy states to second excited state is called Paschen series. It lies in the infrared region of
electromagnetic spectrum. So, for Paschen series, n1 = 3 and n2 = 4, 5,. . .. . .. . .. . .. This series
was discovered by Paschen in 1896. The wavelength of the spectral lines in Paschen series is
given by,
1 1 1

⎯= = R 32 – n 2 where n2 = 4, 5, . . . 
  2 

iv. Brackett series: The spectral series of hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from higher
energy states to third excited state is called Brackett series. It lies in the infrared region of
electromagnetic spectrum. For Brackett series, n1 = 4 and n2 = 5, 6, 7, . . . . This series was
discovered by Brackett in 1922.The wavelength of spectral lines of this series are,
1 1 1
⎯ = = R 42 – n 2
 where n2 = 5, 6, 7,. . . 
  2 

v. Pfund series: The spectral series of hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from higher energy
states to fourth excited state is called Pfund series. It lies in the far infrared region of
electromagnetic spectrum.
576 Principles of Physics - II
So, for pfund series, n1 = 5 and n2 = 6, 7, 8,. . .. This series was discovered by Pfund in 1925. The
wavelength of spectral lines of pfund series is given by
1 1 1
⎯ = = R 52 – n 2 , where, n2 = 6, 7, 8, …

  2 

With each series, the spectral lines get closer together with increasing frequency. No two
elements have the same atomic emission spectrum.

Energy-level diagram
We just explained, the different spectral lines on the basis of geometrical concept of orbits. A
much more important concept than above is in terms of energy level diagram which is as shown
in Fig. 22.5
A diagram showing the total energies of an electron in different stationary orbits of an atom is called
energy level diagram. The various possible energy values are shown by parallel horizontal lines
while transitions of electron among stationary orbits are shown by parallel vertical lines.
The total energy of an electron in nth orbit of H-atom is given by
13.6
En = – n2 eV .
For, n = 1, 2, 3, . . ., we get the energies of electron in different orbits as,
n = 1, E1 = – 13.6 eV This is the ground state energy
n = 2, E2 = – 3.4 eV This is the 1st excited state
n = 3, E3 = – 1.51 eV This is the 2nd excited state
. . .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ...
. . .. . .. . . . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . .. . ...
n = , E = 0 (The atom is said to be ionized in this case.)
The total energy of an electron in an atom is found negative value. It means larger the
magnitude gives lower energy. The negative value of energy of the electron indicates that
electron is bound to the nucleus and some work should be done to separate it from the atomic
orbit.
IoIonization
nized atio n(continuous
(contin uo usenergy
en ergylevels)
leve ls)
eV 0
– 0 .28
– 0 .38 F ar intra re d
-0.5 4
P fun d se ries
n = 5
F ar intra re d
-0.8 5 n = 4
B ra cke tt In fra re d
se ries
– 1 .51 n = 3
Paschen series
V isible

-3.4 n = 2
Balmer series

U ltra vio let

-13 .6 n = 1
Lymen series
Lyman Series
Fig. 22.5: Spectra of H-atom
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  577
From this diagram, it is clear that, atom emits line spectra i.e. the atom emits radiation of
particular wave length only, which is due to transition of electron between two fixed stationary
orbits.

22.6 Heinsenberg Uncertainty Principle

Quantum physics, mostly studies the behaviour of microscopic objects, specifically, the atomic and
sub-atomic particles. Classical physics deals about the properties of mediocre objects, mostly the
objects which we entertain in our daily life. Theory of relativity mostly studies about the planetary
and celestial objects. Study of the behaviour of classical objects is relatively easier than very small
and very large objects. The precise measurement of position, velocity, momentum, etc. of classical
objects is possible. However, it is impossible to measure such variables for microscopic objects like
electrons, protons. Out of many physical variables, some of them form a pair which cannot be
measured simultaneously in nature. These pairs are called canonically conjugate variables. Position-
momentum pair, energy-time pair and angular momentum-angular displacement pair are
canonically conjugate variables.
On the regards of such canonically conjugate variables, German physicist Werner Heinsberg, in 1927
proposed a principle called Heinsenberg Uncertainty principle. This principle states that "it is
impossible to measure the conjugate variables of an object with unlimited precision."
i. Position-momentum uncertainty: In accordance with uncertainty principle, the position and
momentum uncertainty principle can be stated as "it is impossible to measure both the position
and momentum of a subatomic particle at a time accurately." The product of the uncertainty in
h
position (x) and the uncertainty in momentum (p) is greater than or equal to ħ =  , i.e.
 2
x × p  ħ
ii. Energy-time uncertainty: With the similar fashion as position-momentum uncertainty, the
uncertainty principle in energy and time is stated as "it is not possible to measure both energy
and time of a subatomic particle at a time accurately." The product of uncertainty in energy (E)
h
and the uncertainty in time (t) is never less than ħ =  . i.e.
 2
E × t  ħ
It is to be noted that the value of Planck's constant (h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js) is so small with respect to
the uncertainty in macroscopic object that the study of uncertainty in these objects is irrelevant.

Application of Uncertainty Principle

The principle of uncertainty explains a large number of facts which could not be explained by
classical ideas.
Non-existence of electron in the nucleus: The radius of the nucleus of any atom is of the order of
10–14 m so that, if an electron is confined within nucleus, the uncertainty in its position must not be
greater than 10–14 m.
 x ×  p  ћ
ћ
or, p
x
1.054 × 10–34
or, p 10–14
or,  p  1.054 × 10–20 kg m/s
578 Principles of Physics - II
If this is the uncertainty in a nuclear electron’s momentum, the momentum p itself must be at least
comparable with this magnitude i.e.
p  1.054 × 10–20
1.054 × 10–20
i.e. mv  1.05 × 10–20 v  9.1 × 10–31

1.054 × 10–20 10.54 × 10–21

v m v  9.1 × 10–31

v  1.15 × 1010 ms–1

It means that, the electron exists into the nucleus only when its velocity exceeds 1.15 × 1010 ms–1.
However, it is a well known fact that the velocity of any body cannot be greater than 3 × 108 ms–1
(velocity of light in vacuum). It concludes that, the electron does not exist inside the nucleus.

Wave Particle Duality

In 1924, a French physicist Louis Victor de-Broglie developed a new concept on property of matters.
He put forward the concept that matters show wave nature too. All particles electrons, protons,
atoms, marbles and even humans-have a wavelength that is related to the momentum of the particles
h
by wavelength = momentum . The wavelength of a particle is called de-Broglie wavelength. This
concept of de-Broglie is called de-Broglie hypothesis and the double characters of matter-wave and
particle nature is called the wave particle duality.
A particle of large mass and ordinary speed has too small wavelength to be detected. However, a
subatomic particle such as an electron moving at typical speed has a detectable wavelength.
For a one kg mass object when travelling with speed 100 ms–1 speed, the de-Broglie wavelength is
h 6.62 × 10–34
 = mv = 1 × 100 = 6.62 × 10–36 m

But, an electron when travelling with speed 106 ms–1

h 6.62 × 10–34
 = mv = 9.1 × 10–31 × 106 = 7.27 × 10–11 m

This value of wavelength of electron is smaller than visible light but large enough for noticeable
diffraction. Similarly, the radiations also have the dual nature. The wave theory of light can
satisfactorily describe the wave phenomena: interference, diffraction and polarization. On the other
hand effects like photoelectric effect, Compton effect and pair production are effectively explained
by quantum (particle) theory of light. Thus, the radiations behaves both as wave and particle, which
ultimately supports the de-Broglie hypothesis.

de-Broglie Wave Equation

From Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence relation, we have,
E = mc2 . . . (22.24)
Where m = mass of particle and c = speed of light in vacuum.
Again, according to quantum theory, we have,
E = hf . . . (22.25)
Combining equations (22.24) and (22.25), we get,
hf = mc2
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  579
But c = f for a wave. So, we can write,
c
 h = mc2

h
or,  = mc
h
or,  = p (where p = mc is the momentum of the photon.) . . . (22.26)

When de-Broglie computed the relation between wavelength and momentum of photon, he also
proposed this theory for material particles such that the motion of any material particle also
possesses wave. The momentum of a material particle, viz., electron, proton, neutron or a ball of
mass m and velocity v is p = mv and its de-Broglie wave-length is,
h h
  = p = mv . . . (22.27)

Equation (22.27) shows that, greater the particle’s momentum, the shorter its wavelength. Equation
(22.27) is known as de-Broglie wave equation and the wavelength given by this equation is called de-
Broglie wavelength. Equation (22.27) couples intimately the dual behaviour of a material particle
because  has a meaning only for a wave and momentum p has a meaning only for a particle.
If E is the kinetic energy of the material particle, then,
1 1 m2v2 p2
E = 2 mv2 = 2 m = 2m (... p = mv)

 p= 2mE . . . (22.28)
So, from equations (22.27) and (22.28), de-Broglie wavelength is also given by,
h
= . . . (22.29)
2 mE
Also, if v = 0 then  =  and if v =  then  = 0. (from equation 22.27)
It means, the waves are associated with a matter only when it is in motion. The matter (particles)
may be charged or uncharged but must be in motion. The waves associated with it are independent
of charge. It means, de-Broglie wave cannot be electromagnetic wave because electromagnetic wave
is produced by only accelerated charged particles. The existence of matter waves was first
experimentally verified by Davisson and Germer in 1927.

Matter waves
The waves associated with the matters when they are in motion are called matter waves. Matter
waves can be detected in subatomic particles like electrons, protons, atoms and molecules. The
concept of matter waves was firstly introduced by de-Broglie. So, these waves are also named de-
Broglie waves. He proposed this concept while he was student and later on he was awarded with
Nobel Prize. The wavelength of matter wave is,
h
 = mv

Some important properties of matter waves are as below:

i. Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater the de-Broglie wavelength.
ii. Matter waves are generated from the motion of particle. If the particle at rest, wavelength
become infinity.
iii. The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.
iv. Matter waves are neither transverse nor longitudinal
580 Principles of Physics - II

22.7 Excitation Energy and Excitation Potential

Excitation Energy
The energy required to raise an electron from ground state to any one of the higher energy state is
known as excitation energy.
Let E1 be the energy of ground state and Ei be the energy of any excited state of an atom. Then, the
excitation energy for the atom is,
E = Ei – E1
If the electron jumps to first excited state from ground state in hydrogen atom then
E2 = –3.4 eV and E1 = –13.6 eV
Excitation energy for the given condition is,
E1 = E2 – E1
= –3.4 – (–13.6) = 10.2 eV
The second excitation energy for hydrogen atoms is,
E2 = E3 – E1
= –1.51 – (–13.6) = 12.09 eV

Excitation Potential
The accelerating potential which gives sufficient energy for a bombarding electron to excite the
ground state electron to any one of the excited state is called excitation potential.
The first excitation energy of hydrogen atom is,
E1 = E2 – E1
or, eV1 = –3.4 – (–13.6)
or, eV1 = 10.2 eV
10.2 eV
or, V1 = e
 V1 = 10.2 V
 The first excitation potential of hydrogen atom, V1 = 10.2 V.
Similarly, the second excitation energy of hydrogen atom is,
E2 = 12.09 eV
or, eV2 = 12.09 eV
12.09 eV
or, V2 = e
 V2 = 12.09 V
Above result shows that numerical value of excitation energy and excitation potential are equal.

22.8 Ionization Energy and Ionization Potential

Ionization Energy
The energy required to knock out an electron from an atom is known as ionization energy. To knock
out an electron, it should be sent to infinity orbit (i.e. n = ). After removal of an electron from an
atom, the atom becomes ionized, which is called positive ion.
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  581
In hydrogen atom, energy of electron at ground state (i.e. E1) = –13.6 eV and the energy of atom at
infinity, E = 0
So, ionization energy of hydrogen atom is,
Ei = E – E1
= 0 – (–13.6) = 13.6 eV

Ionization Potential
The accelerating potential which gives sufficient energy for a bombarding electron to ionize the
target atom by knocking one of its electrons completely out of the atom is known as ionization
potential. The ionization energy of hydrogen atom is,
or, Ei = 13.6 eV
or, eVi = 13.6 eV
13.6 eV
or, Vi = e
 Vi = 13.6 V

Limitations of Bohr's Theory

Although the Bohr's theory could account for the stability of atom and somehow describe the
spectrum of hydrogen atoms, it has many limitations. Some limitations are as follows:
i. This theory is appropriate only for hydrogen and hydrogen like atoms, but can not explain the
atoms with two or more electrons.
ii. This theory can explain only the circular orbits of the atom but unable to explain elliptical
orbits, which are possible in many atoms.
iii. Electron shows both particle and wave properties. However, this theory could not say anything
about the wave nature of electrons.
iv. Bohr's theory determines only the frequency of spectral lines of hydrogen like atom, but unable
to estimate the intensity of spectral lines.
v. This theory could not explain the effect of electric field and magnetic field in spectral lines.
vi. This theory does not tell anything about how much time an excited electron remains in higher
energy state.
vii. This theory could not explain why the atomic orbits are quantized.

22.9 Emission and Absorption Spectra

In light waves, a spectrum refers the arrangement of waves in accordance with wavelength or
frequency. The light spectrum is measured with a special device called the spectrometer. Various
colours in the light spectrum can be detected by spectrometer. The spectra in hydrogen atom are
both visible and invisible.

Emission Spectra
The spectra originated due to the de-excitation of subatomic particles in atom are known as emission
spectra. These spectra are emitted out from the atom; hence it is named 'emission'. On the basis of the
character of the source, emission spectra are of three types:
i. Line spectra
ii. Continuous spectra
iii. Band spectra
582 Principles of Physics - II
i. Line spectra: The spectral lines consisting of discrete lines of definite wavelength are called line
spectra. Each spectral line is distinguished with another line by dark spaces. So, that the lines
are seen clearly. Hydrogen spectrum, sodium spectrum, mercury spectrum, etc. are some
examples of line spectra.
If an atom acquires energy from the surrounding, it excites to the higher energy states.
However, the life time of atom in higher energy state is very short (~ 10–8 s), so it returns to the
lower energy state. During this process, energy is emitted in the form of photon. When many
atoms of an element are in same energy states, they always emit particular colour sets in the
spectrum. The skematic diagram of line spectrum is shown in Fig. 22.6.
H H H


Fig. 22.6: Line spectra
ii. Continuous spectra: The spectra which cover a wide range of
wavelength with negligible frequency gap are known as
continuous spectra. In such spectrum, no spectral line is V R
separately distinguished as shown in Fig. 22.7. These types of
spectra are originated by hot solids, liquids and high density
Fig. 22.7: Continuous emission
gases. The spectra originated from gases in the sun are spectrum
continuous. This form of spectrum depends on the temperature
and surface condition of body.
iii. Band spectra: The spectra which consist of separate group of lines are known as band spectra.
Each band has one sharp edge and is distinctly separated from another band. Many gases
produce band spectra O2, CO2, NH3, N2 can produce band spectra.
The molecules which contain two or more atoms can originate band
spectra. Each atom of a molecule can produce its own line spectra.
Due to the overlapping of the line spectrum of different atoms, group
Fig. 22.8: Band spectra
of such lines (bands) are obtained.

Absorption Spectra
The spectra of electromagnetic radiation transmitted through a substance, showing dark lines or
bands due to absorption at specific wavelengths are called absorption spectra. When a white beam of
light transmitted through a sample material (for example: gas), the light photons that match the
energy gap of the molecules present in that sample are absorbed in order to excite the molecule.
Other photons transmit unaffected. If the transmitted beam is observed with a spectrometer, some
dark lines are seen in place of absorbed spectra. Such spectra are called absorption spectra. The dark
lines in the absorption occur exactly in place of bright lines in emission spectra of that sample.
Types of absorption spectra are similar to emission spectra: line spectra, continuous spectra and band
spectra. The line spectra are produced by atoms of gas molecules; continuous spectra are produced
by solids and liquids. Likewise band absorption spectra are produced by gaseous state of matter.
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  583

22.10 Laser
A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated
emission of electromagnetic radiation. The full form of LASER is "Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation." First working laser was operated by Thedore Maiman at the Hughs Research
Laboratories in 1960. Actually, Albert Einstein had given the idea of stimulated emission that could
produce a laser. The light produced from laser is very intense, monochromatic, coherent and highly
unidirectional. It is a rare process in nature.

Stable state
As explained in Bohr's atom model, the atomic orbitals can either be in ground state or in excited
states. Electrons remain in ground state most of the time. If it excites to upper state (i.e. excited state),
it returns to the ground energy state after small interval of time (~10–8 s). Therefore, ground state is
also termed as stable state.

Metastable state
Metastable state is a particular excited state of an atom in which the electron remains relatively
longer time than the ordinary excited states. Metastable state has great importance in producing the
laser, since electrons stay in this state for relatively longer time. A metastable state may be
considered as a kind of temporary energy trap. 2S state of helium, 5S state of neon are the examples
of metastable states. Electrons of an atom in the metastable state remains excited for a considerable
time in the order of 10–6 s to 10-3 s.

Some terms Related to Laser Production

i. Spontaneous emission
Spontaneous emission is the process of emission of electromagnetic radiation in an atom or molecule,
when the electron transition occurs from an excited state to lower energy state, usually ground state.
In this process, a photon of energy equal to the energy gap of two energy states is emitted.
Spontaneous emission occurs not only in orbital E2 E2
electrons, but also in the nuclear excitation. This e

type of emission is responsible for most of the

hf
light we see all around us.
If an electron jumps spontaneously from higher
E1 E1
energy state E2 to lower energy state E1, then the
Fig. 22.9: Spontaneous emission of radiation
emitted energy is, E2 – E1 = hf as shown in Fig.
22.9.

ii. Induced or stimulated absorption

When a photon of light having energy equal to E2 E2
the energy gap between two energy levels of an
atom, is absorbed by ground state electron, it
jumps to the higher energy state. This process is hf
called induced or stimulated absorption. This is
E1 E1
called so because the incident photon has e
stimulated the atom to absorb the energy. For an Fig. 22.10: Induced absorption
electron at lower energy state E1 to get raised to higher energy state E2, the electron in the ground
584 Principles of Physics - II
state must absorb photon of energy, E2 – E1 = hf, where, hf is the energy of absorbed photon by the
electron in lower energy state as shown in Fig. 22.10.

iii. Stimulated emission

The process by which an incoming photon of a E2 E2
e
specific frequency can interact with an electron at hf
excited state, causing it to drop to a lower energy hf
state is known as stimulated emission. If an hf
electron of an atom in the excited state E2 E1 E1
interacts with an incident photon of energy
Fig. 22.11: Stimulated emission
exactly equal to E2 – E1 = hf, then it stimulates the
electron to come down to the lower energy state E1. The emitted photon has the frequency exactly
equal to the incident photon. Thus, a pair of identical photons is emitted in stimulated emission. The
stimulated emission is shown in Fig. 22.11.

Differences between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission

Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1. It is a natural transition in which an atom 1. It is an artificial transition which occurs
is de-excited after the end of its life time in due to de-excitation of an atom before the
the higher energy level. end of its life time in the higher energy
state.
2. The photon emitted due to spontaneous 2. The photon emitted due to stimulated
emission can move in any direction. emission can move only in the direction of
the incident photon.
3. The probability of spontaneous emission 3. The probability of stimulated emission
depends only on the properties of the two depends on the properties of two energy
energy levels between which the transition levels involved in the transition as well as
occurs. on the energy density of incident
radiation.

Population inversion
It is the condition in atoms in which the numbers of electrons stay more in higher energy state than
in lower energy state. In ordinary condition, the number of electron remains more in ground state
than the excited state. If we reverse the situation by any means, population inversion takes place. To
produce the laser, population inversion is an essential condition, which is required for continuous
emission of radiation by stimulated process. The Boltzmann distribution explains the ratio of the
number of atoms in each state by using a factor called Boltzmann factor,
E2
–
Since, N2  e kBT

E1
–
N1  e kBT

(E2 – E1)
N2 –
 N1 = e
kBT < 1 (in normal condition)

N2
So, for population inversion, we need to produce a condition, N > 1.
1
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  585
Where, N2 = number of electrons in higher energy state E2
N1 = number of electrons in lower energy state E1
kB = Boltzmann constant
T = absolute temperature
N2
If N > 1, population inversion occurs.
1

Optical pumping
The process in which light is used to raise the electrons from a lower energy level in an atom to a
higher energy level is known as optical pumping. It is commonly used in laser production so as to
achieve population inversion. This technique was developed by Alfred Kastler in 1966.
This process pumps the electrons to well defined higher energy state, mostly in metastable state in
laser production.

Principle of laser
The working principle of laser basically depends on the stimulated emission. It also depends on two
features (i) population inversion and (ii) optical pumping. If the electron in excited state absorbs
photon with equal energy as that of energy gap between it and lower energy state, it releases a
second photon of same frequency, in phase with the first photon. In this situation, the electron de-
excites into the lower energy state. This causes the stimulated emission. The emitted photon is
identical to the stimulating photon with the same frequency, polarization and direction of
propagation. The photons, as a result, are totally coherent. This is the critical property that allows
optical amplification to take place.

Helium – Neon laser

The essential components of He-Ne laser are shown in Fig. 22.12. Its usual operation wavelength is
632.8 nm, in the red portion of the visible spectrum.
It consists of a discharge tube of nearly 0.5 m length and diameter about 5 mm whose two ends are
cut at Brewster’s angle. The tube is filled with the mixture of helium and neon in the ratio 5:1 at a
total pressure of about 1 torr. The tube is also provided with two parallel mirrors at the ends, one of
which is 100% reflecting and while the other is partially transparent. The distance between the
mirror is half integer multiple of the wavelength of laser light.

Fig. 22.12: He-Ne Laser

586 Principles of Physics - II
Initially, some of the atoms in the mixture are ionized by applying high electric field and the
electrons thus created are accelerated due to this field. These electrons then acquire sufficient kinetic
energy to excite the neutral atoms by collision.
Thus, the helium atoms are excited by the electron impact to 2S state which is a relatively long lived
state and has energy of 20.61 eV. While the neon atoms are much less excited by the electron impact.
This energy of He-atom in 2S state is nearly equal to the energy of the 5S level of Ne-atom which is
20.66 eV. So, during collision, some of the He-atoms transfer their energy to ground state Ne-atom
with 0.05 eV of extra energy provided by the kinetic energy of the atoms. The Ne-atom is then
excited to 5S state. Thus, He-atom helps to achieve population inversion of the Ne-atom which is
necessary for the laser action.
The Ne-atoms in the 5S state are stimulated to jump to 3P state there by emitting a photon whose
wavelength corresponds to wavelength of laser light.
The wavelength of laser light is given by,
hc
 =E –E
5S 3P

6.62 × 10–34 × 3 × 108

= (20.66 – 18.70) × 1.6× 10–19  634 nm

The photons emitted during the process are reflected back and forth between the parallel mirrors
and hence number of photons is amplified. Thus, an avalanche of photons is created which come out
from the partially transparent mirror as an intense unidirectional beam known as laser.
Further, the Ne-atom goes a spontaneous emission from 3P to 3S state and the transition from 3S
state to 2P state is a non radiative transfer.
He-atom 20.66 eV Ne-atom
20.61 eV 5S
2S

Laser transition
Metastable Metastable 6,328Å
state state

18.70 eV 3P
Electron impact Spontaneous
emission
3S

Radiation less
transition
Ground state Ground state (2P)
1S

Fig. 22.13: Energy level diagram of helium-neon laser

Applications of Laser
1. Laser technology finds its extensive use in manufacturing industries. For example, for cutting,
drilling, welding cladding, soldering, hardening, engraving, etc.
2. Lasers especially semi-conductor lasers are widely used in communication system. These are
used in information handling systems; for example, they read digitally coded music on CDs and
retrieve data from computer disc. They are also used extensively particularly for long-distance
optical data transmission.
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  587
3. Laser therapy has become more common in medical field especially in performing bloodless
surgery.
4. Lasers are used for the precision measurement of length surveying for example in the
construction of tunnels, measuring the distance between earth & moon (lunar ranging).
5. Laser is most efficiently used in defence mechanism such as detecting and destroying missiles.
6. Laser beam is used in the production of true three-dimensional pictures in space without use of
lens. The record of this three dimensional image of the object on a film is called hologram and
the phenomenon is holography.

Properties of Laser
i. Laser can travel over long distance without much loss of energy (or intensity).
ii.. It is highly monochromatic.
iii. It is highly unidirectional beam of light.
iv. It is coherent i.e. all atoms emit radiations simultaneously.
v. It is very intense.
vi. Its wavelength is very, very short.
vii. It is highly energetic light.
viii. It stays on at a single frequency.
ix. It is well collimated i.e. all rays are perfectly parallel to each other. Hence, a laser beam is very
narrow and can travel to long distance without spreading. It can be brought to an extremely
sharp focus.
x. It can vaporize even the hardest metal because of its high energy density and directional
property. A laser beam can produce temperature of order of 104 ºC at a focused point.

Comparison of Ordinary Light and Laser Light

S.N. Ordinary light Laser
1. It is less intense than laser. It is a light of larger intensity.
2. It is chromatic. It is monochromatic.
3. It is multidirectional. It is purely unidirectional.
4. It is incoherent source. This is highly coherent.
5. Wavelength is longer than laser. Wavelength is very short of the order 10–11 m.
6. Less energetic than laser. Highly energetic.
7. It consists of many wavelength and It has only a particular frequency.
frequency.
8. It can produce ordinary temperature But, it produces high temperature in order of
when strikes on an object. 104C.

Tips for MCQs

1. Bohr's theory
i. Mathematical form of basic postulates
mv2 1 Ze2 nh
a. r = 40 r2 b. mvr = c. E = hf = Ei – Ef
2
588 Principles of Physics - II
ii. Bohr's theory explains
a. Stability of atom b. spectrum of hydrogen c. energy of electron in nth orbit
0n h
2 2
iii. Radius of orbit of hydrogen like atom, rn = ,  rn  n2
mZe2
Ze2 1
iv. Velocity of electron in an orbit, vn = ,v 
20nh n n
1
As, rn  n2, vn 
rn
v. Energy of electron in an orbit of hydrogen like atom,
me4 Z2 Z2
E= 2 = –13.6 n2 eV
80 n2h2
me4
vi. Rydberg constant, R = 2 = 1.097 × 107m–1.
80 n2ch3
vii. Total energy of electron is more in outer orbit than inner orbit. The energy of free electron is
zero.
viii. Total energy of electron in a stationary orbit is negative, which means the electron is bound to
the nucleus.
1 1 1
ix. The wavelength of radiation that is emitted in electron transition, = RZ2 2 – 2 
  1 2
n n
x. The wavelength range for:
a. Lyman series is 121.6 nm to 91.2 nm, lies in UV range.
b. Balmer series is 656.3 nm to 365 nm, lies in visible range.
c. Paschen series is 1875 nm to 822 nm, lies in infrared range.
d. Bracket series is 4051 nm to 1458 nm, lies in infrared range.
e. Pfund series is 7460 nm to 2279 nm, lies in far infrared range.
2. Dual nature of radiation
i. Both radiation and matter show dual nature: Wave nature and particle nature.
ii. Wave length of particle wave is also called de Broglie wavelength,
h h h h
 = p = mv = =
2mEk 3mkBT
iii. For a particle at rest, v = 0,  =  and for a particle in motion, v  0,   0. It means wave is
associated only with the particle in motion.
iv. Wavelength of particle is independent with its charge, but depends on accelerating potential.
12.27 0.287
a. Wavelength of electron, e = Å. b. Wavelength of proton, p = Å.
V V
Therefore for constant potential e > p.
3. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle
h
i. Position momentum uncertainty, x × p ≥
2
h
ii. Energy time uncertainty, E × t 
2
h
iii. Angular momentum and angular displacement uncertainly, L ×  
2
iv. This theory successfully explains the non-existence of electrons in the nucleus.
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  589
4. Generally, ground state consists of a large number of electrons.
Physical quantity Symbols Dimensions units Remarks
Wavelength  [ L] m
Rydberg constant R [ L-1] m-1
Bohr radius a0 [ L] m Radius of the first Bohr orbit in a
H-atom.
Atomic number Z Z = Number of electrons
= Number of Protons

Worked Out Problems

1. [NEB 2074] Calculate de Broglie wavelength of an electron which has been accelerated through a
potential difference of 200 V. Given mass of electron = 9.1 × 10–31 kg and Planck's constant,
h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js.
SOLUTION
Given, 2eV
2 = m
Potential difference (V) = 200 V
Mass of electron (m) = 9.1 × 10–31 kg 2eV
Planck's constant (h) = 6.6 × 10–34 Js v = m
de Broglie wavelength () = ? 2 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 200
We know, = 9.1 × 10–31
h = 8.4 × 10 ms–1
6
 = mv
6.6 × 10–34
The velocity of electron is determined from, Now, wavelength () = 9.1 × 10–31 × 8.4 × 106
1 = 8.6 × 10–11 m
2 mv = eV
2
 The de Broglie wavelength is 8.6 × 10–11 m.

2. [HSEB 2072] Calculate the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted by a hydrogen atom
which undergoes a transition between energy levels of –1.36 × 10–19 J and –5.45 × 10–19 J. Given
Planck's constant = 6.6 × 10–34 Js.
SOLUTION

Upper energy level (E2) = –1.36 × 10–19 J hc

 =E –E
Lower energy level (E1) = –5.45 × 10–19 J 2 1

Planck's constant (h) = 6.6 × 10–34 Js 6.6 × 10–34 × 3 × 108

= –1.36 × 10–19 – (–5.45 × 10–19)
From Bohr's postulate
19.8 × 10–26
hc = 4.09 × 10–19 = 4.84 × 10–7 m
= E2 – E1

3. [HSEB 2070] A cricket ball is moving with a speed of 120 km/h. What would be its de Broglie
wavelength if its mass is 400 g.
SOLUTION
Speed (v) = 120 km/h = 33.33 ms–1 6.6 × 10–34
= 0.4 × 33.33
Mass of ball (m) = 400 g = 0.4 kg
de Broglie wavelength () = ? = 4.95 × 10–35 m
We know,  The de Broglie wavelength is 4.95 × 10–35 m.
h
 = mv
590 Principles of Physics - II
4. [HSEB 2067] Find the wavelength of the radiation emitted from a hydrogen atom, when an electron
jumps from third orbit to second orbit. (Give 0 = 8.854 × 10–12 C2N–1m2, h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js, me
= 9.1 × 10–31 kg).
SOLUTION
Permitivity (0) = 8.854 × 10–12 C2N–1m–2
Planck's constant (h) = 6.62 × 10–34 Js
Mass of electron (me) = 9.1 × 10–31 kg
n1 = 2, n2 = 3
Wavelength () = 2
We have,
1 me4 1 1 9.1 × 10–31 × (1.6 × 10–19)4  12 – 12
= 2 3  2 – 2 = 8 × (8.854 × 10–12)2 × 3 × 108 × (6.62 × 10–34)3
 80ch n1 n2 2 3 
1 1 5
= 1.097 × 107 4 – 9 = 1.097 × 107 36
   
 = 6.56 × 10–7 m
Therefore, the required wavelength is 6.56 × 10–7 m.
5. If an electron position can be measured to an accuracy of 10–9 m. How accurately can its velocity be
measured? (me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg)
SOLUTION
Given, h
x . me v 
Position uncertainty (x) = 10–9 m 2
Mass (me) = 9.1 × 10–31 kg h
v 
Velocity uncertainty (v) = ? 2 x me
From Heisenberg uncertainty principle, 6.62 × 10–34

h 2 × 10–9 × 9.1 × 10–31
x . p 
2  1.16 × 105 ms–1

6. Calculate the wave length of the first and last members of the Blamer series for H-atom.(R = 107m-1).
SOLUTION
1 1 1 5
= 107 22 – 32 = 107 × 36
Given,

1 = ? , ∞ = ? 1  
For Balmer series, n1 = 2 36
 1 = 5 × 10 -7 = 7.2 × 10 -7 m
and n2 = 3, 4, . . .. . .. . .. . ..
We know that, For the last member, n2 = ∞
1 1 1 107
1 1 1
= R n 2 – n 2  = 107 22 – ∞ = 4
  1 2 ∞  
4
For the first member, n2 = 3  ∞ = 107 = 4 × 10 -7 m

7. Figure, which represents the lowest energy levels of the electrons n Energy in eV
in the hydrogen atom, specifies the values of the principal 6 - 0.38
quantum number n associated with each state and the 5 -0.54
corresponding value of the energy level, measured in electron 4 - 0.85
volts. Work out the wavelength of the lines associated with the 3 -1.51
A B C D
transitions A, B, C, D marked in the figure. (Take 1 eV to be 1.6 × 2 -3.39
10-19 J; Planck constant h to be 6.5 × 10-34 Js; and c, the velocity of 1 -13.58
light in vacuum, to be 3 × 108 ms-1)
SOLUTION
For transition A, we can write,
hc
E3 – E2 =
A
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  591
hc 6.65 × 10 -34 × 3 × 108 19.5 × 10 -7
or, A = E – E = {-1.51 – (–3.39)} × 1.6 × 10 -19 = 1.88 × 1.6 × 10 -19
3 2

 A = 6.5 × 10-7 m.
Similarly, we can have,
hc 19.5 × 10 -7
B = E – E = (– 0.85 + 3.39) × 10 -19
4 2

 B = 4.8 × 10 -7m
hc 19.5 × 10 -7
C = E – E = (– 0.54 + 3.39) × 1.6 × 10 -19
5 2

 C = 4.3 × 10 -7 m
hc 19.5 × 10 -7
D = E – E = (– 0.38 + 3.39) × 1.6 × 10 -19
6 2

 D = 4 × 10 -7 m
8. a. An atom initially in an energy level with E = –6.52 eV absorb a photon that has wavelength 860
nm. What is the internal energy of the atom after it absorbs the photon?
b. An atom initially in an energy level with E = – 2.68 eV emits a photon that has wavelength 420
nm. What is the internal energy of the atom after it emits the photon?
SOLUTION
(a) Given,  E2 = – 4.80 eV
E1 = –6.25 eV = – 6.52 × 1.6 × 10 -19 J (b) Given,
= – 10.43 × 10–19 J E1 = – 2.68 eV = – 2.68 × 1.6 × 10 -19 J
 = 860 nm = 860 × 10 -9 m  = 420 nm = 420 × 10 -9 m
h = 6.625 × 10 -34 Js Internal energy of an atom after emitting
Internal energy of the atom after absorbing photon (E2) = ?
photon (E2) = ? When a photon is emitted, we can write,
When a photon is absorbed, we can write,  E1 – E2 = hf
 E2 – E1 = hf hc
or, E2 = hf + E1 or, E2 = E1 – hf = E1 –

hc 6.625 × 10 -34 × 3 × 108
= + E1 = – 4.288 × 10 –-19
 420 × 10-9
6.625 × 10-34 × 3 × 108 = – 4.288 × 10 -19 – 4.73 × 10 -19
= 860 × 10-9 - 10.43 × 10 -19
= – 9.018 × 10 -19 J
= 0.0231 × 10-17 – 0.10 × 10 -17 9.018 × 10 -19
0.077 × 10 -17 = 1.6 × 10 -19 eV
= - 0.0769 × 10-17 J = – 1.6 × 10 -19 eV
 E2 = – 5.64 eV

9. How many photons per second are emitted by a 7.50 mW CO2 laser that has a wave length of 10.6
m?
SOLUTION
Given, nhf
or, p = t
P = 7.50 mW = 7.5 × 10 -3 W
 = 10.6  m = 10.6 × 10 -6 m. n P P×
or, t = hf = hc (∵ c = f)
n
Number of photons per second, t = ? 7.5 × 10 -3 × 10.6 × 10-6
= 6.62 × 10 -34 × 3 × 108
We know that
Energy n
Power = Time  t = 4 × 1017 photons/sec
592 Principles of Physics - II
10. An electron is confined to a box of size 100 Å. Calculate the uncertainty introduced in the velocity of
an electron.
SOLUTION
Given,  x ×  p = h/2
me = 9.1 × 10 -31 kg or,  x × (me × v) = h/2
h = 6.62 × 10 -34 Js h
or,  v =
 x = 100 Å = 100 × 10 -10m = 10 -8 m 2 x × me
 v= ? 6.62 × 10 -34
=
From Heisenberg uncertainty principle, we 2 × 10-8 × 9.1 × 10 -31
have,   v =1.15 × 104 m/s–1

11. [HSEB 2073] Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of electron having kinetic energy of 400 eV.
SOLUTION
Given,
De Broglie wavelength () = ?
Kinetic energy (Ek) = 400 eV = 400 × 1.6 ×10-19 J
We have,
h 6.62 ×10-34
 = = = 6.13 × 10-11 m
2mEk 2 ×9.1 × 10-31 ×400 ×1.6 ×10-19

12. [NEB 2075] A hydrogen atom is in ground state. What is the quantum number to which it will be
excited absorbing a photon of energy 12.75 eV?
SOLUTION
Given, Then,
Energy of absorption (E) = 12.75 eV 12.75 = En – (–13.6)
Quantum number (n) = ? or, En = 12.75 – 13.6 = – 0.85 eV
We know,  En = –0.85 eV
The energy of hydrogen atom in nth state, Also, from (i),
–13.6 eV 13.6
En = n2 … (i) En = – n2 eV
The energy gap between nth state and the 13.6
or, –0.85 = – n2
ground state of hydrogen atom is,
E = En – E1 13.6
or, n2 = 0.85 = 16
Here,
E = 12.75 eV and  n =4
E1 = –13.6 eV Hence, the quantum number is 4.

Challenging Problems
1. An excited hydrogen atom has energy – 3.4 eV. Find the angular momentum of the electron.
Ans: 2.1 × 10 -34 Js

2. [ALP] The ground state of the electron in the hydrogen atom may be represented by the energy – 13.6
eV and the first two excited states by – 3.4 eV and – 1.5 eV respectively. On a scale in which an
electron completely free of the atom is at zero energy. Use this date to calculate the ionization
potential of the hydrogen atom and the wavelengths of these lines in the emission spectrum of
hydrogen.
Ans: 13.6 V, 1.3 × 10-7 m, 1.02 × 10-7 m, 6.54 × 10-7 m
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  593
3. [ALP] An electron of energy 20 eV comes into collision with a hydrogen atom in its ground state. The
atom is excited into a state of higher internal energy and the electron is scattered with reduced
velocity. The atom subsequently returns to its ground state with the emission of a photon of
wavelength 1.216  10–7 m. Determine the velocity of the scattered electron. (mass of electron =
9.1  10–31 kg, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C, c = 3 × 108 m/s, h = 6.62 × 10-34 Js). [HSEB 2055]
Ans: 1.86 × 106m/s

4. [UP] A hydrogen atom initially in the ground level absorbs a photon, which excites it to the n = 4
level. Determine the wavelength and frequency of the photon.
Ans: 97.4 × 10-9 m, 3.08 × 1015 Hz

5. [UP] A hydrogen atom is in a state with energy – 1.51 eV. In the Bohr model, what is the angular
momentum of the electron in the atom, with respect to an axis at the nucleus?
Ans: 3.16 × 10 -34 kg m2/s

6. [UP] A hydrogen atom undergoes a transition from the n = 5 to the n = 2 state. (a) What are the
energy and wavelength of the photon that is emitted? (b) If the angular momentum is conserved and
if the Bohr model is used to describe the atom, what must the angular momentum be of the photon
that is emitted?
Ans: (a) 4.56 × 10 -19J, 4.36 × 10 -7 m (b) 3.16 × 10-34 Js
7. [UP]
(a) Using the Bohr model, calculate the speed of the electron in hydrogen atom in the n = 1, 2 and 3
levels.
(b) Calculate the orbital period in each of these levels.
(c) The average life time of the first excited level of hydrogen atom is 1.0  10–8 s. In the Bohr model
how many orbits does an electron in the n = 2 level complete before returning to the ground
level?
Ans: (a) 2.18 × 10 6 m/s (b) 1.52 × 10-16 sec (c) 8.2 × 106

8. [UP] Calculate the wavelength of the first line of the Balmer series if the wavelength of the second
line of this series is 4.86  10–7 m. [HSEB 2054]
Ans: 6.56 × 10 -7 m

9. [UP] Determine the wavelength, frequency and hence energy of the photon emitted for H line in
Balmer series. (Rydberg constant = 1.07 × 107 m–1)
Ans: 434.1 × 10 -9 m, 6.90 × 10 14 Hz, 4.576 × 10-19 J

10. [UP] Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of an electron having Kinetic energy 0.4 KeV.
Ans: 0.61Å
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. A proton and an electron have the same kinetic energy. Which has longer de-Broglie wavelength?
[NEB 2074]
 The de-Broglie wavelength for a particle of kinetic energy E is,
h h
=p=
2mE
h
The wavelength of electron wave, e =
2meE
h
The wavelength of proton wave, p =
2mpE
For equal kinetic energy E in both electron and proton,
594 Principles of Physics - II

e mp
=
p me
1

m
This relation shows that greater the mass, smaller the wavelength. It concludes that electron has
longer de-Broglie wavelength than proton.
2. The accelerating voltage of a proton is increased to twice. How will its de-Broglie wavelength
change? Explain.
 The de-Broglie wavelength for a particle is,
h
 = 2mE

Where, E is the kinetic energy of a particle (say proton). We have, E = eV. So,
h
=
2meV
If accelerating potential is increased by twice, V' = 2V, then new wavelength,
h
' =
2me (2V)
1  1  1
= = 
2  2meV 2
 Wavelength is decreased by 2 times.
3. "The total energy of an electron of an atom in an orbit is negative". What does this negative energy
indicate? [HSEB 2072]
 The total energy of an electron in an atom is found negative value. It means larger the magnitude
gives lower energy. The negative value of energy of the electron indicates that electron is bound to
the nucleus and some work should be done to separate it from the atomic orbit.
4. Why is gravitational force not taken into consideration while evaluating the energy of an electron in
an atom? [HSEB 2070]
 The electric force between an electron in ground state and the nucleus hydrogen atom is,
1 e  Ze
fe =
40 r2
1.6 × 10–19 × 1.6 × 10–19
= 9 × 109 (0.53 × 10–10)2 (for example, hydrogen Z = 1)

= 8.2 × 10–8 N
Also, the gravitational force between an electron and nucleus (i.e. proton) of a hydrogen atom is,
me mp
fg = G r2

9.1 × 10–31 × 1.67 × 10–27

= 6.67 × 10–11 (0.53 × 10–10)2
= 3.61 × 10–47 N
This shows that the gravitational force between electron and proton is about 1039 times weaker than
the electric force. Hence, gravitational force is not taken into account in evaluating the energy of an
atom.
5. The wave nature of particles is not observable in daily life. Why? [HSEB 2070]
 A particle of large mass and ordinary speed has too small a wavelength to be detected. However, a
tiny particle such as an electron moving at typical speed has a detectable wavelength.
For a one kg mass object when travelling with speed 100 ms–1 speed, the de-Broglie wavelength is
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  595
h 6.62 × 10–34
 = mv = 1 × 100 = 6.62 × 10–36 m

But, an electron when travelling with speed 106 ms–1

h 6.62 × 10–34
 = mv = 9.1 × 10–31 × 106 = 7.27 × 10–11 m

This value of wavelength of electron is smaller than visible light but large enough for noticeable
diffraction.
6. A stone is dropped from the top of a building. How does its de-Broglie wavelength change?
[HSEB 2067]
 The de-Broglie wavelength of a body (say a stone) is,
h h
 = p = mv
While the stone is dropped from a top, its velocity increases continuously. It means the wavelength
gradually decreases.
7. What are the differences between matter wave and electromagnetic wave? [HSEB 2067]
 The important difference between electromagnetic waves and matter waves are given below:
Electromagnetic waves Matter waves
1. Electromagnetic waves are associated with 1. Matter waves may not be associated with electric
electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to and magnetic fields.
each other and to the direction of propagation
of radiation.
2. Electromagnetic waves can be emitted or 2. Matter waves are neither radiated into space nor
radiated into space. emitted by the particles. These are simply
associated with the particles.
3. All electromagnetic waves travel with the 3. Matter waves travel with different velocities in
same velocity in vacuum. different direction in a homogeneous media.
4. The wavelengths of electromagnetic radiations 4. The matter waves have shorter wavelengths given
are much large and are given by the relation, by de-Broglie equation,
c h
=  = mv where, mv is the momentum of the

where  is the frequency of wave. particle.
5. They are not the mechanical wave because 5. They are neither electromagnetic nor mechanical
these waves are not due to the cause of the wave because they travel in vacuum and material
vibration of medium particles. medium also.

8. Distinguish between stimulated emission and spontaneous emission.

 The important difference between spontaneous emission and stimulated emission are given below:
Spontaneous emission Stimulated emission
1. It is a natural transition in which an atom is 1. It is an artificial transition which occurs due
de-excited after the end of its life time in the to de-excitation of an atom before the end of
higher energy level. its life time in the higher energy state.
2. The photon emitted due to spontaneous 2. The photon emitted due to stimulated
emission can move in any direction. emission can move only in the direction of
the incident photon.
3. The probability of spontaneous emission 3. The probability of stimulated emission
depends only on the properties of the two depends on the properties of two energy
energy levels between which the transition levels involved in the transition as well as on
occurs. the energy density of incident radiation.
596 Principles of Physics - II
9. What do you mean by uncertainty principle?
 Heinsenberg's uncertainty principle states that "it is impossible to measure the conjugate variables of
an object with unlimited precision." For example,
Position-momentum uncertainty: In accordance with uncertainty principle, the position and
momentum uncertainty principle can be stated as "it is impossible to measure both the position and
momentum of a subatomic particle at a time accurately." The product of the uncertainty in position
h
(x) and the uncertainty in momentum (p) is greater than or equal to ħ =  , i.e.
 2
x × p  ħ
10. What are the importance of de-Broglie wave? [HSEB 2055]
 de-Broglie wave has great importance in atomic and quantum physics. Some importance are written
below:
i. It is the firm evidence of particle nature of light, which made it possible to explain the
quantization of energy.
ii. It shows the wave nature of particle. Each material particle exhibit the wave nature on its
h
motion i.e.,  = mv
iii. Many important devices, like electron microscope, work in the principle of de-Broglie
hypothesis.
11. Can any type of wave move faster than light? Explain.
h mc2
 Matter wave can move faster than light. Its wave length is,  = mv and frequency, f = h

The speed of matter wave, vd = f

mc2 h
vd = h × mv

c2 c
vd = v = v c
 
We know, no material moves faster than light i.e. c > v.
c
Hence, v > 1

So, vd > c.
Thus, de-Broglie wave velocity must be greater than the speed of light.
12. Why are Bohr's orbits are called stationary orbits?
 The electron in an orbit of an atom does not radiate energy, while revolving around the nucleus. It
can neither radiate energy nor absorb energy in that specific orbit. So, the Bohr's orbit is called
stationary in the sense of constant energy carried by electron in that orbit.
13. A hydrogen atom contains one electron. But the spectrum of hydrogen atom has many lines. Why?
 A source of hydrogen spectrum consists of millions of hydrogen atoms. Also, each atom contains
infinitely large number stationary orbits. As the electron transits from lower energy level to any
higher energy level, it returns to the lower energy level in very short time (~10–8 s). Therefore, all
possible transitions can occur from any higher level to any lower energy level. This gives rise to a
large number of spectral lines.
14. Define ionization energy. What is its value for a hydrogen atom?
 The energy required to knock out an electron from an atom is known as ionization energy. To knock
out an electron, it should be sent to infinity orbit (i.e. n = ). After removal of an electron from an
atom, the atom becomes ionized, which is called positive ion.
In hydrogen atom, energy of electron at ground state (i.e. E1) = –13.6 eV and the energy of atom at
infinity, E = 0
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  597
So, ionization energy of hydrogen atom
Ei = E – E1
= 0 – (–13.6) = 13.6 eV
15. Define excitation energy. What is its value when electron jumps from ground state to first excited
state?
 The energy required to raise an electron from ground state to any one of the higher energy state is
known as excitation energy.
Let E1 be the energy of ground state and Ei be the energy of any excited state of an atom. Then, the
excitation energy for the atom is,
E = Ei – E1
If the electron jumps to first excited state from ground state in hydrogen atom then
E2 = –3.4 eV and E1 = –13.6 eV
Excitation energy for the given condition is,
E1 = E2 – E1
= –3.4 – (–13.6) = 10.2 eV
16. What is Lyman series? What are the shortest and longest wavelength of Lyman series?
 Lyman series: The spectral series of hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from higher energy
states to ground state is called Lyman series. It lies in the ultraviolet region of electromagnetic
radiation. So, for Lyman series n1 = 1 and n2 = 2, 3, 4, . . . . This series was discovered by Lyman in
1915. The wavelengths of spectral lines of Lyman series are,
1 1 1
= R12 – n2
  
The longest wavelength in Lyman series is 1216 Ǻ and the shortest wavelength in Lyman series is 912
Ǻ.
17. Which spectral series of hydrogen atom lie within visible range? What are the shortest and longest
wavelength of that spectral series?
 The spectral series of hydrogen atom when an electron jumps from higher energy states to first
excited state is called Balmer series. It lies in the visible region of electromagnetic radiation.. So, for
Balmer series, n1 = 2 and n2 = 3, 4 . . . This series was discovered by Balmer in 1885. The
wavelength of spectral lines in Balmer series is given by
1 1 1
= R 22 – n 2
  2 

The shortest wavelength is 365 nm and longest wavelength is 365.3 nm of spectral series.
18. What are stationary orbits?
 To explain the atomic model of hydrogen like atom, Bohr has postulated that electrons can revolve
around the nucleus in a certain discrete, non-radiating orbits in which the angular momentum of an
h
electron is an integral multiple of . Such orbits are called stationary orbits.
2
19. What is the principle of laser?
 The full form of laser is "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". In the production of
laser, the intensity of light is amplified, proceeding the stimulated emission. So, the laser production
depends on the principle of stimulated emission of light.
20. What do you mean by stimulated emission?
 The process by which an incoming photon of a specific frequency can interact with an electron at
excited state, causing it to drop to a lower energy state is known as stimulated emission. If an
electron of an atom in the excited state E2 interacts with an incident photon of energy exactly equal to
E2 – E1 = hf, then it stimulates the electron to come down to the lower energy state E1. The emitted
photon has the frequency exactly equal to the incident photon.
598 Principles of Physics - II
21. What is population inversion in laser?
 It is the condition in atoms in which the numbers of electrons stay more in higher state than lower
energy. In ordinary condition, the number of electron remains more in ground state than the excited
state. If we reverse the situation by any means, population inversion takes place. To produce the
laser, population inversion is an essential condition, which is required for continuous emission of
radiation by stimulated process.
22. What is optical pumping in the production of laser? [HSEB 2072]
 The process in which light is used to raise the electrons from a lower energy level in an atom to a
higher energy level is known as optical pumping. It is commonly used in laser production so as to
achieve population inversion.
23. Why are the amount of helium taken more than the Neon in Ne-Ne laser, although the laser is
produced by Neon?
 In He-Ne laser, excited helium works to carry the electrons of neon from ground state to meta-stable
state. In the de-excitation of electron from 5s state to 3s state, laser is produced. To do so, population
inversion is needed in neon which can be done only if there are large number of excited helium
atoms.
24. What are the properties of laser?
 The major properties of laser are:
i. Laser can travel over long distance without much loss of energy (or intensity).
ii.. It is highly monochromatic.
iii. It is highly unidirectional beam of light.
iv. It is coherent i.e. all atoms emit radiations simultaneously.
v. Its wavelength is very, very short.
vi. It is highly energetic light.
25. An electron is in the third excited state. How many different photon wavelengths are possible?
(HSEB 2053)
 There are six possible ways of transition of electron if it is in the third
excited state as shown in figure. E3
Corresponding to these six transitions, there are six wavelengths. E2
The above transition can also be shown by the formula, E1
n(n – 1) E0
Total number of spectral lines = 2 , where n is the number of
principal quantum number.
In the question, n = 4 so the total spectral lines will six.
26. How is Brackett series originated in hydrogen spectra? (HSEB 2052)
 When an electron jumps from higher energy levels to the fourth energy level, the Brackett series is
obtained. In this series, the wavelength of spectra produced in Bracket series is,
1 1 1
= R42 – n2 , where, n = 5, 6, 7, …
  

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What are the main differences between Rutherford model and Bohr model?
2. The energies of the hydrogen atom orbits are negative. Is this true?
3. What are the evidences for dual nature of light?
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  599
4. What are the drawbacks of Rutherford's atomic model?
5. Write down the formula for the energy of an electron in the nth Bohr orbit of a hydrogen atom. State
the significance of the sign associated with it.
6. Explain what is meant by ionization energy of an atom. What is ionization energy for a hydrogen
atom?
7. What do you mean by excitation potential?
8. Explain what is meant by ionization potential. What is the value of ionization potential for hydrogen
atom?
9. Given Rn = 1.097  107 m-1. Calculate the longest and the shortest wavelength in Balmer series of
hydrogen spectra.
10. An electron is in the third excited state. How many different photon wavelength are possible?
11. How are different series in hydrogen spectra originated?
12. Why is an atom in its ground state called stable?
13. State and explain de Broglie's hypothesis.
14. Differentiate between matter waves and electromagnetic waves.
15. Why is the wave nature of particles not observable in daily life?
16. An electron and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Which one of them has the longer
wavelength?
17. Point out the importance of de Broglie wave.
18. Show that de Broglie hypothesis of matter wave is in agreement with Bohr's theory.
19. What is metastable state?
20. Explain (a) spontaneous emission (b) stimulated or induced absorption (c) stimulated or induced
emission (d) optical pumping and (e) population inversion.
21. Mention some uses of laser.
22. What is the principle of laser?
23. An electron is in Bohr's orbit n = 2 around a nucleus. What is the frequency of revolution of electron ?
(Ans:- 8191012 HZ).
24. Mention the differences between proton and photon.
25. The de Broglie wavelength of the particle of K.E. is . What would be the wavelength of the particle if
it's K.E. were E/4? (2).
26. If the ionization energy of H-atom is 13.6 ev, what is the ionization energy of He+? What are the
differences between ordinary light and laser light?
27. Name the series obtained in H-spectrum and their spectroscopic range.
28. Differentiate between ordinary light and laser light.
29. Two electrons revolve around in the second and the third orbit respectively. Which of them posses
more energy?
30. How can you say that energy is quantised?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Explain how Bohr modified the Rutherford model of an atom to explain the emission of radiation
from atoms. (HSEB 2062)
2. What are Bohr’s postulates of hydrogen atom? Derive an expression for the radius of Bohr’s orbit.
(HSEB 2053, 2059)
3. What are Bohr’s postulates? Derive expression for the total energy of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen
atom. (HSEB 2057, 2063, 2064, 2065, 2066, 2067)
600 Principles of Physics - II
4. Derive expression for the speed of electron in nth orbit of hydrogen atom. What are the limitations of
Bohr’s atomic model?
5. State Bohr's postulate of the stationary orbit for the theory of the hydrogen atom. Express this
postulate in terms of the de Broglie wavelength of the electron.
6. Explain the formation of various series of spectral lines in the hydrogen spectrum. Draw the energy
level diagram. On the diagram show the various transitions leading to all the series.
7. Show that the speed of an electron in the inner most orbit of H-atom is 1/137 times the speed of light
in the vacuum.
8. Distinguish between ionization potential and excitation potential. How do you arrive at the
conclusion that the electrons in an atom are arranged in various closed orbits?
9. Explain what is meant by wave particle duality. Derive an expression for de Broglie wavelength. An
electron is accelerated under a potential difference of V volt. Obtain an expression for the de Broglie
wavelength of electron.
10. How did de Broglie arrive at the existence of matter waves? Mention a practical application of de
Broglie waves.
11. What is laser? Describe the construction and working principle of He-Ne laser. (HSEB 2067)

Numerical Problems
1. What is the angular momentum of electron in third excited state of hydrogen atom?
Ans: 4.24 x 10-34 kgm2/s
2. An electron has a de Broglie wavelength of 2.80 x 10-10m. Determine (a) the magnitude of its
momentum; (b) its kinetic energy (in joules and in electron volts).
Ans: 2.36 x 10-24 kgms-1, 19.17 eV
3. (a) A non-relativistic free particle with mass m has kinetic energy K. Derive an expression for the de
Broglie wavelength of the particle in terms of m and K. (b) what is the de Broglie wavelength of an
800 eV electron? What is the de Broglie wavelength of an 800 eV electrons?
Ans: 4.335 x 10-11 m
4. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a 5 g bullet that is moving at 340 m/s. Will the bullet exhibit
wavelike properties?
Ans: 6.2 x 10-9 m, 2.7 x 10-10 m
5. When electron and photon have the same de-Broglie wavelength. Find the ratio of their kinetic
energy?
Ans: 5.46 x 104
6. Obtain the de-Broglie wavelength of neutron of K.E. 150 eV.(mass of neutron=1.67 x 10-27 kg)
(Ans: 2.3 x 10-12 m)
7. Calculate the wavelength of the de-Broglie wave associated with thermal neutrons at temperature
27°C.
Ans: 1.45 Ao
8. The de-Broglie wavelength of a particle at 27°C is 1.5Å. What is the value when the temperature falls
to 17°C?
Ans: 1.53 Ao
9. In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, what is the de-Broglie wavelength of electron when it is in
n= 4 level?
Ans: 1.33 x 10-9 m
10. The de-Broglie wavelength of a particle at 300 K is 4 x 10-7m. What is the de-Broglie wavelength
when temperature rises to 400 K?
Ans: 3.4 x 10-7 m
11. The electron in the hydrogen atom jumps from the fourth orbit to second. Find the frequency of the
spectral line emitted. Given that the Rydberg constant is 1.097 × 107 m–1.
Ans: 6.17 × 1014 Hz
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  601
12. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass 2 kg moving with a velocity 5 m/s?
(h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js)
Ans: 6.62 × 10–35 m
13. Calculate the de Broglie wave length of an electron moving with a velocity of 1/100th of the velocity
of light? (m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg)
Ans: 2.42 × 10–10 m
14. Calculate the K.E. of a neutron in electron volt if it has a de Broglie wavelength of 0.04 Å.
(m = 9.1 × 10–27 kg).
Ans: 51.25 eV
15. Through what voltage an electron must be accelerated such that it has a de Broglie wavelength of
0.386 Å? (m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg, e = 1.6 × 10–19 C).
Ans: 1010 V
16. An electron and photon have the same de Broglie wavelength of 10–10 m. Which of the two has
greater kinetic energy?
Ans: Kinetic energy of photon is greater
17. Compare the de Broglie wavelength of an electron of kinetic energy 1 eV and neutron of kinetic
energy 1 eV.
Ans: 43 : 1
18. Estimate the wavelength of an electron accelerated through a p.d. of 3600 V(e = 1.6 × 10–19 C,
m = 9.1 × 10–31 kg, h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js).
Ans: 2x10-11 m
19. The ionization potential of the hydrogen atom is 13.6 V. Calculate:
(a) The speed of an electron which could just ionize the hydrogen atom.
(b) The minimum wavelength which the hydrogen atom can emit. (charge on electron
= –1.6 × 10-19C, mass of electron = 9.11 × 10-31 kg, plank constant = 6.63 × 10–34 Js, speed of light
= 3.00 × 108 ms-1)
Ans: (a) 2.19 × 106 ms-1, (b) 0.91 × 10-7 m
20. The wavelength of yellow light in air is 6.0 × 10-7m. Calculate its wavelength in water of refractive
4
index 3 .
Ans: 4.5 × 10-7m

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The spectral region for the Lyman series of hydrogen spectrum is in the:
a. Ultra-violet region b. Infra-red region
c. Visible region d. Far Infra-red region
2. In an electronic transition, atom cannot emit:
a. UV radiation b. IR radiation
c. Visible light d. Gamma rays
3. Ratio of wavelength of first line of Lyman series to first line of Balmer
a. 1 : 4 b. 4 : 1
c. 2 d. 5 : 27
4. The series of visible spectral lines of hydrogen atom is known as:
a. Balmer series b. Lyman series
c. P fund series d. Paschen series
5. Line spectrum is given by:
a. Electron b. Atom
c. Molecule d. All
602 Principles of Physics - II
6. Radiations coming from Lyman series fall in the range:
a. Visible b. Infrared
c. Ultraviolet d. Far infrared
7. Radio of wavelength of 1st member of Balmer series to 1st member of Lyman series is:
a. 32 : 27 b. 27 : 5
c. 32 : 5 d, 32 : 7
8. The full form of LASER is:
a. Light amplified by strong emission of radiation
b. Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
c. Light amplified by stimulated emission of radiation
d. Light amplification by string emission of radiation
9. The Bohr model of atoms
a. assumes that the angular momentum of electrons is quantised.
b. uses Einstein's photoelectric equation
c. predicts continuous emission spectra for atoms
d. predicts the same emission spectra for all types of atoms.
10. Which state of triply ionised Beryllium (Be+++) has the same orbital radius as that of the ground state
of hydrogen?
a. n = 3 b. n = 4
c. n = 1 d. n = 2
11. If the energy of a hydrogen atom in nth orbit is En, then energy in the nth orbit of a singly ionised
helium atom will be
a. 4En b. En/4
c. 2En d. En/2
12. Which of the following transitions in hydrogen atoms emit photons of highest frequency?
a. n = 1 to n = 2 b. n = 6 to n = 2
c. n = 2 to n = 6 d. n = 2 to n = 1
13. The ratio of minimum to maximum wavelength in Balmer series is
a. 5 : 9 b. 5 : 36
c. 1 : 4 d. 3 : 4
14. The ionisation energy of Li2+ is equal to
a. 9 hcR b. 6 hcR
c. 2 hcR d. hcR
15. The transition in He+ ion that will give rise to a spectral line having the same wavelength as that of
some spectral line in hydrogen atom is
a. n = 3 to n = 1 b. n = 3 to n = 2
c. n = 4 to n = 2 d. n = 4 to n = 3
16. If 1 and 2 are the wavelengths of the first members of the Lyman series and Paschen series
respectively, then 1 : 2 is
a. 1 : 3 b. 1 : 30
c. 7 : 50 d. 7 : 108
17. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is –13.6 eV. When its electron is in the first excited state,
its excitation energy is:
a. 0 b. 3.4 eV
c. 6.8 eV d. 10.2 eV
18. If an electron jumps from 1st orbit to 3rd orbit, then it will
a. absorb energy b. release energy
c. no sign of energy d. none of these
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  603
19. Hydrogen atom does not emit X-rays because
a. It contains only a single electron
b. Energy levels in it are far apart
c. Its size is very small
d. Energy levels in it are very close to each other.
20. The ratio of minimum wavelengths of Lyman series and Balmer series will be
a. 1.25 b. 0.25
c. 5 d. 10
21. The de Broglie wavelength of the electron in the ground state of the hydrogen atom is .......
(radius of the first orbit of hydrogen atom = 0.53 Å).
a. 1.67 Å b. 3.33 Å
c. 1.06 Å d. 0.53 Å
22. Hydrogen atom is excited from ground state to another state with principal quantum number equal
to 4. Then the number of spectral lines in the emission spectra will be:
a. 3 b. 5
c. 6 d. 2
23. The transition from the state n = 3 to n = 1 in a hydrogen like atom results in ultraviolet radiation.
Infrared radiation will be obtained in the transition from:
a. 2  1 b. 3  2
c. 4  2 d. 4  3
24. Calculate the highest frequency of the emitted photon in the Paschen series of spectral lines of the
Hydrogen atom.
a. 3.7  1014 Hz b. 9.1  1015 Hz
c. 10.23  1014 Hz d. 29.7  1015
25. The energy state of doubly ionised lithium having the same energy as that of the first excited state of
hydrogen is
a. 4 b. 6
c. 3 d. 2

Answers
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d) 11. (a) 12. (d) 13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (d) 17. (d)
18. (a) 19. (d) 20. (b) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (d) 24. (a) 25. (b)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 Given,
Given, E1 = – 13.6 eV
E = – 3.4 eV, angular momentum (L) = ? E2 = – 3.4 eV
Firstly, find n from, E3 = – 1.5 eV
–13.6 The ionisation potential,
E = n2 eV
eV = E – E1
Then apply n in, V = 0 – (– 13.6) = 13.6 eV
nh  V = 13.6 V.
L =
2 i. For transition of election from E2 to E1,
HINT: 2 hc
n= E
E =
= 00 eV
eV E2 – E1 = h f1 =
1
n=3 E2 = –1.5 eV hc
3
or, 1 = E – E
n=2 E1 = –3.4 eV 2 1
1 2
n=1 E0 = –13.6 eV
604 Principles of Physics - II
ii. For transition of electron from E3 to E1, we can -13.6
write E5 = (5)2 = – 0.544 eV
hc From Bohr's postulate,
2 = E – E
3 1 E = E5 – E2
iii. Similarly transition of electron from E3 to E2, Now,
we can write, hc
hc E = hf =

3 = E – E
3 2 hc
HINT: 3 or,  = E
Here b. According to the law of conservation of
 = 1.216  10–7 m angular momentum,
Initial energy of electron (E) = 20 eV Decrease in angular momentum of electron
= 20  1.6  10–19 J = 32  10–19 J = angular momentum of photon
Let v be the velocity of scattered electron. h 2h nh
or, 5
. .
Here, initial energy of electron = Energy of  2 – 2 = L ( . L = 2 )
photon + energy of scattered electron HINT: 7
1 (a) Given,
or, E = hf + 2 me v2
Speed of electron in n = 1 is v1 and v1 = ?
1 hc We know that,
or, 2 me v2 = E –
 e2
vn =
HINT: 4 2 onh
Given, e2
Energy in ground state, For n = 1, v1 =
20n  1
E1 = – 13.6 eV For n = 2, we have,
= – 13.6 × 1.6 × 10 -19 J = – 21.76 × 10 -19 J e2
–13.6 v2 =
For n = 4, E4 = n2 eV 2 0 h × 2
Similarly, for n = 3,
E4 – E1 e2
i. Frequency (f) = h v3 =
2 0 h × 3
c (b) Orbital period in each level = ?
ii. Wavelength ()= f
For n = 1, we have,
HINT: 5
2  r1
Given, v1 = T
1
E = –1.51 eV
2  r1
To find angular momentum of an electron, or, T1 = v
1
firstly find n, from
For n = 2,
–13.6
E = n2 eV 2  r2
T2 = v
2
nh
Then, L = Similarly, for n = 3
2
HINT: 6 2  r3
T3 = v
3
Given,
Transition of a atom is from (c) Here, v2 = 1.09 × 106 m/s
n = 5 to n = 2 state. T2 = 1.22 × 10–15 s
a. We have, ... Circumference of second orbit (C2)
v2 = T2
–13.6
En = n2 eV Now,
-13.6 ... In 1.22 × 10–15 sec, 1.329 × 10–9 m distance
 E2 = (2)2 = – 34 eV covered by electron
 Atomic Models  Chapter 22  605
1.329 × 10–9 HINT: 9
 In 10–8 sec, 1.22 × 10–15 × 10–8 m Given,
= 1.089 × 10–2
m  =?
So, Number of orbits completed f =?
Total distance covered E =?
= Circumference of second orbit
For Hr line in Balmer series,
HINT: 8 n1 = 2 and n2 = 5
Given, To find 1
Wavelength of first line, 1 = ? 1 1 1
= R n 2 – n 2
Wavelength of second line, 2 = 4.86 × 10 -7 m 1  1 2
i. For first line of Balmer series, To find f1,
n1 = 2 and n2 = 3 c
 f1 =
1 1 1 1
= R n 2 – n 2
1  1 2 Again, Energy of photon emitted,
36 E1 = hf1
 1 = 5R . . . (i)
ii. For the second line of Balmer series, HINT: 10
n1 = 2 and n2 = 4. Given,
1 1 1 E = 0.4 keV = 0.64 × 10-19 J
 = R 22 – 42
2    =?
16 From de- Braglie wave equation, we have,
 2 = 3R . . . (ii) h
 =
Dividing (ii) by (i), we get, 2mE
20
or, 1 = 27 2


606 Principles of Physics - II
 X-RAYS

23.1 Introduction
All of us are familiar with the X-ray ward in hospital and you might also have been referred to such
ward by your doctor to take the X-ray image of different
parts of your body. What actually is X-ray and how does it
produce image? We will try to answer these questions and
other related topics in this chapter. In X-ray ward,
energetic rays are produced which can penetrate human
flesh but not the bones. This property of the X-rays is used
to take the image of internal body parts so that we can
detect the fracture of bones and diagnose the diseases.
These highly penetrating rays are called x-rays. Actually,
X-rays are electromagnetic radiations that can travel in
vacuum as well as in medium.
X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in
1895 while he was working to study the cathode rays from
discharge tube and was awarded Nobel Prize for this
Fig. 23.1: x-ray machine
accidental discovery (the first Nobel Prize in its history).
Nowadays, X-rays are widely used in hospitals, research centres, engineering fields and detective
departments.
The wavelength of X-rays is very short (ranging from 10–9 m to 10–12 m). Since the wavelength is very
hc
short, X-ray photons are highly energetic i.e. E = . They can easily penetrate through low atomic
 
number materials such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, which are the constituents of human flesh.

23.2 Production of X-Rays

The modern method for the production of X-rays consists of a discharge tube which was designed
by W.D. Coolidge in 1916 A.D. and is commonly known as modern Coolidge tube. It consists of
highly evacuated glass tube as shown in Fig. 23.2, the pressure inside which is maintained in the
order of 10-5 mm of Hg. The tube is provided with a filament cathode and an anode between which a
very high potential difference of the order of kV is applied. The thermo-electrons are produced by
heating the filament cathode (F) by passing small d.c. current through it from low tension (L.T.)
608 Principles of Physics - II
supply. The cathode filament is kept inside a metal cup (M) in order to focus the electrons in the
target. The current passing through the filament can be controlled with the help of rheostat (Rh) as
shown in Fig 23.2. The anode (A) is usually made of a heavy (high atomic number) element like
molybdenum or tungsten which have very high melting point and is cut at 45º angle with the
direction of incident electrons.
When the electrons emitted from cathode are accelerated through high potential difference applied
through high tension (H.T.) supply between the electrodes they acquire very high kinetic energy.
When these energetic electrons suddenly encounter the hard target, they are heavily retarded and
these retarded electrons emit energy in the form of radiation which is called X–radiation (X-rays).
The efficiency of X-ray tube is very low. It converts only about 1% of energy of incident electrons into
X-radiation, remaining part will be convert into heat energy.
During this process, high heat is generated in the target material due to continuous hitting by the
electrons. Due to this the target may melt. In order to prevent it from melting it is kept inside a jacket
made of copper filled with cold water or oil. Copper is good conductor of heat, so heat easily
transfers to the water through it.
– H.T. +

Tungsten target
Water out
M T Fans
F
K B
M A

L.T. Water in

x-rays
Fig. 23.2: Production of x-rays in Coolidge tube
This method of production of X-rays is called the modern method because the quality and intensity
of the X-rays thus produced can be controlled.
Intensity control: The intensity of X-rays can be controlled by controlling the number of incident
electrons striking the target which in turn can be controlled by controlling the current flowing
through the filament. Filament current regulation controls the no. of thermal electrons emitted from
the cathode. This current can be easily changed with the help of rheostat (Rh).
Quality control: The quality refers to the energy of the X-rays. The energy of the X-rays depends
upon the kinetic energy of the electrons which in turn depend upon the potential difference across
the electrodes used to accelerate the electrons. So, quality of X-rays can be controlled by controlling
the p.d. across the electrodes.
X-rays of higher frequencies are highly penetrating and are called hard X-rays. Those with low
frequency are less penetrating and are known as soft x-rays.
If all of the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted in the form of x-radiation, then
1
Energy of radiation (hf) = 2 mv2max

1
Also, 2 mv2max = eV

Therefore, hfmax= eV
 X-rays  Chapter 23  609
eV
or, fmax = h

c eV
or, =
min h
hc
 min = eV … (23.1)

Thus, we see that frequency of X –radiation is proportional to the potential difference across the
electrodes.

Properties of X-Rays
1. They are electrically neutral rays. They contain photons which travel with speed of light in
vacuum but their wavelength is very short (0.1 Å to 100 Å or 0.01 nm to 10 nm).
2. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
3. They ionize the gases through which they pass and make them more conducting.
4. They affect photographic plate, similar to light and so this fact is exploited in X-ray
photography.
5. The penetrating power of X-rays is very high so they can pass through many substances such as
paper, flesh, cardboard, wood, thin, concrete walls etc.
6. They exhibit phenomenon of reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction and polarization
similar to that of light, but not as easily as in case of ordinary light wave.
7. They can cause the photoelectric effect on any metal.
8. They are scattered, and after scattering their wavelength may remain constant or increase but
do not decrease.
9. X-rays cannot pass through lead, iron, bones etc. and this property is used in radiography. X-
rays are strongly absorbed by lead, bones etc. Absorption of X-rays increases with increase of
thickness and increase in atomic number of atoms in the medium.
10. They produce fluorescence and phosphorescence effect in some substances, such as zinc
sulphide, barium platinocyanide, etc.
11. They have property of destroying some living cells. So, exposure to these rays must be avoided,
but this character is benefited in radiotherapy.

Uses of X-Rays
X-rays are used in many fields. Some important applications of X-rays are explained below:
1. Medical uses: X-rays are used in diagnosis of
fractures of bones and some diseases, and also in
the therapy.
a. Diagnosis: X-rays are highly penetrating
radiations. They can penetrate through human
flesh easily but not through the bones. So, the X-
rays exposed to a part of our body provide the
contrast between the bones, muscles and fractured
part. Also, the image produced from X-ray
radiograph is also used to diagnose the
Fig. 23.3: X-ray image of fractured bone
tuberculosis in lungs unusual growth and presence
610 Principles of Physics - II
of bullet into the body. In CT scan, a three-dimensional image is obtained using X-rays from
different angles.
b. Therapy: Highly energetic X-rays (hard x-rays) are allowed to fall on the cancerous tissue so
that these tissues are destroyed. When proper amount of radiation dose is exposed to infected
tissue, they die and infection can be cured. But, it has very high side effect, since it damages the
nearby fresh tissue.
2. Engineering uses: X-rays are used to check the quality of goods and machines.
3. Industry: X-rays are used to detect the cracks in casting and welding in bridges, metal pipes
and other metallic devices.
4. Detective departments: X-rays are used to detect the contraband goods like gold, sealed
parcels, and illegal drugs.
5. Scientific research: X-rays are used to study the crystal structure of solid state materials, atomic
structures of proteins and nucleic acids, a technique called X-ray diffraction (XRD). X-rays can
be used in chemical analysis using Moseley's law.

23.3 X-ray Spectra

X-ray photon produced even from source does not contain equal energy. So, they do not have the
same wavelength, varying between a minimum and maximum values. The intensity of X-rays at
different wavelengths is also obtained different. Thus, the intensity distribution of x-radiations
among the wavelengths varies. This variation in intensity produces a band of X-rays which is called
X-ray spectrum. In accordance with its origin, X-ray spectra are categorized into two: continuous
spectra and characteristics spectra. The graph between X-ray intensity and wavelength at different
applied voltage are shown in Fig 23.4.
Kα

Kβ

Lα

Bβ
Intensity (I)

High accelerating voltage

Low accelerating voltage

Wavelength
Fig. 23.4: Continuous X-ray spectrum

Continuous Spectra
The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. Protons are positive charge particles and
neutrons are chargeless. So, the net charge of nucleus is positive. When an electron (negative charge
particle) travels close to the nucleus, it slows down due to the attraction of nucleus. As a result, the
electron deviates from its original path and then losses kinetic energy. Thus, the electromagnetic
radiation is emitted in the expense of loss of kinetic energy of the decelerating electron. This process
 X-rays  Chapter 23  611
of loss of energy by a charge particle is called Bremsstrahlung. It has a maximum frequency (or
minimum wavelength min) beyond which the intensity is zero. In high atomic number metals, the
wavelength of emitted radiation lies within the wavelength range (10–9 m to 10–12 m) of x-radiation.
Such type of x-radiation is called continuous X-rays and the corresponding X-ray spectrum is called
continuous spectrum. Continuous spectrum consists of all possible wavelength within a range upto a
minimum wavelength limit.
If total kinetic energy of moving electron is converted into x-radiation, the wavelength is shortest,
otherwise contains longer wavelength that of the minimum limit.
The X-rays of shortest wavelength are possible when total kinetic energy of an electron is converted
into x-rays. If V is the applied p.d. between the filament and target and min is the shortest
wavelength, then,
Maximum K.E. of incident electrons
= Maximum energy of X-rays [X-rays of shortest wavelength (min)]
hc
 eV = hfmax =
min
hc
 min = eV

The values of h, c and e are constant, the minimum value of wavelength (min) of X-ray is,
1
 min  V

The energy of photon increases on decreasing the wavelength and the wavelength of X-ray
decreases on increasing supplied voltage. Energy (penetrating power or quality) can be increased by
increasing the p.d.
Fast moving
electron
K L M
Continuous
Nucleus x-ray

Fig. 23.5: X-rays produced due to losing of energy of electron

Energy of continuous X-ray depends on the location of electron to nucleus and degree of its
deceleration. The closer the electron gets to the nucleus, the more it slows down, changes direction
and the greater the energy of resultant x-ray. Experimentally, continuous spectra are obtained in
various values of potential differences provided by the high tension battery. In tungsten target,
continuous spectra are obtained in various values of applied voltages: 40 kV, 50 kV, 60 kV, 70 kV, etc,
as shown in Fig. 23.5

Characteristics Spectra
When an energetic electron strikes a bound electron in an atom, (the electron in target atom) the
bound electron is ejected from the inner orbit, it may be kicked out or excited to upper orbit. After
the ejection of electron, the atom is left with a vacant energy level. Then, the electron in the upper
orbit falls into the lower level, emitting quantized photons with an energy level (equivalent to the
612 Principles of Physics - II
energy difference between the higher and lower states). The x-ray, thus produced is called
characteristics x-ray. Each element has a unique set of energy levels and thus the transition from
higher to lower energy levels produces X-rays with different X-rays spectra produced due to the
electron transition in target atoms are known as characteristics spectra.
Emitted x-ray
Incident electron

Emitted electron

Nucleus

K
L
M
Fig. 23.6: Characteristics X-rays
Characteristics spectrum consists of discrete spectral lines in the form of small groups superimposed
on the continuous spectrum. When an electron falls from L-orbit to K-orbit, the X-ray spectrum is
called K spectrum. Similarly, when an electron falls from the M orbit to K orbit, the X-ray emitted is
called a K x-ray. Many other characteristics X-rays are produced like as in Fig. 23.6.

Differences between continuous spectra and characteristics spectra

Continuous spectra Characteristics spectra
1. Continuous spectra consist of radiations of 1. The characteristics spectra have a few
all possible wavelengths within a range sharp peaks at certain wavelengths. These
upto with a minimum wavelength limit. peaks appearing in continuous spectrum
form line spectrum.
2. The fast moving electrons during 2. The fast moving electrons excite the inner
decelleration radiates energy in the form electrons to the higher energy state and
of continuous x-rays. make transition to the lower energy state.
The x-rays, thus produced is called
characteristics x-rays.
3. This type of spectrum consists of radiation 3. The characteristics spectrum depends on
with min depending upon the potential the atom through which X-rays are
applied. emitted.
4. In tungsten target, continuous X-rays are 4. In tungsten target, characteristics X-rays
obtained in many values of applied are obtained in specific value of applied
voltage, for examples 40 kV, 50 kV, 60 kV, voltage, for example 70 kV.
70 kV.

23.4 X-rays Diffraction

Diffraction is the phenomenon of spreading of wave through a small aperture or from an obstacle.
All types of wave exhibit diffraction property. X-ray is an electromagnetic wave, so it shows the
diffraction phenomenon when passes through tiny aperture or obstacle. They can be diffracted
 X-rays  Chapter 23  613
through the atomic spacing of crystals and liquids. X-ray diffraction (XRD) is one of the most
important tools to analyze all kinds of matters ranging from fluids, to powder and crystals. This
technique is widely used to obtain the information about the structure of crystalline materials and to
identify the molecular structure of biomolecules like protein, carbohydrates, DNA, RNA, etc.
The diffraction phenomenon of X-ray was firstly experimented by Von Laue and his coworkers in
April 1912. They studied about the X-ray diffraction by passing it through ZnS crystal. Their
experiment not only discussed the wave nature of X-ray but also the atomic arrangement in the
crystals. The results of the experiment confirmed that X-rays were electromagnetic radiation of short
wavelength.

Von Laue Experiment

The apparatus arrangement in Von-Laue experiment is shown in Fig. 23.7. The apparatus consists of
a X-ray source which emits the x-rays. The emitted X-rays are collimated by two parallel slits S1 and
S2. Then, the collimated beam is passed through the zinc sulphide (ZnS) crystal. The transmitted
beam of X-rays from ZnS are observed by exposing it on the photographic plate. After appropriate
exposure on the plate, it is developed. Upon close observation in the developed film, a definite
pattern of sports is seen. There is a central spot where X-ray beam falls directly. Moreover, there are
many small spots around it in a regular pattern corresponding to the crystal structures as shown in
Fig.23.7. These regular patterns on the film are called Laue's pattern. The diffraction spots that
surrounded the central spot of the primary beam could be explained by Laue as interference pattern
due to the diffraction through crystal's space lattice. The diffraction pattern depends upon the lattice
constant and the wavelength of x-rays.

collimating

Slit Slit
S1 S2
x-ray

S1,S2 slits are of lead sheets ZnS crystal

Photographic plate (screen)

Fig. 23.7: Diffraction of x-ray by a crystal of ZnS

Major findings of Von Laue XRD experiment

i. The atoms (ions) of a crystal are arranged in a regular three dimensional lattice.
ii. X-rays are electromagnetic waves.

23.5 Bragg's Law

When X-ray wave travels through a very small aperture, it bends from its original path, this
phenomenon is called diffraction of x-rays. X-rays can be diffracted passing through some crystals
like zinc sulphide because its wavelength is comparable to the space between the atoms in crystal
(lattice spacing). Bragg studied the diffraction of X-rays through crystals and established a
mathematical relation between the lattice spacing and wavelength of x-rays. This mathematical
equation is written as,
614 Principles of Physics - II
2d sin  = n
and is known as Bragg's law, where d symbolizes the lattice spacing and  is the wavelength of x-
rays.

Proof
Let us consider three crystal planes L1, L2, and L3 of a crystal containing an array of atoms as shown
in Fig. 23.8. A beam of X-ray is incident on the first crystal plane L1. When the X-ray beam is incident
on this plane, a part of it is reflected and remaining part diffract through spacing between the atoms.
Also, a part of the diffracted beam is reflected from the second plane. Similar phenomenon can be
observed in the third plane.
N
L

R
P

 M 
L1
 
H d
K

L2  
Q

L3

Fig. 23.8: Diffraction of x -ray

Let LM and PQ be two incident rays on first and second crystal planes making glancing angle .
When the rays fall on atoms, they reflect back through the path MN and QR respectively. Let d be
the distance between two successive planes. Two perpendicular line MH and MK are drawn on PQ
and QR respectively as shown in Fig. 23.8.
The path difference of these rays is HQ + QK. In this experiment, the interference phenomenon takes
place when reflected rays of certain path difference superimpose. For a bright pattern, the path
difference of two rays must be integral multiple of wavelength (). Therefore,
HQ + QK = n, where n is the order of diffraction, n = 1, 2, 3, …
In MHQ,
HQ HQ
sin  = MQ = d

 HQ = d sin 
Similarly, in MKQ,
QK = d sin 
So, for constructive interference,
d sin  + d sin  = n
2d sin  = n … (23.2)
This is the mathematical form of Bragg's law. We can calculate the wavelength  of X-rays when
lattice spacing d is known. The value of glancing angle () and order of brightness (n) can be
 X-rays  Chapter 23  615
determined from this experiment. If the wavelength of X-rays is known, the lattice spacing d can be
calculated.

Tips for MCQs

1. X-rays were discovered by Roentgen. He is the first Nobel Laurent in the history of Nobel Prize.
2. X-rays wavelength range lies between 1 nm to 10–3 nm.
hc 1
3. The minimum value of wavelength of X-rays is,  = eV , i.e.   V
1 2
4. When electron are accelerated by potential difference V, the energy acquired by electron is 2 mvmax =
eV.
5. Depending upon the penetrating capacity, X-rays are categorized into two:
a. Soft x-rays, wavelength ranging approximately 10 Å  100 Å,
b. Hard x-rays, wavelength ranging approximately 0.1 Å 10 Å.
It is to be noted that, there is no special demarcation value to distinguish between soft X-rays and
hard x-rays.
6. a. The intensity X-rays is controlled by current from low tension battery (LTB).
b. The quality of X-rays is controlled by potential difference provided high tension battery (HTB).
7. X-rays spectrum is classified into two categories:
a. Continuous X-ray and b. Characteristics x-rays
8. Bragg's law of X-rays difference is, 2d sin  = n, where n = 1, 2, 3, ……..
9. The intensity of X-ray (I) that emerges from a material is, I = I0 e–x
Where, Io = incident intensity of x-ray
 = absorption coefficient of material (SI unit is m–1)
x = thickness of material
10. The quantity of radiative energy absorbed per unit mass by a substance is termed as dose of radiation,
Q
D = m . Its unit is Gray (Gy), 1 Gy = 1 Jkg–1.
hc
1. The energy of X-ray photon, E = .

hc
2. The minimum wavelength of X-ray is determined from, min = eV .
3. The kinetic energy of thermo electrons due to the voltage supplied by high tension battery,
1
2 mv max = eV.
2

4. Bragg’s law for diffraction of X-rays is

2d sin  = n , where, n = 1, 2, 3, 

Worked Out Problems

1. Calculate the energy in electron volt of a quantum of x-radiation of wavelength 0.15 nm.
(h = 6.6 × 10–34 Js)
SOLUTION
Given,
Wavelength () = 0.15 nm = 0.15 × 10–9 m
Planck's constant (h) = 6.6 × 10–34 Js
Energy (E) = ?
616 Principles of Physics - II
We have, velocity of light (c) = 3 × 108 ms–1 1.98 × 10–25
We know, = 0.15 × 10–9 = 1.32 × 10–15 J
hc We know,
E =
 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
6.6 × 10–34 × 3 × 108 1.32 × 10–15
= So, E =  1.6 × 10–19  eV = 8250 eV
0.15 × 10–9  
2. An X-ray tube operates at 18 kV. Calculate the maximum speed of electron striking the target.
(me = 9 × 10 -31 kg, e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C)
SOLUTION
Given, 1
Operating voltage (V) = 18 kV = 18 × 10 3 V eV = 2 me v2max
Mass of electron (me) = 9 × 10 -31 kg 2 eV 2 × 1.6 × 10 -19 × 18 × 103
Charge of electron (e) = 1.6 × 10 -19 C or, vmax = me = 9 × 10 -31
If the electrons strike the target with maximum
 vmax = 8 × 10 7m/s
speed (vmax) then we must have,
3. Electrons are accelerated form rest through a potential difference of 10000 V in an X-ray tube.
Calculate (i) the resultant energy of the electrons in eV; (ii) wave length of the associated electron
waves; (iii) the maximum energy and the minimum wavelength of the x-radiation generated,
(Charges of electron = 1.6 × 10-19 C, mass of the electron = 9.11 × 10-31 kg. Planck constant = 6.62×10 -34
Js. Speed of electromagnetic radiation in vacuum = 3.0×108 ms-1.)
SOLUTION
Given, 6.62 × 10-34
Potential difference (V) = 10000 volt = 104 V =
2 × 9.11 × 10-31× 1.6 × 10 -15
(i) Energy of electrons (E) = ? 6.62 × 10–34
we know that, =
29.152 × 10–46
1
eV = 2 mv2 6.62
= 5.4 × 10–11
or, eV = E
= 1.23 × 10–11 m
or, E = 1.6 × 10 -19 × 104 J
1.6 × 10 -19 × 104 (iii) Maximum energy of X-ray (Emax) = ?
= 1.6 × 10 -19 eV = 104 eV Minimum wavelength of X-ray generated (min)
(ii) Wave length of the associated electron waves =?
For Maximum energy of x-ray, the total energy
() = ?
of an incident electron on the target is
The wave associated with an electron is the
absorbed. So, we can write,
matter wave whose wavelength is given by,
Emax = eV = 1.6 × 10 -19 × 104 = 1.6 × 10-15 J
h
 = m v (de – Broglie wave equations) For, min, the total energy must be converted
e
into x-ray, i.e.,
1
But, E = 2 mev2 eV = hf max (since each photon of X-ray is hf)
hc
2E or, eV=
 v = min
me hc 6.62 × 10 -34 × 3 × 108
h h or, min = eV = 1.6 × 10-19 × 104
So,  = =
2E 2meE  min = 1.24 × 10 -10 m
me × me

4. The spacing of atomic planes in crystal is 1.1 × 10 -10 m and when incident on them at glancing angle
of 5°, a first order image is produced. Calculate the wavelength. What is the glancing angle for the
second order image?
SOLUTION
Given,
Atomic spacing (d) = 1.1 × 10-10 m
Glancing angle () = 5
 X-rays  Chapter 23  617

order of diffraction (n) = 1 or,  = 1.914 × 10-11 m

Wavelength () = ? For second order image (n) = 2
For the second order (n = 2),  2 = ? 2d sin 2 = n 
From the Bragg's law, we have or, 2 × 1.1 × 10-10 × sin2 = 2 × 1.91 × 10 -11
2d sinn = n 1.91 × 10 -11
or, Sin2 = 1.1 × 10-10 = 0.17
For first order image (n) = 1
or, 2 × 1.1 × 10-10 × sin 5° = 1 ×  or, 2 = sin-1 (0.17) = 9.78°

5. [HSEB 2072] An X-ray spectrometer has a crystal of rock salt for which atomic spacing is 2.82 Å set at
an angle of 14º to the beam coming from a tube operated at a constantly increasing voltage. An
intense first line appears when the voltage across the tube is 9045 V. Calculate the value of Planck's
constant.
SOLUTION
Given, 2 × 2.82 × 10–10 × sin 14
= 1
Spacing (d) = 2.82 Å = 2.82 × 10–10 m
Angle () = 14º = 1.36 × 10–10 m
Order (n) = 1 hc
Now,  = eV
Voltage (V) = 9045 V
Planck's constant (h) = ?  × eV
h = c
We have,
1.36 × 10–10 × 1.6 × 10–19 × 9045
From Bragg's law, = 3 × 108
2d sin  = n
= 6.56 × 10 Js
–34
2d sin 
 =  The value of Planck's constant is 6.56 × 10–34 Js.
n

6. [HSEB 2052] X-ray beam of wavelength 2.9 Å is diffracted from the plane of cubic crystal. The first
order diffraction is obtained at angle 35º. Calculate the spacing between the planes.
SOLUTION
Given 2d sin  = n
Wavelength () = 2.9 Å = 2.9 × 10–10 m n
d =
Order (n) = 1 2 sin 
Angle () = 35º 1 × 2.9 × 10–10
= 2 × sin 35º
Spacing (d) = ?
We have, = 2.5 × 10–10 m
From Bragg's law

7. [HSEB 2065] X-rays of wavelength 0.36 Å are diffracted by a Bragg's crystal spectograph at a
glancing angle of 4.8°. Find the spacing of the atomic planes in the crystal.
SOLUTION
Given, for n = 1; we have
Wavelength of X-ray () = 0.36 Å 2dsin  = 
= 0.36 × 10–10 m  0.36 × 10–10
or, d = = 2 × sin 4.8
Glancing angle () = 4.8° 2sin 
Spacing of atomic planes (d) = ?  d = 2.15 × 10–10 m
Now, Hence, the required spacing is 2.15 × 10–10 m
From Bragg's law, we have
2dsin  = n n = 1, 2, 3, …
618 Principles of Physics - II

Challenging Problems
1. An X-ray tube works at a d.c. potential difference of 50 kV. Only 0.4% of the energy of the cathode
rays is converted into x-radiation and heat is generated in the target at the rate of 600 W. Estimate (i)
the current passed into the tube; (ii) the velocity of the electrons striking the target. (electron mass
= 9.00  10–31 kg, Electron charge = – 1.6  10–19 C)
Ans: (i) 0.012 A (ii) 1.3 × 108 m/s

2. An X-ray tube is operated with an anode potential of 10 kV and anode current of 15 A

(i) Estimate the number of electrons hitting the anode per second. (ii) Calculate the rate of production
of heat at the anode, stating any assumptions made.
Ans: (i) 9.37 × 1016 electron/sec (ii) 150 W

3. Determine the ratio of the energy of a photon of x-radiation of wavelength 0.1 nm to that of a photon
of visible radiation of wavelength 500 nm.
Ans: 5000 : 1

4. X-ray beam of wavelength 2.9 Å is diffracted from the plane of cubic crystal. The first order
diffraction is obtained at an angle 35°. Calculate the spacing between the planes.
Ans: 2.52 × 10-10 m

5. (a) What is the minimum p.d. between the filament and the target of an X-ray tube if the tube is to
produce X-rays with a wavelength of 0.150 nm ? (b) what is the shortest wavelength produced in an
X-ray tube operated at 30 kV?
Ans: (a) 8281.3 V (b) 0.414 × 10-9 m
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Can X-ray diffraction experiment be performed by an ordinary grating? Why? [HSEB 2073]
 No. It is impossible to perform XRD experiment by an ordinary grating. Wave diffraction is possible
only when the wavelength of wave and width of aperture are comparable. The width of ordinary
grating is about 10–6 m, whereas the wavelength of X-rays ranges from 10–9 m to 10–12 m. So, these
values are not comparable to the spacing between ordinary gratings. The spacing of ordinary grating
is at least one thousand times larger than the longest wavelength of x-rays.
2. Can X-rays be produced from gases? [HSEB 2070]
 X-rays can not be produced from gases. The spectrum produced by gases lies in ultraviolet, visible
and infrared range, but not in the X-ray region. X-rays are produced only in the Bremsstralung effect
or the electron transition in high atomic number metals like tungsten.
3. Can Bragg's law of X-ray diffraction be verified with yellow light of wavelength 600 nm? Explain.
[HSEB 2069]
 Bragg's law depends on the X-ray diffraction experiment. For the diffraction of any wave, its
wavelength should be comparable to the width of opening. However, the spacing between the atoms
in crystal is about 10–10 m, which is about 104 times narrower than the wavelength of yellow light of
wavelength 600 nm (= 6 × 10–6 m). So, Bragg's law can not be verified by using yellow light.
4. What are the differences between X-rays and ordinary ray of light?
 Although X-rays and ordinary light are electromagnetic radiations, they have some basic differences:
X-rays ordinary light
1. X-rays are high energy electromagnetic 1. Ordinary light is medium energy
waves. electromagnetic waves
 X-rays  Chapter 23  619

2. They have invisible spectrum. 2. They have visible spectrum.

3. X-rays can penetrate through the soft 3. They can not penetrate even through
tissue of human body. these tissues.
4. X-ray spectrum has wide range of 4. Ordinary light has narrow range of
spectrum of wavelength range 10–9 m to spectrum of wavelength 4 × 10–7 m to 7 ×
10–12 m. 10–7 m.
5. What are soft X-rays and hard x-rays?
 X-rays of low penetrating power are called soft x-rays. They possesses low energy photons. In
contrast, hard X-rays are more energetic and have high penetrating power. They possesses high
energy photons. The distinction between hard and soft X-rays is not well defined. Hard X-rays are
typically those with energies greater than around 10 keV than soft x-rays.
6. Where are X-rays on the electromagnetic spectrum?
 X-rays are energetic than the ultraviolet rays and weaker than -rays. Energetic in the sense that X-
rays photons have wavelength shorter than ultraviolet photons and weaker in the sense that X-rays
photons have wavelength longer then -rays photons. Therefore, X-ray falls between ultraviolet and
-ray region in electromagnetic radiation.
7. What are the differences between cathode rays and x-rays?
 Some fundamental differences between cathode rays and X-rays are as follows:
Cathode rays X-rays
1. They are the rays of charged particles i.e. 1. They are the rays of photons. They are
rays of electrons electromagnetic radiations.
2. They are deviated by electric and 2. They are not deviated by electric and
magnetic fields. magnetic field.
3. The speed of cathode rays is less than 3. The speed of X-rays is equal to the speed
speed of visible light. of visible light in vacuum.
4. The particles of cathode rays have non- 4. The particle of X-rays have zero rest mass.
zero rest mass.
8. When X-rays are produced, only about 1% of the initial input energy appears as X-ray energy. What
has happened to the other 99% of the energy? Explain.
 The efficiency of X-ray is very low. About 99% of incident energy is converted into other types of
energy and only about 1% of energy is useful in the production of x-rays. This majority part of
unused energy in X-ray is converted into the heat energy which heats the target material. Only a
small fraction of that energy is converted into sound energy.
9. How do X-rays image the internal parts of our body?
 X-rays are highly penetrating rays. They penetrate through the soft tissue, but not through the bones.
The contrast between bones and muscles is obtained on the photographic film in accordance with the
intensity of penetrating x-radiations. Not only bone and muscle, different tissues have different
absorption capacity, which makes the contrasts in the photographic film of these tissues. Thus, the X-
rays takes image of the internal body parts.
10. Why X-rays are called harmful radiation?
 X-rays are electromagnetic radiation. X-ray photon carries energy. The photons transfer their energy
to the material so that the molecules ionize in that medium. Ionization causes the defects seriously in
biomolecules like protein and nucleic acids. This eventually may cause cancer and other chronic
diseases. Since, they harm the genetic and sensory molecules, they are called harmful radiations.
11. Why characteristic X-rays are named so?
 Characteristics X-rays are produced due to the excitation or ionization of atoms in the target material.
The excitation and ionization energy of different materials are different. Therefore, the X-rays of
620 Principles of Physics - II
different spectrum can be produced by using different materials. It means, characteristics X-rays are
the properties of materials. So, they are named so.
12. Write the important properties of x-rays?
a. They are electrically neutral rays.
b. They are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
c. They ionize the gases through which they pass and make them more conducting.
d. They affect photographic plate, similar to light and so this fact is exploited in X-ray photography.
e. The penetrating power of X-rays is very high. So, they can pass through many substances such as
paper, flesh, cardboard, wood, thin concrete walls etc.
f. They can cause the photoelectric effect on any metal.
g. They are scattered, and after scattering their wavelength may remain constant or increase but not
decrease.
13. Discuss the use of X-rays in medicine.
 Medical uses: X-rays are used in diagnosis of fractures in bones and some diseases, and also in the
therapy.
a. Diagnosis: X-rays are highly penetrating radiations. They can penetrate through human flesh but
stop passing through the bones. So, the X-rays exposed to a part of our body provides the
contrast between the bones, muscles and fractured part. Also, the image produced from X-ray is
also used to diagnose the tuberculosis in lungs and presence of bullet into the body.
b. Therapy: Highly energetic X-rays (hard x-rays) are allowed to fall on the cancerous tissues so that
these tissues are destroyed. When proper amount of radiation dose is exposed to infected tissue,
they die and infection can be cured. But, it has very high side effect, since it damages the near by
fresh tissue.
14. A patient is suggested to put off the gold ornaments before entering into X-ray room. Explain why.
 X-rays are highly penetrating rays. They can easily penetrate from the muscles and fracture part of
our body, but can not penetrate through the bones and high atomic number metals. If X-ray imaging
of a person is taken with gold ornaments, bone shaped contrast image is produced in the
photographic plates due to the interaction of X-rays with gold. This makes the difficulty in
identifying the abnormality of the body.
Also, the gold is high atomic number metal, so it may produce the penetrating radiations when X-ray
falls upon it.
15. Photoelectric effect and X-ray production are the reverse effect. Justify?
 Photoelectric effect and X-ray production are the reverse effects. In photoelectric effect, radiation is
incident on a metal surface to eject out the electrons, whereas in X-ray production, electrons are
impinged on the metal surface to eject out the radiation.
16. How can you control the intensity of incident x-ray?
 The width (intensity) of X-ray beam in Coolidge tube, depends on the number of energetic electrons
that strikes on the target materials per second. Larger the number of electron striking the target
material, wider the X-ray beam. The production of electrons depends on the temperature of filament.
This temperature can be varied by the current passing through the low tension battery. Therefore,
current produced by low tension battery controls the intensity of x-rays.
17. How can you control the quality of x-ray?
 Quality of X-ray refers to the energy of X-ray beam. The beam of higher quality can have the greater
penetrating power (greater energy) and vice-versa. The energy of X-ray photon is equal to the kinetic
energy of most energetic electron, i.e. (If there is no loss of energy)
1
2 mv max = hmax = Energy of X-ray photon
2
 X-rays  Chapter 23  621
And the potential difference provided by the high tension battery is responsible to provide the kinetic
energy of electrons that strike on the target materials,
1
i.e. 2 mv2max = eV

 hmax = eV
It means, the energy of X-ray photon increases when potential difference provided by high tension
battery across the filament and target material increases. Therefore by controlling the p.d. across the
electrode the quality of X-ray can be controlled.
18. What are the advantages of Bragg's law?
 Bragg's law have two main advantages:
i. Wavelength of X-ray can be determined, if lattice spacing of crystal used is known.
ii. Lattice spacing of a crystal can be determined if wavelength of X-rays is known.
19. Why is the target of a Coolidge tube made of tungsten, why not of aluminium or steel?
 The material of high melting point and high atomic weight should be used as the target material to
produce the x-rays. The target should be of high melting point so that it does not melt by heat
developed due to collision of electrons. Also, it should be of high atomic weight because only then X-
rays of high energy will be emitted. However, aluminium and steel do not fulfil these requirements
to be the target, but the tungsten does.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Production of X-rays is the reverse of photoelectric effect. Explain.
2. How do X-rays produce?
3. X-rays are harmful for our body. Explain
4. Which can penetrated more, X-ray or -ray?
5. Why visible light cannot take the image of internal body parts?
6. How is the intensity of X-rays controlled?
7. What is the difference between hard X-rays and soft x-rays?
8. Write down the properties of x-rays.
9. What are the important uses of x-rays?
10. A patient is suggested to drink barium sulphate solution before taking the X-ray photograph of
internal organs, why?
11. What is the difference between X-rays and cathode rays?
12. How are electrons produced in X-ray tube?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What are x-rays? Give some important properties and applications.
2. What are x-rays? How are they produced by Coolidge tube method? Write down their some
properties.
3. Derive Bragg’s law and explain how is this law used to determine the crystal plane spacing.
4. Describe Coolidge tube method for the production of x-rays. How would you control (i) the intensity
and (ii) the penetrating power of the emitted x-rays.
622 Principles of Physics - II

Numerical Problems
1. An X-rays tube operated at 30 kV emits X-rays with a short wavelength limit of 0.4 Å. Calculate
Planck's constant.
Ans: 6.4 × 10-34 Js
2. An X-ray tube operates at 20 kV. A particular electron loses 5% of its kinetic energy to emit an X-ray
photon at the first collision. Find the wavelength corresponding to this photon.
Ans: 1.24 x 10-9 m
3. A monochromatic beam of ray incident on a crystal at a glancing angle of 5° produces a first order
image. What is the glancing angle for a second order image?
Ans: 10o
4. (a) What is the minimum potential difference between the filament and the target of an x ray tube is
to produce x rays with a wavelength of 0.150 nm? (b) What is the shortest wavelength produced by
an x ray tube operated at 30.0 kV?
Ans: 8281.3 V, 0.414 nm
5. X-rays from a tube undergo first order reflection at a glancing angle of 12o from the face of a calcite
crystal is 3.04 x 10-8 cm. Calculate the wavelength of x rays. At what angle will the third order
reflection take place from the crystal?
(Ans: 1.3 x 10-10 m, 39.3o)
6. An X-ray tube operated at 30 kV emits x rays with a short wavelength limit of 0.4 Ao. Calculate the
Planck’s constant.
Ans: 6.4 x 10-34 JS
7. Calculate the minimum applied potential required to produce X-rays of 1 Å wavelength.
Ans: 12,400 V
8. The potential difference across an X-ray tube is 105 V and a current 5 mA flows through it. Find the
maximum speed of the electrons striking the target. If only 0.15 percent of the incident energy is
converted into X-radiations, find the rate of production of heat.
Ans: 1.88 ×108 m/s, 499.25 J/sec.
9. If the potential difference across the tube is 1.5 × 103 V, and the current 1.0 × 10-3 A, find (a) the
number of electrons crossing the tube per second and (b) the kinetic energy gained by an electron
traversing the tube without collision.
Ans: (a) 6.3 × 1015 electrons per sec. (b) 2.4 × 10-16J
10. Calculate the energy in electron volt and velocity of electron beam giving rise to X-ray of wavelength
1 Å?
Ans: 12.4 × 103 eV, v = 6.6 × 107 m/s
11. X-rays of wavelength 0.0850 nm are scattered from the atoms of crystal. The second order maximum
in the Bragg reflection occurs when the angle  is 21. 50, what is the spacing between the adjacent
atomic planes in the crystal?
Ans: 0.232 nm
12. An X-ray tube operated at a d.c. p.d. of 40 kV produces heat at the target at the rate of 720 W.
Assuming 0.5 % of the energy of the incident electrons is converted into x-radiation. Calculate (i) the
number of electrons per second striking the target (ii) velocity of incident electrons.
Given e = 1.8 × 1011 Ckg -1 
 m 
Ans. 1.1 × 1017 electrons /s, 1.2 × 108 m/s

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1 0.4 % energy of cathode rays (qV) is converted
Given, into x-ray and remaining (100 – .04)% = 99.6%
V = 50 kV = 50 × 10 3 V, P = 600 W into heat so,
(i) Current passed into tube, I = ? Heat energy generated = 99.6 % of qV
By question,
 X-rays  Chapter 23  623
99.6 qV hc
or Rate of heat energy generated = 100 × t  E2 = hf2 =
2

or 600 = 99.6 × 10-2 × I × V ∵ I = q E1

 t E2 = ?
(ii) Velocity of electron striking the target, v = ? Now,
We can write hc
1 E1 1 2
2 mev = eV E2 = hc = 1
2

2eV 2
or v = me HINT: 4
HINT: 2 Given,
Given,  = 2.9 Å = 2.9 × 10-10 m (∵ 1 Å = 10-10 m)
V = 10 kV = 10 × 103 V = 104 V Number of order, n = 1,  = 35°
I = 15 mA = 15 × 10 -3A Spacing between the planes, d = ?
(i) Number of electrons per sec hitting the anode From Bragg's law, we know that
N =? 2 d sin  = n 
t HINT: 5
We know that Given,
q Ne  = 0.150 nm = 0.15 × 10-9 m
I =t = t (∵ q = Ne)
(a) Minimum potential difference (vmin) =?
N I We can write
or t =e eVmin = hf
(ii) Rate of production of heat at the anode hf hc
or Vmin = e =
P = VI e
HINT: 3 (b) For V = 30 kV = 30 × 103 V, min = ?
Given, hc
1 = 0.1 nm = 0.1 × 10 -9m ∵ eV = hf max =
min
hc
 E1 = hf1 = hc
1 or min = eV
2 = 500 nm = 500 × 10 -9 m


624 Principles of Physics - II
 NUCLEAR PHYSICS

24.1 Introduction
In the early years of 20th century, much less was known about the structure of atoms beside the fact
that they contain electrons. J.J. Thompson discovered electrons in 1897, but its mass was still
unknown. So, it was not possible even to say how many electrons were contained in an atom. Since
the atoms are electrically neutral, scientist reasoned that an atom must also contain positive charge in
order to compensate the negative charge. But, nobody knew in what form did this positive charge
exist. Different models were proposed to describe the structure of an atom, but none of them had
convincing explanation of experimentally observed facts. It was Earnest Rutherford, who proposed a
satisfactory model to explain the existence of positive charge and its position in an atom based on his
-scattering experiment by gold foil. According to him, the positive charge of the atom is densely
concentrated at the centre of atom forming its nucleus. Many other properties of nucleus could then
be known. The branch of physics that deals with the study of properties of nucleus and the nuclear
phenomena in terms of its constituents, interaction of nuclei, nuclear transmutation and their
application is called nuclear physics. This field of physics finds broad application in high energy
physics, medicine, material engineering, archaeology, etc. The most commonly known applications
of nuclear physics are nuclear power plants and nuclear weapons.

24.2 Nucleus of an Atom

As mentioned earlier, the discovery of nucleus of an atom Target gold foil
was made by Rutherford -scattering experiment. In his
experiment,  particles emitted from a source were made to
Incident  particles

interact with gold foil, and their corresponding deflections

were studied. Based on the experimental observations,
following conclusions were made.
1. Most of the  particles passed undeviated from gold
foil which indicates that an atom is mostly an empty
space.
2. Some  particles were scattered through large angles
which is due to the interaction (Coulomb repulsion) Atom Nucleus

with a massive dense core probably located at the Fig. 24.1 Deflection of  particles by gold
centre. This central core of an atom was named nucleus.
626 Principles of Physics - II
3. A very few  particles nearly 1 in 8,000 traced back their original path which is due to head on
collision with the nucleus. This suggests that the nucleus is impenetrable. These facts are shown
in the Fig. 24.1.
Thus, according to Rutherford, nucleus is a positively charged dense sphere located at the centre of
an atom. The experimental measurement of its diameter is about 10–15 m (1 fm). So, the size of the
nucleus is significantly small as compared to that of atom ( 10–10 m). Nucleus is about 105 times
smaller than atom.)

24.3 Constituents of a Nucleus

Every atom consists of a nucleus and electrons. Electrons revolve around the nucleus through a
specified orbit. The nucleus is dense part of an atom. The existence of nucleus was first modelled by
the Rutherford's -scattering experiment.
Nucleus contains two types of particles proton and neutrons which are of nearly equal masses. The
particles in the nucleus are collectively called as nucleons. Hydrogen nucleus contains only one
proton, but the nucleus of atoms of all other elements contains both protons and neutrons. Protons
are positively charged particles and neutrons are chargeless. Therefore, the nucleus is positively
charged. The mass of neutron is slightly greater than that of the proton. Total mass of an atom is
supposed to be concentrated at the nucleus because electron is around 1836 times lighter than the
proton or neutron

Important Facts about Nucleus

i. A nucleus is regarded as a positively charged sphere, which is impenetrable.
ii. The charge of nucleus is provided by the charge of proton. Let Z be the number of protons in a
nucleus, then the charge of nucleus of an atom is written Ze, where e is the charge of an electron
(equivalently, the charge of a proton).
iii. Nucleus is the central (or core) part of an atom.
iv. The radius of nucleus is about fermi unit (i.e. 10–15 m). The radius of a nucleus depends on the
mass number of an atom. It is calculated from,
R = R0 A1/3 … (24.1)
where, R0 = 1.2 × 10–15m, is a constant quantity and A is the atomic mass of an atom.
v. The nuclear density has extremely large value. Its density is in the order of 1017 kg/m3. It is
independent of atomic number.

24.4 Nuclear Density

The mass per unit volume of the nucleus is called nuclear density. Consider a nucleus of mass
number A and radius R.
Mass of nucleus (m) = A amu = A × 1.66 × 10–27 kg
4 4
also, the volume of nucleus (V) = 3 R03 = 3  (1.2 × 10–15)3 A = 7.24 × 10–45 A m3

m A × 1.66 × 10–27
Now, the density of nucleus () = V = = 2.29 × 1017 kgm–3
7.24 × 10–45  A
This shows that, the density of nucleus has extremely large value. It does not depend on mass
number of an atom. All nuclei possess nearly the same value. It should be clear that, nuclear density
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  627
is not uniform through out the nucleus. It has maximum density at the centre and decreases
gradually towards the surface.

24.5 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

The physical and chemical property of an element depend on the number of nucleons of an atom. So,
it is very important to know the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Moreover, a nucleus
provides individuality of an atom.

Atomic Number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number. Atomic number is
denoted by Z. For example,
i. The atomic number of hydrogen is 1, i.e. Z = 1 (since there is only one proton in the nucleus of
hydrogen atom).
ii. The atomic number of helium is 2, i.e. Z = 2 (since the helium nucleus contains two protons).
Similarly, for lithium, Z = 3; for calcium, Z = 20; for uranium, Z = 92, and so on.

Atomic Mass Number

Total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic mass number. It
is denoted by A. Therefore,
A=Z+N
where, N = number of neutrons.
For example, hydrogen has only one proton in its nucleus, so it has A = 1. Also, helium has two
protons and two neutrons in its nucleus, so it has A = 4.

24.6 Representation of a Nucleus of an Atom

The nucleus of an atom is represented symbolically as ZXA,
where, Z = atomic number
X = name of element
A = atomic mass number
For example,
i. Hydrogen nucleus, 1H1
ii. Helium nucleus, 2He4
iii. Oxygen nucleus, 8O16
iv. Uranium nucleus, 92U235 (for an isotope)

24.7 Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones

Isotopes
Two or more nuclei having same atomic number but different atomic mass numbers are called
isotopes of an element. 6C12, 6C13, 6C14 are the isotopes of carbon. Similarly, 19K40, 19K42 are the isotopes
of potassium.
628 Principles of Physics - II

Isobars
Two or more nuclei having same atomic mass number but different atomic numbers are called
isobars. Isobars are formed from two or more elements. For example, C14, 7N14 are the isobars of
carbon and nitrogen. Similarly, 19K40 and 20Ca40 are the isobars of potassium and calcium. The
chemical properties of isobars are different.

Isotones
Two or more nuclei having equal number of neutrons are called isotones. For examples, 17Cl37 and
19K
39 are isotones of chlorine and potassium. Similarly,
12Mg
24 and
11Na
23 are the isotones of

magnesium and sodium.

24.8 Einstein's Mass-Energy Relation

At the beginning, the terms mass and energy emerged as two entirely different concepts
independent to each other. Specifically, during the initial development of science of chemistry, it was
assumed that in chemical reactions energy and mass are conserved separately. It was Einstein in 1905,
as a consequence of his special theory of relativity, who showed that mass and energy are inter
related to each other. In fact, these two quantities are equivalent and can be converted into one
another i.e. mass can be converted to energy and vice versa.
In any chemical reaction, the amount of mass that is converted into other forms of energy is very tiny
fraction compared to total mass involved. So, there is no hope of measuring the mass change even
with the best laboratory balance and hence, mass and energy truly seem to be conserved separately.
However, in a nuclear reaction, the energy released is tremendous (about a million times greater
than in a chemical reaction) and the change in mass can easily be measured. So, mass and energy are
conserved combinedly in such reaction. Thus, the conservation of energy is really the law of
conservation of mass and energy.
According to Einstein, "in an isolated system when the sum of rest masses changes, there is always a change
1
in c2 times the total energy other than rest mass energy". This means if m is the change in rest mass of an
isolated system and E is the corresponding change in the rest mass energy, then,
1
m = c2 E

E = mc2 … (24.2)
This change is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the change in sum of the rest masses. For
example, when a uranium nucleus undergoes fission in a nuclear reactor, the sum of the rest masses
of the resulting fragments is less than the rest mass of the parent nucleus. This decrease in mass
when multiplied by c2 (a conversion factor) equals the energy that is released in the process.
Mass – energy equivalence is the concept that asserts mass of a body as a measure of its energy
content. In this concept, the total internal energy of a body at rest is equal to the product of its rest
mass (m0) and a suitable conversion factor c2, to transform from units of mass to units of energy i.e.,
E0 = m0c2, where c is the speed of light in vacuum and m0 is the rest mass of the body.
In general, if a body is moving with velocity v, then the total energy of the body according to
Einstein, given by E = mc2 is the sum of rest mass energy and the kinetic energy of the body.
Thus, if the object is moving with speed v, its total energy is given by,
E = mc2 . . . (24.3)
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  629
From mass velocity relation, we know that,
m0
m =
v2
1 – c2

Therefore, equation (24.3) can be written as,

m0c2
E =
v2
1 – c2
1
v2 –2
= m0c2 1 – c2 
 
Using binomial expansion (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + . . ., we can write,
 1 + 1 v2  , Neglecting the terms containing higher powers of v .
2
E = m0c2
 2c c
Therefore,
1
E = m0 c2 + 2 m0v2 . . . (24.4)

= rest mass energy + kinetic energy of object

For v = 0 (mass at rest), we get ,
E = m0c2 . . . (24.5)
Equation (24.5) shows that the energy of stationary particle is not zero, rather it has energy in the
form of mass, which we call rest mass energy. This discovery is popularly known as Einstein's mass
energy relation.

24.9 Units of Energy

The SI unit of energy is joule (J). When we measure in the atomic level, the quantity of energy is
relatively small. Therefore, we use different unit of energy in nuclear level. Nuclear energy is
generally measured in electron volt (eV). It is defined as the amount of energy gained by an electron
when accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 C × 1V
=1.6 × 10–19 J
The megaelectron volt (MeV) is a large energy and has the relation,
106 eV = 1 MeV
So, 1 MeV = 1.6 × 10–13 J

24.10 Atomic Mass Unit

The measurement of mass in the nuclear level is not scientific when we measure in kilogram unit. So,
another unit is used to measure the mass of nucleus. It is named atomic mass unit (amu). The atomic
mass unit (amu) of nucleus is determined by comparing it with highly stable nucleus of carbon (C12).
1 th
One atomic mass unit (1 amu) is defined as the 12 of the mass of carbon atom 6C12.

One mole of carbon has mass 12 g. It means 6.023 × 1023 atoms of carbon has the mass of 12 g.
Therefore,
630 Principles of Physics - II
12
Mass of 1 atom of carbon = 6.023 × 1023 g

1 12
 1 amu = 12  6.023 × 1023 g = 1.66 × 10–24 g

 1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg

The energy equivalence of 1 amu mass is
E = mc2
E = 1 amu × c2
= 1.66 × 10–27 × (3 × 108)2
= 931 × 1.6 × 10–13 J (approximately)
 1 amu = 931 MeV (approx)
An electron mass, me = 9.1 × 10–31 kg = 0.000568 amu
The energy equivalence of this mass of electron is 0.51 MeV.
Similarly, A proton mass, mp = 1.007276 amu
A neutron mass, mn = 1.008665 amu

Nuclear Forces
The nucleons (protons and neutrons) are bound tightly within a very small dimension with high
density of the order of ~ 1017 kgm–3. The gravitational attraction among the nucleons is of the order of
10–34 N. If we calculate the electrostatic repulsive force among the protons in nucleus, it is of the
order of 10–2 N. So, the repulsive force between the nucleons is 1036 times greater than the
gravitational force. This shows that the nucleus would not be stable. But in reality, it is not so.
Nucleus is stable in many atoms. So, there must be another force which must dominate the
electrostatic repulsion among the nucleons. This third force is called nuclear force or strong force.
Nuclear force binds the nucleons in a small volume and provides the stability of nucleus. Some
important properties of nuclear force are mentioned below:
i. Nuclear forces are attractive in nature.
ii. Nuclear force are charge independent.
iii. They are short range forces. Nuclear forces vanish beyond 10 fm.
iv. They are spin dependent. The force between two nucleons having parallel spins is stronger than
the anti parallel spins.
v. Nuclear forces are non-central forces.
vi. They show saturation effect i.e. a nucleon interacts only with its neighbouring particle.

24.11 Mass Defect

The observable fact shows that, the mass of a composite nucleus of an atom is smaller than that of
sum of individual masses of nucleons. For example, the sum of mass of 6 protons and 6 neutrons is
found greater than the composite mass of carbon nucleus (6C12). Similar property can be observed in
all other nuclei. This difference of mass in such condition is termed as mass defect. The difference
between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of the nucleons constituting a nucleus is known
as mass defect. It is denoted by m.
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  631
Let M be the composite mass of a nucleus of an atom having atomic mass numbers A and atomic
number Z. Also, mp and mn be the mass of a proton and a neutron respectively. Then, the total mass
of constituent nucleus is,
Zmp + (A – Z) mn
Then,
the mass defect (m) = [Zmp + (A – Z) mn] – M …(24.6)

24.12 Packing Fraction

Packing fraction of a nucleus in an atom is defined as the mass defect per nucleon of that nucleus. It
is also called atomic packing fraction.
mass defect (m)
Packing fraction (f) = atomic mass number (A)

m
 f= A

24.13 Binding Energy

Initially, when mass defect was observed in the nucleus, it seemed to be very curious matter. Later
on, it was disclosed that this reduced mass of nucleus is actually converted into energy that binds the
nucleons in a nucleus. This energy was termed as binding energy. This means, binding energy is the
energy equivalence of mass defect. Conversely, the binding energy is the amount of energy required to
break up a nucleus into its constituent parts and place them at an infinite distance from one another.
Therefore, the binding energy of a nucleus is written as,
Binding energy = m c2
where, c is the velocity of light.
In terms of MeV
Binding energy (BE) = m × 931 MeV
= [{Zmp + (A – Z) mn} – M]  931 MeV … (24.7)
Binding energy per nucleon is calculated by dividing the binding energy of a nucleus with atomic
mass number of corresponding nucleus. Therefore,
Binding energy
Binding energy per nucleon = A … (24.8)

The binding energy per nucleon is very important to study the stability of nucleus. The nucleus
having greater binding energy per nucleon has greater stability. Thus, this quantity gives a better
information about the stability of nucleus. Fig. 24.2, shows the plot of average binding energy per
nucleon versus atomic mass number for naturally occurring nuclei.

Important Features of Binding Energy per Nucleon

i. The maximum binding energy per nucleon occurs at around mass number A = 60 and
corresponds to the most stable nuclei. An isotope of nickel Ni62 has the maximum binding
energy per nucleon, then Fe58, Fe56.
ii. Nuclei with very low or very high mass number have lesser binding energy per nucleon and are
less stable.
632 Principles of Physics - II
iii. The smaller the binding energy per nucleon, the easier it is to disrupt the nucleus into its
constituent nucleons.
iv. Nuclei with low mass number may undergo nuclear fusion, where light nuclei are joined
together under certain conditions so that the final product may have a greater binding energy
per nucleon and become stable.
v. Nuclei with high mass numbers may undergo nuclear fission, where the nucleus splits to give
two daughter nuclei with the release of neutrons. The daughter nuclei will possess greater
binding energy per nucleon.
9
62
Binding Energy per Nucleon (MeV/nucleon)

28Ni
8
12
6C 238
92U
7 4
2He

2
2
1H
1

50 100 150 200 250

Atomic mass number (A)

Fig. 24.2: Binding energy per nucleon versus atomic mass number

24.14 Nuclear Reaction

Nuclear reaction is defined as the change in composition of a nucleus when it is bombarded with nucleons or
other sub-atomic particles. When a light particle collides with the nucleus, the interaction between the
nuclear particles and the light particles takes place and nucleus transforms into new nucleus with
different mass and energy.
Nuclear reactions are basically two types; nuclear decay reaction and nuclear transmutation reaction.
Nuclear decay reaction is also called radioactivity. Radioactivity will be studied in next chapter.
In contrast, the nuclear transmutation reaction refers to the interaction of a nucleus with other
nucleus. These reactions occur at very special conditions. For example, the fusion reaction (in which
two nuclei combine to form a single nucleus) can take place whenever two nuclei come in the nuclear
range, so that nuclear force becomes effective. For this, one of the nuclei should be accelerated to
very high energy and made to collide with the other. Similarly, in fission reaction (in which a single
nucleus splits into two or more lighter nuclei) very energetic charged particles such as protons, -
particles, etc. are used to bombard the nucleus or neutral particles such as thermal neutrons.
The particles or nucleus which are used to initiate nuclear reaction are called projectile particles. The
projectile particles may be -particles, protons, ions of element, electrons, neutrons, etc. The kinetic
energy of these projectiles are very high extending from megaelectron volts to a few giga electron
volts. The nucleus that undergoes transmutation is called target nucleus.
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  633
The nucleus which is bombarded with a light particle is known as mother nucleus and the
bombarding particles are known as projectile. This pair of mother nucleus and the projectile is called
parent pair. The new nucleus which is formed after transformation is known as daughter nucleus
and the ejected particle is known as emitted particle. This pair is called final pair. The nuclear
reaction can be represented as the following nuclear equation.
A+a=B+b+Q …(24.9)
Where, A = mother nucleus
a = projectile
B = daughter nucleus
b = emitted particle
Q = radiated energy
The value of Q may be positive or negative. If the energy is evolved in the nuclear reaction, Q is
greater than zero, Q > 0 (i.e. positive value of Q). This type of reaction is called exoergic or
exothermic reaction. If the energy is absorbed in the nuclear reaction this is called endoergic or
endothermic reaction (Q < 0, negative value of Q). If the energy is neither evolved nor emitted, Q = 0.
It should be noted that mass-energy conservation is strictly obeyed in nuclear reaction.
Important nuclear reactions are:
(a) Particle disintegration (b) Photo disintegration (c) Radioactive capture
Two types of basic nuclear reactions are explained below:

Nuclear Fission
The nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus disintegrates into two nuclei of nearly comparable mass along
with emission of some particles and liberation of energy is known as nuclear fission. In nuclear fission, heavy
nucleus is made to collide with a light particle in order to disintegrate it.
In 1939, (in the beginning days of world war second), a German scientist Otto Hahn and Strassmann
studied the nuclear fission reaction in uranium nucleus and discovered that when a uranium nucleus
(92U235) is bombarded with a neutron, it explodes into two nearly equal fragments, barium (56Ba141)
and krypton (36Kr92) along with the emission of three neutrons (0n1), releasing some energy (Q) in the
form of -rays. This fission reaction is represented by the following nuclear equation,
235  U236 
0n + 92U 56Ba
1 141 + Kr92 + 3 n1 + Q
92 36 0

It is noted that barium and krypton are not produced in all fission reaction, the fragments may be
other nuclei.

Energy released in fission reaction

In the nuclear reaction, the mass-energy conservation must be strictly followed. In the above nuclear
reaction,
Before reaction
Mass of 92U235 = 235.0439 amu
Mass of 0n1 = 1.0087 amu
Total mass of parent pair = 236.0526 amu
After reaction
Mass of 56Ba141 = 140.9129 amu
Mass of 36Kr92 = 91.8973 amu
Mass of three 0n = 3.0261 amu
1

Total mass of final pair = 235.8363 amu

634 Principles of Physics - II
Now,
Mass defect (m) = mass of parent pair – Mass of final pair = 236.0526 – 235.8363 = 0.2163 amu.
This lost mass equivalently appears in the form of energy so that total mass energy is conserved.
1 amu = 931 MeV
Energy released = 931 × 0.2163 = 201.37 MeV  200 MeV
Thus, large amount of energy is released which is mainly in the form of lights -rays and K.E. of
the fission products.

Fission chain reaction

When a 92U235 nucleus is bombarded with a slow neutron, two almost equal mass nuclei (56Ba141 and
36K ) are produced, which are called fission pair (F.P.) and three neutrons are released
92

simultaneously. These released neutrons are absorbed in the body of the source (and some may be
lost). If the number of absorbed neutrons is greater than the lost neutrons, the reaction continues to
the further steps. Suppose two neutrons are absorbed and one is lost in every reaction, the reaction
takes place in faster rate and the whole process proceeds in a geometric progression. Thus, the
reaction once started continues until whole source disintegrates, which is known as chain reaction. A
chain reaction is a self propagating nuclear reaction process in which number of product neutrons is
more than the number of neutrons required to initiate the reaction so that the reaction proceeds as a
chain. Enormous energy is released from the Uranium source in chain reaction, which once started
becomes uncontrolled. The chain reaction of 92U235 is shown in Fig. 24.3.
F.P
n

F.P U n
n
n
F.P
U n
F.P F.P
n n n

1 F.P U n
0n 235
92U n
n
n F.P
F.P
n F.P
F.P U
U
n
n
n n
F.P n
F.P
U F.P

n
n F.P. = Fission product
n
F.P

Fig. 24.3: Uncontrolled chain reaction

 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  635

Uncontrolled chain reaction

When nucleus of 92U235 is bombarded by a slow neutron, it undergoes fission by capturing neutron
and split into two fragments 56Ba141 and 36Kr92 together with three neutrons. As explained above,
three neutrons are emitted in every reaction of uranium fission. These emitted neutrons are
employed to combine other nearby uranium nuclei to continue the sustainable chain reaction. But all
the neutrons so produced are not used for the further nuclear reaction. They may interact with air
molecules or escape out from the source. If the multiplication factor of chain reaction is greater than 1,
the fission rate is multiplied rapidly so that whole source would explode radiating enormous energy
and hence becomes uncontrolled. This type of nuclear reaction is called uncontrolled chain reaction.
In such reaction, the large amount of thermal energy is produced in a very short time. Thus, nuclear
disaster occurs. Atom bomb works on the principle of uncontrolled chain reaction.

Controlled chain reaction

Nuclear chain reaction is not always devastating. If the reaction is preceded in a controlled way, the
energy so produced can be used in electricity generation, propulsion of ships and submarines. This
type of nuclear reaction in which the rate of reaction can be varied at our will is known as controlled
chain reaction. Simply, number of neutron and energy can be controlled in required level. Controlled
reaction can be performed by making the absorption of excess neutrons in the nuclear source as
shown in Fig. 24.4. A special type of material is used for the absorption of excess neutrons which is
called moderator. The moderator is arranged so suitably that the multiplication factor can be 1. In
general graphite, heavy water (D2O), beryllium, etc. are used as the moderators. Mostly, moderators
are made with elements of low atomic number.
F.F.
F.P. F.F.
F.P.

moderator

n
n
n n
n n Slow n
235 235
U U
neutron
n n

F.P.
F.F.
F.P.
Fig. 24.4: Controlled chain reaction

Multiplication factor
When fission chain reaction is started, it may or may not be sustained until all the nuclei undergo
fission. To examine whether the chain reaction increases, decreases or remains steady, a parameter is
to be defined, which is called multiplication factor.
The multiplication factor of a fissionable mass is defined as the ratio of number of neutrons present
at the beginning of particular generation to the number of neutrons present at the beginning of the
previous generation. It is denoted by k.
Number of neutrons present at the beginning of one generation
 k = Number of neutrons present at the beginning of previous generation

The physical meaning of multiplication factor for its different values are as follows:
636 Principles of Physics - II
i. If k > 1, the fission chain reaction grows. It is also called uncontrolled chain reaction. If the chain
reaction is started for k > 1, whole the source is exploded within a few second. Explosion of
atom bomb is an example of uncontrolled chain reaction.
ii. If k = 1, the chain reaction remains steady. This type of chain reaction is controlled by means of
machinery. It is also called controlled chain reaction. This principle is used in nuclear power
generation from power plants.
iii. If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually dies out. Due to the lack of necessary number of neutrons
for nuclear fission, the rate of fission decreases and is terminated.

Critical size and critical mass

In nuclear fission reaction, slow neutron bombards the uranium atom to break into daughter nuclei.
The emitted neutron after fission reaction, travels a certain average distance through the material
before it encounters another uranium nucleus and triggers another fission event. If the size of
uranium source is too small, a neutron is likely to escape through the surface before it finds another
nucleus. Therefore, for the sustained chain reaction, the size and mass of uranium source must have
at least a critical value. If the size and mass of the source is smaller than critical value, the nuclear
fission reaction decreases and dies out.
The amount of mass in fission source for which each fission event produces one additional fission
event is called critical mass and the corresponding size of source is known as critical size. The
multiplication factor k,
i. If k = 1, the neutron population and critical mass remains stationary and the nuclear reaction
proceeds steadily.
ii. If k > 1, the neutron population increases rapidly in the source and chain reaction proceeds very
fast. The mass for such condition is supercritical mass and the size is called supercritical size.
iii. If k < 1, the neutron population decreases rapidly and the chain reaction ceases. This mass in
the source is called sub-critical mass and corresponding size is called sub-critical size.

24.15 Nuclear Fusion Reaction

The nuclear reaction in which two or more lighter nuclei merge into a single nucleus releasing some energy is
known as nuclear fusion reaction. In nuclear fission reaction, one heavy nucleus splits into lighter nuclei,
in contrast, two or more lighter nuclei fuse together, in order H1 H1 H1 H1
fusion.

hf
h
When two deuterium nuclei 1H2 are fused together, a single H1 H1
H2 H2
helium nucleus is formed with the release of energy about 24
MeV. This fusion reaction is written in the following nuclear
equation. hf hf
1H + 1H2 2He +Q
2 4
He 3
He
3

To find the released energy, we have,

mass of a deuteron, 1H2 = 2.01471 amu
 mass of two deuteron = 4.02942 amu H1 H1
mass of a helium nucleus= 4.00388 amu
Now, the mass defect (m) = 4.02942 – 4.00388 He4 Radiation
= 0.02554 amu Fig. 24.5: Nuclear fusion chain
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  637
Also, 1 amu = 931 MeV
The energy liberated, Q= 0.02554 × 931
= 23.71 MeV
 24 MeV
The energy released during fusion is much less than that in fission. However, energy released per
nucleon during fusion is much greater than that liberated during fission.
The energy radiated from the sun and stars is considered due to the nuclear fusion reaction on its
surface. For the nuclear fusion, large temperature and pressure is required, which is possible only on
the sun and stars.
The hydrogen bomb is an example of the uncontrolled nuclear fusion reaction in which tremendous
amount of energy is released.

Difference between Nuclear Fission and Nuclear Fusion

The major differences between nuclear fission reaction and nuclear fusion reaction are mentioned
below.
Nuclear Fission Nuclear Fusion
1. Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in 1. Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which
which a heavy nucleus is bombarded with a two or more lighter nuclei are fused
light particle such that two fragments of together to form a single nucleus releasing
roughly equal masses are formed along with some energy
emission of energetic neutrons and energy.
2. It can occur in room temperature and 2. Very high temperature and pressure are
normal pressure. required for this reaction.
3. The energy released from a nucleus is 3. The energy released from a nucleus is
relatively high ( 200 MeV). But the energy relatively low but the energy released per
released per nucleon is about 0.85 MeV. nucleon is about 6.75 MeV.
4. This reaction takes place in high atomic 4. This reaction takes place in low atomic
number nuclei. For example: Uranium, number, nuclei. For example: Hydrogen,
Plutonium and Thorium. Deuterons, Tritium.
5. The radiations produced in nuclear fission 5. The produced rays are relatively less
are harmful. harmful.
6. Radiation pollution is created. 6. Thermal pollution is created.
7. Atom bomb is based on this principle. 7. Hydrogen bomb is based on this principle.
8. It completes in single stage. 8. It is multistage reaction.

Tips for MCQs

1. Subatomic particles are: electron, proton and neutron. Proton and neutron lie in the nucleus and
electron revolves around them.
2. Except hydrogen, the nucleus of each atom contains proton and neutron. Hydrogen atom contains
only one proton.
3. The density of nucleus is very high ~ 2.29 × 1017 kgm–3. Density of nucleus does not depend on
atomic mass number.
4. The radius (R) and volume (V) of nucleus are determined from the formula,
638 Principles of Physics - II
1
R = R0A3 , where R0 = 1.2 × 10–15 m
4 3
V = 3 R0 A

5. The symbol of nucleus, ZXA (A = Atomic mass number, Z = atomic number, X is name of element)
6. Isotopes of an element consist of same atomic number but different atomic mass number. (i.e. ZXA,
ZXA') Where A  A'.
7. Isobars of different elements consists of different atomic number but same atomic mass number.
8. Mass of atom and subatomic particles is measured in atomic mass unit (amu)
1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg
9. Nuclear force is the strongest force in nature, it is also termed as strong force. This force holds the
nucleons in a very small volume.
10. The size of nucleus is in the order of 10–15 m and the size of atom is in the order of 10–10 m.
m0
11. Einstein's mass energy relation, m =
v2
1 – c2

12. The nuclei containing even number of protons and even number of neutrons are relatively more
stable.
13. Mass defeat (m)
i. The mass of the nucleus (M) formed is less than the sum of the masses of the individual
nucleons (Zmp + (A – Z)mn). This difference is called mass defect (m).
ii. m = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – M.
m
iii. Packing fraction = A

14. Binding energy

i. The mass defect (m) is converted into the binding energy to hold the nucleons in a small
dimension.
ii. Binding energy (BE) = m × 931 MeV
or, B.E. = m c2 (joule)
iii. Binding energy is usually expressed in MeV.
1 amu = 931 MeV
B.E.
iv. Binding energy per nucleon = A

B.E. m × 931  MeV 

 =
nucleon A nucleon
mc2 joule
= A nucleon
 
15. Nuclear reaction
i. Equation for nuclear reaction is, ZXA + a = Z'YA' + b + Q
It is also represented on, ZXA (a, b) Z'YA'
ii. In nuclear reaction
a. number of nucleons is conserved
b. total charge is conserved
c. linear momentum is conserved
d. total energy is conserved
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  639
16. Nuclear fission
i. Discovered by Otto Hann and Strassmann
ii. Example of nuclear fission
92U235 + 0n1  92U236  56B141 + 36Kr92 + 3 0n1 + Q
Here, Mass defect = 0.2153 amu
Exothermic energy  200 MeV
iii. Chain reaction:
i. In uncontrolled chain reaction:
a. multiplication factor (K) is greater than 1.
b. mass is greater than 1
c. principle of atom bomb.
ii. In controlled chain reaction:
a. multiplication factor (K) is equal to 1.
b. mass is equal to 1
c. principle of nuclear power production.
17. Nuclear fusion:
i. Example: 1H2 + 1H2  2He4 + 24 MeV
ii. Energy released per unit atom is greater in nuclear fission, but the energy released per unit
mass is greater in nuclear fusion.
iii. It occurs in large temperature and pressure, so it is also called thermonuclear reaction.
iv. The source of solar energy and stellar energy are considered due to the effect of nuclear fusion
reaction.

Worked Out Problems

1. How much energy will be created if a man of mass 50 kg is destroyed completely?
SOLUTION
Given, E = mc2
Mass (m) = 50 kg = 50 × (3.0 × 108)2
Speed of light (c) = 3.0 × 108 ms–1 E = 4.5 × 1018 J
Now, total energy released (E) = ?  4.5 × 1018 J energy is released when a man of
From Einstein's mass-energy relation, mass 50 kg is destroyed completely.

2. A neutron is absorbed by a 3Li6 nucleus with subsequent emission of an -particle. Write the
corresponding nuclear reaction and calculate the energy released in the reaction.
SOLUTION
Given, = 6.015126 + 1.008665 = 7.023791 amu
Mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu Mass of constituents after reaction
Mass of 3Li6 = 6.015126 amu m2 = 1H3 + 2He4
Mass of 2He4 = 4.002603 amu = 3.016049 + 4.002603 amu
Mass of 1H3 = 3.0164049 amu = 7.018652 amu
1 amu = 931 MeV The mass loss, m = m1 – m2
The appropriate nuclear reaction to satisfy the = (7.023791 – 7.018652) amu
given condition, = 0.005139 amu
3Li6 + 0n1  1H3 + 2He4 (- particle) Now, equivalent energy is,
Mass of constituents before reaction E = m × 931 MeV
m1 = 3Li6 + on1 = 4.784 MeV
640 Principles of Physics - II
3. Calculate the mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of helium (2He4) nucleus.
SOLUTION
Given, ii. Binding energy (BE) = m × 931 MeV
Mass of proton (mp) = 1.007276 amu = 0.030376 × 931 MeV
Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.008665 amu = 28.28 MeV
Mass of 2He4 (M) = 4.001506 amu BE
iii. Binding energy per nucleon = A
Mass defect (m) = (Zmp = Nmn) – M
Here, Z = 2, A = 4 A–Z= –2=2 28.28
= 4
Now,
m = (2 × 1.007276 + 2 × 1.008665) – 4.001506 = 7.07 MeV
= 0.030376 amu
238
4. Using the values given below, calculate binding energy value for 92 U.
238 1 1
( 92 U = 238.0508 amu, 0n = 1.008665 amu, 1 p = 1.007825 amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV.)

SOLUTION
The nucleus 92U238 has 92 protons and (238 – 92) = 146 neutrons.
Therefore, mass defect (m)
= Mass of (92 protons and 146 neutrons) – mass of 92U238
= (92 × 1.007825 + 146 × 1.008665) – 238.0508
= (92.7199 + 147.26509) – 238.0508
= 239.98499 – 238.0508
  m = 1.93419 amu
Binding energy = m × 931 MeV
= 1.93419 × 931 MeV = 1800.730 MeV
5. [NEB 2074] The mass of 17Cl35 is 34.9800 amu. Calculate its binding energy and binding energy per
nucleon. Mass of one proton = 1.007825 amu and mass of one neutron = 1.00865 amu.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass of 17Cl35 (M) = 34.9800 amu
Mass of proton (mp) = 1.007825 amu
Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.00865 amu
Binding energy (BE) = ?
Binding energy per nucleon = ?
We have,
Mass defect (m) = Zmp + (A – Z)mn – M
= 17 × 1.007825 + (25 – 17) × 1.00865 – 34.9800 = 0.308725 amu
We have,
1 amu = 931 MeV
So, BE = m × 931 = 287.42 MeV
BE 287.42
Also, binding energy per nucleon = A = 35 = 8.21 MeV.

6. [HSEB 2073] The energy librated in the fission of single uranium – 235 atom is 3.2 × 10–11 J. Calculate
the power production corresponding to the fission of 1 g of uranium per day. Assume Avogadro
constant as 6.02 × 1023 mol–1.
SOLUTION
Given,
Mass number of Uranium (A) = 235
Energy (E) = 3.2 × 10–11 J per atom
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  641
Mass (m) = 1 g
Avogadro constant (NA) = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1
Total number of uranium disintegration per day
N = nNA
m
=  A  NA m = total mass and A = molar mass
 
1 × 10–3
= 235 × 10–3 × 6.02 × 1023
 
= 2.56 × 1021
Total energy production per day,
Et = N × E
= 2.56 × 1021 × 3.2 × 10–11
= 8.19 × 1010 J
Et 8.19 × 1010
Now, power production (P) = time = 60 × 60 × 24 = 9.48 × 105 watt

7. Assuming that about 200 MeV energy is released per fission of 92U235 nuclei, what would be the
mass of U235, consumed per day in the fission reactor of power 1 MW approximately? [HSEB 2068]
SOLUTION
Given, N = 2.7 × 1021
Energy per atom (E) = 200 MeV Also,
= 200 × 106 × 1.6 × 10–19 We have,
= 3.2 × 10–11 J N = nNA
Molar mass (A) = 235 × 10–3 kg m
=  A  NA
Power (P) = 1 MW = 106 W  
Now, total energy released per day N×A
Etotal = P × time m = N
A
= 106 × 24 × 3600 2.7 × 1021 × 235 × 10–3
= 8.64 × 1010 J = 6.023 × 1023
Now, total number of atoms disintegrated = 1.05 × 10–3 kg
Etotal 8.64 × 1010 Mass consumed = 1.05 g
N = E = 3.2 × 10–11

8. [NEB 2075] A city requires 107 watts of electrical power on the average. If this is to be supplied by a
nuclear reactor of efficiency 20%. Using 92U235 as the fuel source, calculate the amount of fuel
required per day (Energy released per fission 92U235 = 200 MeV).
SOLUTION
Given,
Output power (Pout) = 107 watts
Efficiency () = 20%
Input power (Pin) = ?
Mass required = ?
Time (t) = 1 day = 24 × 60 × 60 = 86400 sec
Energy, released per fission of 235
92 U = 200 MeV
235
Mass of 92 U = ?
We have,
Pout
= P
in
642 Principles of Physics - II
107
or, 0.20 = P
in

107
or, Pin = 0.20 = 5 × 107 watt
Energy E = Pin × t = 5 × 107 × 86400 = 4.32 × 1012 J
Again,
235 amu = 235 × 1.66 × 10–27 kg = 3.9 × 10–25 kg
235
Energy released per fission of 92 U = 200MeV
= 200 × 106× 1.6 × 10–19 = 3.2 × 10–11J
 3.2 × 10 J energy is released by 3.9 × 10–25 kg of uranium.
–11

3.9 × 10–25
or, 4.32 × 1012 J energy is released by 3.2 × 10–11 × 4.32 × 1012 kg of uranium.
= 0.0527 kg
 Mass of 235
92 U required = 0.0527 kg

Challenging Problems
1. The nuclear radius of 8O16 is 3 × 10–15 m. Calculate the nuclear radius of 82Pb205.
Ans: 7.02 fermi
2. Calculate in MeV the energy liberated when a helium nucleus (2He4) is produced (a) by fusing two
neutrons and two protons, and (b) by fusing two deuterium nuclei (1H2). Mass of neutron = 1.00898
amu, Mass of proton = 1.00759 amu, mass of helium = 4.00277 amu, mass of deuterium = 2.01419
amu,1 amu = 931 MeV.]
Ans: (a) 28.27 MeV (b) 23.84 MeV
3. If 10 g of a matter is completely annihilated, find the quantity of energy produced.
Ans: 9 × 1014 J

4. The energy liberated in the fission of a single uranium- 235 atom is 3.2 × 10-11 J. Calculate the power
production corresponding to the fission of 1 g of uranium per day. Assume, Avogadro constant = 6.0
× 1023 mol -1.
Ans: 0.946 MW
5. A nucleus of uranium 238 can disintegrate with the emission of an alpha particle according to the
reaction.
238 234 4
92 U  90 Th + 2 He.
Calculate the total energy related in the disintegration [Mass of 238U = 238.12492 amu. Mass of 234

Th = 234.11650 amu. Mass of 4He = 4.00387 amu . 1 amu is equivalent to 930 MeV]
Ans: (a) 4.23 MeV (b) 4.16 MeV

[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Why is neutron considered the most effective bombarding particle in a nuclear reaction?
[NEB 2074]
 Neutron is a charge less subatomic particle, it does not interact electrically with electrons and
protons. As it passes into an atom, it is not deflected by orbital electrons, and also by the proton in
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  643
the nucleus. Hence, it can combine into the nucleus easily. Further, when it enters into the nucleus, it
increases the neutron to proton ratio. This makes the nucleus unstable. Thus, the nuclear reaction
takes place.
2. According to properties of charges, like charges repel each other. Then, how do the protons in a
nucleus stay together? [NEB 2074]
 Nucleons are bound together not by the electrical force but by another nature of attractive nuclear
force, called strong force, but is very strong in magnitude within the nuclear range (~ 10–15 m).
1
Electric force between the charge particles decreases as the inverse square law F  r2 . In nucleus,
 
neutrons occupy the space between protons, so the electrical influence between protons is dominated
by strong force. Hence, protons in a nucleus stay together.
3. Why is the mass of a nucleus slightly less than the mass of constituent particles? [HSEB 2073]
 In nucleus, nucleons bind tightly with a nuclear force, called the strong force. This force provides the
binding energy for these particles. This binding energy is produced in the expense of some fraction of
mass of nucleons, which makes the ultimate reduction of mass in the nucleus as compared with the
sum of mass of constituent particles.
4. Diameter of Al27 nucleus is DAl. How can one express the diameter of Cu64 in terms of DAl? Explain.
 Let DAl and DCu be the diameter of alumium nucleus and copper nucleus respectively. We have,

( )
1/3
DAl = 2 R0 AAl …(i) and

= 2 (R A )
1/3
DCu 0 Cu …(ii)
From equation (i),
DAl
Ro = 1/3 …(iii)
2 AAl
Using R0 in equation (ii), we get
DAl 
DCu = 2 
1/3
 ACu
2 A1/3
 Al 
1
ACu 3
= DAl  A 
 Al 
1
64 3 4
= DAl 27 = 3 DAl
  
4
 DCu = 3 DAl

5. By what factor, must the mass number of a nucleus increase to double its volume? Explain.
[HSEB 2072]
4
 The volume of nucleus, V = 3 R03A.

4
The factor 3 R03A is constant. So, to double the volume, the atomic mass number also should be
doubled.
6. All the nuclei have nearly the same density. Justify. [HSEB 2072]
 The average mass of a nucleon is 1.66 × 10–27 kg. For any nucleus, its total mass can be A × 1.66 × 10–27
kg.
4 4 4
Also, the volume of nucleus, V = 3 R3 = 3 (R0A1/3)3 = 3 R03A
644 Principles of Physics - II
m A × 1.66 × 10–27
Now, the density,  = V = 4 = 2.29 × 1017 kgm–3
3  (1.2 × 10 –15)3 A

This shows that density of nucleus does not depend on atomic mass number. Hence, the density of
any nucleus is almost constant.
7. Which is more stable, 3Li7 or 3Li4?
 The nucleus having greater number of neutrons has less mutual electrostatic force between the
protons. 3Li7 contains more number of neutrons than 3Li4. Due to greater number of neutrons in 3Li7,
it is more stable than 3Li4.
8. What are the number of protons and the number of neutrons in a nucleus of 82Pb206?
 In 82Pb206,
Atomic number (Z) = 82 and atomic mass number (A) = 206
Therefore, number of neutrons, N = A – Z = 206 – 82 = 124
 There are 82 protons and 124 neutrons in the nucleus of 82Pb206.
9. Give the mass number and atomic number of elements on the right hand side of the decay process,
86Rn220  Po + 2He4

 In nuclear reaction, atomic number and atomic mass number are always conserved. Therefore, the
atomic number of Po is, 86 – 2 = 84 and the atomic mass number is 220 – 4 = 216.
Therefore, the decay equation is written as,
86Rn220  84Po216 + 2He4
10. Why should the emitted neutrons be slowed down in sustainable chain reaction?
 The emitted neutrons in the nuclear fission reaction should combine to other uranium nuclei to
proceed the reaction continuously. If the fission neutrons were produced instantaneously and move
swiftly, there would be no time for the neutron capture into the nucleus that ultimately ceases the
reaction.
11. Why is the nuclear fusion not possible in laboratory?
 Nuclear fusion takes place at a very high temperature and pressure. These conditions can not be
realized in laboratory. Nuclear fusion reaction takes place in the sun and other celestial bodies.
12. The sun is constantly losing mass due to thermo nuclear reaction. Comment.
 Nuclear fusion reaction takes place in the sun so that enormous heat and light are produced. In each
fusion reaction, a small fraction of mass of atom is converted into thermal energy. Since, the mass is
reduced continuous to convert into energy, it is constantly loosing the mass.
13. A fusion reaction is more energetic than a fission. Explain.
 The energy released per unit mass in fusion reaction is more than that of fission reaction. Nuclear
fission reaction occurs in heavy nuclei like U235, but the nuclear fusion reaction occurs in light like H1,
H2, etc. Although, energy released per unit atom is larger in fission reaction energy, released per unit
mass is much greater in fusion reaction.
14. Why are fusion reactions also known as thermo nuclear reaction?
 In nuclear fusion reaction, two or more nuclei has to be combined to form a heavy nuclei. In such
nuclear combination, large thermal energy is required to work against the electrostatic repulsion
between these nuclei. That is why, nuclear fusion reactions are also known as thermo-nuclear
reaction.
15. Why do lighter nuclei tend to fuse together?
 The binding energy per unit nucleon is relatively greater in middle class nucleus. For instance, the
binding energy per nucleon of helium is greater than that of hydrogen. The nuclei having greater
binding energy per nucleon are relatively more stable. Hence, to be stable nuclei in nature, lighter
nuclei tend to fuse together.
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  645
16. Define mass defect and binding energy.
 Mass defect: The difference between the rest mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of the
nucleons composing a nucleus is known as mass defect. It is denoted by m.
Let M be the composite mass of a nucleus of an atom having atomic mass number A and atomic
number Z. Also, mp and mn be the mass of a proton and a neutron respectively. Then, the total mass
of constituent nucleus is,
Zmp + (A – Z) mn
the mass defect (m) = [Amp + (A – Z) mn] – M
Binding energy: The binding energy is the amount of energy required to break up a nucleus into its
constituent parts and place them at an infinite distance from one another.
Therefore, the binding energy of a nucleus is written as,
Binding energy = m c2
17. The binding energy per nucleons of Fe56 is 8.8 MeV. What does this mean?
 This means, the minimum energy of 8.8 MeV is required to eject a nuclear particle (one proton or one
neutron) from the nucleus of an iron nucleus. More clearly, total energy 56 × 8.8 = 492.8 MeV is
required to separate every nucleon to infinite distance apart from the iron nucleus.
18. How mass defect is related to the binding energy of nucleons?
 Mass defect is the loss of mass in the nucleus, when nucleons are composed unitely at a position.
Nucleons in the nucleus are bound strongly which can not be removed with small amount of energy,
rather it requires enormous energy. The nucleons gain binding energy by the conversion of mass
defect into the form of energy.
So, binding energy(BE) = Mass defect (m) × c2.
19. In heavy nuclei, the numbers of neutrons are much greater than number of protons. Why?
 Nucleus contains protons and neutrons. Protons are positive charge particles, they repel to each
other. So, they always tend to move away from each other due to the charge of similar nature. For the
stability of nucleus, the repulsive force between these particles should be minimized. That can be
done by separating them placing far to each other, which is naturally possible only when number of
neutrons (neutral particles) are much greater than the number of protons.
20. What is atomic mass unit (amu)? Why this unit is necessary?
 1 amu (1 atomic mass unit) is defined as the one-twelfth the mass of one 6C12 atom, which is the most
abundant naturally occuring isotope of carbon.
1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg (in mass)
and 1 amu = 931 MeV (equivalent energy)
In the study of atomic mass, the unit 'kilogram (kg)' seems unscientific because of relatively high unit
in the measurement of atomic mass. So, for the efficient comparison and calculation of mass in atomic
level, amu is appropriate.
21. What does high binding energy per nucleon mean?
 Binding energy per nucleon means the average energy required to remove a nucleon from the
nucleus. In order to compare the stability of different nucleons, we require to find the binding energy
per nucleon of that nucleus. Greater the binding energy per nucleus of a nucleus, greater the stability
of nucleus.
22. What is nuclear fission? Give one example.
 Nuclear fission is a nuclear reaction in which a heavy nucleus is bombarded with a light particles
such that two fragments of roughly equal masses are formed along with emission of energetic
neutrons and energy. When a nucleus of 92U235 is bombarded with a slow neutron, two fragments of
56Ba235 and 36Kr92 are produced accompanied with three neutrons and about 200 MeV energy, i.e.

92U235 + 0n1  56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1 + Q ( 200 MeV)

646 Principles of Physics - II
23. What is nuclear fusion? Write an example.
 Nuclear fusion is a nuclear reaction in which two or more light nuclei are fused together to form a
single nucleus releasing some energy. In general, the mass of the composite nucleus is less than the
sum of the masses of the nuclei which are fused. The lost mass is converted into energy which is
released in fusion process. For example, when two deuterons are fused, a triton is formed
accompanied with a proton and some energy, i.e.
1H2 + 1H2  1H3 + 1H1 + 4.0 MeV
24. Which principles are applied in the production of atom bomb and hydrogen bomb?
 Atom bomb is produced from the nuclear fission reaction and hydrogen bomb is produced from
nuclear fusion reaction.
25. Complete the nuclear fusion equation.
1H3 + 1H2  2He4 + ………… + 17.6 MeV

1H3 + 1H2  2He4 + 0n1 + 17.6 MeV

26. Prove 1 amu = 931 MeV.

We have, We know,
1 amu = 1.66 × 10–27 kg 1 eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J
We know, 14.94 × 10–11
so, E =  1.6 × 10–19  eV
c = 3 × 108 ms–1  
Now,  931 × 106 eV
From Einstein's mass-energy relation, E = 931 MeV
E = mc2  1 amu = 931 MeV proved.
= 1.66 × 10–27 × (3 × 108)2 = 14.94 × 10–11 J

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What are the constituents of a nucleus?
2. Define (a) atomic mass unit (b) mass defect (c) binding energy (d) binding energy per nucleons.
3. Explain Einstein's mass-energy relationship theory.
4. How is energy released from the decay of radioactive isotopes?
5. Differentiate between nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
6. What do you mean by nuclear reaction?
7. Discuss health hazards and safety related to radiation.
8. Intermediate mass elements are more stable than light and heavy elements. Explain.
9. Explain the terms (i) nuclear binding energy, (ii) nucleon and (iii) nuclide.
10. Define binding energy and binding energy per nucleon.
11. Is it possible that, the mass defect of an atom is negative?
12. What is binding energy per nucleon? What is its maximum value?
13. "Heavy nuclei split into lighter nuclei, by a process called fission." Why?
14. Lighter nuclei fuse together under suitable conditions." Why?
15. Define nuclear fission. Why it is called so?
16. What are thermonuclear reactions? Why are they called so?
17. Light energy emitted by the sun and stars comes from the fusion process. What conditions in the
interior of star makes this possible?
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  647
18. A chain reaction dies out sometimes, why?
19. What is the difference between nuclear fission and radioactivity?
20. Why do nuclear reactions not occur just like chemical reactions?
21. Why is the neutron so effective as a bombarding particle?
22. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion.
23. Distinguish between chemical and nuclear reactions.

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. State and explain Einstein’s mass energy relation with example.
2. Define binding energy. Draw a graph showing the relation between the binding energy per nucleon
and atomic number.
3. Define the terms, binding energy and mass defect. Establish the relation between them.
4. What is nuclear fission? Give an example of nuclear reaction.
5. Distinguish between nuclear fusion and fission with examples.
6. What do you mean by fission? How energy is released in fission of uranium nucleus?
7. What is nuclear fission? How energy is released in nuclear fission reaction?

Numerical Problems
1. Find (i) mass defect (ii) binding energy (iii) binding energy per nucleon and (iv) packing fraction for
the Helium atom (2He4). ( mass of 2He4 = 4.001509 amu, mass of 1H1 = 1.007277 amu, mass of neutron
= 1.0086666 amu)
Ans: 0.030377 amu, 28.3 MeV, 7.07 MeV, 7.59 x 10-3 amu
2. The mass of the nucleus of the isotope 3Li7
is 7.0143514. Find it's binding energy and binding energy
per nucleon. (Mass of proton=1.0072754 amu, Mass of neutron =1.0086654 amu) (1 amu = 931 MeV)
Ans: 39.2 MeV, 5.6 MeV
3. Calculate the Q-value of the nuclear reaction represented by 7N14 (,p) 8O17 Relevant masses in amu
are (7N14 =14.007514 m= 4.003837 amu 8O17 = 17.004533 amu mp = 1.008142 amu)
Ans: -1.233 MeV
4. How much energy will be liberated if 1.0 g of matter is destroyed completely?
Ans: a. 9.0 × 1013 J
5. Calculate the energy released in the nuclear reaction:
1H2 + 1H2  2He4 + Q (energy)
(Given, mass of 1H2 = 2.014102 amu, mass of 2He4 = 4.002604 amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV).
Ans: b. 23.83 MeV
6. Calculate the mass defect, binding energy and binding energy per nucleon of 26Fe56.
(Given, mass of proton = 1.007276 amu, mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu, mass of 26Fe56 = 55.934939
amu).
Ans: 0.514 amu, 478.7 MeV, 8.55 MeV
7. Calculate the energy released in fission of a uranium92U235 atom in the following nuclear reaction,
92U235 + 0n1 = 56Ba141 + 36Kr92 + 30n1 + Q,
(mass of 92U235 = 235.045933 amu, mass of 0n1 = 1.008665 amu, 56Ba141 = 140.9177 amu,
36Kr = 91.8854 amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV)
92

Ans: 209.8 MeV

8. Find the energy equivalent to 1 gm in kWh.
Ans: 2.5 × 107 kWh
9. The mass of 8O16 is 15.9949 amu. Calculate its binding energy. What is the binding energy per
nucleon? (Given mn = 1.008665 amu, mp = 1.007825 amu).
Ans: 127.54 MeV, 7.97 MeV / nucleon
648 Principles of Physics - II
10. Calculate (i) the mass defect (ii) binding energy (iii) binding energy per nucleon for 6C12 nucleus.
Atomic mass of 6C12= 12 amu, mass of proton = 1.007825 amu and mass of neutron = 1.008665 amu.
Ans: (i) 0.09894 amu (ii) 92.113 MeV (iii) 7.676 MeV per nucleon
11. When 3Li6 is bombarded by neutron so that, 1H3 and 2H4 are released. Write the reaction and find the
reaction energy
Mass of 3Li6 = 6.015126 amu, Mass of 2He4 = 4.002604 amu, Mass of 1H3 = 3.016049 amu
Mass of 0n1 = 1.008665 u
Ans: 4.78 MeV
12. Calculate in MeV the energy liberated when a helium nucleus (2He4) is produced by fusing two
deuterium nuclei.
Mass of deuterium = 2.01419 amu, Mass of helium = 4.00277 amu, 1 amu = 931 MeV
Ans: 23.8 MeV
13. Calculate the total amount of energy released if 25 g of matter is completely annihilated.
Ans: 2.25 × 1015 J

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The percentage of mass which changes into energy during fission is in the order of:
a. 10% b. 1%
c. 0.4% d. 0.1%
2. For an isobaric family members of nuclei, which of the following condition is true?
a. Neutron number remains same
b. Atomic number remains same
c. Both neutron and proton numbers remain same
d. Mass number remain same
3. The diameter of an atom is of the order of:
a. 10–8 cm b. 10–9 cm
c. 10–10 cm d. 10-12 cm
4. In a nuclear reaction, a deuteron particle is bombarded with a target nucleus, then energy is released
along with a neutron and a product. The new product has the atomic mass:
a. Smaller than a parent nucleus b. Greater than the parent nucleus
c. Equal to the parent nucleus d. Can't be concluded
5. Energy equivalent of 1 gm of U235 is nearly:
a. 3 × 1016 J b. 3 × 1023 J
c. 9 × 1019 J d. 9 × 1013 J
6. The radius of gold nucleus is approximately:
a. 4.29 × 10–14 m b. 1.5 × 10–10 m
c. 2.5 × 10–8m d. 6.0 × 10–24 m
7. A nucleus ZXA decays to Z+1YA plus an additional nuclear particle. The resulting particle may be:
a. Positron b. Alpha
c. Beta d. Gamma
8. What are the appropriate conditions for a fusion reaction to occur?
a. High temperature and low pressure b. Low temperature and high pressure
c. High temperature and high pressure d. Low temperature and low pressure
9. The ratio of the mass defect of the nucleus to its mass number is maximum among following nuclei
in
a. 14N b. 28Si

c. 56Fe d. 238U
 Nuclear Physics  Chapter 24  649
10. A nuclear transformation is denoted by X(n, ) 73Li. Which of the following is the nucleus of element
X?
9 11
a. 5
B b. 4
Be
12 10
c. 6
C d. 5
B
11. What is the size of gold nuclei?
a. 3 R0 b. 4 R0
c. 5 R0 d. 5.8 R0
12. On bombarding 235U by slow neutron, 200 MeV energy is released. If the power output of atomic
reactor is 1.6 MW, then the rate of fission will be
a. 5  1022 s–1 b. 5  1016 s–1
c. 8  1016 s–1 d. 20  1016 s–1
13. If the radius of a nucleus of 256X is 8 fermi, then the radius of 4He nucleus will be
a. 16 fermi b. 2 fermi
c. 32 fermi d. 4 fermi
14. The density of a nucleus of mass number A is proportional to
a. A3 b. A1/3
c. A1 d. A0
15. The energy equivalent of neutron-proton mass differences is 1.3 MeV and the rest mass energy of
electron is 0.51 MeV. What is the maximum kinetic energy of electron emitted in neutron decay?
a. 1.81 MeV b. 1.3 MeV
c. 0.79 MeV d. 0.905 MeV
16. The ratio between the radii of nuclei with mass number 27 and 125 is
a. 5 : 3 b. 3 : 5
c. 27 : 125 d. 125 : 27
17. Four atoms of hydrogen combine to form an 42He atom with a release of energy of
a. 26.7 MeV b. 216 MeV
c. 3.27 MeV d. 1 MeV

Answers
1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (d) 11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (b) 14.(d) 15. (c) 16. (b) 17. (a)

Hints to Challenging Problems

HINT: 1  m = 0.03027 u
Given,  Energy liberated =  m × 931 MeV
Mass number of 8O16 nucleus, A1 = 16 b. Given,
Nuclear radius of 8O16 nucleus, R1 = 3 × 10–15m 1H2 + 1H2 2He4
Mass number of 82Pb205 nuclear, A2 = 205 Mass defect (m) = 2 × 2.01419 – 4.00277
Nuclear radius of 82Pb205, R2 = ?  Energy liberated =  m × 931 MeV
We know that = 23.84 MeV
R  A1/3 HINT:3
R1 (A1)1/3 Given,
R2 = (A2)1/3 M = 10 g = 10 × 10–3 kg = 10–2 kg
HINT: 2 Speed of light, c = 3 × 108 m/s
a. Given, Einstein's mass energy formula,
21H1 + 20n1 2He4 E = mc2
Mass defect (m) HINT: 4
= (2 × 1.00759 + 2 × 1.00898) – 4.00277 Given,
= 4.03314 – 4.00277 Energy liberated by a single
650 Principles of Physics - II
E(92U235) = 3.2 × 10–11 J E
Power production due to 1 g of 92U235 per day, Now, Power production, P = t
p=? HINT: 5
Avogadro's constant, NA = 6 × 1023 mol–1 Given,
∵ 235 g contains 6 × 1023 atoms of 92U235 92U238 90Th234 + 2He4 + energy (E)

6 × 1023 Total energy released, E = ?

 1 g contains = 235 atoms mass defect (m)
So, N = 2.56 × 1021 atoms = mass of 92U238 – mass of (90Th234 and 2He4)
Hence, total energy produced Then,
by 1 g (N atoms)  Energy released = m × 931 MeV
= N  E(92U235)


 RADIOACTIVITY

25.1 Introduction
In 1896, Henry Becquerel discovered an interesting phenomenon of heavy elements like Uranium,
Thorium, etc. that emit certain invisible radiations which affect the photographic plate. Later on,
many other lighter nuclei were also discovered which show the similar properties. Piere Curie and
Madam Curie discovered a new element, Polonium, which shows the exactly similar property as the
Uranium. A common property was observed among these elements which was the emission of the
radiations spontaneously. This phenomenon of emission of radiations spontaneously from the nucleus of
some isotopes of elements is known as radioactivity. The emission of nuclear radiation is a purely random
event. The elements that show the radioactive property are known as radioactive elements.
Radiations emitted by radioactive nuclei are of three distinct types. They are named as -rays, -rays
and -rays.  rays and -rays are the rays of particles, hence they are particulate radiations. But, -
rays are electromagnetic radiation. Radioactive elements can produce all three types of radiations but
they are not emitted simultaneously. These radiations are harmful for human tissues, however they
are used in diagnosis and treatment of some diseases.
Radioactivity can be of two types:
i. Natural radioactivity ii. Artificial radioactivity
If the radiations are emitted spontaneously from naturally occuring isotopes then, it is termed as
natural radioactivity. However, the radiations emitted from artificially created radioactive elements
is termed as artificial radioactivity.
Three types of radiations emitted from the radioactive source can be distinguished by enclosing the
beam into the strong electric field. The experimental set up is shown in Fig. 25.1. A radioactive
source is kept into a very thick lead block. The upper face of block contains a window which allows
the radiation to emit out when it opens. Two oppositely charged parallel plates are placed at two
sides just above the lead block. When the window of the block is open, the deflection of radiation can
be observed. Some of the particles are found deflecting towards the negative plate, which are
relatively heavier than others. They are named -particles or -rays. Some of the lighter particles are
observed deflecting towards the positive plate, which are named -particles or -rays. A ray is
observed passing straight up without deflecting towards any plates, they are named -rays. This
experiment confirms three types of radiation emitted in radioactivity and nature of charge possessed
by corresponding rays. The deflection of these rays can also be studied in magnetic field.
652 Principles of Physics - II

Electric field Magnetic field

– +
–   +  
– +
 
– +
– +
– +Radium Radium

Lead Block Lead Block

(i) (ii)
Fig. 25.1: Experimental set up to demonstrate the three types of radioactivity

25.2 Radioactive Decay

The rules of radioactivity inside atomic nuclei are governed by mass-energy equivalence. Particles
decay only when the parent nucleus has greater mass than its products. For example, when a
neutron decays to a proton and an electron (with an antineutrino), the mass of neutron is greater
than the sum of masses of proton and the electron. This process of decaying of a particle is
spontaneous. However, the decay is not spontaneous if the products have greater mass than the
mass of parent nucleus. This induced decay needs external energy input.

25.3 Stability of Nucleus and Radioactive Isotopes

An atom is composed of three subatomic particles: neutrons, protons and electrons. The number of
protons in an atomic nucleus is equal to the number of electrons in electronic orbits for a neutral
atom. If the electron is removed or added, the atom becomes electrically charged. This charged atom
is called an ion. An ionized atom contains unequal number of protons and electrons. But the
neutrons do not have any direct relation to the electronic configuration of an atom. However, in
atomic physics, the number of neutrons plays vital role to stabilize the nucleus. The principal role of
neutrons is to act as a sort of nuclear cement to hold the nucleus intact.
One may surprise, how an electrically neutral particle play a crucial role to bind the nucleons
together! Actually, nucleons are bound together not by the electrical force but by another nature of
attractive nuclear force appropriately called strong force. Strong force is a very short range force
which is effective only within the nuclear dimension, whereas electrical force between charges
1
decreases as the inverse square of the distance F  r2 . It means, the nuclear force decreases far
 
more rapidly, even it tends to zero at a few nucleons diameters apart. Within nuclear dimension,
although the electrostatic force is also large, the nuclear force is dominant. The presence of neutrons
enhances to the nuclear attraction and holds the protons from flying away.
Heavy nucleus contains large number of protons, so more neutrons are needed to hold them together.
In light elements, the nuclei can be stable, though protons and neutrons are approximately equal in
number. However, extra neutrons are required for heavy elements to hold the nucleons together. The
most common form of lead contains 82 protons and 126 neutrons. i.e. about one and a half times as
many neutrons as protons. For elements with more than 83 protons (Z > 83), even the addition of
extra neutrons cannot stabilize the nucleus. The nuclei of these elements are unstable and finally
decay radiating special rays called radioactive rays: -rays, -rays and -rays, until they become
stable.
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  653

The unstable nuclei which decay spontaneously overtime are called radioactive nuclei. There are
many isotopes which possess the decaying characters, called radioactive isotopes. All isotopes of
elements heavier than Bismuth (Z = 83) are radioactive in nature. Many light elements are also
radioactive. C14, K40, Na24, Co60, I131 are some examples of radioactive isotopes.

25.4 Nature of Radioactivity

Radioactive source shows that, the emission or radiation is both spontaneous and random. It is a
spontaneous process because it is not affected by any external factors such as variation of
temperature, pressure and electric and magnetic fields. Decay is random in the sense that, it is not
possible to predict which nucleus in a sample will decay next. There is however, a constant
probability that a nucleus will decay, within any fixed period of time.

Radioactive Rays
Radioactive atoms emit three distinct types of rays. The rays are named: alpha, beta and gamma.
These three rays can be separated by putting magnetic field or electric field across their path as
shown in Fig. 25.1.

25.5 Alpha Rays (-rays)

An alpha ray is a stream of particles that are made of two protons and two neutrons and are identical
to the nuclei of helium atoms. They are particles and so called as alpha particles. The phenomenon of
emission of an -particles from a radioactive nucleus is called alpha decay. When a nucleus
undergoes alpha decay, its atomic number and atomic mass number are reduced by 2 and 4
respectively.
A
The transformation of zX nucleus into daughter nucleus Z – 2Y
A – 4 nucleus by an alpha decay is
expressed by the following equation.
A
ZX  Z – 2YA – 4 + 2He4 (-particle)
The energy released in this process can be obtained from Einstein's mass-energy relation,
Q = (mx – my – m) c2
This energy (Q) is shared both by daughter nucleus Y and alpha particle ().

Properties of -Rays
i. -rays are positively charged particles and charge on an -particle is + 3.2  10–19 C (+ 2e).
ii. They have mass and charge equal to that of He-nucleus. Thus, -particles are the doubly
ionized helium atoms (He++).
iii. They have very little penetrating power because they are massive particle and so, they can be
stopped by a sheet of paper, 0.01 mm thick aluminium foil or even thin layer of air extending
upto a few cm.
iv. They have got high ionizing power, greater than both -rays and -rays.
v. They are deflected by both electric and magnetic fields.
vi. They affect a photographic plate, i.e. a chemical change takes place due to the exposure of -
rays.
vii. They produce brilliant scintillation (tiny flashes of light) on a fluorescent screen such as zinc
sulphide, barium platinocynide, etc.
654 Principles of Physics - II
viii. The speed of -particles ranges 5 to 7 percent of speed of light in vacuum depending on the
radioactive material emitting them.
ix. They produce heating effect when they are stopped.
x. They can burn the muscles of the body and hence they are ruinous.
xi. Their energy lies between 4 to 10 MeV. Due to its high energy, they are used as bullets in
bombarding atomic nuclei.
xii. Its specific charge (q/m) is 4.815  107 C kg–1.

25.6 Beta Rays (-rays)

Beta ray is simply a stream of electrons. An electron (-particle) is ejected from the nucleus when a
1
neutron is transformed into a proton, i.e. 0n  1p1 + – 1e0. It may seem that, electron exists into
the neutron, but this is not so. The electrons are ejected from nucleus immediately after its creation.
-decay occurs for the conservation of mass and charge in radioactive disintegration.
-decay is generally expressed in the following ways.
A –
ZX  Z + 1YA + – 1e0 (¯) + (  )
–
Here,  is antineutrino.
The energy released in this process is,
Q = (mx – my – m) c2
This released energy is shared by daughter nucleus, -particle and antineutrino.

Properties of -Rays
i. -particles (-rays) are negatively charged particles and charge on a -particle is equal to an
electronic charge – 1.6  10–19 C.
ii. They have the same mass as that of electrons. Thus, -particles are identical with electrons.
iii. They have greater penetrating power than that of -rays, having a range of several metres in
air, but lower power of penetration than that of -rays.
iv. They have got less ionizing power than that of -particles.
v. They are deflected by electric and magnetic fields more than -particles owing to their smaller
mass but the deflection is in opposite direction.
vi. They affect a photographic plate. i.e. they also produce chemical change.
vii. They can produce scintillation on a fluorescent screen.
viii. Their emission speed is in the range of 33% to 99% of the speed of light in vacuum.
xi. Its specific charge (e/m) is 1.76  1011 C kg–1.
xiii. They are only emitted from certain elements.

Existence of neutrino
In -decay condition, it is seen there is the clear violation of three important conservation laws: law
of conservation of energy, law of conservation of linear momentum and the conservation of angular
momentum. This was the unrealistic evidence in the study of nature and natural laws. To resolve the
problem, Wolfgang Pauli, in 1933, purposed a new particle having three especial properties: zero rest
mass, zero charge and spin half particle. Later on, Enrico Fermi, developed a theory regarding the
newly purposed particle by Pauli, and named it as "neutrino". Then, its antiparticle was also
discovered, so a neutrino and an antineutrino, accompanied with a beta-minus (–) and beta–plus (+)
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  655

decays respectively. In neutron to proton transformation, an electron (beta – minus) and an

antineutrino are emitted.
– –
n  p + – +  (  is antineutrino)
In proton to neutron transformation, a positron (beta – plus) and a neutrino are emitted.
n  p + + +  ( is neutrino)

Mystery of neutrino:
Neutrinos are extremely swift (v ~ c). Whether they have mass is still questionable. If they do, it is
thousand times less than the mass of an electron.

25.7 Gamma rays (-rays)

Gamma rays are massless energy (i.e. rest mass is zero). Like visible light, gamma rays are also the
photons of electromagnetic radiation, but of much higher energy. Visible light is emitted when
electron jumps in an atomic orbit from higher energy state to lower energy state, however gamma
rays are emitted when same event occurs in nucleons. In most of the cases, when an excited nucleon
return to the ground state, -rays are emitted. Sometimes, after the emission of an alpha, beta or
positron particle, the nucleus is still in an exited state, called a meta-stable state. In order to get to a
lower energy state, it emits a quantum of energy in the form of a gamma ray.

Properties of -Rays
i. -rays are stream of electrically neutral particles called photons.
ii. The rest mass of photons is zero.
iii. They are electromagnetic waves of small wavelength so, they are not called radioactive particle.
iv. They have the greatest penetrating power among all nuclear radiations. It penetrates very
deeply into matter before, its energy has been used up. It can pass through even 5 cm thick
sheet of lead or 30 cm thickness of iron.
v. Their ionizing power is the least.
vi. They are not deflected by electric or magnetic fields.
vii. Their emission speed is exactly the same as the speed of light in vacuum.
viii. They affect photographic plate very strongly.
ix. When it is exposed on human body or living thing, it affects strongly.
x. They are used in radio therapy to destroy cancerous cells.
xi. They can produce nuclear reaction.
xii. They can produce heating effect on the exposed surface.

Penetrating power of Radiation

The radioactive rays, -rays, -rays, and -rays have different penetrating capacity when they fall on
a material. Alpha rays can be stopped by papers. -rays cannot be stopped by paper, but by the
combination of several aluminium plates. Gamma rays are highly penetrating rays. Thick lead plates
are required to stop the -rays. They can penetrate even a thick concrete wall. The penetrating
scheme of -, - and -rays is shown in Fig. 25.2.
656 Principles of Physics - II
Radioactive source
An alpha particle is easy to stop because it moves
relatively slow and its double positive charge
interacts with the molecules it encounters along its
α-rays
path. Because of its strong positive charge, the
particles of the medium in its path get ionized.
When it receives two electrons from the matter, it Thin paper
becomes a chargeless and harmless helium atom.
Beta particles move faster than the alpha particle. It
possesses the charge equal to the charge of an β-rays
electron. Its electrical interaction with other atoms is
relatively weaker than the alpha particles. So, it can
travel much farther than the alpha particles in same Aluminium plate

medium. Consequently, the ionization power in a

medium is relatively low.
Since gamma rays have no charge, they do not stop γ-rays

until these hit directly on the electron or the nucleus.

They can travel long distance in any medium, only
the dense material like lead can stop the gamma Lead Plate

rays. Therefore, they have the least ionizing power

and the most penetrating power out of three Fig. 25.2: Penetrating power of radioactive rays
radiations.

25.8 Laws of Radioactive Transformation

There are many laws of radioactive transformation. Some important laws are listed below:
i. When a particle ejects an -particle, the mass is reduced by 4 units and charge decreases by 2
units. The radioactive transformation in -particle emission is represented by the following
equation:

x Y
A A–4
Z  Z – 2 +  (He++) …(25.1)
ii. When a radioactive nucleus emits a -particle, the mass number remains unchanged but the
charge increases by 1 unit. The radioactive transformation in -particle emission is represented
by the following equation:

x Y
A A
Z  Z + 1 +  (–1e0) …(25.2)
iii. When a radioactive nucleus emits -rays, the mass and the charge remains unchanged. Only
some energy is radiated and the original nucleus shifts from higher energy level to lower
energy level. The radioactive transformation in -rays emission is represented by the following
equation:

( x )  X
Z
A *
Z
A
+ …(25.3)

iv. The decay of radioactive materials is purely a random process.

v. The rate of decay is completely independent of the physical condition and chemical
composition of the material. It is not affected by temperature and pressure.
vi. The rate of decay of radioactive nuclei is directly proportional to the quantity of material
actually present at that instant.
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  657

25.9 Radioactive Decay Law

This law states that "the rate of decay (disintegration) of radioactive nuclei of atoms at any instant is directly
proportional to the number of atoms present at that instant".
Let N be the number of radioactive nuclei present in a radioactive substance at any instant of time t.
Let dN be the number of such nuclei that disintegrates in a short interval of time dt. Then, the rate of
dN
disintegration – dt is directly proportional to N.

dN
i.e., – dt  N

dN
– dt = N

dN
or, dt = –  N …(25.4)

Where, is a proportionality constant called decay constant or disintegration constant or

transformation constant. Its value is different for different radioactive substances. And negative sign
indicates that, number of atoms decreases with time. Its value depends on nature of radioactive
element only and not on other factors like temperature, pressure, amount of element, etc.
Equation (25.4) can be written as,
dN
N = – dt … (25.5)

Let N0 be the number of radioactive atoms present at a time t = 0 and N be the number of atoms left
at time t.
Integrating equation (25.5), we get,
N dN t
 N = – dt
 
N0 0
N t
or, [lnN]N = –  dt (here, ln = loge)
0 
0
t
or, lnN – lnN0 = –[t]
0

N x
or, ln N = – [t – 0] (∵ ln y = ln x – ln y)
0

N
or, ln N = – t
0

Taking antilog on both sides, we get,

N –t
N0 = e
–t
 N = N0e . . . (25.6)
Equation (25.6) concludes that, the number of atoms of a given radioactive substance decreases
exponentially with time i.e. in beginning the decay occurs rapidly and then becomes more and more
slow. N becomes zero only when t approaches infinity. Therefore, a radioactive substance will never
658 Principles of Physics - II
disintegrate completely. This fact is clear from the graph between time (t) along x-axis and number of
atoms (N) present at time t as shown in Fig. 25.3.
Y
Half Life Period N0
Radioactive isotopes decay at different rates. The
decay rate of radio isotopes is measured in terms of
characteristics of time, the half life. The half life of

No. of atoms (N)

radioactive material is the time needed for half of the N0
radioactive atoms to decay. It is denoted by Th or T1/2. 2

For example, radium 226 has a half life of 1620 years. N0

This means, half of any given specimen of Ra-226 will 4
N0
have undergone radioactive decay by the end of 1620 Meet at 
8
X
years. In the next 1620 years, half of the remaining O Th 2Th 3Th
Radium will decay, leaving only one fourth the Time (t)
original numbers of Radium atoms. Likewise, similar Fig. 25.3: Radioactive decay with time
process proceeds for the remaining atoms.
N0
In half life period, N = 2 at t = Th.

From equation (25.6), we get,

N0 –T
2 = N0 e h

1 –Th
2 =e

Taking antilog,
1
ln 2 = –Th

Th = ln 2
ln 2
Th =

0.693
Th = …(25.7)

This is the very important relation to study the radioactive phenomena.

Mean Life
The average time for which an atom of a radioactive substance exists is called average life or mean
life of the radioactive element. It is denoted by .
Let dN number of atoms disintegrated at time dt. Also, there are N number of atoms that survive for
a time t. So, the combined age of dN atoms is tdN. Therefore, the life span of all atom that survive


from time 0 to  is ∫ 0 tdN.

Combined life
Now, the average life,  = Total atoms
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  659

1  1 
= N ∫ 0 tdN = N ∫ 0 t[d(N0e–t)]
0 0

Differentiating the term in the bracket with respect to time, we get,

1  
= N ∫ 0 t(– N0e–tdt) = – ∫ 0 te–tdt
0

The – ve sign indicates that the number of atoms decreases as time progresses. So, we can ignore
negative sign.


  = ∫ 0 te–tdt …(25.8)

Integrating by parts,

te 
–t 
 e–t  e –t 

=  –   0
–∫ 0
–  = – 
dt
0

 
1
= …(25.9)

1 Th
Tmean =0.693 = 0.693
 
 Th 
 So, the average life of a radioactive element is the reciprocal of its decay constant.

Alternative form of decay law: Activity of decay

dN
In many cases, we are interested in decay rate R = – dt  rather the calculation of number of
 
radioactive isotopes N itself. Decay rate gives the number of nuclei decaying per unit time. It is
represented by R.
From radioactive decay law,
dN
R = – dt = N

 R = N0e –t
R = R0 e –t …(25.10)
Where R0 is the radioactive decay rate at time t = 0 and R is the rate at any subsequent time t. i.e. R =
N. The total decay rate R of a sample of radio nuclides is called the activity of that sample.
660 Principles of Physics - II

25.10 Number of Atoms Left After nth Half Lives

Let N0 be the number of radioactive nuclei in a sample specimen in the beginning of radioactivity.
N0
After time Th, the number of atoms left will be = 2

1 N0 1 2
After time 2Th, the number of atoms left will be = 2 ×  2  = 2 N0
  
1 1 2
After time 3Th, the number of atoms left will be = 2 of 2 N0

1 1 2 1 3
= 2 of 2 N0 = 2 N0
 

Similarly,
1 n
After time nTh, the number of atoms left will be = 2 N0
 
Therefore, number of radioactive atoms left after nth half life is,
1 n
N = 2 N0 …(25.11)


25.11 Kinetic Energy of Emitted -particle from nucleus

In nuclear reaction, when a parent nucleus is splitted into a daughter nucleus and a light particle
(here, alpha particle), the nuclear reaction can be written as,
XY+
X = parent nucleus
Y = daughter nucleus
 = alpha particle
Let M, m and m be the masses of parent nucleus, daughter nucleus and alpha particle respectively.
For the condition, M > (m + m), the difference of mass is converted into the kinetic energy of
daughter nucleus and alpha particle.
Before reaction, total momentum is zero, i.e., p1 = 0
After reaction, both products gain kinetic energy and travel with certain speed. Let v and v be the
speeds of daughter nucleus and –particle respectively. In this condition, total momentum,
p2 = mv + mv
From the conservation of momentum, p1 = p2
mv + mv = 0
mv
or, v=– m ... (25.12)

The negative sign shows that daughter nucleus and alpha particle move in opposite direction. In
terms of magnitude,
mv
v= m ... (25.13)
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  661

Let Q be the mass equivalent energy released in the nuclear reaction, i.e.,
1 1 2
Q = 2 mv2 + 2 mv

From equation (25.13), we get,

2 2
1 mv 2 1 1 m v 1
= 2 m  m  + 2 mv = 2 m + 2 mv
2 2
Q
 
1 2 m + m m + m
= 2 mv  m  = (Ek)  m 
   
Where (Ek) is the kinetic energy of -particle.
m 
So, (Ek) =  Q ... (26.14)
m + m

25.12 Uses of Radioactive Nuclei

Radioactive nuclei are used for many purposes like medical use, finding the age of fossils and
artifacts, detection of elements, etc. Medical uses of radioactive isotopes and carbon dating are
explained below.

Medical uses
As explained earlier in this chapter, many isotopes of elements are
radioactive. Co60, Na24, K40, C14, etc., are some examples of radioactive
isotopes. The radiation emitted from the radioactive isotopes are
always damaging in nature. When these radiations are incident on the
materials, the atoms of the materials get ionised. The cell may be
damaged or badly harmed in case of living cells. Their physical and
chemical properties may alter and harm them.
The damaging nature of radiations can be utilized in the diagnosis and
therapy of many diseases like cancer. Some of the medical uses of
radiation are listed below:
Radioactive isotopes are used for the diagnosis and treatment of many
Fig. 25.4: Co60 Radiotherapy
diseases:
a. Radiodiagnosis: The detection of causes of diseases using radioactive isotopes is known as
radiodiagnosis. Some applications of radioactive isotopes in radiodiagnosis are as follows:
i. Radioactive mercury (Hg-203) is used to detect kidney and liver functions.
ii. Radioactive iodine (I–131) is used to study the thyroid functions.
iii. To detect the haemorrhage location in human body, radio chromium (Cr - 51) is used.
b. Radiotherapy: The treatment of diseases using radioactive isotopes is known as radiotherapy.
Some applications of radio isotopes in radiotherapy are as follows:
i. Co60 isotopes are used to destroy the cancerous tissues.
ii. I131 isotopes are used to destroy the overactive thyroid gland.
iii. Radiophosphorous, radiogold are used to cure leukemia.

Carbon dating
662 Principles of Physics - II
Radio carbon dating is the technique of determining the age of archaeological specimens from the
examination of radioactive carbon isotopes. A carbon isotope C14 is the major source of carbon dating.
The rate of disintegration of such radioactive carbon isotopes in the fossils, woods, rocks or parts of
meteorite are observed to find their ages.
Carbon is an essential component of organisms. Every organic compound contains carbon. Animals
and plants receive carbon from food, air, water, etc. In the living state, they contain certain
proportion of C14 and C12 (in almost constant proportion). But, after death, radioactive C14 decays
gradually into stable carbon C12. It takes a very long time (half life - 5730 years) for the decay process.
Analyzing the proportion of C14 and C12, the age of archaeological specimen can be determined.
Let N0 be the number of radioactive C14 in an organism at the time of death, t = 0. At time t after its
death, the organism contains N14 and N12. number of atoms of 6C14 and 6C12 respectively. Obviously,
the present number of 6C12 atoms and the number of 6C14 atoms must be equal to N0, the number of
6C atoms present at t = 0 i.e.
14

N0 = N12 + N14 . . . (25.15)

According to radioactive decay, we have,
N14 = N0e–t . . . (25.16)
From equations (25.15) and (25.16) we get,
t
N14 = (N12 + N14) e-
 N12
or e t=N +1
14

N12
ln e t = ln N + 1

or
 14 
N12
or t = ln N + 1
 14 
1 N12
or t= ln N + 1
  14 
2.303 N12
or t= log10 N + 1 . . . (25.17)
  14 
0.693
where,  = T and Th = 5730 yr
h

Measuring (N12/N14) and decay constant , age of the archaeological specimen is determined.

Measurement of radiation dose

Chemical and biological changes in tissue exposed to ionizing radiation depends upon the energy
absorbed in the tissue from the radiation, rather than the amount of ionization that the radiation
produces in air kept inside the GM tube. Therefore, in the study of biological effect of radiation, new
physical parameters are defined. Absorbed dose is a physical quantity which is used in
radiodiagnosis and radiotherapy units to measure the biological damage of radiation. Absorbed dose
is defined as the quantity of energy absorbed per unit mass by a substance. It is denoted by D.
Energy absorbed (E)
 Absorbed dose (D) = mass (m)
Its unit is Gray (Gy). One gray (Gy) is defined as the absorption of one joule of energy per kilogram
of absorbing material.
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  663

i.e. 1 Gy = 1 Jkg–1
Another unit of absorbed does is rad.
1 Gy = 100 rad

Units of radioactivity
In the study of radioactivity, different types of units are used. Some important units that are used to
study the various phenomena regarding the radioactivity are given below:
i. Becquerel (Bq) : 1 Bq = 1 disintegration/second
ii. Rutherford (R) : 1 R = 106 disintegration/second
iii. Curie (Cu) : 1 Cu = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration/second

25.13 Geiger Muller Counter: A Radiation Detector

Geiger Muller Counter (GM Counter) is an instrument used for detection and measurement of all
types of nuclear radiations: -rays, -rays and -rays. It was invented by German physicist Hans
Geiger and Walter Muller. Hans Geiger invented its principle in 1908 and his collaborator Walter
Muller developed a technique to produce a physical tube in 1928. Thus, the experimental device was
invented from the combined effort of Geiger and Muller, so it was named Geiger Muller tube (GM
tube) or GM Counter in the sense that it not only detects the radiation but also counts the number of
radiations. This instrument works in the principle of ionizing effect of radiation.

Construction
This instrument consists of two main parts: a tube (GM tube) and a radiation counter (GM counter).
GM tube is usually cylindrical in shape with a wire down the centre. The tube is filled with a mixture
of inert gases, argon, helium and neon at low pressure about 10 cm of Hg. The centre wire is
connected to positive terminal and metallic wall is connected to the negative terminal of a power
supply. It is operated at high voltage typically, 400 V – 900 V. If the voltage is too low, the electric
field in the tube is too weak to cause a current pulse. If the voltage is too high, the tube will go
continuous discharge and the tube can be damaged. Before it is used for the radiation detection, its
operating voltage has to be determined. Another part, the counter receives the electric pulse feeds
from the tube. It magnifies the pulse and count every pulse sent from the tube. Finally numerical
value is displayed in counter.
Input window
Cathode

Anode

Counter
Voltage
source
Resistor R 0075

Fig. 25.5: GM counter

664 Principles of Physics - II

Working
When ionizing radiation such as alpha particle, beta particle or gamma photon enters into the tube, it
ionizes the gas. From the ionized atom, an electron is knocked out and the remaining part of atom is
positively charged ion. High operating voltage in the tube produces electric field into it. The
electrons which were knocked out from the atoms are attracted to the positive electrode, and the
positively charged ions are attracted to the negative electrode. This produces an electric pulse in the
wire connecting the electrodes, and this pulse is counted in the counter section. Ionization of only
one or a few atoms cannot produce such significant pulse to be detected. Actually, the incident
radiation is captured by an atom of gas and made it ionized. After ionization, negative particle (i.e.
electron) travels towards the central wire with high speed. Similarly, the positive ion moves towards
the positive terminal. In their movement, they collide with other atoms in their path, which produces
the avalanche effect into the tube so that many atoms ionize in very short time. This phenomenon is
responsible to produce the electric pulse.
After the pulse is counted, the charged ions become neutralized and GM Counter again ready to
record the next count. Thus, the GM Counter detects and measures the intensity of nuclear radiations.

Measurement of operating voltage

Very small voltage across two terminals of the counter produces too small electric field into the tube.
In this condition, the ionized atoms again attract the detached electrons and recombine. So, no
electric pulse is generated. When the voltage is gradually increased, some of the radiations are
counted, but still many ionized atoms recombine, which voltage is still not appropriate to operate the
tube. After a certain value of applied voltage, the count rate remains almost constant. This is the
voltage for correct count. If the applied voltage is further increased, the counter shows the regular
counting whether the radiations enter or not. This happens due to the continuous discharge into the
tube. Therefore, for the correct measurement of radiation, the voltage across the tube should be set
within the constant count region. In graph, it is called plateau region. The correct operating voltage is
estimated from the following formula,
1
V = V1 + 3 (V2 – V1) ... (25.18)

Where, V = operating voltage

V1 = Voltage of initial point of plateau region
V2 = Voltage of final point of plateau region

Plateau region Continuous

Count rate →

Prepotional Operating region discharge

region region

Threshold voltage Breakdown voltage

Voltage →
Fig. 25.6: Voltage characteristic of a GM tube

Limitations
There are many limitations of G.M. Counter. Some major limitations are listed below:
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  665

i. It counts the same magnitude regardless of the energy of the incident radiation. It means it can
not distinguish the radiations of different energy.
ii. It is not able to measure high radiation rate. If two or more radiations enter the tube at a time or
within the relaxation time, they are counted only one.
iii. It usually needs high voltage for the operation. However, very high operation voltage also give
wrong counting.

25.14 Radiation Hazard

Exposure of high level of radiation causes severe problems in the human health and produces wide
range of symptoms. Nausea and vomiting are the initial effects of the radiation exposure. Long term
exposure may result in fatal damage of internal organs. Similarly, numerous cases of skin related
illness can be observed which leads to skin cancer. Radioactive materials decays producing radiation
and breaking the chemical bond that makes up our tissues which damages the DNA. Ultimately
damaging cells and in most cases causing deformity. In addition, one of most infamous accident,
Chernoby disaster, which occurred due to radiation and other debris, led many people and their next
generation causing mutation in gene.
Radio isotopes are produced by radiation and its subsequent absorption, that includes nuclear
reaction. Some important radio isotopes are radio cobalt (Co60), radio sulphur (S35) etc.

Fig. 25.7: Sources of Radiation Hazard

Causes of radiation hazard

The pollution caused by radioactive materials/waste emitted from industries and into the
atmosphere as a by-product is as radioactive pollution. Radioactive waste includes gamma radiation,
burnt fuels, oils, cosmic rays, radioactive minerals. Some causes of radioactive pollution is highly
666 Principles of Physics - II
hazardous causing severe damage to the atmosphere and human health as well. Radiation causes the
gene to mutate by breaking DNA molecules. Secondly, radioactive pollution causes skin burns which
may lead to skin cancer. Moreover, birth defects and cognitive disabilities in children are likely to
occur. These radioactive materials aggregate in some animals and are transferred via food chain. So,
basically speaking, radioactive pollution affects all the organisms.

Remedial measures of radiation hazard

Safety measures from radiation hazard are briefly explained below:
1. First and foremost precaution one can take is by keeping a radiation source at distant place
where people are less exposed.
2. Shielding the radioactive waste by constructing a barrier via concrete lead container which will
somehow reduce radiation intensity.
3. The nuclear explosion and other activities which create radioactive waste should be carried out
far away from public area.
4. People working around radioactive isotopes should be asked to wear aprons and handle with
the help of remote control device.

Tips for MCQs

1. The activity dN/dt of a source is related to the number N of undecayed nuclei by the equation:
dN/dt = –N.
2. The number N of undecayed nuclei in a radioactive sample at time t is given by the equation:
N = N0e–t, Where N0 is the number of undecayed nuclei at time t = 0.
3. The half-life T1/2 and the decay constant  are related by the equation:
T1/2 = 0.693/.
1
4. The relation of mean life and decay constant is Tm =

1. Radioactivity is the spontaneous and random process.
2. All the elements with atomic number greater than 82 are naturally radioactive.
3. Properties of ,  and -rays:
Rays
-rays -rays -rays
Properties
Nature Helium nucleus Fast moving electrons Electromagnetic wave
Nature of charge Positive Negative Chargeless
Magnitude of charge 3.2 × 10–19 C 1.6 × 10–19 C Zero
Mass 6.68 × 10–27 kg 9.1 × 10–31 kg Rest mass is zero
1
Velocity ~ 10 of c 1% to 99% of c c (= 3 × 108 ms-1)

Effect of electric and

Deflected Deflected Not deflected
magnetic fields
Ionizing power Maximum Intermediate Minimum
Penetrating power Minimum Intermediate Maximum

Worked Out Problems

 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  667

1 th
1. A radioactive source decayed to 128 of its initial activity after 50 days. What is its half life?
SOLUTION
N
ln N  = –t
Given,
or,
N 1  0
N0 = 128 N 1
ln N  ln 128
Time of activity (t) = 50 days  0  
or,  =– t =– 50
Half life (Th) = ?
We have,  = 0.097 day –1

N = No e–t Now,
0.693 0.693
N Tn = = 0.097 = 7.14 days
or, N = e–t 
0
The half life of given source is 7.14 days.
2. A certain radioactive substance has its half life 10 h. If its initial number is 6 × 1020. Calculate the
decay constant and the number of atoms after 30 h.
SOLUTION
Given,
Half life (Th) = 10 h
Initial number (N0) = 6 × 1020
Total time (t) = 30 h Given,
Decay constant () = ? Now, total number of radioactive atoms
Number of atoms after 30 h (N) = ? remaining,
We have, N = No e–t
0.693 0.693 = 6 × 1020 × e–(0.0693 × 30) = 0.75 × 1020
 = T = 10 = 0.0693 h-1 Therefore, 0.75 × 1020 radioactive atoms
h
remains after 30 h.
3. How long will it take a sample of radioactive substance to decrease to 20%, if the half life is 4 days?
SOLUTION
Given, N
or, N = e–t
N 20 1 0

N0 = 100 = 5 Taking log,

N
Half life (Th) = 4 days ln N  = – t
0.693  0
Now, decay constant () = T N 1
h ln N  ln 5
0.693  0 
= 4 = 0.173 day–1 t =– = – 0.173

t = 9.3 days
Now,
 9.3 days is required to decrease the sample to
N = Noe–t
20%.
7
4. The half life of radium is 1600 years. How long will it take for 8 of a given sample of radium to
decay?
SOLUTION
668 Principles of Physics - II
Given, Now,
Half life (Th) = 1600 years N = N0 e–t
7 N –t
number of atoms decayed = 8 of N0 N0 = e
So, number of atoms remaining (N) is N N
ln N  = –t
7 1  0
= N0 – 8 N0 = 8 N0
N 1
ln N  ln 8
N 1  0 
N0 = 8 …(i) t =–

= – 4.33 × 10-4
Now, = 4802.4 years
0.693 7
Decay constant () = T  4802.4 years is required to decay 8 of a given
h
0.693 sample of radium.
= 1600 = 4.33 × 10–4 year–1

5. The half life of a radioactive substance is 1.192 × 107 s against -decay. Calculate decay rate for
2.0 × 1020 atoms.
SOLUTION
Given, 0.693 0.693
and  = T = 1.192 × 107 = 5.81 × 10–8 s–1
Half life (Th) = 1.192 × 107 s h

Number of atoms (N) = 2.0 × 1020 atoms Now,

Now, dN
dt = 5.8 × 10 × 2.0 × 10
–8 20
dN
Decay rate  dt  = ?
  = 1.162 × 1013/second.
dN
We know, dt = N

6. The half life of a radioactive materials is 10 years. How many radioactive atoms will remain after 15
years, if the initial number of atoms are 1.2 × 1021.
SOLUTION
Given, 0.693 0.693
We have, Decay constant () = T = 10
Half life (Th) = 10 years h

Time (t) = 15 years = 0.0693 year-1

–t
Initial number (N0) = 1.2 × 1021 Now, N = N0e
Remaining number (N) = ? = 1.2 × 1021 × e–0.0693× 15
= 4.24 × 1020 atoms

7. The half life of strontium 90 is 30 years. The initial number 6.0 × 1012 of radioactive strontium will
be disintegrated after 20 years. If the energy emitted per disintegration of nucleus is 1.2 × 10–13 J,
calculate the total energy released in 20 years.
SOLUTION
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  669

Given, Now,
Half life (Th) = 30 years N = N0 e–t
Initial number (N0) = 6.0 × 1012 = 6.0 × 1012 × e–(0.0231 × 20)
Time (t) = 20 years = 3.78 × 1012
Decay number = N0 – N = ? Now, number of nuclei decayed
Energy released per decay (Ep) = 1.2 × 10–13 J = N0 – N = 6.0 × 1012 – 3.78 × 1012
Total energy released (E) = ? = 2.22 × 1012
We know, Now, total energy released,
0.693 0.693 E = (N0 – N) Ep = 2.22 × 1012 × 1.2 × 10–13
Decay constant () = T = 30 = 0.0231 year–1
h E = 0.2664 J

8. The half life of radium is 1620 years. After how many years 25% of a radium block remains un-
decayed?
SOLUTION
Given, N –t
or, N0 = e
Half life (Th) = 1620 years
N = 25% of N0 Taking logarithm on both sides,
N
or, ln N  = –t
N
or, N = 25%  0
0
N
ln N 
N 25
or, N = 100  0
0
or, t = –
We have, 
1
ln 4
0.693 0.693
  = T = 1620 = 4.28 × 10–4 year–1 
h
or, t = – 4.28 × 10–4
Now,
N =N0e–t  t = 3239 years

9. [HSEB 2063] A sample of Ra-226 has half life of 1620 years. What is the mass of the sample which
undergoes 20000 disintegrations per second?
SOLUTION
Given,
Half life (T1/2) = 1620 yrs = (1620 × 12 × 30 × 24 × 60 × 60) s = 5.04 × 1010 s
dN
No. of disintegrations per second  dt  = 20000 dis/s
 
Avogadro's number (NA) = 6.02 × 1023 mol–1
we have,
dN
dt =  N
dN 0.693
or, dt = Th × N
0.693
or, 20000 = 5.04 × 1010 × N
 N = 1.45 × 1015 atoms
Again, we have
6.02 × 1023 number of atoms of Ra are present in 226 g of it.
226
 1.45 × 1015 number of atoms of Ra are present in 6.02 × 1023 × 1.45 × 1015 g
= 5.44 × 10–7 g = 5.44 × 10–10 kg
Hence, the required mass of sample is 5.44 × 10–10 kg.
670 Principles of Physics - II

Challenging Problems
1. [UP] The isotope 38Sr90 undergoes – decay with a half-life of 28 years. (a) What nucleus is produced
by this decay? (b) If a nuclear power plant is contaminated with 90Sr, how long will it take for the
radiation level to decrease to 1.0% of its initial value?
Ans: (a) 38Sr90 39Y
90
+ –10 (a) 186 years
2. [UP] Tritium (H3) undergoes decay – with a half life of 12.3 years. If some tritium gas is released into
the atmosphere in a nuclear power plant accident, how long will it take for 90% of the tritium to
become non-radioactive?
Ans: 41.2 yrs
3. [UP] The isotope 226Ra undergoes  decay with a half-life of 1620 years. What is the activity of 1.00 g
of 226Ra? Express your answer in Bq and in Ci.
Ans: 3.6× 1010 Bq, 0.98 Ci
4. [UP] The wood of a living tree has 6C14 activity of 12 disintegrations per minute per gram. An ancient
piece of wood of mass 36g shows 6C14 activity of 240 disintegration. Estimate the age of the ancident
wood. Half life of 6C14 = 5730 years.
Ans: 4860 years
1
5. If the half life period of a radioactive substance is 2 days, after how many days will 64th part of the
substance be left behind? [HSEB 2067]
Ans: 12 days
1
6. [ALP] A radioactive source has decayed to 128 th of its initial activity after 50 days. What is its half
life?
Ans: 7.12 days
7. [ALP] The isotope 19K40 with a half of 1.37 × 109 years, decays to 18Ar40
which is stable. Moon rocks
1
from the sea of tranquility show that the ratio of these potassium atoms to argon atoms is 7 . Estimate
the age of the rock.
Ans: 4.11 × 109 years
8. [ALP] A source, of which the half-life is 130 days, contains initially 1.0  1020
radioactive atoms, and the
energy released per disintegration is 810–13 J. Calculate (a) the activity of the source after 260 days
have elapsed and (b) the total energy released during this period.
Ans: (a) 1.54 × 1012 dis/sec (b) 6 × 107 J
9. [ALP] A small volume of a solution which contained a radioactive isotope of sodium had an activity
of 12000 disintegration per minute. When it was injected into the blood stream of a patient. After 30
hours the activity of 1 cm3 of the blood was found to be 0.5 disintegration per minute. If the half life of
the sodium isotope is taken as 15 hours, estimate the volume of blood in the patient.
Ans: 6000 cm3
10. [ALP] The half life period of the Po-210 is about 140 days. During this period, the average number of
-emission per day from a mass of polonium (Po) initially equal to 1 microgram is about 12  1012.
Assuming that one emission takes place per atom and that the approximate density of polonium is 10
gcm–3, estimate the number of atoms in 1 cm3 of polonium.
Ans: 3.36 × 1022 atoms
[Note: Hints to challenging problems are given at the end of this chapter.]

Conceptual Questions with Answers

 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  671

1. A nucleus does not contain electrons, yet it is ejected them. How?

 A neutron in a nucleus can decay into a proton, an electron and antineutrino. This phenomenon takes
place for the charge and mass conservation. The electron so emitted is called beta particle. Actually,
electron does not remain in nucleus, but it is produced in nuclear decay as shown in the reaction
below.
0n1  1p1 + –1e0 + ̄
2. Can radioactivity be controlled?
 No, radioactivity is a spontaneous process. It is not affected by external physical conditions like the
variation of pressure and temperature. The rate of radioactive decay depends on the number of
radioactive nuclei present in a source.
3. Comment on the statement "a nucleus contains no electrons but still eject them".
 Heisenberg uncertainty principle confirms that electron does not exist in nucleus. However, in -
decay process, a neutron breaks up into a proton, electron and anti neutron as,
0n1  1H1 + –1e0 + ̄
4. What are the significances of half life?
 The value of half life of radioactive isotopes gives an idea of the relative stability of that isotope. An
isotope of longer half life is more stable than the isotope with shorter half life.
5. What are the important features of exponential curve of radioactive element?
 There are many significances of exponentially decay curve of radioactive element. Some of them are
as follows:
i. The number of radioactive nuclei in a radioactive sample decreases exponentially with time. The
disintegration is fast in the beginning but becomes slower and slower as the time elapses.
ii. Irrespective of its nature, a radioactive sample will take infinitely long time to disintegrate
completely.
iii. Larger the value of decay constant , the higher is the rate of disintegration.
6. What is -decay? Write the -decay equation?
 -decay is a nuclear process in which an unstable nucleus transforms itself into a nucleus by emitting
an -particle. The -decay equation is expressed as,
 Z–2YA–4 + (= 2He4) + Q
ZXA

Where, Q is the energy released in radioactive process.

7. Natural radioactive nuclei are the nuclei of high mass number. Why?
 Free neutrons are unstable particles. They decay spontaneously with a mean life of about 1000 s.
Heavy nuclei contains more neutrons than protons. These neutrons behave as if they are free in some
extent. This process involve emission of radiation.
8. Why do all -particles emitted during beta decay not have the same energy?
 In -decay process, particles like antineutrinos are also emitted along with -particle itself. The
available energy in this process is shared by -particle and antineutrino in all possible proportions.
The energy of -particle is no longer fixed, it depends on the energy of antineutrino.
9. Why are -particles emitted rather than protons in radioactivity?
 The -particles have very high binding energy. With the emission of -particles, the binding energy
per nucleus of residual nucleus increases appreciably. However, the emission of proton may not be
energetically favourable.
10. Why is it not possible to define total life of a radioactive substance?
 Radioactivity is a spontaneous and random process. So, the nucleus can have any value of total life
between zero and infinity. So, it is not possible to define the total life of a radioactive substance.
11. What is mean life of radioactive isotopes?
672 Principles of Physics - II
 The mean life of radioactive isotope is defined as the ratio of the combined age of all the atoms to the
total number of atoms present in the given sample.
1 Th
Tmean = = 0.693 = 1.44 Th

12. How does Co60 cure the cancer disease?
 Co60 emits the energetic -rays in its disintegration. These -rays are exposed to cancerous cells to
destroy them. As the infected cells are damaged, the disease is cured.
13. Why are -rays also called electromagnetic waves?
 -rays consist of short wavelength which travel with the speed of electromagnetic waves and show
properties similar to electromagnetic waves. So, -rays are called electromagnetic waves.
14. Write four properties of (gamma) rays?
 The main properties of -rays are:
i. -rays are stream of electrically neutral particles called photons.
ii. The rest mass of photons is zero.
iii. They are electromagnetic waves of small wavelength so, they are not called radioactive particle.
iv. They have the greatest penetrating power among all the nuclear radiations. They can pass even
through 5 cm thick sheet of lead or 30 cm of iron.
15. A certain radioactive substance has a half life period of 30 days. What is the disintegration
constant?
 The half life of radioactive substance, Th = 30 days
0.693 0.693
Disintegration constant () = T = 30 = 0.023 day–1.
h

16. Define 'disintegration constant' and 'half life' of a radioactive substance.

 Reciprocal of the time interval during which the number of radioactive nuclei in a given sample
reduces to 36.8% of its initial value is known as disintegration constant. It is denoted by . It's unit is
per second (s-1).
The time interval during which half of the initial number of radioactive nuclei disintegrates from its
initial value is known as half life. It is denoted by Th. The relation between half life and disintegration
constant of a radioactive sample is,
0.693
Th =

17. Why -particles have a high ionizing power?
 -particles are massive particles that are produced during radioactive disintegration. When these
massive particles are incident on any material, they imparts large amount of energy to the material
medium. So, the particles in the medium are highly ionized, when -particle travels.
18. Which are more penetrating -rays, -rays or -rays?
 -rays are the most penetrating rays among -rays, -rays and -rays. -rays are electromagnetic
radiation with very short wavelength, so that these rays rarely interact with particles in their path.
Since these rays rarely interact with the particles in a medium, they can penetrate easily. The rays
which have low ionizing power have high penetrating power.
19. How do the atomic number and atomic mass number change when an -particle is emitted out
from a radioactive material.
 During a emission of -particle, atomic number is reduced by number 2 and atomic mass number is
reduced by number 4. In terms of nuclear equation,
ZXA  Z – 2YA – 4 + 2He4 (-particle)
20. What is the difference between natural radioactivity and artificial radioactivity?
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  673

 The radioactivity occurring in natural materials is known as natural radioactivity. For example, the
carbon dating in a fossil is an example of natural radioactivity.
The radioactivity occurring in the sources which are formed artificially is known as artificial
radioactivity. The radioactive isotope Co60 can be formed artificially for the cancer treatment.
21. What are the medical use of radioactive isotopes?
 Radioactive isotopes are used to diagnose and treat many diseases:
a. Radiodiagnosis: The detection of causes of diseases using radioactive isotopes is known as
radiodiagnosis. Some applications of radioactive isotopes in radiodiagnosis are as follows:
i. Radioactive mercury (Hg-203) is used to detect kidney and liver functions.
ii. Radioactive iodine (I–131) is used to study the thyroid functions.
iii. To detect the haemorrhage location in human body, radio chromium (Cr - 51) is used.
b. Radiotherapy: The treatment of diseases using radioactive isotopes is known as radiotherapy.
Some applications of radio isotopes in radiotherapy are as follows:
i. Co60 isotopes are used to destroy the cancerous tissues.
ii. I131 isotopes are used to destroy the overactive thyroid gland.
iii. Radiophosphorous, radiogold are used to cure the leukemia.
22. What is radio carbon dating?
 Radio carbon dating is the technique of aging archaeological specimens from the examination of
radioactive carbon isotopes. A carbon isotopes C14 is the major source of carbon dating. The rate of
disintegration of such radioactive carbon isotopes in the fossils, woods, rocks or parts of meteorite
are observed to find their age.
23. What is the difference between an electron and a beta particle?
 An electron is identical to the beta particle. They have equal mass, charge and some properties. But
they have different origin. Beta particle is emitted from the nucleus in nuclear reaction or in
radioactivity, but the electron are the extra-nuclear particles.
24. Write units regarding radioactivity.
 Becquerel, Rutherford and Curie are commonly used units in radioactivity.
i. Bacquerel (Bq) : 1 Bq = 1 disintegration/second
ii. Rutherford (R) : 1R = 106 disintegration/second
iii. Curie (Cu) : 1 Cu = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration/second
25. The half life of radium is 1600 years. Calculate its disintegration constant.
 Given,
Half life (Th) = 1600 years
Decay constant () = ?
We know,
0.693
 = 1600 = 4.33 × 10–4 year–1

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What is meant by radioactivity?
2. Differentiate between natural and artificial radioactivity?
3. What are the laws of radioactive disintegration?
4. What do you mean by half life of radioactive source? Relate it with of decay constant.
5. What are the uses of radiation and radioactive isotopes?
6. Explain briefly carbon dating.
674 Principles of Physics - II
7. Discuss briefly about the harmful aspects of radiation.
8. What is meant by radioactive isotope?
9. Differentiate between natural and artificial radioactivity?
10. What are the properties of ,  and  rays?
11. What are the laws of radioactive disintegration?
12. What do you mean by half life of radioactive source? Relate it with of decay constant.
13. What are the uses of radiation and radioactive isotopes.
14. What is natural radioactivity?
15. Does a nucleus emit  and ray at the same time? Explain.
16. What are alpha rays? Write down their some properties.
17. Why does a nucleus emit a gamma ray photon?
18. What is the difference between a gamma ray photon due to jumping of electron from one orbit to
another and a gamma ray photon due to radioactive decay?
19. Explain why the β-decay of a free proton is not possible but that a proton bound in the nucleus is
possible?
20. What happens to the atomic number and mass number of an element when it emits an particle?
21. What is  decay? What happens to the atomic number and mass number of an element when it
emits a  particle?
22. Define decay constant or disintegration constant.
23. Define activity. Give its unit.
24. On what factor does activity of a radioactive substance depends?
25. What are radioisotopes?
26. What are the uses of radioisotopes?

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is radioactivity? Obtain N = N0e–t in radioactive decay law. Describe the significance of decay
curve.
2. State the law of radioactive disintegration. Derive a relation between half life and decay constant.
[NEB 2075]
3. Explain what is meant by radioactivity and half-life. How are the atomic number and mass number
of a radioactive nucleus change by the emission of (i) alpha particle (ii) beta particle and (iii) a
gamma ray?
4. What is artificial radioactivity? What are radioisotopes? How are they produced?
5. What is radiocarbon dating? How would you estimate the age of an ancient object?
6. Describe the construction and working principle of GM counter.
7. What is meant by radiation pollution? Describe its remedies.

Numerical Problems
1 th
1. A radioactive substance is disintegrated to 128 of its initial value in 30 h. Find its half life.
 
Ans: 4.28 h
2. The decay rate of a radioactive materials is 4.88 × 10–18 s–1. Calculate its half life.
Ans: 1.42 × 1017 s
3. A radioactive source has half life 10 days. Calculate the disintegration rate of 3.7 × 1016 atoms of the
materials.
 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  675
Ans: 2.564 × 1015/day
4. 75% of a radioactive element disintegrates in 24 years. Calculate the half life of the element.
Ans: 12 years
5. The activity of radium decreases about 1% every 25 years, compute the half life.
Ans:3.76 years
6. The isotope 226Ra undergoes α-decay with a half-life 0f 1620 years. What is the activity of 1.00 g of
226Ra? Express your answer in Bq and in Ci.

Ans: 0.98Ci
7. At certain instant a piece of radioactive element contains 1012 atoms. The half life of the material is 15
days. Calculate the rate of decay after 30 days have elapsed.
Ans: 4.15 x 1011 decay/day
8. The half-life of thorium is 1.4 × 1010 years. Find the time required for 15% of a sample of thorium to
disintegrate.
Ans: 3.28 × 109 years
9. Find the half-life and average life of a radioactive sample whose disintegration constant is 25.72 × 10-3
per day.
Ans: 121.15 days, 174.82 days
10. A radioactive material of mass 10 mg with a half-life period of two years is kept in store for six years.
How much of the material remains unchanged?
Ans: 1.25 mg
11. The half-life of radium is 1620 years. After how many years 25% of radium block remains
undecayed?
Ans: 3240 years
12. Determine the half-life of a radioactive material if its activity falls to (1/16)th of its initial value in 30
years.
Ans: 7.5 years
13. The half-life of radon is 3.8 days. After how many days will only one – twentieth of a radon sample
be left over?
Ans: 16.42 days
14. The half-life of U238 against alpha decay is 1.42 × 1017 s. How many disintegrations per second occur
in 1 g of U238. [Avogadro's number = 6.02 × 1023 mol-1]
Ans: 1.23 × 104 dis per second
15. At a certain instant, a piece of radioactive material contains 1012
atoms. The half life of the material is
30 days. (i) Calculate the number of disintegration in the first second. (ii) How long will elapse before
104 atoms remain? (iii) What is the count rate at this time?
Ans: (i) 2.7  105, (ii) 797 days (approx.), (iii) 9.6/h
16. A radioactive material has a half life of Th years. After how much time is its activity reduced to 1 of
original value?
Ans: 6.65 years
17. The activity of 1g of 92U235 is 1 curie. What is its half life?
Ans: 4.8 × 108 sec

Multiple Choice Questions

1. The time taken to reduce a substance to (1/8)th of the original value is 6 days. Its half life is:
a. 2 days b. 4 days
c. 12 days d. 3/4 days
2. The mass of a radioactive salt of half life 2 days is 10 g. What amount of the salt will be left after 10
days?
a. 2.54 g b. 5 g
c. 6.24 g d. 0.31 g
3. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 2 months, then the amount of substance left after 1 year is:
676 Principles of Physics - II
M M
a. 64 b. 32

M M
c. 16 d. 8

4. The radioactive substance after 90 days reduces to 12.5%, then find the decay constant of substance
a. 0.3845/day b. 0.0234/day
c. 0.467/day d. 0.0467/day
5. Which of the following rays has the highest ionising power?
a. -rays b. -rays
c. -rays d. Visible light
6. Which of the following is  particle?
a. 1H2 b. 2He3
c. 2He 4 d. 3Li–6
7. Initial mass of a radioactive sample of half-life 6 hours is 0.8 kg. The amount of the sample left after 1
day (24 hours) is:
a. 0 b. 50 g
c. 100 g d. 200 g
8. The half-life of a certain radioactive element is such that 7/8 of a given quantity decays in 12 days.
What fraction remains undecayed after 24 days?
1
a. 0 b. 128

1 1
c. 64 d. 32

9. The half-life of 215At is 100 s. The time taken for the radioactivity of a sample of 215At to decay to
1/16th of its initial value is
a. 400 s b. 6.3 s
c. 40 s d. 300 s
10. A radioactive material has a half-life of 10 days. What fraction of the material would remain after 30
days?
a. 0.5 b. 0.25
c. 0.125 d. 0.33
11. A radioactive isotope has a half-life of 2 yr. How long will it take the activity to reduce to 3% of its
original value?
a. 4.8 yr b. 7 yr
c. 10 yr d. 9.6 yr

12. The fraction of the radioactive sample that will remain undecayed after 4 half-life periods is
1 3
a. 2 b. 4

15 1
c. 16 d. 16
Answers
1. (a) 2. d 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (d)

Hints to Challenging Problems

 Radioactivity  Chapter 25  677

HINT: 1 HINT: 4
a. In  decay, Given,
38Sr90 39Y90 + –10 dN0
b. Half life T1/2 = 28 yrs. dt = 12 dis. per min per gram. . . . (i)

t =? dN 240 20
By question, dt = 36 = 3 dis. per min per gram. . . . (ii)
N 1 Age of ancient wood, t = ?, T1/2 = 5730 yrs
No = 1% = 100 From (i) and (ii), we have
 No = 100 × N d.N0
We know that dt 12 × 3
 dN = 20 = 1.8
N = No e–t
dt
or N = 100 × N e–t
ln 100 –N0
or t = or = 1.8
 –N
HINT: 2 N0
or = 1.8
Half life (T1/2) = 12.3 yrs N0e–t
Since, 90% of tritium is non-radioactive so HINT: 5
10% is radioactive. Given,
N 10 1 Half life, T1/2 = 2 days
 No = 10% = 100 = 10 N 1
Required time, t = ? when N = 64
 No = 10 × N 0
We know that Now,
N = No e–t N 1
– 0.693
×t
N0 = 64
or N = 10 × N e T1/2
– 0.693
N0e–t 1
1 ×t or N0 = 64
or = e 12.3
10 HINT: 6
Then, find t. According to questions,
HINT: 3
dN 1 dNo
Given, dt = 128 × dt
T1/2 = 1620 years 1
226 g of Ra contains = 6.0  1023 atoms or –N = 128 × –No
6.02 × 1023
 1 g of Ra contains = atoms N 1
226 or = 128
No
6.02 × 1023
i.e. N = 226 atoms But, N = Noe–t so we can write
The activity is, N0e–t 1
dN N0 = 128
dt = N
678 Principles of Physics - II
HINT: 7 dNo 200
Given,  dt for 1 cm = V dis/s
3 . . . (i)
T1/2 = 1.37 × 109 years Also,
N 1 After 30 hours,
No = 8 [since out of 8 parts (1 + 7), 1 part is Ar dN 0.5
dt for 1 cm = 0.5 dis/min = 60 dis/s
3
1
and 7 parts is K, so the fraction remain is 8 ]
dN 1
N 1  dt = 120 dis/s . . . (ii)
Now, N = 8
0
From (i) and (ii), we get
N0e–t 1 dNo
or N =8 dt
0 200/V
HINT: 8 dN = 1/120
Given, dt
T1/2 = 130 days –No 200 × 120
No = 1.0 × 1020 or = V
–N
E = 8 × 10–13 J No 24000
dN or N = V
a. dt = ? N0 24000 ..
t = 260 days or = V ( . N = N0e–t)
N0e–t
We know that 24000
dN et = V
–t
dt = N =  N0 e
And find volume (V) of the blood.
b. Number of atoms decayed = N0 – N HINT: 10
Hence, total energy released Given,
= (N0 – N)  8  1015 T1/2 = 140 days
HINT: 9 mass, m = 10–6 g
Given, density,  =10 g/cm3
t = 30 h m 10–6 g
T1/2 = 15 h  V= = 10 g/cm3 = 10–7 cm3

Let V cm3 be the volume of blood. During half life average number of  -
dNo emission per day = 12 × 1012 atoms so,
dt for volume Vcc = 12000 dis/min Initially the number of atoms = 140 × 2 × 12 ×
12000 1012 atoms
= 60 dis/s
i.e., 10–7 cm3 contains 140 × 2 × 12 × 1012 atoms
= 200dis/s  1 cm3 contains 140 × 2 × 12 × 1012 /10–7
= 3.36 × 1022 atoms


Radioactivity  Chapter 25  679
 NUCLEAR ENERGY AND
OTHER SOURCES
OF ENERGY

26.1 Introduction
The advancement of science and technology has direct impact on the society. The contribution of
every disciplines of science on the society can not be ignored. Out of many branches of science,
physics contributes the major role in the society and the advancement of the world as a whole. Most
of the developments made in the field of physics have a direct impact on the society. Some important
impacts on society are: exploration of new source of energy, computational technology, means of
transportation, development of radio, television, telephone and satellites etc. These inventions have
made the world a very narrow and a comfortable place for the human habitation. However, there are
equally and in-ignorable dark sides that at any time could lead to a devastating effect to the
inhabitants of this earth. The environment of the world has been deteriorating day by day due to the
consumption of fossil fuels, destruction of natural resources and development of nuclear weapons.
This chapter focuses particularly the various types of energy, their impact on the society and the
negative impacts created on the natural environment and the society by the experimentation and
inventions done on the field of physics.

26.2 Energy and Energy Sources

Energy is usually defined as the ability to do work. More generally, energy is a fundamental entity
whose availability and flow are required for all phenomena, natural or artificial. Energy exists in
various forms; mechanical, heat, light, sound, chemical, electric, magnetic and atomic energy. It is a
conserved quantity. All the energy in nature cannot be used for useful work. To exploit more energy
from nature, more advance technologies are be required.
There are many sources of energy. The sun is the major and common source of energy. The sun
provides us the heat and light energy. Heat and light received from the sun transforms to other
forms of energy like chemical energy, electric energy, magnetic energy, etc. There are some other
sources of energy. They are:
(a) wind (b) moving water (c) fuels (wood, coal, oil, natural gas) (d) nuclear fuels (e) geothermal
energy (f) biomass, etc.
680 Principles of Physics - II

26.3 Conservation of Energy and Degradation of Energy

Conservation of energy
The conservation of energy refers that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant. Total
energy is conserved over time. More general definition of this law is "energy can neither be created
nor be destroyed; rather it can only be transformed from one form to another." When we use energy,
we do not use it completely. We just change its forms. We can transform one form of energy to
another more useful form. For example, the kinetic energy of flowing water is no more useful as it is,
but when this mechanical form of energy is changed into electric energy, it will be useful for many
purposes. Similarly, a car engine burns gasoline, converting the chemical energy into mechanical
energy that makes the car move. Also, solar cells change radiant energy into electric energy. In all
above examples, energy can change forms, but the total energy in the universe remains the same.
It is well known fact that, energy cannot be destroyed. Someone may think, why we worry in energy
crisis if energy is conserved forever. But the main challenge is, how it can be converted into workable
form. The conservation phenomenon of energy is not sufficient to prevent against energy crisis,
rather it is necessary to enhance the efficiency of engines to perform mechanical work.

Degradation of energy
The available energy of a system decreases as its temperature or pressure decreases and approaches
equilibrium to the surroundings. When the heat is transferred from a system, its temperature
decreases and hence the quality of its energy deteriorates. While the first law states that energy is
always conserved quantity wise, the second law emphasizes that energy always degrades quality
wise.
In nature, all physical operations are irreversible. In every physical process, a certain quantity of
energy is wasted in nature in terms of friction, thermal conduction and radiation. In this way, all the
energies existing in different forms will be gradually converted into heat energy and it is impossible
to convert into mechanical work. Therefore, useful energy of the universe will tend to be zero. This
makes the thermal equilibrium in all bodies in the universe so that no heat flows would be possible.
Hence no heat engine works. In this condition, although total energy of the universe remains
conserved, the useful energy will be vanished. This is called degradation of energy or heat death.

Transformation of energy
Energy transformation is the process of changing energy from one of its forms into another. Energy
transformations occur everywhere every second at the day. A ball held at high point at rest has only
potential energy. When the ball is released from the height, then the potential energy of the ball is
gradually transformed into kinetic energy.

Fig. 26.1: Transformation of energy

 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  681

26.4 Global Energy Consumption Pattern

Global energy consumption is the total energy used by the entire human civilization. Human beings
consume energy from both renewable sources and non-renewable sources. Fossil fuels, coal, natural
gases and nuclear power are some examples of non-renewable sources of energy. The energy sources
of non-renewable energy are depleting day by day. Hydro-power, wind energy, solar energy and
biomass energy are some renewable sources of energy. Global community usually chooses the
efficient source of energy whether it be renewable or non-renewable, but the time has been alarming
us to reduce the consumption of non-renewable energy source and to develop the technology for the
consumption of renewable sources. There is a strong relationship between energy consumption and
economic growth.
Energy consumptions by different countries reflect their income level and climate. Large differences
exist in terms of energy consumption between some of the most developed countries and
underdeveloped countries. The extent of energy consumption by a country is measured in terms of
energy per capita. The energy per capital of United State is greater than the countries like Germany
and Japan. China is currently the largest primary energy consumer in the world, however per capita
energy consumption in China is less than USA. Due to the advancement in new technology and
population growth, the energy consumption scenario has been observed increasing, however the
global needs rise more slowly than in the past. But it has been speculated that the consumption still
expands by 30% between today and 2040. A global economy growing at an average rate of 3.4% per
year, a population that expands from 7.4 billion today to more than 9 billion in 2040, and a process of
urbanization that adds city are the key factors which enhances the energy consumption in the world.
World Economic Outlook (WEO) has reported some important facts analyzing the energy
consumption trend of the world.
1. Global primary energy consumption increased by 1% in 2016, following growth of 0.9% in 2015
and 1% in 2014. This compares with the 10-year average of 1.8% a year.
2. As was the case in 2015, growth was below average in all regions except Europe and Eurasia.
All fuels except oil and nuclear power grew at below average rate.
3. Energy consumption in China grew by 1.3% in 2016.
4. Global Oil consumption growth averaged 1.6 million barrels per day or above in its 10 years
average.
5. World's natural gas consumption grew by 63 billion cubic metre or 1.5% slower than 10 years
average of 2.3%.
6. Global coal consumption fell by 53 million tonnes, which is just 1.7 percent of the equivalent oil
consumption annually.
7. Renewable power (excluding hydro) grew by 14.1% in 2016, below the 10-year average.
8. In renewable power supply, hydroelectricity is in the first, wind power in second and solar
power in the third.
9. Global nuclear power generation was increased by 1.3% in 2016, comparing the previous 10
years average.
10. Hydroelectric power generation rose by 2.8% in 2016.
682 Principles of Physics - II

26.5 Energy use in Nepal

Nepal is a underdeveloped country. It consumes a small fraction of total energy consumption in
global scenario. It has no known reserves of gas, coal and oil. Although its most significant energy
resources is water, less than one percent of the potential 84,000 MW of hydropower is currently
harnessed. However, it does not yet have a strategy for sustainable efficient energy use for either the
electricity sector, like hydro-electricity, wind energy and solar energy, or its main primary energy
source, bio-mass.
Biomass and biogas are the most important primary energy source in Nepal. Biomass comprises
forest, wood, agriculture resides and dung. More than 95% of biomass is used for cooking and
heating purposes in households. About 1.2 households owe cattle and buffaloes. The technical biogas
potential is therefore very high. The majority of households in remote villages use biogas plants for
cooking and electricity.
International Hydropower Association has recently reported that Nepal's theoretical hydropower
potential has been estimated to be around 84,000 MW of which 43,000 MW has been identified as
economically viable. Currently Nepal's installed hydropower capacity is about 100 MW, coming
from 88 hydropower plants across the country. 441 MW has been produced by 60 hydropower plants
owned by independent power producers. The latest report of March 2018, 113 hydropower plants
are under construction. These plants will have a combined capacity of 3090 MW once completed.
In many rural area, solar energy production is one of the efficient method of power production in
Nepal. Most of the part in Nepal is occupied by hilly region, where the efficiency of solar radiation is
very high. Private installations of solar panels are more frequent in Nepal. Recently, the solar panels
are installed and whole energy supply is fulfilled by solar energy in office in Singh Durbar.

26.6 Nuclear Energy

The energy that is sourced from the atomic nucleus is called the nuclear energy. Protons and
neutrons are tightly bound in a nucleus. If the nucleus is spitted up into two or more nuclei or light
nuclei are fused together, energy is released in the form of heat energy. Sometimes, the nuclear
reaction occurs in a heavy nucleus when bombarded with a light particle, it splits into two or more
lighter nuclei. This process is called nuclear fission. The energy released from nuclear fission can be
used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. In other situation, two or more light nuclei fuse
together to form a relatively heavy nucleus. This is the process of nuclear fusion, nuclear fusion
reaction takes place in the sun and other stars, releasing enormous energy. However, artificial energy
production by nuclear fusion has not succeeded yet.
All the nuclear power stations currently operating in the world use the process of nuclear fission,
and most use uranium as their main fuel. U-235 source is used in nuclear power plants. When the
nucleus of a U-235 atom is hit by a slow neutron, it splits up into two almost identical and lighter
nuclei and in the process releases a large amount of energy and more neutrons. The energy released
in this process is absorbed as heat by coolant, and then produces steam that drives a turbine in
electric generator. Some of the neutrons hit more U-235 nuclei and so keep the fission process going;
the others are absorbed by the controlled rods.
The total mass of the products of the reaction (fission products and neutrons) is minutely less than
the original mass of the original nucleus and impacting neutron. The difference of mass is converted
into energy according to Einstein's mass-energy equivalence relation, E = mc2. Most of the energy is
 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  683
carried by fission products while they collide with nearby atoms and quickly loss most of their
kinetic energy into heat energy. In nuclear power plants, this energy is used to generate electricity.
A nuclear power plant comprises a number of systems and components, including the reaction for
itself, that together are designed to harness and control the energy of nuclear fission, and to turn it
into electricity. Nuclear power plants use a nuclear fission. Nuclear fusion has the potential to be
safer but has not yet been developed. Though there are many types of nuclear reactors, they have
several components; fuel, moderator, coolant and control rods. The schematic diagram is shown in
Fig. 26.2.

Fig. 26.2: Nuclear reactor

Advantages of nuclear energy source

1. A nuclear power station uses a steam turbine and generator to produce electricity in exactly the
same way as any other thermal power station.
2. It does not produce carbon dioxide and other pollutants that are formed when things are burnt.
3. It is more clean and more environment friendly than coal, oil or gas fire power stations.
4. It is compact, competitive and practically inexhaustible.
5. Its efficiency is relatively high and a best alternative source of energy at the location where
hydropower plant is impossible.

Disadvantages of nuclear energy source

1. The nuclear fission creates materials that are still radioactive and harmful to human beings and
to the environment for thousands or even millions of years.
2. Another problem is regarding the safe way to store the waste.
3. Accidents at nuclear power stations are very rare, but when they occur, they can be
catastrophic.
4. Steam coming out of the turbine is also still hot, and so adds heat to the environment.
684 Principles of Physics - II

26.7 Renewable Energy and Nonrenewable Energy

Renewable Energy
The energy which is generated from those energy sources that the continuously replenished by
nature is called renewable energy. The major sources of renewable energy sources are the sun, the
wind, the water, the earth's heat, and plants. Renewable energy technologies are used to produce
usable energy from these sources. Hydropower is the most developed and largest source of
renewable energy. Solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy, biomass energy are other
alternative sources of renewable energy.

Advantages
a. The sun, wind, geothermal, ocean energy are available in the abundant quantity and free to use.
b. Renewable sources have low carbon emissions, therefore they are considered as green and
environment friendly.
c. Renewable helps in stimulating the economy and creating job opportunities. The money that is
used to build these plants can provide jobs to thousands to millions of people.
d. We don't have to rely on any third country for the supply of renewable sources as in case of
non-renewable sources.
e. Renewable sources can cost less than consuming the local electrical supply.
f. Solar energy is renewable, non-polluting and relatively maintenance free.
g. Wave and tide is a non-polluting source of energy. Wave turbines are relatively quiet to operate
and do not affect wildlife.

Challenges
a. It is not easy to set up a plant as the initial costs are quite steep.
b. Solar energy can be used during the day time and not during night or rainy season.
c. Geothermal energy which can be used to generate electricity has side effects too. It can bring
toxic chemicals beneath the earth surface onto the top and can create environmental changes.
d. Hydroelectric energy provides pure form of energy but building dams across the river which is
quite expensive can affect natural flow and affect wildlife.
e. To use wind energy, we have to rely on strong winds, therefore we need to choose suitable site
to operate them.

Hydro Electricity
Hydropower plants are constructed to generate the hydroelectricity. The power plants convert the
energy in flowing water into electricity. The most common form of hydropower uses a dam on a
river to retain a large reservoir of water.
Energy from the sun evaporates water in the water resources like Earth's ocean, rivers, lake, etc and
draws it upward as water vapour. When water vapour rises up at the cooler air, mostly the
mountainous region, it condenses and forms clouds. The moisture eventually falls to the earth as rain
and snow, replenishing the water in the oceans and rivers. Gravity drives the moving water,
transporting it from high ground to low ground. The force of moving water can be extremely
powerful. The fall and movement of water is part of a continuous natural cycle called the water cycle.
Thus, hydropower is called a renewable energy source.
 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  685
Nepal is rich in water resources. Till date, Kali Gandaki A hydropower project is the largest, which
produces 144 MW power. Besides this, Middle Marsyangdi 70 MW, Marsyandi 69 MW, Kulekhani I
60 MW, Upper Mersyandi A 650 MW are the major hydropower in Nepal. Upper Tamakoshi project
is the largest hydropower project which is under construction, its capacity is 456 MW. Hydropower
supplies 19% of all electricity in the world.

Solar Energy
Human beings and all living beings have been using heat and light energy from sun, since the origin
of life in the world. So, we use solar energy directly or indirectly in every moment of our life. But, the
solar energy which we are discussing here is quite different that how solar technology taps the
infinite power of the sun to convert it into electricity. The electricity produced from solar energy can,
then, be used in the form of heat, light etc.
Solar panels are made up of photovoltaic (PV) cells, when more solar energy is generated it can be
stored in battery as DC electricity. Which convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity. Then,
the inverter converts the DC electricity generated by solar panels into the alternating currents (AC)
electricity. Thus, the electric panels send power to our light bulbs and electric appliances. It is the
clean sources of energy. It is the free source of energy that is sustainable and totally inexhaustible,
unlike fossil fuels that are finite. It does not emit any greenhouse gases when producing electricity.

Fig. 26.3: Solar device

The most advantage using solar energy is that, it is distributed over a wide geographical area,
ensuring that developing countries like Nepal have access to electricity generation at a stable cost for
the long term future. Solar energy production is beneficial in many places of Nepal. Since the device
is portable to carry in hilly regions. This technology has been popular in remote villages of Nepal.
Nowadays, it is also popular in urban areas. Recently, the solar power has been installed in every
office into Singh Durbar premises. First time, the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) has been
installing solar energy in the national grid line.

Wind Energy
Moving air is called wind. When air is heated by solar heat, it rises up in the atmosphere. The place
from where the air rises becomes partially vacant hence the air pressure decreases. Then, the air
nearby the partially vacant region blows towards this region, resulting winds of various speeds.
More precisely, during the day, the air above the land heats up more quickly than the air over water.
The warm air over the land expands and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its place,
creating wind. At night, the winds are reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than
over water.
The moving air molecules possess kinetic energy. The combined kinetic energy of all air molecules is
exploited to rotate the wind turbines. In this process, kinetic energy is converted into the mechanical
work to rotate turbines, powering a rotor inside the generator and producing electricity.
686 Principles of Physics - II
Wind energy is a renewable energy, so it will never run out. While rotating turbines, wind losses the
kinetic energy but the air molecules are not destroyed. The air once used, can be used again and
again. It does not generate green house gases or heat emission and other pollutants. Once a wind
turbine has been constructed, the land can still be used for other purposes, such as farming or
agriculture. Besides these advantages, it has some disadvantages. Wind forms produce the noise,
sometimes intolerable to its surroundings. Also, it covers large area and highly visible. So, many
people dislike it. Wind energy currently generates only 1% of all electricity on global scale. In Nepal,
it is not efficient as solar energy and hydroelectric energy.

Biomass Energy
Biomass energy is the conversion of biomass/organic material and collection and storage of the sun's
energy (through photosynthesis) into useful forms of energy such as heat, electricity and liquid fuels.
Various processes used for conversion of biomass into energy are:
1. Direct combustion
2. Thermo-chemical conversion
3. Bio-chemical conversion
Biomass energy is another form of renewable energy. Biomass energy source is derived from organic
matters such as wood, crop waste or garbage. Biomass is a renewable energy source because its
supplies are not limited. Trees and crops can always be grown, and waste will always be existed.
Biomass receives its energy from the sun. In the process of photosynthesis, chlorophyll in plants
captures the sun's energy by converting carbondioxide from the air and water from the ground into
carbohydrates. When these carbohydrates are burned, they turn back into carbondioxide and water
and release the sun's energy they contain. In this way, biomass function as a sort of natural battery
for storing solar energy. The exploitation of energy from biomass has played a key role in the
evolution of mankind. It is still, the main source of energy for more than half the world's population
for domestic energy needs.

Benefits of biomass energy

The advantages of using biomass as a source of energy are illustrated below.
i. Biomass energy is an abundant, secure environment friendly and renewable source of energy.
ii. It can be used to generate electricity with the same equipment or in the same power plants that
are now burning fossil fuels.
iii. Biomass energy is non pollutant of a atmosphere and is not associated with environmental
impacts such as acid rain, radioactive waste disposal or the damming of river.
iv. Biomass energy is sustainable.
v. Biomass is easily available and can be grown with relative ease in all parts of the world.

Non-Renewable Energy
The energy which is generated from those energy sources that are not continuously replenished by
nature is called non-renewable energy. The major sources of non-renewable energy are the fossil
fuels, nuclear fuels, coal, natural gases. Fossil fuel is the most developed and largest source of non-
renewable energy.
 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  687

Advantages
a. Non-renewable sources are cheap and easy to use. We can easily fill up our car tank and power
our motor vehicle.
b. We can use small amount of nuclear energy to produce large amount of power.
c. Non-renewable energy has little competition. For example: if we are driving a battery driven car
and our battery gets discharged then we won't be able to charge it in the middle of the road,
rather it is easy to find a gas pumping station.
d. They are considered as cheap when converting from one type of energy to another.

Challenges
a. Non-renewable sources will expire some day and we have to use our endangered resources to
create more non-renewable sources of energy.
b. The speed at which such resources are being utilized can have serious environmental changes.
c. Non-renewable sources release toxic gases in the air when burnt which are the major cause for
global warming.
d. Since these sources are going to expire soon, prices of these sources are soaring day by day

Differences between Renewable Energy and Non-renewable Energy

Renewable Energy Non-renewable energy
1. The Non-Renewable resources are
1. The Renewable resources are present
typically found in the underground
in the atmosphere of the earth.
layers of the earth.
2. The Non-Renewable resources cannot
2. The Renewable resources are replaced
be replaced by nature during the time
by nature itself in a very short period.
of human life span.
3. The Renewable energy resources are 3. The Non-Renewable resources are
plently available and abundant in scarce resources and not available in
nature. an abundant manner in nature.
4. The Renewable resources are obtained
4. The Non-Renewable resources are
free of cost or at very less cost in
very costly and not easily available.
nature.
5. The Renewable resources do not affect 5. The Non-Renewable resources
the environment of the earth and don't seriously affect the environment and
cause any climate changes in the cause climate changes in the
atmosphere. environment.
6. The Renewable resources are called as 6. The Non-Renewable resources release
'Clean and Green' energy sources 'Green House' gasses into the
because they don't produce harm to atmosphere which leads to global
the environment. warming.

26.8 Pollution
Any unwanted product that causes adverse change in environment and human health is considered
as pollution. There are various factors that cause pollution. Introduction of different kinds of toxic
chemicals and poor disposal of waste are regarded as the major cause of pollution. In addition, by-
688 Principles of Physics - II
products released from numerous industries and human activities contribute towards the pollution.
For instance, toxic waste released from industries gets mixed in the soil and air which ultimately
results in degradation of quality of soil and air. Our surrounding is being polluted due to the
burning of fossil fuels, nuclear accidents. Some of the pollutions are naturally occurring too. For
example, volcanic eruption: releasing toxic gas in the environment. Eutrophication which occurs
generally in the soil and water when rain carries and deposits nitrogen in river and soil which results
in algal growth in water bodies making condition worse for other living organism.

26.9 Air Pollution

Any unwanted or foreign substance present in atmosphere that reduces the quality of air and causes
adverse effect on human health is considered as air pollution. It occurs when dust particles,
biological molecules harmful gas molecules, and smokes are introduced into the atmosphere. It may
causes diseases, allergies and even death of the human. Mostly, many diseases communicate through
polluted air. Besides the harmful effects on human health, it has the variety of environment effect
like acid rain.

Major air pollutants

 Carbon monoxide (10)
 Ozone (O3)
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 Sulfur oxides (SO2)
 Carbon dioxide (CO2)
 Lead (pb)

Fig. 26.4: Sources of air pollution

Causes of air pollution

The primary cause of air pollution is described below:
1. Exhaust emission from vehicles.
 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  689
2. Industrial emission.
3. Burning of fuel like wood, cow dung, coal, kerosene, etc.
4. Use of fertilizer and pesticides, mining activities which releases particulate matter in air.
5. Nuclear power plant pollute air by releasing radioactive rays. Similarly, use of CFCs in
refrigerator, fire extinguisher, sprayers, etc. pollutes air by depleting ozone layer.
6. War, site destruction, different construction activities also contribute to the pollution

Remedial measures of air pollution

The various methods of controlling air pollution are as follows:
1. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk rather than using private vehicles.
2. Plantation of trees along the busy streets as they remove particulates and absorb pollutants.
3. Industries and waste disposal sites should be built farther away from human residence.
4. Avoid using adulterated fuel.
5. For sustainable healthy environment, implementation of Environment Impact Assessment (EIA)
in development projects.
6. If possible apply and process the control equipment for monitoring and controlling the air
pollution.
7. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. For instance, use of electric
transportation, bio-fuel.

26.10 Water Pollution

In simple words, water pollution is the contamination of water bodies like: lake, river, aquifers,
ocean, etc. Sewage and waste water is responsible for almost half of all ocean pollution and billions
of tons of industrial toxic waste are dumped into source of water untreated. Two general categories
of cause of water pollution are direct and indirect contaminant sources. Direct contaminant includes
effluent and waste from factories, refineries, treatment plants, whereas indirect contaminant are
those that enter water supply from atmosphere via rain water, and human agricultural practices as
well.

Fig. 26.5: Sources of water pollution

690 Principles of Physics - II

Remedial Measures for Water Pollution

The following are the general possible ways of minimizing water pollution.
1. Proper disposal of household products like paints, used oil, organic waste, detergents used in
cleaning of clothes will surely help reduce the water pollution in a effective manner.
2. Secondly, waste water treatment or sewage treatment can be applied which removes pollutants
by means of physical, chemical and biological treatment methods.
3. Using water hyacinth in order to prevent the pollution of water sources which is extremely
efficient in absorbing and concentrating dissolved nutrients from water.
4. Recycling, renovation, recharge and reuse (4R concept) of waste water.

26.11 Ozone Layer

Ozone exists in earth's stratosphere and is responsible for protecting humans from harmful
ultraviolet (uv) rays. Ozone hole refers to the severe depletion of ozone in the region of ozone layer,
particularly region high above the earth in the stratosphere. Ozone hole isn't actually a hole in a
technical sense but rather more of a thinning of layer of ozone.

Major ozone layer depleting substances

 Chlorofluoron carbons (used in freezers)
 Methyl chroroform
 Hydrochlorofluro carbon (HFC)
 Carbon Tetrachloride

Fig. 26.6: Ozone layer’s depletion

The effects of ozone hole are briefly explained in following points.
1. If ozone layer depletes exposure of radiation eventually results in serious impacts on human
health, plants and animals due to more UV rays entering the earth. For instance, sun burns, skin
cancers, premature aging of skin and damage in genetic materials in the cells is likely to
happen.
2. In addition to human health, depletion of ozone also causes overall cooling trend on Antarctica
continent leading to climatic effects causing storms and winds in high frequency and strength.
 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  691
3. Reduction in phytoplankton in ocean that form the basic cycle of food chain in marine
ecosystem, gradually making harsh living condition for aquatic plants and animals.
4. Finally, the effect of ozone hole and the damage done is not still comprehended by many
scientists but is believed to cause a fatal damage in DNA which can be catastrophic.

26.12 Green House Effect

Green house effect is a natural phenomenon in which the atmosphere of a planet traps radiation
emitted by sun caused by gases such as CO2 (carbon dioxide), water vapour, nitrous oxide (NO2) and
methane that allows the incoming light to pass but retains the heat that radiates back from planet's
surface. This process maintains the earth's temperature at around 33C, allowing life on earth to exist
without green house gases the average temperature of earth's surface would be about 18C (0F).
Basically, green house effects are caused by natural and man-made activities. Volcanic eruption,
thermal pollution helps to produce green house gases (CO2, methane) and increased use of vehicles
and chemicals that emits green house gases. Green house gases are helpful to maintain atmospheric
temperature but an increased amount over optimum has a huge impact on earth's temperature
causing global warming and many other consequences related to climate change. Some of the effects
are:

Fig. 26.7: Greenhouse effect

1. Ocean acidification is caused by increase in CO2 level in atmosphere. The ocean serves as a sink
for gas and absorbs most of CO2 emission.
2. Over the last century, ozone concentration has become much larger at ground level that is a
major component of smog which is dangerous for both humans and plants.
3. NO2, a green house gas which damages the ozone layer and is the most important ozone
depleting substances.
4. One of the major aftermaths of greenhouse effect is global warming since the staring days of
industrial revolution and human interference in nature.
692 Principles of Physics - II
5. Sea level rises because of melting ice and snow due to thermal expansion of sea. Areas that are
just above sea level now, may become submerge.
6. Rising sea level extreme weather conditions.

26.13 Acid Rain

Acid rain is the precipitation of acidic components on the atmosphere which fall to the ground in the
form of rain. Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) are the acidic components that are
formed on the atmosphere and fall on the earth’s surface. Acid rain is caused by the chemical
reaction of air with compounds like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These substances can rise
very high in the atmosphere, where they react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form more
acidic pollutants, which come down in the form of rain.
The gas sulphur dioxide (SO2) when oxidized in the reaction with hydroxyl radical (OH) via an
intermolecular reaction, HOSO2 is formed.
i.e. SO2 + OH  HOSO2
Then, the chemical reaction of HOSO2 with oxygen yields HO2 and SO3, as,
HOSO2 + O2  HO2 + SO3
When the sulphur trioxide reacts with water vapour in the atmosphere, sulphuric acid is formed.
SO3 + H2O  H2SO4
Also, the nitrogen dioxide when reacts with hydroxyl radical (OH), nitric acid is formed.
i.e. NO2 + OH  HNO3
Finally, sulphuric acid and nitric acid falls to the earth’s surface, which is popularly called acid rain.

Fig. 26.8: Acid rain

Acid rain has many ecological effects. It has many adverse effects to aquatic as well as terrestrial
animals and plants. Acid rain kills trees and harms animals like fish, other wild life and even human
civilization.
 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  693

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. Write four possible ways of minimizing water pollution.
 The following are the general possible ways of minimizing water pollution.
i. Proper disposal of household products like paints, used oil, organic waste, detergents used in
cleaning of clothes will surely help reduce the water pollution in a effective manner.
ii. Secondly, waste water treatment or sewage treatment can be applied which removes pollutants
by means of physical, chemical and biological treatment methods.
iii. Using water hyacinth in order to prevent the pollution of water sources which is extremely
efficient in absorbing and concentrating dissolved nutrients from water.
iv. Recycling, renovation, recharge and reuse (4R concept) of waste water.
2. What are the health hazards due to radiation?
 Long term exposure may result in fatal damage of internal organs. Numerous case of skin related
illness can be observed which leads to skin cancer. Radioactive materials decays producing radiation
and breaking the chemical bond that makes up our tissues which damages the DNA. Ultimately
damaging cells and in most cases causing deformity. In addition, one of most infamous accident,
Chernobyl, disaster which occurred due to radiation and other debris that led many people and their
next generation causing mutation in gene.
3. What is ozone hole? Write its effects.
 Ozone hole refers to the severe depletion of ozone in the region of ozone layer, particularly region
high above the earth in the stratosphere. Ozone hole isn't actually a hole in a technical sense but
rather more of a thinning of layer of ozone. The effects of ozone hole are briefly explained in
following points.
i. If ozone layer depletes exposure of radiation eventually results in serious impacts on human
health, plants and animals due to more UV rays entering the earth. For instance, sun burns, skin
cancers, premature aging of skin is likely to happen.
ii. In addition to human health, depletion of ozone also causes overall cooling trend on Antarctica
continent leading to climatic effects causing storms and winds in high frequency and strength.
iii. Reduction in phytoplankton in ocean that form the basic cycle of food chain in marine ecosystem,
gradually making harsh living condition for aquatic plants and animals.
iv. Finally, the effect of ozone hole and the damage done is not still comprehended by many
scientists but is believed to cause a fatal damage in DNA which can be catastrophic.
4. Explain greenhouse effect.
 Green house effect is a natural phenomenon in which the atmosphere of a planet traps radiation
emitted by sun caused by gases such as CO2 (carbon dioxide), water vapour, nitrous oxide (NO2) and
methane that allows the incoming light to pass but retains the heat that radiates back from planet's
surface. Basically, green house effects are caused by natural and man-made activities.
5. Write down the radioactive pollution?
 The radioactive pollution can be defined as the release of radioactive substances of high energy
particles in the air, water or soil as a result of human activity. Radioactive pollution directly or
indirectly harms the human health. Leakage of radiation by nuclear accidents or by design is the
cause of radioactive pollution.
6. What are the renewable sources of energy?
 Renewable energy sources are energy sources that are always being replenished. They can never be
depleted. Examples;
a. Hydropower b. Geothermal c. Wind d. Solar.
694 Principles of Physics - II
e. Biomass—includes: Wood and wood waste, solid waste, Landfill gas and biogas, ethanol,
biodiesel.
7. What is energy degradation?
 Energy degradation is associated with movement towards equilibrium in a quantity potentially
associated with work (such as temperature, pressure, or concentration).
8. What is energy transformation? Give one example.
 The process of changing one form of energy into another, such as nuclear energy into heat or
solar energy into electrical energy is known as energy transformation.
9. What are the main advantages of nuclear energy?
 The main advantages of nuclear energy are as follows:
i. A nuclear power station uses a steam turbine and generator to produce electricity in exactly the
same way as any other thermal power station.
ii. It does not produce carbon dioxide and other pollutants that are formed when things are burnt.
iii. It is more clean and more environment friendly than coal, oil or gas fire power stations.
iv. It is compact, competitive and practically inexhaustible.
v. Its efficiency is relatively high and a best alternative source of energy at the location where
hydropower plant is impossible.
10. What are the challenges of nuclear power?
 The challenges of nuclear power are as follows:
i. The nuclear fission creates materials that are still radioactive and harmful to human beings and to
the environment for thousands or even millions of years.
ii. Another problem is regarding the safe way to store the waste.
iii. Accidents at nuclear power stations are very rare, but when they occur, they can be catastrophic.
iv. Steam coming out of the turbine is also still hot, and so adds heat to the environment.
11. What is solar energy? Why are its advantages?
 Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving
technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt
power plants and artificial photosynthesis. Solar energy is an alternative for fossil fuels as it is non-
polluting, clean, reliable and renewable source of energy. Solar energy also does not require any fuel
to produce electricity and thus avoids the problem of transportation of fuel or storage of radioactive
waste
12. What is the possibility of wind energy in Nepal?
 A study by the Alternative Energy Promotion Center (AEPC) in coordination with the UN
Environment Program (UNEP) and other institutions has showed that at least 30,000 MW of wind
energy can be generated in Nepal due to adequate hilly and riparian corridors where wind blows
regularly.
13. Why biomass energy is important in Nepal?
 Looking at the deforestation caused by the excessive use of firewood, the National Energy Strategy of
Nepal under draft version has aimed for focusing on biomass energy to fulfill the energy needs on
short and medium term and on the longer term energy needs to be met by electricity reducing the
consumption of biomass energy. It is also necessary to keep in mind that the reduction of import of
fossil fuel will enforce the increased dependency on firewood collected from forest which may cause
the environmental and economic losses. Though the electricity for longer term has been strategically
considered as the main-energy, there will be a consumption of biomass energy in some form and
quantity which need to be managed sustainably and environment-friendly manner. Biomass energy
is an important part of our living. Proper consideration for public health and socioeconomic life,
through promotion of technology and positive attitude towards the effective management,
sustainable and efficient use of biomass energy seems necessary
 Nuclear Energy and Other Source of Energy  Chapter 26  695
14. What is non-renewable energy?
 A non-renewable resource is a resource of economic value that cannot be readily replaced by natural
means on a level equal to its consumption. Most fossil fuels, such as oil, natural gas and coal are
considered non-renewable resources in that their use is not sustainable because their formation takes
billions of years. Non-renewable resources are those found inside the earth, and they took millions of
years to form. These include the fossil fuels, oil, natural gas, and coal and nuclear energy
15. Why is it necessary to develop the technology to use the renewable energy?
 There is a limited supply of Non-Renewable resources is on the Earth. We’re using them much more
rapidly than they are being created. Eventually, they will run out and our future generations are left
with no crude oil and nuclear resources. We have a responsibility to transfer the resource to our
future generations, for that we have to use the non-renewable and renewable resources in a balanced
way and promote sustainability of resources.
16. Do biofuels have any social impact?
 Yes. First they can take land for food crops out of food production, which can increase food cost,
cause disease and social unrest. There are some arguments that biofuels need to be based on wastes
and not occupy food land or newly cleared forests. Second, in cities, smoke from wood burning can
increase pollution, which leads to respiratory disease and can worsen asthma.
17. Is using nuclear power really the answer to clean, environmentally friendly energy?
 No. There is nothing environmentally friendly about nuclear power. It only creates different
environmental problems than fossil fuel energy sources. But neither fossil fuels nor nuclear power
are safe, sustainable, or healthy for humans and the environment.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. How is development of physical science related to human kinds?
2. Why do we worry about the energy crisis, although energy doesnot destroy in universe?
3. How energy is released in nuclear fusion?
4. What is source of energy in sun and stars?
5. What are the major hydropower projects in Nepal?
6. What are the benefits and drawbacks of wind energy?
7. Why solar power is called alternative energy source?
8. What is the major energy source in Nepal?
9. Why biomass is very important for Nepal?
10. How geothermal energy is produced?
11. What is acid rain? How it is formed?
12. Describe briefly noise pollution, air pollution and water pollution.
13. Discuss ozone depletion, greenhouse effect, acid rain.
14. Discuss strategies to reduce pollution at local and national levels.
15. Discuss the wide spectrum of electromagnetic radiation from radiowave to cosmic rays.
16. What are the major contents of green house gases?
696 Principles of Physics - II

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is greenhouse effect? What are its causes? How can depletion of ozone layer be protected?
2. Describe the causes and remedies of air pollution and water pollution.
3. What are radiation hazards? Explain its harmful effects.
4. How the energy sources are associated with human civilization?
5. What are the major energy sources in Nepal?
6. Why do we face energy crisis? How can we solve the problem of energy crisis?
7. Differentiate between renewable and nonrenewable sources of energy.
9. Describe the renewable sources of energy in Nepal.
10. Describe the global scenario of energy consumption.


 PARTICLE PHYSICS

27.1 Introduction
Elementary particles are those particles whose internal structures are unknown. The internal
structure is said "unknown" in the sense that no simpler particles have been detected other than
these particles. So, they are considered as the most fundamental particles in nature. Before the
discovery of electron by J.J. Thomson, atoms were considered as the fundamental particles. In Greek
language, 'atomos' means 'indivisible' it means atom can not be broken into more fundamental
particles. J.J. Thomson purposed that an atom is composed of electrons and nucleus. After the
discovery of neutron, in 1932, by Chadwick, it was considered that an atom is composed of three
subatomic particles: electron, proton and neuron. After the development of quantum mechanical
theory, it was established that some of the subatomic particles like proton and neutron have also
internal structure, they are composed of quarks. Likewise, many other elementary particles have also
been identified. Till date, Leptons, quarks and mediator particles are considered as the elementary
particles.

27.2 History of Elementary Particles

 In 1897, J.J.Thomson discovered negatively charged particle, electron and another positively
charged particle; proton.
 In 1911, Rutherford discovered positively charged central core of atom known as nucleus.
 Bohr in 1932 purposed that the nucleus consists of proton and electron is revolving around the
nucleus. Electron and proton are basic units of charge.
 Chadwick in 1932 discovered existence of chargeless particle in the nucleus called neutron.
 In 1924 de-Broglie suggested that the photon behaves as particle. (de-Broglie hypothesis)
 In 1928 Dirac-predicated the existence of positron (e+), antiparticle of electron, having the same
mass and the positive charge.
 Anderson in 1932 discovered the positron.
 In 1955, the existence of antiproton was discovered by Serge, Chamberlain and their
collaborators.
 In 1956, similarly, the existence of antineutron, the antiparticle of neutron, was discovered by
Cook, Chamberton and Wenzel.
698 Principles of Physics - II
 In 1928, Pauli discovered neutrino to account the missing energy of particle along with
antineutrino.
 The discovery of antiparticle of a particle finally leads to the existence of antimatter of the
matter and antiworld of world.
 In 1995, Japanese scientists Yukawa gave the idea of a particle of mass intermediate between
that of an electron and proton, i.e. meson which makes the proton and neutron glued together
in nucleus.
 In 1937, the -meson was discovered by Anderson and Neddermeyer in the cosmic ray
researches. Their discovery was confirmed in 1940 by Leprince-Ringuet and found that the -
mesons are 207 times heavier than electorn.
 In 1947, Powell group in England discovered -meson where + and – meson have rest masses
of 273 me and 0-meson is slightly less than 264me.
 Similarly, around or more than 200 particles have been discovered up to now.
 By the end of 1977 five flavours of quark (u,d,s,c,b) were known to exist together with six
flavours of lepton (e, , , e, , ). Assuming that quarks and leptons are the fundamental
constituents of matter, many of the strong and weak interactions of hadrons and the weak
interactions of leptons are explained. However anticipating a symmetry in nature's building
blocks, it was expected that a sixth quark would eventually reveal itself. This quark, labeled top
(t), would be 2/3 electronic charge partner to the (bottom) quark. In 1998 the top quark was
found at CERN in Geneva and the symmetry of six quarks with six leptons was finally verified.
 In 1978 the standard model was proposed as the definitive theory of the fundamental
constituents of matter. In the current view, all matter consists of three kinds of particles : leptons,
quarks and mediators. Mediators are the particles by which the four fundamental interactions
are mediated.

27.3 Particles and antiparticles

A particle is said to be antiparticle of a particle if that has equal mass and magnitude of electric
charge, but nature of charge is opposite. The antiparticle of an electron is positron. Positron has
exactly equal mass of electron (= 9.1  10–31 kg) and magnitude of charge 1.6  10–19 C, but the nature
of its charge is positive. Dirac purposed that every particle in nature must have its antiparticle.
Another important method of identifying particle-antiparticle pair is the property of annihilation. In
particle-antiparticle annihilation, they combine to form energy, usually, a pair of -rays satisfying the
conservation of energy and momentum. Some examples of particle-antiparticle pair are explained
below.
i. Electron and Positron: The positron is exactly the counterpart of an electron having equal
mass and one unit of positive charge (i.e. 1.6  10–19 C). It was discovered by Anderson in 1932.
Its mean life is approximately 10–10 s. When an electron combines with positron, they
disappear and form two quanta of -rays.
ii. Proton and antiproton: Antiproton is the antiparticle of a proton. The existence of antiparticle
was discovered by Serge, chamberlin and their coworkers in 1955.
iii. Neutron and antineutron: Antineutron is the anti-particle of a neutron. Antineutron was
discovered by Cork, Lamberton and Wenzel in 1950. Although neutron and anti-neutron have
zero electric charge, they are supposed to have a certain internal charge distribution.
iv. Neutrino and anti-neutrino: Pauli purposed the existence of neutrino in -decay process. He
purposed, in 1931, that -decay is always accompanied by another particle of almost zero rest
mass and zero-charge, called neutrino. Antineutrino is the antiparticle of neutrino.
 Particle physics  Chapter 27  699
v. Matter and antimatter: A matter is composed of electron, and nucleus. If we take a
consideration of hydrogen, it is composed of an electron and proton. According to particle-
antiparticle concept, when a positron and an antiproton combine, an antihydrogen is formed.
Likewise, anti-elements are formed from positron, antiproton and antineutron. Antielements
are responsible to form antimatter. If matters are annihilated with anti-matters, possibly
tremendous energy will be released.

27.4 Annihilation
When a particle interacts with its antiparticle, whole masses 
of both particle and antiparticle are completely converted
into energy (photons), usually, a pair of -rays (sometimes
x-rays). This process of conversion of matter into energy is
called annihilation. Most common annihilation on Earth
e– e+
occurs between an electron and its antiparticle, positron.
A particle and an antiparticle can not annihilate into a single
photon, they have to annihilate into at least two photons to 

conserve energy and momentum. Fig. 27.1: Electron Position annihilation

27.5 Pair Production

An x-ray or -ray, may interact with the matter while
traversing nearer from the nucleus. When a photon of x- Nucleus Electron (e–)
ray or -ray passes through the nuclear field, a electron-

positron pair, one negative and one positive, appears in 
place of the photon. This materialization process of Photon ()
energy is known as pair production. Since the energy
equivalent to the mass of an electron is 0.51 MeV, the
Positron (e+)
creation of electron-positron pair requires, 2  0.51 =
1.02 MeV. Consequently, photons with energy less than Fig. 27.2: Pair Production

1.02 MeV do not interact by pair production. During pair production, energy in excess of 1.02 MeV is
released as kinetic energy of the pair particles.

27.6 Concept of Spin

In classical physics, spin is simply the rotation of an object along
its axis, but it is quite different in the context of elementary
particles. It is somehow difficult to have insight of the concept of
spin by using classical physics. It is quantity that requires
quantum mechanical explanation to be described at its full.
However, the basic concept regarding the spin can be visualized
considering the following Fig. 27.3.
Every particle is assigned with certain value of spin in the form of
numbers. Each number has the special information regarding
rotation of the particle.
Fig. 27.3: Spin of particles
700 Principles of Physics - II
i. Half spin: The particles having half spin, reverse their direction in 2 rotation (i.e. upside turns
down) and after another 2 rotation, come to their original position. That is to say, such particles can
recover their original position after 4 rotation. Fermions are half-spin particles.
ii. Integer spin: The particles having integer spin, recover their original position after 2 rotation.
Bosons are integer spin particles.

27.7 Classification of Elementary Particles

Elementary particles are considered as the structureless and are not regarded as made up of any
other particles. They can be detected in the matter of the earth and cosmic rays. Elementary particles
are broadly classified into two types: fermions and Bosons. Their antiparticles are also the
elementary particles. The classification of elementary particles in accordance with standard model is
given below.
Elementary Particles

Fermions Bosons

Leptons Quarks Gauge Boson Higg's Boson

Gluons
Electron (e¯) Up (u)
Photons
Electron neutrino (νe) Down (d)
W and Z bosons
Muon (μ¯) Charm (c)
Gravitons
Muon neutrino (νμ) Strange (s)

Taun (τ¯) Top (t)

Taun neutrino (ντ) Bottom (b)

27.8 Fermions
The elementary particles with half-integer spins are called fermions. Half integer can be the odd
1 1 3 5
multiples of 2 . i.e. 2 , 2 , 2 . Leptons, quarks and composite particles made up of quarks belong to
this family. These particles obey Pauli Exclusion Principle. According to Pauli Exclusion Principle,
the particles cannot occupy same quantum state simultaneously.

27.9 Leptons
Light elementary particles are incorporated in this class. In Greek language, 'Lepton' refers the 'light
particles'. In this class, all particles are stable except muon and taun. Taun is heavier than many
mesons (lie in the class of heavy particles), but it has no internal structure and have no measurable
 Particle physics  Chapter 27  701
size. Its electric charge is similar to electron. Therefore, taun belongs to lepton family. There are six
leptons. Some important information of lepton's are tabulated below.
Particle Symbol Charge MeV 
Rest Mass
 c2 
Electron e- -e 0.51
Muon - -e 106
Taun - -e 1784
e-neutrino e 0 0
-neutrino  0 0
-neutrino  0 0
(All antiparticles have charge just opposite to that of particles)

27.10 Quarks
Quarks are elementary particles which are the fundamental constituents of matter. They are fermions.
They combine to form composite particles called hadrons. Protons and neutrons are the most stable
composite particles, they are the components of nucleus. Quark model was independently purposed
by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig in 1964. We cannot see quark separately, since the strong
force between them increases as we try to separate them. Although M. Gell-Mann contributed prime
role in the discovery of quark, he gave the name "quark", when he found the word quark in James
Joyce's book "Finnegan's wake."
Initially, M.Gell Mann, and George Zweig purposed only three quarks, up, down and strange, and
their antiquarks. Then, other three more quarks namely charm, bottom, and top quarks were
1
discovered in Fermi lab. Each quark has baryon number 3 . Quarks have fractional electric charge
2 1
value + 3 e or – 3 e. (Where e = 1.6  10–19 C). The short description of quarks are tabulated below.

Baryon
Types of quarks Symbol Charge Antiquarks
number
Up u 2 1 u
+3e 3
Down d 1 1 d
-3e 3
Charm c 2 1 c
+3e 3
Strange s 1 1 s
-3e 3
Top t 2 1 t
+3e 3
Bottom b 1 1 b
-3e 3
702 Principles of Physics - II

27.11 Bosons
The elementary particles with zero or integer spins (0, 1, 2,.......) are bosons. Gauge bosons and Higgs
bosons are the examples of bosons. These particles do not obey Pauli Exclusion Principle. Bosons
which are responsible for the four fundamental forces are called gauge bosons. Strong interaction is
mediated by gluons, electromagnetic interaction is mediated by photons, weak interaction is
mediated by W and Z bosons, and the gravitational interaction is mediated by gravitons. Higgs
bosons are supposed to explain the origin of particles mass. The properties of four fundamental
forces are tabulated below.
Four fundamental forces
Types of force Nature
Strong force This force holds the nucleons together in nucleus. It squeezes the
protons and neutrons into volume that is about 10–15 m. It is the
strongest among all four forces.
Electromagnetic force This force acts between electrically charged particles. It includes
the electrostatic force acting between charged particles at rest and
combined effect of electric and magnetic forces acting between
charged particles moving relative to each other.
Weak force This force is responsible for radioactive decay, specially, beta
decay where a neutron within nucleus changes into a proton and
an electron, also acts in nuclear fusion in stars. It is weaker than
electromagnetic force and stronger than gravitational force.
Gravitational force It is the weakest force among all four forces. This force is relevant
for large celestial bodies such as planets, stars and galaxies and
attraction between them.
The brief description of mediators is tabulated below.

Mediator Particles
All particles in the mediator group mediate in the interaction for the four kinds of forces: strong
nuclear forces, electromagnetic force, weak force and gravitational force.
Particle Symbol Force Charge
Gluon G Strong 0
Photon  Electromagnetic 0
Plus W W+ Weak +e
Minus W W- Weak -e
Zero Z Z0 Weak 0
Graviton G Gravitational 0

27.12 Hadrons
Hadrons are strongly interacting heavy composite particles. They are composed of quarks. Hadrons
are basically two types: Mesons and Baryons. Mesons contain one quark and an antiquark. Baryons
contain three quarks. Quarks held together to form a hadrons by the strong force. Hadrons
 Particle physics  Chapter 27  703
containing more than three quarks are also discovered in recent years. A tetraquark state was
discovered in 2007 and two pentaquark states were discovered in 2015. Tetraquark and pentaquark
states will not be described below.
The hadrons are classified as below.
Hadrons

Mesons Baryons

K Mesons π Mesons η Mesons Nucleons Hyperons

Proton Neutron

Lamda Sigma Xi Omega

27.13 Mesons
Ordinary mesons are made up of a quark and an antiquark. Since they are composed from a quark
and an antiquark, they have the spin 0 or 1. They possess a single unit of charge (except zero meson)
and mass intermediate between electron and proton. The rest mass of these particles varies from 250
me to 1000 me. Short information for some mesons is tabulated below.
Particle Symbol Charge MeV Mean life, sec
Rest mass  c2 
 
Pion-zero 0 0 135 8.3  10-3
Pion plus/minus  e 140 2.6  10-8
Kaon-zero K0 0 498 9  10-11
Kaon plus/minus K e 494 1.2  10-8
Eta meson 0 0 549 7  10-19

Quark and Mesons

Each meson is a combination of a quark and antiquark. The baryon number of each meson is zero.
Mesons are unstable and they decay into lighter mesons or leptons. The charge and baryon number
of + meson is taken as an example below.
Pion + meson
+ = ud
Q = (+2/3 +1/3) e = +e
Baryon number (B) = (1/3)+(–1/3) = 0
704 Principles of Physics - II

Quark Structure of Source Mesons

Mesons Quark combination Charge
+ ud̄ +e
- ūd -e
Ko ds̄ 0
K+ us̄ +e
K- ūs -e

27.14 Baryons
Baryons are composite particles including nucleons. They have equal or greater mass than the mass
of a proton. They have half integer spins. Baryons heavier than nucleons are hyperons. Baryons are
basically divided into two classes: nucleons and hyperons. Every baryon has an antiparticle.

Nucleons
These are the lightest baryons. This group includes protons, neutrons and their antiparticles. A
nucleus of an atom is composed up of nucleons.

Hyperons
These are the special baryons having the mass value intermediate between those of neutron and
deuteron. Lamda (), Sigma (), Xi () and omega () are examples of hyperons. Actually, hyperons
contain strange quarks. Their decay time is very much greater than the time of formation.
The short description of nucleons and hyperons are presented below.
Energy equivalence of
Particle Symbol Charge MeV
Rest mass  c2 
 
Proton p +e 938.3
Neutron n 0 939.6
Lambda 0 0 1116
Sigma + +e 1189
0 0 1192
– –e 1197
Xi(cascade) 0 0 1315
– –e 1321
Omega – –e 1672

Quarks and baryon

Each baryon is combination of three quarks and baryon number is 1 for each baryon.
i. Proton: It consists of three quarks uud, i.e. two u quarks and one d quarks.
p = uud
Total charge, Q = (+2/3 +2/3 -1/3) e = +e
Also baryon number, B = 1/3 + 1/3 + 1/3 = 1
 Particle physics  Chapter 27  705
Similarly, Antiproton contains, p = uud
ii. Neutron: It consists of one up quark and two down quarks.
n = udd, charge Q = (+2/3 - 1/3 - 1/3) e = 0
Also baryon number (B) = +1/3 + 1/3 +1/3 = 1
Similarly, Antineutron, n̄ = ū d̄ d̄
iii. Sigma: It is a hyperon. The + quark is made up of two up quarks and a strange quark.
+ = uus, Charge no. Q = (+2/3 +2/3 – 1/3) e = +e
Similarly, 0 = uds
– = dds

Quark structure of baryons

Baryon Q-combination Charge
p uud +e
n udd 0
0 uds 0
+ uus +e
0 uds 0
- dds –e
0 uss 0
- dss –e
- sss –e

27.15 Three Generations of Quarks and Leptons

The generations of elementary particles are the divisions of particles in accordance with flavour,
quantum number and mass. Each generation is divided into two types of leptons and two types of
quarks. Two leptons are classified into one with one electric charge -1 (electron-like) and one neutral
2 1
(neutrino); two quarks may be classified into one with + 3 e and another with – 3 e.

The first generations contains two leptons, the electron and the electron neutrino, and two quarks,
up and down. All the properties of ordinary matter can be understood on the basis of these particles.
The second generation includes the muon and muon-neutrino and the charm and strange quarks.
These particles are responsible for most of the unstable particles and resonances created in high
energy collisions. The third generations includes the tau and the tau-neutrino and the top and
bottom quarks.
Generations of matter
Type First Second Third
Quarks

up-type up (u) charm (c) top (t)

down-type down (d) strange (s) bottom (b)

Leptons

charged electron (e) muon () taun ()

neutral electron neutrino (e) muon neutrino () taun neutrino ()
706 Principles of Physics - II

Tips for MCQs

1. Elementary particles are structureless. They are not composed of any other fundamental particles.
2. Every elementary particle has its anti-particle.
3. Fermions (spin half particle) and bosons (zero or integer spin particles) are two main categories of
elementary particles.
4. Pair production is the materialization process and annihilation is the mass to energy conversion
process.
5. There are six leptons, six quarks and four types of mediator particles.
6. Hadrons and Mesons are composite particles Hadrons are composed up of three quarks and mesons
are composed up of a quark and an anti-quark.
7. Hyperons and nucleons are Baryons. Hyperons are heavier than nucleons.
8. The basic forces in nature are strong, electromagnetic, weak and gravitational.

Conceptual Question Answer

1. What are elementary particles?
 Elementary particles are those particles whose internal structure is unknown. The internal structure
is said to be "unknown" in the sense that no simpler particles has been detected than these particles.
So, they are considered as the most fundamental particles in nature.
2. Define antiparticle of a particle. Give examples.
 A particle is said to be an antiparticle of a particle if it has equal mass and magnitude of electric
charge, but nature of charge is opposite. Every particle has its antiparticle. For example: (i)
antiparticle of electron is positron (ii) antiparticle of proton is antiproton. (iii) antiparticle of neutron
is antineutron.
3. Define fermions. Give two examples.
 The elementary particles with half-integer spins are called fermions. Half integer can be the odd
1 1 3 5
multiples of 2 . i.e. 2 , 2 , 2 . Leptons, quarks and composite particles made up of quarks belong to this
family. These particles obey Pauli exclusion principle. According to Pauli exclusion principle, the
particles cannot occupy same quantum state simultaneously.
4. Define bosons.
 The elementary particles with zero or integer spins (0, 1, 2,.......) are bosons. Gauge bosons and Higg's
bosons are the examples of bosons. These particles do not obey Pauli exclusion principle. Bosons
which are responsible for the four fundamental forces are called gauge bosons.
5. Write the quark combination of proton and neutron.
 The quark combination of proton is uud. It means a proton is composed with two up quarks and one
down quark.
2 2 1
The charge combination is 3 e + 3 e – 3 e = e

The quark combination of neutron is, udd,

2 1 1
The charge combination is, 3 e – 3 e – 3 e = 0

6. Write the quark combination of antiproton and antineutron.

 Particle physics  Chapter 27  707
 The quark combination of antiproton is ūūd̄. It means a antiproton is composed with two antiup
quarks and one antidown quark.
2 2 1
The charge combination is –3 –e – 3 e + 3 e = –e

The quark combination of antineutron is, ūd̄d̄,

2 1 1
The charge combination is, –3 e + 3 e + 3 e = 0

7. Hadrons are not truly fundamental particles, why?

 Hadrons are composite particles. They are composed of quarks. Their internal structure is known.
Hadrons are of basically two types: mesons and baryons. To be fundamental particles, internal
structure should be unknown.
8. What are mediator particles?
 All particles in the mediator group mediate in the interaction for the four kinds of forces: strong
nuclear forces, electromagnetic force, weak force and gravitational force. Strong interaction is
mediated by gluons, electromagnetic interaction is mediated by photons, weak interaction is
mediated by W and Z bosons, and the gravitational interaction is mediated by gravitons.
9. What are mesons? Write the name of three mesons.
 Ordinary mesons are made up of a quark and an antiquark. Hence, they have the spin 0 or 1. They
possess a single unit of charge (except zero meson) and mass varies between electron and proton.
Pion, Kaon, Eta, etc. are some examples of mesons.
10. What are quarks? Do they exist separately?
 Quarks are elementary particles which are the fundamental constituents of matters. They are
fermions. They combine to form composite particles called hadrons. Protons and neutrons are the
most stable composite particles, they are the components of nucleus. No, they do not exist separately.
11. What are the fundamental forces in nature?
 Strong force, electromagnetic force, weak force and gravitational force are the fundamental forces in
nature. The elementary particles, gluons mediate for strong interaction, photons mediate for
electromagnetic interaction, W and Z bosons mediate for weak interaction and gravitons mediate
gravitational interaction.
12. Give quark combination of K+, K–, K0
 Kaon (K-meson):
i. K+ meson: It made of one up quark and another antistrange quark. i.e. K+ = u s̄ ,
Total charge, Q = (+ 2/3 + 1/3) e = +e
Total baryon number (B) = 1/3 – 1/3 = 0
ii. K– meson: It is made of one antiup and a strange quark. i.e. ū s
Q = (– 2/3 – 1/3) e = –e
B = – 1/3 + 1/3 = 0
iii. K0 meson: It is made of a down quark and an antistrange quark. . i.e. d s̄
Q for ds = (– 1/3 + 1/3) e = 0
B = 1/3 – 1/3 = 0
13. What is meant by annihilation of particle-antiparticle pair?
 When a particle interacts with its antiparticle, whole mass of both particle is completely converted
into energy photons, usually, a pair of -rays (sometimes x-rays). This process of conversion of matter
into energy is called annihilation.
14. What is meant by pair production?
 Pair production is the direct conversion of radiant energy to matter. It is the materialization of
particle antiparticle pair, when electromagnetic rays pass in the vicinity of an electronic nucleus. The
law of conservation of energy is obeyed in pair production, so the photon energy must exceed a
708 Principles of Physics - II
certain threshold value, for example to produce electron - positron pair, the incident energy must be
greater than or equal to 1.02 MeV.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. What are the similarities and differences between a neutrino and a photon?
2. How many types of quark you know? Name them with their electronic charges.
3. Show that proton contains three quarks: up, up and down.
4. What are quarks? Write their names with charge.
5. What are the similarities and differences between quarks and leptons?
6. Show that a proton contains three quarks: up, up and down (uud)
7. Which particle does the uud combinations produce?
8. What are mesons? Write the names of two mesons.
9. Give two examples of the pairs of particle-antiparticle system.

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. Name the quarks you know. Also present the quark combinations of baryon and meson groups of
particles.
2. Give an account of simple classification of elementary particles with examples.
3. Give brief history of elementary particles.
4. What are mediator particles? To which interactions they are associated?
5. Write brief notes about fermions and bosons.
6. What are generations of elementary particles? Describe their significances.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which is the particle-antiparticle pair?
a. electron and proton b. electron and positron
c. proton and neutron d. neutron and electron
2. Which of the following particle is considered as responsibility of mass giving?
a. proton b. neutron
c. Higgs boson d. Graviton
3. The quark combination of antineutron is,
a. uud b. udd
c. ūūd̄ d. ūd̄d̄
4. Which is the weakest fundamental force?
a. Gravitational b. Electromagnetic
c. Weak d. Strong
5. Mesons are made up of,
a. One quark and an antiquark b. two quarks
c. two antiquarks d. three quarks
6. Which is not the fundamental particle?
a. up b. down
c. electron d. proton

Answers
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (a) 6. (d)


Particle physics  Chapter 27  709
 COSMOLOGY

28.1 Introduction
The branch of science, which deals with the study of the origin, evolution and nature of the universe,
is called cosmology. Cosmology includes the study of the nature of the universe on its very large
scales: planets orbit stars, stars are controlled into galaxies, galaxies are gravitationally bound into
clusters and even clusters of galaxies are found with in larger super clusters.
In the earliest form, the study of cosmology was considered as the study of heavens, now it is known
as celestial mechanics. In the beginning of study on it, Greek philosophers Aristotle and Ptolemy
proposed different cosmological theories to explain the mystery of universe. Later on, Newton
disclosed many unsolved problems associated with the universe after his universal law of
Gravitation. Modern scientific cosmology is considered to have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein's
publication on his final modification of "General Theory of Relatively (GTR)".

28.2 The Universe

The universe is all around us, in our vision and beyond our vision. It is all of space and time and
their contents, including solar system, other stars and planets, galaxies, and all other forms of matter
and energy. The size of universe is still unknown. Many matters and energy of the universe have not
been measured yet. Many of its constituents are invisible and are called dark matter and dark energy.
The aggregation of matters and energy that are in measured form is known as observable universe.

Solar system
Solar system is the collection of the sun, eight planets and their moons in orbit round the sun,
together with smaller bodies in the form of asteroids, meteoroids and comets. The sun is the center of
our solar system. It is the largest body of the system. Eight planets revolve around the sun in
elliptical path and orbits of these planets lie roughly in the same plane called elliptic plane. These
planets are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Moons, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids are also part of solar system. Moons orbit the planets.
Asteroids, comets and Meteoroids orbit around the sun. Giant dust storms freezing temperatures,
colourful clouds and beautiful rings can be found throughout the solar system.
710 Principles of Physics - II
Asteroids orbit the sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. This region is called the asteroid belt.
They are made of rock and iron. They are also called minor planets; scientists believe that early in the
history of the solar system asteroid - like bodies colliding with each other grew to form the planets.
They have very irregular in shape.
Meteoroids are basically small asteroids. There is no exact diameter that distinguishes an asteroid
from a meteoroid. The vast majority of all meteoroids are just a few millimeters and less in size.
Comets are icy bodies in space that release gas or dust. They contain dust, ice, carbon dioxide,
ammonia, methane and more. They appear fuzzy and has a tail, and sometimes bright. Since it
contains water, ice and other frozen volatiles, its tail sublimate into gases and appears when gets
closer to the sun. Comets usually have highly eccentric orbits, and they have a wide range of orbital
periods ranging from several years to several millions of years. Comets are distinguished from
asteroids by the presence of an extended, gravitationally unbound atmosphere surrounding their
central nucleus.

Fig. 28.1: Solar System

Differences between comets and asteroids

Comets Asteroids
1. They reside mostly in Kuiper belt beyond the 1. Most of them reside in asteroid belt between
orbit of Neptune. orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
2. Their diameter ranges from 6-25 miles. 2. Their diameter ranges from the size of small
rocks to more than 600 miles.
3. They contain a lot of ice, along with rock and 3. They are composed of rocks and metals.
hydrocarbon.
4. Their surface is very unstable and 4. Their surface is solid and stable, showing
changeable, as ice boils off when comet crates.
approaches near to the sun.
 Cosmology  Chapter 28  711

Stars
Stars are the astronomical objects consisting of fusion gases like hydrogen. They are the ball of
hydrogen and helium with enough masses. The nearest star to the earth is the sun. Many other stars
are visible in the sky with naked eyes. They are the most fundamental building blocks of galaxies.
The study of the birth, life and death of stars is central to the field of astronomy.
Hydrogen fusion reaction is the dominant process of energy generation in the core of stars. This
process is called hydrogen burning. Hydrogen burning is not the destruction; it is actually the fusion
process. In hydrogen fusion in stars; four hydrogen nuclei (4 1H1) fuse together to form a helium
nucleus along with two positrons and release energy about 26 MeV. The nuclear fusion reaction is
explained in chapter 24. The colour of stars depends on the temperature of star on its surface.

Constellation
A constellation is the group of stars that are considered to form meaningful patterns on the celestial
sphere. The shape of a constellation looks like animals, mythological people or gods and
manufactured devices. In the sky, there are 88 constellations which have been observed in the sky.
The sun, its planets, and all other solar system objects move across the constellation of the Zodiac:
Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpios, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces
and Ophiuchus.

Fig. 28.2 A constellation : Leo

Galaxy
A galaxy is a gravitational bound system of stars, stellar remnants, interstellar gas, dust and dark
matter. Hubble speculated that there are 100 billion galaxies in the universe. However, the number of
galaxies has been observed many times greater than the Hubble's estimation. After the advancement
of sophisticated telescope technology, it has been estimated that there are about 200 billions galaxies
in the universe. Galaxies are classified into three main types: Spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies and
irregular galaxies. The majority of galaxies are gravitationally organized into groups, clusters and
superclusters.
712 Principles of Physics - II
There are also some other types of galaxies which emit enormous radiation than normal galaxies.
They are known as radio galaxy. Quasars and pulsars are the examples of radio galaxy.

Milky way galaxy

Our solar system lies within the Milky Way galaxy. Milky Way galaxy is a spiral galaxy. Hubble
confirmed that the Milky Way galaxy is just one of many galaxies. It is visible from the earth as hazy
bands of white light some 30 degrees wide arching across the sky. The visible region of Milky Way
when viewed from the earth occupies an area of the sky that includes 30 constellations.
Milky way galaxy contains about 1011 stars. Its side to side length is about 105 light years. It bulges at
the middle about 3000 light years wide. We are 30,000 light years far from the galactic center point.

Fig. 28.3: Milky way

28.3 Evolution of Star

The description of the way that stars change with time is called the evolution of stars. In close
observation with sophisticated telescopes, many new stars are found created and existing stars are
found dying in the universe. The time span between the birth and death of stars is called their
lifetime. Their lifetime ranges from a few millions of years for highly massive to trillions of years for
the least massive stars. The lifetime of some stars in accordance to their mass are tabulated below.
Mass (Solar masses) Time (Years)
60 3 million
30 11 million
10 32 million
3.0 370 million
1.5 3 billion
1.0 10 billion
0.1 1000 billion

Birth of stars
Stars are heavy masses light emitting bodies. They are formed when atoms are of squeezed under
enough pressure for their nuclei to undergo fusion. Initially, the clouds of gas and dust particles in
the space are pulled together. A few grains of dust collect a few more, and then form a large ball.
When this ball pulls more clouds and dust, it becomes a giant ball. The materials inside the giant ball
are compressed together so that the temperature reaches 15 million degrees and so, the pressure at
 Cosmology  Chapter 28  713
the centre of the giant ball becomes 1 billion atmospheres. Then, the nuclear fusion reaction begins in
presence of high temperature and pressure. Eventually, the ball of gas and dust starts to glow Thus,
a new star begins its life in the universe.

Death of star
Nuclear fuels are the resources of a star. By the steadily burning of nuclear fuel in its deep interior, a
star fills up the heat that radiates from its hot surface into the cold depths of interstellar space. Each
day, a star burns millions of tons of fuel at its center. Unfortunately, for any star, its fuel supply is
limited. Therefore, the thermal and visible energy of the star not more exist forever. Finally, the star
exhausts its nuclear fuel and dies.
The fate of a star is determined largely by its mass when it exhausts its nuclear fuel. Smaller stars die
gently, by gradually cooling. But the larger stars die violently. They contract slowly at first and then
collapse catastrophically. Sudden release of energy may convert this collapse. In the beginning of
death of star, it turns into red giant.

Fig. 28.4: Life Cycle of Star

Red giant
A red giant star is a dying star in the last stages of stellar evolution. A red giant star is formed when
a star like our sun or one larger, runs out of its hydrogen fuel.
The fuel of star is the hydrogen fusion to helium. As the time passes, the hydrogen fuel will be
depleted. Thus, the stars tend to shrink due to the losing of source. This is a dying process of stars.
However, dying star continues radiating becoming hotter than before. Then its heat pressure
weakens and gravity pulls it inward. The gravitational compression reheats the interior. About half
of the heat generated transfer outward to its surface and radiates away. Remaining half part is
trapped in the interior. The continuous cooling the exterior and heating at the inner core generates
the huge temperature gradient. Then the star expands and grows to more than 10 times its original
size. When the temperature inside the star reaches about 106 K, the helium is formed after the
hydrogen fusion starts fusion again to form the higher elements like, beryllium, carbon oxygen,
eventually turning to red colour. This is called red giant. The mass of red giant when exceeds three
times the mass of sun, they are called super red giant.
714 Principles of Physics - II

White dwarfs
After depletion of nuclear fuel in the star, the surface cools and tends to shrink. But, the temperature
rises at the inner part due to the gravitational compression. Gravitational compression and heating
cannot continue indefinitely. When after millions of years, the star has diminished upto several
thousand miles in diameter. Then, its central temperature rises to billions of degrees. The density of
matter at its center has risen from several pounds to several tons per cubic inch. Then, the force of
gravity within the star increases significantly. Despite the growth of gravity, the compression of
small stars (Ms = mass of the sun) gradually stops due to fermi pressure (i.e. no two fermions lie in
same quantum state). These stars are called white dwarfs. No write dwarfs is observed larger the 1.4
times the mass of sun.

Neutron stars
A neutron star is a collapsed core of large star which before collapse had a mass of larger than 3
times the mass of sun. It is the stellar remnant of a super giant. If the mass of red giant is greater than
3MS, the collapsing core raises its temperature and density so large that the nuclear fusion further
begins from the carbon stage. If the mass is sufficiently large, the carbon fuses to neon at 6  107 K.
Further at temperature 109 K, neon to oxygen. Likewise, further fusion reaction ends up to be iron,
which is highly stable. Then, no energy is released by fusion reaction. The fusion reaction rate at its
terminating stage is very fast. Then, a violent collapse of the core occurs. Eventually, outer layer of
the star is thrown off, which is called supernova explosion.
In other cases, the nuclear explosion may be too weak to eject the outer shell. The entire star may
continue to collapse, with rising densities and temperature, until its core becomes as dense as an
atomic nucleus. During the Core's collapse, which lasts only a few seconds, the electrons in the atoms,
unable to resist, are squeezed into the atomic nuclei, transmuting protons into neutrons. The collapse
quickly packs 1057 neutrons side by side, as in a gigantic atomic nucleus, forming a neutron star.

Black hole
There are two main processes going on continuously in stars. One process is gravitation, which tends
to crunch all solar material towards the centre. The other is
thermo nuclear fusion consisting of reactions similar to
those in a hydrogen bomb when the processes of
gravitation and thermonuclear fusion balance each other,
the result is the stars, they are existing now.
For a heavy star, one that is at least three times the mass of
sun, once the flame of thermonuclear fusion is extinguished,
gravitational collapse take over. The collapse does not stop
and the density becomes literally infinite. Gravitation near
it is so enormous that nothing can get back out. Even light Fig. 28.5: Black hole
can not escape. They have crushed themselves out of
visible existence. They are called black holes. Although black holes can't be seen, their effect can be
measured.
The velocity of escape from the surface of a spherical mass M with radius R is given by
2GM
v= R …(28.1)

If  be the average density of the body, V be its volume then,

 Cosmology  Chapter 28  715
4
M = V = 3 R3

Using this value in equation (28.1) we get,

8 G
v= 3 R …(28.2)

This equation shows that, for a given value of density , the escape velocity v is directly proportional
to radius R. In 1783, John Mitchell noted that for a body with same average density as the sun and
radius 500 times the radius of sun, the magnitude of escape velocity would be greater than velocity
of light c. So, all the light emitted from such bodies would return toward it i.e., no light (radiation)
can escape from the field of such bodies. Such bodies are called black hole. This a black hole is a
region of space time exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing -not even particles and
electromagnetic radiation such as light can escape from it.
Again from equation (28.1), the radius R can be expressed in terms of escape speed as,
2 GM
R= v2 … (28.3)

Thus, a body of mass M will act as a black hole if its radius R is less than or equal to certain critical
radius (Rs). In 1961, Karl Schwarzchild used Einstein's special theory of relativity to derive an
expression for the critical radius, which is so called as Schwarzchild radius (Rs). The expression for Rs
is obtained by setting v = c in equation (28.3) as,
2 GM
Rs = c2 ... (28.4)

which is required expression for Schwarzchild's radius.

Thus, if a spherical non-rotating body with mass M has a radius less than Rs, nothing, not even light can
escape from the surface of the body, such body is called black hole. Any other body within a distance of Rs
from the center of black hole is attracted by the immense gravitational pull of black hole and hence
can't escape from it. The surface of the sphere with radius Rs surrounding a black hole is called event
horizon, and we can't see events occurring inside. All that can be known about black hole from
outside the event horizon is its mass (due to gravitational effect on other bodies), its electric charge
(from the electric forces it exerts on other charged bodies) and its angular momentum (because a
rotating black hole tends to drag space and everything in that space-around within it). All other
information of the body is lost when it collapses inside it (event horizon). At points far from a black
hole, its gravitational effects are the same as those of any normal body with the same mass. So, if
somehow sun collapsed to form a black hole, the orbits of the planets would be unaffected provided,
the planets revolve far from the event horizon of sun.

28.4 Big Bang

It is the big curiosity of scientists that how our universe was created and what is its age. Many
scientists put their views regarding the origin and evolution of the universe, however this question is
still debatable. The broadly accepted theory on this issue is big bang model. This model states that
the universe began as an incredibly hot, dense point roughly 14 billion years ago. At this time all
matter was compacted into a very small ball with finite density and intense heat called a singularity.
Suddenly, the singularity began expanding, and the universe as we know it began. Between 10–36
seconds to 10–33 seconds after Big Bang the universe expanded as fast as speed of light. The
fundamental particles formed in the first three minutes after Big Bang. The first particles to form
716 Principles of Physics - II
were the quarries and as the universe expanded and cooled, they jointed to gather to make protons,
neutrons and other particles. The solar system formed about 9 billion years after Big bang. The
universe was subjected to mere activity during Big bang than in all the billions of years since.
Big bang theory is the most widely accepted and popular theory. It explains not only the origin of all
known matter, the laws of physics and the large scale structure of the universe, it also accounts for
the expansion of universe and broad range of other phenomena. Besides big bang model, there are
other theories on this regard: Steady state theory and the oscillating universe theory. The steady state
theory purposed that the overall mass and size of universe remain constant, where, as the pulsating
theory assumes that the universe is expanding and contacting periodically in billions of years.

Cosmic rays
Cosmic rays are the highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particles travelling through space at a
speed approaching that of light. They are mainly originated outside the solar system and even from
distant galaxies. Upon impact with Earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays can produce showers of
secondary particles that sometimes reach the surface.
It is still impossible to trace where they come from. It is because their path has been changed as they
travelled through multiple magnetic fields. Scientists are trying to trace back cosmic ray origins by
looking at what the cosmic rays are made up of. They have been trying to figure out the origin from
spectroscopic signature each nucleus gives off in radiation.

Red shift
The shifting of colour of light coming from a distant object into red, when the objects are going away
from an observer is known as red shift. The red shift that can be observed in light from distant
galaxies suggests that the universe is expanding, and thus supports the Big Bang theory. According
to Doppler's effect, when a source of wave recedes from the observer, the wavelength of wave is
observed larger than actual value. This effect is the basic concept of explanation of red shift. In
visible spectrum, red colour has the longest wavelength. The colour of light as observed from earth,
is gradually shifting to red colour. This means, the source of light might traversing away from us.
If there is blue shift, the object would come towards us. The red shift of a distant galaxies or quasars
can be easily measured by comparing its spectrum with a reference laboratory spectrum. Atomic
emission and absorption line occur at well known wavelengths. By measuring the location of these
lines in astronomical spectra, astronomers can determine the red shift of the receding source.

28.5 Expanding of Universe

From the early era of human civilization, the curiosity regarding the origin, size and age of the
universe began to hunt their mind. The questions such as how large the universe is? Does it have
edge? From how long has this universe been existing and for how long will it exist?, remained
unanswered. There were many myths regarding these questions but were not acceptable in scientific
community as there were no strong proof behind them. In 1929, Edwin Hubble an astronomer at
Carnegie observatories, made a critical discovery that the universe is expanding, which led to a
interpretation consistent with Big bang theory. If the universe is expanding today, it was smaller and
denser in the past.
In 1929 Edwin Hubble, working at the Carnegie observatories in Pasadena, California, measured the
redshifts of a number of distant galaxies. He observed that the colour of light coming from distant
galaxies is shifting to red. It shows that the wavelength of light is increasing as explained by
 Cosmology  Chapter 28  717
Doppler's effect. When a source of light is moving away from us, its wavelength is observed
increasing. This phenomenon had disclosed two important consequences: One the universe is not
static and the another it is expanding, rather contraction.

28.6 Hubble's Law

Edwin Hubble, an astronomer, measured the relative distant galaxies by measuring the apparent
brightness of a class of variable stars called Cepheid's in each galaxy. When he plotted red-shifts
against relative distance, he found that the red shift of distant galaxies increased as a linear function
of their distance. Then, he formulated what he observed regarding the expanding of universe and is
then called Hubble's law.
Hubble's law states that the speed of recession of a galaxy is directly proportional to the distance from the earth.
Let v be the speed of recession of a galaxy at distance r from the earth, then the law is expressed
mathematically as,
vr
v = H0r ... (28.5)
Where, H0 is proportionality constant and is called Hubble constant.
v [LT–1]
The dimension of H0: H0 = r = [L] = [T–1].

71 km/s 18 –1
H0 = mpc = 2.3  10 s
The exact value of the Hubble constant is still somewhat uncertain, but is generally believed to the
around 65 kilometers per second for every mega parsec in distance. (A mega parsec is given by 1
Mpc = 3  106 light years). This means that a galaxy 1 mega parsec away will be moving away from
us at a speed of 65 km/s, while another galaxy 100 mega parsecs away will be receding at 100 times
this speed. Thus, the recession velocities of distant galaxies are known from the red shift. Hubble's
constant reflects the rate at which the universe is expanding.
Hubble discovered that the light coming from the distant galaxies are all red shifted. More the
distance from galaxies, higher the red shift. Then, he plotted the recession velocity as a function of
distance from the earth the graph was found linear as shown in Fig. (28.6).
H=100
H=67

H=50
Recessional speed (km/s)

Distance (Mpc)
Fig. 28.6: Interpretation of Hubble's law
718 Principles of Physics - II

Consequence of Hubble's law and age of universe

Once scientist understood that the universe was expanding, they immediately realized that it would
have been smaller in the past. At some point in the past, the entire universe would have been a single
point. This point, later called the big bang, was the beginning of the universe as we understood it
today.
Although the value of Hubble's constant is still debated issue, the present estimation is
kms–1
H0 = 50 Mpc  1.6  10–18 s–1 = 5  10–11 year–1

Considering the recession velocity is the speed of light, the Hubble's radius is,
c 3  105 km/s
RH = H = kms–1 = 6000 Mpc
0
50 Mpc

The time taken by light to travel about 6000 Mpc is called Hubble's time, and is taken to estimate the
age of universe,
1
The age of universe () = H
0

1
= kms–1
50 Mpc

= 19.3  109 years

28.7 Critical Density

The universe includes planets, stars, galaxies dust clouds, light and even time. It contains billions of
galaxies, each containing millions or billions of stars. The space between the stars and galaxies is
largely empty. In accordance with Hubble's law, the universe is expanding. It means the density of
universe is changing. The challenging question is that the expansion is continued forever or stopped
somewhere. To solve this query, the concept of critical density is essential.
The critical density of the universe is the average density of matter required for the universe to just
stop its expansion. This condition may come after an infinite time. After the density becomes critical,
the universe will begin to contract and it will eventually become closed and will ultimately end up
collapsing in on itself.
Let R be the radius of universe considering earth as the center and  be the average density of the
universe. Then, the total mass of the universe,
M = Volume  density
4
= 3 R3  

The expansion of universe continues until the critical density will be reached. At this condition, the
gravitational potential energy of the universe is equal to the kinetic energy of recessive galaxies, so,
GmM 1
R = 2 mv2 ... (28.6)

Where m is the mass of the galaxy and v is its recession velocity.

 Cosmology  Chapter 28  719
4
When the critical density is reached, M = 3 R3c, c is the critical density of universe. Also, v = H0R,
then,
G 4 3  1
R 3 R c = 2 (H0R)
2

4 2 1 2 2
3 R Gc = 2 H0 R
2
3 H0
c = 8 ... (28.7)
G
For H0 = 50 kms–1/Mpc and G = 6.67  10–11 Nm2kg–2
c = 5.8  10–27 kgm–3.
It shows that the universe continues expanding until the density drops to 5.8  10–27 kgm–3 then halts
the expansion.

28.8 Dark Matter and Dark Energy

Dark matter
The undetectable form of mass in the universe that emits little or no light but its existence we infer
from its gravitational influence is known as dark matters. It neither emits or absorbs light or other
electromagnetic radiation at any significant level. It is believed that the dark matter may account for
approximately 80% of the mass energy of matter in the observable universe. Dark matter has not
been directly observed, but its presence is implied in a variety of astrophysical measurements,
notably when observing gravitational effects that cannot be explained by visible matter alone.
Different astronomical observations show that the average density of the matter in the universe is
27% of the critical density, but the average density of the luminous matter is only about 4% of the
critical density. It means, most of the matter in the universe is not visible, it does not emit
electromagnetic radiation of any kind such type of invisible matters are, now, termed as dark matters.

Dark energy
Gravitational force is always attractive in nature. In our general sense, the expansion of universe
would be slowed down due to the gravitational attraction between matters in different parts of the
universe. But in reality, it has been observed that the expansion of universe is speeding up rather
than slowing down. This can be confirmed observing the red shift in extremely distant galaxies. Very
distant galaxies actually have smaller red shifts than predicted by Hubble law, which would be the
evidence of accelerating universe. This evidence convinced the astronomers and physicists that the
space must contain a kind of energy that has no gravitational effect and emits no electromagnetic
radiation, but rather acts as a kind of antigravity that produces a universal repulsion. This invisible
form of energy which can be the source of a repulsive force causing the expansion of the universe to
accelerate is known as dark energy.
720 Principles of Physics - II

Tips for MCQs

1. Modern scientific cosmology is consider to have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein's Publication on
GTR.
2. Universe consists of solar system, other stars and planets, galaxies and all other forms of matter and
energy.
3. The death of stars can be white dwarf, neutron stars and black holes.
4. Before death of star, they become red giants.
5. According to Hubble's law, recession speed of galaxy is directly proportional to the distance (r) from
the earth, i.e.
vr
so, v = H0r
Where H0 is Hubble's constant. The reciprocal of Hubble's constant gives the age of universe ( 19.3 
109 years)
6. The critical density of universe is about 5.8  10–27 kgm–3.
7. The universe is not only expanding, but also accelerating. It may be the expense of dark energy.

Worked Out Problems

1. Find the distance of the galaxy moving with speed 1.55 ×107m/s from the earth, according to the
Hubble law. (H0 = 17 × 10–3 ms–1/ly).
Solution
Given, v 1.55 × 107
 r = H = 17 × 10–3 ly
Speed (v) = 1.55 × 107 m/s 0

H0 = 17 × 10–3 ms–1/ly (ly = light year) = 9.2 × 108 ly

distance (r) = ? = 9.2 × 108 × 9.46 × 1015 m
From Hubble's law, we have  r = 87.032 × 1023 m .
v = H0r
2. If the galaxy moving with the speed 6480 km/s is at a distance of 430 million light years from us,
determine Hubble’s constant H and the corresponding age of the universe.
Solution
Given, The reciprocal of Hubble's constant (H) gives
Speed (v) = 6480 km/s the age of the universe. So,
= 6.48 × 106 m/s 1
t = H
Distance (r) = 430 million light year 0

= 430 × 106 × 9.46 × 1015 m (∵ 1 1

= 1.59 × 10–18
million = and 1 light year = 9.46 × 1015 m)
106
H0 =? = 0.629 × 1018 s
v 6.48 × 106 0.629 × 1018
= 3.15 × 107 (∵ 1 year = 3.15 × 107 s)
 H0 = r = 430 × 106 × 9.46 × 1015
6.48 = 0.199 × 1011 year
= 4067.8 × 10–15 = 1.59 × 10–18 s–1 = 1.99 × 1010 years
 Cosmology  Chapter 28  721

Conceptual Questions with Answers

1. What is cosmology?
 Cosmology is the study of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical
cosmology is the scientific study of the universe's origin, its large-scale structures and dynamics, and
its ultimate fate, as well as the scientific laws that govern these areas. Modern cosmology is dominated
by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.
2. What are astrology and astrophysics?
 Astrology is the study of the movements and relative positions of celestial bodies interpreted as having
an influence on human affairs and the natural world. Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy
concerned with the physical nature of stars and other celestial bodies, and the application of the laws
and theories of physics to the interpretation of astronomical observations.
3. What are the constituents of universe?
 The Universe is all of space and time and their contents, including planets, stars, galaxies, and all other
forms of matter and energy. While the spatial size of the entire Universe is still unknown, it is possible
to measure the observable universe.
4. Does the universe have edge?
 There is no evidence that the universe has an edge. The part of the universe we can observe from the
earth is filled more or less uniformly with galaxies extending in every direction as far as we see. We
know that the galaxies must extend further than we can see, but we do not know whether the universe
is infinite or not.
5. What is solar system? What are its constituents?
 The Solar System is the gravitationally bound system comprising the Sun and the objects that orbit it,
either directly or indirectly. Solar system consists of the Sun, the planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets,
asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium.
6. What is the significance of red shift?
 The changing of colour of light sent out by an celestial object into red that is moving away from an
observer is called red shift The red shift that can be observed in light from distant galaxies suggests
that the universe is expanding, and thus supports the Big Bang theory.
7. What is the evidence of expanding of universe?
 The event of red shift in the distant stars gives the strong evidence for the expanding of universe.
Hubble's telescope has confirmed that the speed of distant stars is directly proportional with the
distance from the earth. So, it has been speculated that the universe is not only expanding but also
accelerating outwards.
8. What is Hubble’s constant? Does Hubble’s constant is universal constant?
 The Hubble’s constant is the unit of measurement used to describe the expansion of the universe. It is
Hubble’s constant gives the expansion rate of the universe and the universe is accelerating. So, It is not
universal constant.
9. It is believed that the universe is not only expanding, but speeding up also. Is there an antigravity?
 Current studies of distant exploding stars have led astronomers to conclude that the universe is not
only expanding, the expansion may be accelerating with time. There is not due to antigravity force, but
may be by the dark energy.
10. Will the Universe expand forever or recollapse?
 This depends on the ratio of the density of the Universe to the critical density. If the density is higher
than the critical density the Universe will recollapse in a Big Crunch. But current data suggest that the
density is less than or equal to the critical density so the Universe will expand forever.
722 Principles of Physics - II
11. What is the evidence for the Big Bang?
 The evidence for the Big Bang comes from many pieces of observational data that are consistent with
the Big Bang. None of these prove the Big Bang, since scientific theories are not proven. Many of these
facts are consistent with the Big Bang and some other cosmological models, but taken together these
observations show that the Big Bang is the best current model for the Universe. These observations
include:
i. The darkness of the night sky.
ii. The Hubble Law - the linear distance versus redshift law.
iii. Fair data showing that our location in the Universe is not special.
iv. Very strong data showing that the sky looks the same in all directions.
v. Time dilation in supernova light curves.
12. Why big bang is most accepted theory?
 Astronomers Edwin Hubble and Milton Humason in the early 20th century discovered that galaxies are
moving away from the milkyway. Every galaxy is moving away from every other galaxy on average,
which means the whole universe is expanding. In the past, then, the whole cosmos must have been
much smaller, hotter and denser.
13. What are cosmic rays?
 Cosmic rays are the highly energetic atomic nucleus or other particle travelling through space at a
speed approaching that of light. They are mainly originating outside the solar system and even from
distant galaxies. Upon impact with Earth's atmosphere, cosmic rays can produce showers of secondary
particles that sometimes reach the surface.

Exercises
Short-Answer Type Questions
1. Which is the modern theory of study in cosmology?
2. What is visible universe?
3. What are the major constituents of solar system?
4. What is solar system?
5. Define the following terms: Comet, Asteroid, Meteor, Meteorite, Constellation, Galaxy.
6. What is Milky Way? Why is it called so?
7. What is stellar evolution?
8. What are meteorites?
9. Why were atoms unable to exist until hundreds of thousands of years after the Big-Bang?
10. Under what circumstance would the universe eventually collapse into itself?
11. Where are cosmic rays come from?
12. What will determine whether the universe continues to expand forever or eventually slows down
and re-collapses?
13. Why will the sun stop fusing hydrogen long before all its hydrogen has been converted to helium?
14. What are galaxies? How many galaxies approximately are there?
15. Why has a comet a tail?
16. What is difference between a planet and a star?
17. What is the difference between a neutron star and a black hole?
18. State Hubble’s law and give its significance.
19. What is red giant?
20. Write down the expression of critical density of the universe and its significance.
21. Why dark energy and dark matter are named so?
 Cosmology  Chapter 28  723

Long-Answer Type Questions

1. What is universe? Explain the constituents of the universe.
2. Explain how universe expands. Explain the Hubble’s law. (HSEB 2062)
3. Describe the birth of a star.
4. Describe the death of a star. (HSEB 2066)
5. What is the critical density of the universe? Derive its expression.
6. State Hubble’s law. How does the Hubble’s constant help to estimate the age of the universe?
7. State Hubble’s law. How this law can be used to explain that universe is expanding?
8. What is red shift? How does it support the expansion of universe?
9. State briefly Big Bang theory and mention observational evidence that supports this theory.
10. Discuss the future of the universe on the basis of critical density.
11. Describe the evidence of dark matter and dark energy?
Numerical Problems
1. Estimate the temperature of the sun from the following data: Average radius of the sun = 7.0 × 105
km; solar constant = 1400 Wm–2. Average radius of the earth’s orbit = 1.5 × 108 km.
Ans: 5802.7 K
2. If a galaxy is at a distance of 500 million light years from us and is receding with a speed of 8× 106
m/s, find the value of Hubble’s constant and the corresponding age of the universe.
Ans: 1.6× 10–5 km s–1 light year–1 ; 1.875 × 1010 years

Multiple Choice Questions

1. From Hubble's law, it has been estimated that the age of this universe is,
a. 1.93  109 years b. 19.3  109 years
c. 1930 years d. Will be destroyed in a few years.
2. 1 Mega parsec is equal to
a. One hour b. 1 light year
c. 3  106 light year d. Infinity
3. The critical density of universe is,
a. 5.8  10–27 kgm–3 b. 5.8  1027 kgm–3
c. 8.5  10 kgm
–27 –3 c. 8.5  1027 kgm–3
4. Which of the following theories is the most satisfactory about the origin of the universe?
a. Big-Bang theory. b. Pulsating theory.
c. Steady state theory. d. None of above.
5. One main characteristics of black hole is that, it
a. emits a photon. b. absorbs a photon.
c. changes photon into mass. d. charges all colours into black one.
6. Hubble's law is based on
a. Stefans' law. b. Wien's law.
c. Doppler's effect. d. Newton's law of gravitation.
Answers
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c)
724 Principles of Physics - II
 Bibliography
Alonso, M. &Finn, E. J. (1967.), Physics. USA: Addison -Wesley.

Bajaj, N.K. (1990), Physics. India: Tata Mc-Graw Hill Publishing Company, Ltd.
Beiser, A. (2004), Concept of Modern Physics. India: Mc-Graw Hill Company, Inc.

Brij Lal and Subrahmanyam, N. (1994), Principles of Physics. India: S. Chand and Company Ltd.

Duncan, T. (2000), Advanced Physics. UK: Hudder Education.

Feynman, R.P. (1965), The Feynman Lectures on Physics. California: Addision-Wesley, San
Francisco.
Ghosh, N.N. (1989), Introductory Physics. India: Bharati Bhawan.

Giambattista, A. and Richardon (2008), Fundamentals of Physics. India: Tata Mc-Graw Hill
Publishing Company, Ltd.

Giancoli, D.C. (1995), Physics. USA: Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

Gupta, S.K. (2003), Modern ABC of Physics. India: Modern Publishers.

Hewitt, P.G. (1998), Conceptual Physics. USA: Harper Collins Publishers.

Kaplan, I. (2002), Nuclear Physics. India: Narosa Publishing House.

Knight, R.D. (2007), Physics for Scientist and Engineers. USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.

Mehata, V.K. (1990), Electronics Made Simple. India: S. Chand and company Ltd.

Merill (1992), Physics Principles and Problems. USA: Mc-Graw Hill Publishing Company Ltd.

Narula, G.K. (1997), Physics. India: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Nelkon & Parker (1982), Advanced Level Physics. UK: Arnold-Heinemann.

Resnick, Halliday & Walker (1997), Fundamental of Physics. Singapore: John Wiley and Sons Pte.
Ltd.
Sears and Zemansky (2009), University Physics. USA: Addison Wesley Publishing.

Serway & Faughn (1999), College Physics. USA: Thomson Learning.

Verma, H.C. (2002), Concepts of Physics. India: Bharati Bhawan.

Vivekanandan, P. (2004), A Text Book of Physics. India: S. Chand and Compant Ltd.
Wolfson, R. (2009), Essential University Physics. USA: Pearson Education.
 Model Questions
Time 3 hours Full Marks: 75
(All answers of numerical problems should be expressed in S.I. system) Pass Marks: 27
Group A
1. Attempt any FOUR questions: [24 = 8]
a. Two wires, one of copper and other of iron, have he same diameter and carry the same
current. In which wire will the drift velocity of electrons be more?
b. Differentiate between fuse wire and a heating wire.
c. Why are the pole-pieces of magnets cut into cylindrical form in a galvanometer?
d. Hall voltage is much more measurable in semi-conductor than in metals. Why?
e. Explain why two parallel wires carrying current in the opposite direction repel each other?
f. 220V a.c. is more dangerous than 220V d.c., why?
2. Attempt any FOUR questions [2  4 = 8]
a. If the discharge tube is filled up with various gases in turn, will the discharge in all gases
take place at the same electrode potential?
b. A photon and an electron have got the same de-Broglie wave length. Explain which has
greater total energy.
c. How is NOT gate realised?
d. It is said that a very powerful crane is required to lift a nuclear mass of microscopic size.
Comment on this.
e. Comment on the statement ‘‘A nucleus contains no electrons and yet can eject them.”
f. What are the effects of pollution on living organisms?
3. Attempt any ONE question (1 x 2 = 2)
a. How can bats fly around without colliding with objects that come in their way?
b. Longitudinal waves cannot he polarized. Why?
4. Attempt any ONE question (1 x 2=2)
a. Differentiate between wave-front and wavelet?
b. What is the difference between Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction?
Group B
5. Attempt any THREE question (4 x 3 = 12)
a. State Biot and Savart law and use it to obtain an expression for the magnetic field at the
centre of the circular coil.
b. What are the categories in which magnetic materials are classified? Explain their
differences.
c. State Faraday’s laws of electrolysis. How will you verify Faraday’s second law
experimentally?
d. Show that Lenz's law is an example of conservation of energy.
6. Attempt any THREE question (4 x 3 = 12)
a. Show, in Bohr’s model, that radii of electronic orbits increase an n2, where n is the
quantum number of the orbit.
b. Define decay constant of a radioactive element. How is it related to half-life’?
c. Discuss a zener diode and its use as voltage stabilizer.
d. Describe a theory which accounts for the origin and evolution of the universe.
7. Attempt any ONE question (4 x 1 = 4)
a. Show that both harmonics, odd and even, can he produced in an organ pipe open at both
ends.
b. What is Doppler’s effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent pitch when a source
moves towards a stationary observer.
8. Attempt any ONE question (4 x I = 4)
a. Show that in Young’s double slits experiment widths of dark and bright fringes are equal.
b. Describe Focault’s method of determining the speed of light.
726 Principles of Physics - II
Group C
9. Attempt any TWO questions (4 x 2 = 8)
a. The resistance of the coil of a pivoted-coil RG 9.36
galvanometer coil is and a current of 0.0224 A
causes it to deflect full scale. We want to convert
this galvanometer to an ammeter reading 20.0 A
full-scale. The only shunt available has a
resistance of 0.025 . What resistance R must be R
connected in series with the coil? Shunt
Ans: 12.94

b. A standard cell of 1.0185 V, when used in a one meter long slide wire potentiometer
balances at 60 cm. Calculate the percentage error in a voltmeter which balances at 65 cm
when reading is 1.1 volt.
Ans: 0.31%
c. The series circuit in figure is a Vrms = 1.9V
similar to arrangements that are
~
sometimes used in radio tuning
1.0
circuits. The circuit is connected to V
the terminals of on a.c. source with
a constant r.m.s. terminal voltage
of 1.9 V and a variable frequency. 2.0
mA
Find (i) the resonance frequency R = 500 L = 0.4 mH C = 100 pF
(ii) the inductive reactance and the
impenance at the resonance a d
b c
frequency (iii) the r.m.s. current at 1.0 4.0 1.0
V V V
the resonance and (iv) the r.m.s.
voltage across each circuit element
at resonance.
6 -1
Ans: (i) W0 = 5.0  10 rad s (ii) XL = 2000; 0
XC = 2000 (iii) Irms = 2.0 mA (iv) VR rms = 1V, V
VL rms = 4V; VC  rms = 4V
10. Attempt any TWO questions (42=8)
a. A city requires 108 watts of electrical power on the average. If this is to be supplied by a
nuclear reactor of efficiency 20% using 235
92 U as the fuel. Calculate the amount of fuel

required for one day’s operation. (Given: energy released per fission of 235
92 U 200 MeV).
Ans: 0.527 kg
b. A clean nickel surface of work function 5.1 eV is exposed to light of wavelength 235 nm.
What is the maximum speed of the photoelectrons emitted from their surface?
5 1
Ans: 2.5210 ms
c. An electron moving with a speed of 107
m/s is passed into a magnetic field of intensity
0.1102T normally. What is the radius of the path of the electron inside the field? lf the
strength of the magnetic field is doubled, what is the new radius of the path? (e/m = 1.8 
1011 C.kg-1)
Ans: 5.55cm
11. What is the difference between the speed of longitudinal waves in air at 27°C and their speed at
-13°C? What is the speed at 0°C? (4)
1 1
Ans: 23.84ms ; V0= 332.16 ms
12. Light travelling in water strikes a glass plate at all angle of incidence of 53°, part of the beam is
refracted and part is reflected. If the refracted and reflected portions make an angle of 90° with
each other, what is the index of refraction of glass? (3)
Ans: g = 1.76 assuming w = 1.33
 Appendix 727

2074 Set A
Group 'A'
1. Answer, in brief, any four questions: [42=8]
a. You are given n wires, each of resistance R. What is the ratio of maximum to minimum
resistance obtainable from these wires? [2]
b. Why do we prefer a potentiometer to measure emf of a cell rather than a voltmeter? [2]
c. What is angle of dip? How is it related with components of earth's magnetic field? [2]
d. Why is soft iron used to make core of a transformer? [2]
e. If the number of turns of a solenoid is doubled, keeping the other factors constant, how
does the self inductance of the solenoid change? [2]
f. The emf of an ac source is given by the expression, E=300 sin 314 t volts. Write the values of
peak voltage and frequency of source. [2]
2. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [42=8]
a. Why is neutron considered the most effective bombarding particle in a nuclear reaction? [2]
b. The value of e/m is constant for cathode rays but not for positive rays, why? [2]
c. The output of two-input AND gate is fed to a NOT gate. Give its logic symbol and write
down its truth table. Identify the new logic gate formed. [2]
d. How does a daughter nucleus differ from its parent nucleus when it emits i) an -particle
and ii) a - particle? [2]
e. State Hubble's law and write the significance of Hubble's constant. [2]
f. What is energy crisis? Explain. [2]
3. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Longitudinal waves are called pressure waves. Why? [2]
b. What is the threshold of hearing? Define one bel. [2]
4. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Explain with proper sketch, the differences between wavefronts and wavelets. [2]
b. What is polarizing angles? Does it depend on wavelength of light used? [2]
Group 'B'
5. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. Describe the mechanism of current flow in a conductor and derive a relation between
current density and drift velocity of electrons. [4]
b. What is Seebeck effect? Explain the variation of thermo emf with gradual increase in the
temperature of hot junction, keeping the cold junction at 00c. [4]
c. State Biot-Savart law. Use this law, to find the magnetic field due to a current carrying
circular coil at any point on the axis of the coil. [4]
d. State and explain Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. Obtain an expression for the
emf induced in the rectangular coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field. [4]
6. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. What is zener diode? Explain its use as a voltage regulator. [4]
b. Discuss photoelectric effect and derive Einstein's photoelectric equation. What is stopping
potential? [4]
c. Define mass defect and binding energy of a nucleus. Draw a graph showing the variation
of binding energy per nucleon and atomic number of the elements. Also, interpret the
graph. [4]
728 Principles of Physics - II
d. Explain renewable and non-renewable source of energy with examples. Give an account of
the energy consumption scenario in Nepal. [4]
7. Answer any one question. [4]
a. Describe Newton's formula for the velocity of sound in air. Explain why and how this
formula is modified by Laplace. [4]
b. Describe an experiment with the necessary theory by which the speed of sound in air is
determined by using resonance tube method. [4]
8. Answer any one question. [4]
a. Define coherent sources of light. Prove that the dark and bright fringes are equally spaced
in Young's double slit experiment. [4]
b. What is diffraction grating? Discuss the formation of diffraction pattern due to a diffraction
grating. [4]
Group 'C'
9. Answer any two questions. [24=8]
a. What must be the emf E in the circuit so that the current
+ +
24V E
flowing through the 7 resistor is 1.80A? Each emf source – –
has negligible internal resistance. 3 2 [4]
7
Ans: 8.6 V
b. A straight horizontal rod of length 20 cm and mass 30 gm is
placed in a uniform horizontal magnetic field perpendicular to the rod. If a current of 2A
through the rod makes it self supporting in the magnetic field, calculate the magnetic field.
[4]
Ans: 0.75 T
c. A coil of inductance 0.1H and negligible resistance is in series with a resistance 40. A
supply voltage of 50v (rms) is connected to them. If the voltage across L is equal to that
across R, calculate the voltage across the inductor and frequency of the supply. [4]
Ans: 63.7 Hz, 28.3 V
10. Answer any two questions. [24=8]
a. An electron moves in a circular path of radius 20 cm in a uniform magnetic field of 210 -3T.
Find the speed of the electron and period of revolution. Mass of electron =9.110-31kg. [4]
7 7
Ans: 7.02 × 10 m/sec and 5.6 × 10 rev/sec
b. Calculate de Broglie wavelength of an electron which has been accelerated through a
potential difference of 200V. Given-mass of electron =9.110-31kg and Planck's constant
h=6.610-34JS. [4]
–11
Ans: 8.7 × 10 m
c. The isotope Ra-226 undergoes  decay with a half life of 1620 years. What is the activity of
1 g of Ra-226? Avogadro number = 6.0231023/mole. [4]
10
Ans: 3.47 × 10 dis/sec
11. A car is approaching towards a cliff at a speed of 20m/s. The driver sounds a whistle of
frequency 800 Hz. What will be the frequency of the echo as heard by the car driver? Velocity of
sound in air = 350m/s. [4]
Ans: 896.96 Hz
12. A plane mirror is placed at the centre of a concave mirror having radius of curvature 40 m. The
plane mirror rotates at the speed of 2600 revolutions per second. Calculate the angle between
ray incidents on the plane mirror and then reflected from it after the light has travelled to the
concave mirror and back to the plane mirror. Given -speed of light is 3108 m/s. [3]
Ans: 0.5
 Appendix 729

2074 Set B
Group 'A'
1. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [428]
a. Resistors R1 and R2 are connected in parallel to an emf source that has negligible internal
resistance. What happens to the current through R1 when R2 is removed from the circuit? [2]
b. Why do we prefer potentiometer of longer length for accurate measurement? [2]
c. What is temperature of inversion? How does it change, if temperature of cold junction
decreases? [2]
d. What are eddy currents? How can these be reduced in a transformer? [2]
e. Define rms value of ac. How is it related with the peak value of ac? [2]
f. The conductivity of an electrolyte is very low as compared to a metal at room temperature,
why? [2]
2. Answer, in brief,any four questions. [428]
a. Draw a circuit diagram for p-n junction diode in forward bias. Sketch the voltage versus
current graph for it. [2]
b. A proton and an electron have the same kinetic energy. Which has longer de Broglie
wavelength? [2]
c. According to properties of charges, like charges repel each other. Then, how do the protons
in a nucleus stay together? [2]
d. If a radioactive nucleus has a half life of one year, will it be completely decayed at the end
of two year? Explain. [2]
e. State Hubble's law. What do you mean by dark matter? [2]
f. What is energy crisis? Explain. [2]
3. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Velocity of sound in solids is more than that in liquids, why? [2]
b. The frequency of a fundamental note of a closed organ pipe and that of an open organ pipe
are the same. What is the ratio of their lengths? v
4. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. What are coherent sources of light? Can two different bulbs, similar in all respects, act as
coherent sources? [2]
b. Can Sound waves be polarized? Explain. [2]
Group 'B'
5. Answer any three questions. [3412]
a. State and explain Kirchhoff's laws of current and voltage. Explain how these laws are used
to obtain balance condition of Wheatstone's bridge. [4]
b. Derive an expression for the force per unit length between two infinitely long parallel
straight wires carrying current in the same direction. Hence define one ampere. [4]
c. Define permeability and susceptibility of magnetic materials. Derive a relation between
them. [4]
d. Derive an expression for the impedance of an ac circuit with an inductor L, a capacitor C
and a resistor R in series. Draw the phase diagram if the voltage across the inductor is
greater than that across the capacitor. [4]
6. Answer any three questions. [3412]
a. Describe the theory of Millikan's oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an
electron. [4]
730 Principles of Physics - II
b. What is rectification? With the help of a circuit diagram, explain full wave rectification by
using junction diodes. [4]
c. State Bohr's postulates. Using these postulates obtain an expression for the total energy of
an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom. [4]
d. What is green house effect? Discuss its effects, sources and the controlling measures. [4]
7. Answer any one question. [4]
a. How is a progressive wave different from a stationary wave? Derive an equation for a
progressive wave. [4]
b. What is Doppler's effect in sound? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency when
both source of sound and observer move towards each other. [4]
8. Answer any one question. [4]
a. What is a wavefront? Using Huygen's principle proves that for a parallel beam of light
incident on a reflecting surface, the angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. [4]
b. Describe Fraunhofer's diffraction at a single slit. [4]
Group 'C'
9. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. A copper wire has a diameter of 1.02 mm and carries a constant current of 1.67A. If the
density of free electrons in copper is 8.51028/m3, calculate the current density and the drift
velocity of the electrons. [4]
-4 6 2
Ans: 1.5 × 10 m/sec and 2.05 × 10 A/m
b. A coil consisting of 100 circular loops with radius 60 cm carries a current of 5A. Find the
magnetic field at a point along the axis of the coil, 80 cm from the centre. (0=410-7Tm/A)
[4]
–4
Ans: 1.13 × 10 T
c. An aircraft with a wingspan of 40 m files with a speed of 1080 km hr-1 in the eastward
direction at a constant altitude in the northern hemisphere. Where the vertical component
of earth's magnetic filed is 1.7510-5 T. Find the emf that develops between the tips of the
wings. [4]
Ans: 0.21 V
10. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. Radiations of wavelength 5400 Å fall on a metal whose work function is 1.9 eV. Find the
energy of the photoelectrons emitted and their stopping potential. Planck's constant =
6.6210-34 JS. [4]
Ans: 0.58 V
b. The mass of 17CL35 is 34.9800 amu. Calculate its binding energy and binding energy per
nucleon. Mass of one proton = 1.007825 amu and mass of one neutron =1.00865 amu. [4]
Ans: 287.66 MeV and 8.21 MeV
c. Calculate the mass in grams of a radioactive sample Pb-214 having an activity of 3.7104
decays / s and a half life of 26.8 minutes. Avogadro number = 6.021023 /mole. [4]
–17
Ans: 3.05 × 10 kg
11. A steel wire of length 20 cm and mass 5 gram is under the tension of 500N and is tied down at
both ends. Calculate the frequency of fundamental mode of vibration. [4]
Ans: 353.55 Hz
12. In a Young's double slit experiment, the separation of four bright fringes is 2.5 mm. The
wavelength of light used is 6.210-5 cm and the distance from the slits to the screen is 80 cm.
Calculate the separation of slits. [3]
–4
Ans: 7.9 × 10 m
 Appendix 731

2075 Set A
Group 'A'
1. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [42=8]
a. A wire is stretched to double its length. What will happen to its resistivity and resistance?[2]
b. Differentiate between a fuse wire and a heating wire. [2]
c. Does the thermoelectric effect obey the law of conservation of energy? Justify? [2]
d. A solenoid tends to contract when a current passes through it. Why? [2]
e. A bar magnet falls through copper ring. Will its acceleration be equal to 'g'? Justify. [2]
f. Why is choke coil preferred over a resistance in a.c.? [2]
2. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [42=8]
a. Gases are insulators at ordinary pressure and start conducting at low pressure. Why? [2]
b. A photon and an electron have got the same de-Broglie wavelength. Which one has greater
total energy? Explain. [2]
c. What happens to the kinetic energy of photo electrons when intensity of light is doubled? [2]
d. A semiconductor has electrons and holes as charge carriers. Do conductors also have the
holes as charge carriers? Justify. [2]
e. A nucleus consists of positively charged protons and electrically neutral netutrons in a
small volume. How can this be possible as the like charges repel each other? [2]
f. If energy is conserved, why is there an energy crisis? [2]
3. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. We can't hear echo in a small room. Why? [2]
b. Justify the proverb "An empty vessel makes much noise". [2]
4. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Differentiate between wavelets and wavefront. [2]
b. Does the polarizing angle for a transparent medium depend upon the wavelength of the
light? [2]
Group 'B'
5. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. State Biot's and Savart's law and used it to obtain an expression for the magnetic field at the
center of a circular coil. [4]
b. State the principle of potentiometer. Discuss the application of potentiometer to determine
the internal resistance of a cell. [4]
c. State Faraday's laws of electrolysis. How will you verify Faraday's second law
experimentally? [4]
d. What is an LCR circuit? Derive the condition for resonant frequency for an LCR series
circuit with an a.c. supply. [4]
6. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. Stating the Bohr's postulates, deduce an expression for the total energy of an electron in nth
orbit of hydrogen atom. [4]
b. Discuss J.J Thomson's experiment to determine the specific charge of an electron. [4]
c. What is the difference between a zener diode and a common diode? Discuss the function of
Zener diode as a voltage regulator. [4]
d. Differentiate between nuclear fission and fusion. Explain the production of energy in the
Sun. [4]
732 Principles of Physics - II
7. Answer any one question. [4]
a. What do you understand by harmonics and overtones in the case of organ pipes? Prove
that only odd harmonies are produced in closed organ pipes. [4]
b. What is Doppler's effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent pitch when a source moves
away from a stationary observer. [4]
8. Answer any one question. [4]
a. Discuss the Young's double slit experiment and show that the width of bright and dark
fringes are equal. [4]
b. Describe Foucault's method of determining the speed of light. [4]

Group 'C'
9. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. A straight conductor of length 25 cm is moving perpendicular to its length with a uniform
speed of 10 m/s making an angle of 45º with a uniform magnetic field of 10 T. Calculate the
emf induced across its length. [4]
Ans: 0.35 V
b. Two lamps rated 25 W – 220 V and 100 W – 220 V are connected to 220 V supply. Calculate
the powers consumed by the lamps. [4]
Ans: 16W, 4W
c. A bar magnet, 10 cm in length, has pole strength of 10 AM. Determine the magnetic field at
a point on its axis at a distance of 15 cm from the center of the magnet. (0 = 4  10–7
H/m) [4]
–5
Ans: 7.5×10 T
10. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. A city requires 107 watts of electrical power on the average. If this is to be supplied by a
nuclear reactor of efficiency 20%. Using 92U235 as the fuel source, calculate the amount of
fuel required per day (Energy released per fission 92U235 = 200 MeV). [4]
Ans: 0.527 kg
b. A clean nickel surface of work function 5.1eV is exposed to light of wavelength 235 nm.
What is the maximum speed of the photoelectrons emitted from its surface? [4]
–20 5
Ans: 2.91 × 10 J, 2.52 × 10 m/sec
c. An electron moving with a speed of 107 m/s is passed into a magnetic field of intensity 0.1
T normally. What is the radius of the path of the electron inside the field? If the strength of
the magnetic field is doubled, what is the radius of the new path? (e/m = 1.8  1011C/kg) [4]
Ans: 0.056m, 0.0278m
11. What is the difference between the speed of longitudinal waves in air at 27º and at – 13ºC? What
is the speed of 0ºC? [4]
Ans: 23.96m /sec, 331.1 m/sec
12. How wide is the central diffraction peak on a screen 3.5 m behind a 0.01 mm slit illuminated by
500 nm light source? [3]
Ans: 0.35 m
 Appendix 733

2075 Set B
Group 'A'
1. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [42=8]
a. Why do we prefer a potentiometer with longer wire? [2]
b. Why is Lead (Po) used as a standard reference metal in thermo-electricity? [2]
c. Why is the conductivity of an electrolyte low in comparison to that of metal? [2]
d. A solenoid tends to contract when a current flows through it. Why? [2]
e. What is the significance of the area of a hysteresis loop? [2]
f. Birds sitting on a high tension line wire fly off when current is switched on. Why? [2]
2. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [42=8]
a. Why is a magnetic field used to deflect electron beam but not an electric field in a T.V.
picture tube? [2]
b. In a transistor, emitter-base junction is always forward biased. Why? [2]
c. Define acid rain and write it's adverse effects. [2]
d. All nuclei have nearly the same density. Why? [2]
e. Distinguish between leptons and quarks. [2]
f. Give two evidences to show that the universe is expanding. [2]
3. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Frequency is the most fundamental property of a wave. Why? [2]
b. Why is the voice of a woman more intelligible than that of a man? [2]
4. Answer, in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Distinguish between wavelet and wavefront. [2]
b. Can ultrasonic waves be polarized? [2]
Group 'B'
5. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. State and explain Joule's law of heating. Deduce an expression for heat developed in a
conductor due to the passage of an electric current. [4]
b. State Kirchhoff's laws and use them to derive Wheat Stone's bridge principle. [4]
c. State Ampere's law and use it to find magnetic field due to a long straight current carrying
conductor and toroid. [4]
d. Derive an expression for the impedance of an a.c. circuit containing a resistor an inductor
and a capacitor. Hence derive resonance frequency. Also, draw the phase diagram. [4]
6. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. Describe the theory of Milikan's oil drop experiment to determine the charge of an electron.
[4]
b. What are avalanche effect and Zener effect? How can a Zener diode be used as a voltage
regulator? [4]
c. Describe coolidge tube for the production of X-rays. How do you control (i) the intensity
(ii) the penetrating power of the emitted X-rays? [4]
d. State the laws of radioactive disintegration. Derive the relation between half life and decay
constant. [4]
734 Principles of Physics - II
7. Answer any one question. [4]
a. Describe Michelson's method for determining the speed of light. [4]
b. Explain Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit. [4]
8. Answer any one question. [4]
a What are harmonics? Explain the formation of overtones in an open and a closed organ
pipe. [4]
b. What is Doppler effect? Obtain an expression for the apparent frequency heard by a listener
due to a source when both are approaching each other. [4]
Group 'C'
9. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. Two resistance of 1000  and 2000  are placed in series with 50 V mains supply. What
will be the reading on a voltmeter of internal resistance 2000  when placed across the 1000
 resistor? What fractional change in voltage occurs when voltmeter is connected? [4]
Ans: 12 V, 25%
b. A horizontal straight wire 5 cm long weighing 1.2 gm–1 is placed perpendicular to a
uniform horizontal magnetic field of flux density of 0.6 T. If the resistance per unit length of
the wire is 3.8  m–1, calculate the p.d. that has to be applied between the ends of the wire
to make it just self-supporting. [4]
–3
Ans: 3.7 ×10 V
c. A coil of 100 turns, each of area 2  10–3 has a resistance of 12 . It lies in a horizontal
m2
plane in a vertical magnetic flux density of 3  10–3 Wbm–2. What charge circulates through
the coil if its ends are short-circuited and the coil is rotated through 180º about a
diametrical axis? [4]
–4
Ans: 10 C
10. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. Sodium has a work function of 2 eV. Calculate the maximum energy and speed of the
emitted electrons when sodium is illuminated by a radiation of 150 nm. What is the
threshold frequency of radiation for which electrons are emitted from sodium surface? [4]
–18 6 14
Ans: 1.004×10 J, 1.483 × 10 m/sec, 4.8×10 HZ
b. A hydrogen atom is in ground state. What is the quantum number to which it will be
excited absorbing a photon of energy 12.75 eV? [4]
Ans: 4
c. A nucleus of 92U238 disintegrates according to [4]
238  Th234 + 2He4.
92U 90

Calculate:
i. the total energy released in the disintegration process.
ii. the k.e. of the  particle, the nucleus at rest before disintegration.
[Mass of 92U238 = 3.859  10–25 kg
Mass of 90Th234 = 3.787  10–25 kg
Mass of 2He4 = 6.648  10–27 kg]
Ans: 4.236 MevV, 4.16 MeV
11. At what temperature, the velocity of sound in air is increased by 50% to that at 27ºC? [4]
12. In a Newton' rings experiment, the diameter of 15th ring was found as 0.590 cm and that of 5th
ring was 0.336 cm. Calculate the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens if the wavelength
of light used is 5880A. [3]
Ans: 100cm
 Appendix 735

2076 Set B
Group 'A'
1. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [42=8]
a. State the principle of potentiometer and write down its one application. [2]
b. What is thermoelectric effect? [2]
c. Distinguish between ionic and electronic conduction. [2]
d. An electron beam and a proton beam are moving parallel to each other in the beginning.
Do they always maintain this status? Justify your answer. [2]
e. Define one ampere current in terms of force. [2]
f. 220 V A.C. is more danger than 220 V D.C., why? [2]
2. Answer in brief, any four questions. [42= 8]
a. Why discharge does not take place at very low pressure? [2]
b. What do you mean by hole in a semiconductor? [2]
c. Which has more energy- a proton in the infrared or photon in the ultraviolet? Given
reasons. [2]
d. All the radioactive series terminate at lead as their final product. Why? [2]
e. What do you mean by greenhouse effect? Write its effects. [2]
f. Does the universe have a centre? Explain. [2]
3. Answer in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Can longitudinal wave be polarized? Explain. [2]
b. An empty vessel sounds more than a filled one when it is struck. Why? [2]
4. Answer in brief, any one question. [2]
a. State Huygen's principle. Does it apply to sound wave in air? [2]
b. Differentiate unpolarized and polarized light. [2]
Group 'B'
5. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. What do you mean by shunt? Describe its use in converting a galvanometer into an
ammeter. [4]
b. State Joule's law of heating and verify it experimentally. [4]
c. State Biot and Savart law. Derive an expression for the magnetic field at a point due to a
long straight conductor carrying current. [4]
d. An alternating current passes through a circuit containing an inductor and a resistor in
series. Derive expressions for the current flowing and phase relation between the current
and the voltage. [4]
6. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. What is quantization of charge? Describe the theory of Millikan's oil drop experiment to
determine the number of charges on an oil drop. [4]
b. What is P-N junction diode? Discuss its applications as full wave rectifier. [4]
c. List out the laws of radioactive disintegration. Deduce the expression N = Noe– where
symbols have their usual meaning. [4]
d. What are sources of energy? Discuss global energy consumption pattern and demands. [4]
736 Principles of Physics - II
7. Answer any one question. [4]
a. Does the propagation of sound wave cause change in thermodynamic condition of
medium? Derive Laplace formula of velocity of sound in air. [4]
b. What is Doppler's effect? Derive an expression for the apparent frequency received by a
stationary observer when a source of sound is moving away from the observer. [4]
8. Answer any one question. [4]
a. Describe Newton's ring experiment and derive expression for wavelength of light. [4]
b. Describe Foucault's method of determining the speed of light. [4]
Group 'C'
9. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. Two resistors of resistance 1000 and 2000 are joined in series with a 100 V supply. A
voltmeter of internal resistance 4000 is connected to measure the potential difference
across 1000 resistor. Calculate the reading shown by the voltmeter. [4]
Ans: 28.57V
b. Two galvanometers, which are otherwise identical, are fitted with different coils. One has a
coil of 50 turns and resistance 10 while the other has 500 turns and a resistance of 600.
What is the ratio of the deflection when each is connected in turns to a cell of e.m.f. 25 V
and internal resistance 50? [4]
Ans: 13:12
c. The magnetic flux passing perpendicular to the plane of coil is given by  = 4t2 + 5t + 2
where  is in weber and t is in second. Calculate the magnitude of instantaneous emf
induced in the coil when t = 2 sec. [4]
Ans: 21V
10. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. An ion for which the charge per unit mass is 4.40  107 c/kg has velocity of 3.52105 m/s
and moves in a circular orbit in a magnetic field of flux density 0.4T. What will be the
radius of this orbit? [4]
Ans: 0.02m
b. Obtain the de Broglie wavelength of neutron of kinetic energy 150 eV. (mass of neutron =
1.675  10–27 kg. Planck's constant = 6.6  10–34 Js. 1eV = 1.6  10–19 J.) [4]
–12
Ans: 2.33×10 m
c. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of 26Fe .
56Atomic mass of 26Fe
56 is 55.9349u and
that of 1H1 is 1.00783u. Mass of 0n1 = 1.00867u and 1u = 931 MeV. [4]
Ans: 8.78 MeV/ nuclear
11. A wire whose mass per unit length is 10–3 kg/m is stretched by a load of 4 kg over the two
bridges of a sonometer wire 1 m apart. It is struck at its middle point, what would be the
wavelength and frequency of its fundamental vibration? [4]
Ans: 100 Hz
12. How wide is the central diffraction peak on a screen 5 m behind a 0.01 mm slit illuminated by
500 nm light source? [3]
Ans: 0.5m
 Appendix 737

2076 Set C
Group 'A'
1. Answer, in brief, any four questions. [42=8]
a. The conductivity of an electrolyte is low as compared to that of metal at room temperature.
Why? [2]
b. If the temperature of cold junction of a thermocouple is lowered, what will be the effect on
neutral temperature and the temperature of inversion? [2]
c. How will the magnetic field intensity at the centre of a circular coil carrying current change,
if the current through the coil is doubled and the radius of the coil is halved? [2]
d. Can a charged particle move through a magnetic field without experiencing any force?
Explain. [2]
e. A copper ring is suspended by a thread in a vertical plane. One end of a magnet is brought
horizontally towards the ring. How will the position of the ring be affected? [2]
f. A choke coil is preferable to a resistor in an ac circuit. Why? [2]
2. Answer in brief, any four questions. [4×2=8]
a. An electron and a proton have the same kinetic energy. Which one of them has the longer
wavelength? [2]
b. Why is the emitter region of a transistor doped heavily? [2]
c. Neutron is considered the most effective bombarding particle in a nuclear reaction. Why? [2]
d. How does a daughter nucleus differ from its parent nucleus when it emits an -particle? [2]
e. What is acid rain? Write its any two effects. [2]
f. Write the quark composition of proton and neutron. [2]
3. Answer in brief, any one question. [2]
a. How are stationary waves formed? [2]
b. Sound waves are called pressure waves. Why? [2]
4. Answer in brief, any one question. [2]
a. Differentiate wave front and wavelet. [2]
b. Can sound waves be polarized? Explain. [2]
Group 'B'
5. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. Discuss how the current is established in a conductor when it is connected across a source
of e.m.f. Derive the relation J = nev, where the symbols have their usual meanings. [4]
b. State and explain Kirchhoff's laws and use these laws to find the balance condition in a
wheatstone bridge circuit. [4]
c. Define angle of dip. If  is the true dip at a place, 1 and 2 are the apparent dips observed
in two vertical planes at right angles to each other at that place, then prove the relation,
cot2 = cot21 + cot22. [4]
d. State and explain Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction and derive an expression for
the emf induced in a rectangular coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field. [4]
6. Answer any three questions. [34=12]
a. What are cathode rays? How are they produced? Mention the properties of cathode rays. [4]
b. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors. Explain the formation of
potential barrier and depletion region in a PN junction. [4]
c. What is photoelectric effect? Discuss Einstein's photoelectric equation. Write some
applications of photoelectric effect. [4]
738 Principles of Physics - II
d. What are the major energy sources? Discuss the global energy consumption pattern and
demands. [4]
7. Answer any one question. [4]
a. Define end correction of a pipe. Prove that both odd and even types of harmonics can be
obtained from an organ pipe open at both ends. [4]
b. What is Doppler's effect? Derive an expression for the apparent frequency when a source of
sound and the observer are moving towards each other. [4]
8. Answer any one question. [4]
a. State and explain Huygen's principle and use it to verify laws of reflection on the basis of
wave theory. [4]
b. Discuss Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit. [4]
Group 'C'
9. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. The resistance of the coil of a galvanometer is 9.36 and a current of 0.0224 A causes it to
deflect full scale. The only shunt available has a resistance 0.025. What resistance must be
connected in series with the coil to make it an ammeter of range 0 - 20A? [4]
Ans: 12.94 
b. A flat silver strip of width 1.5cm and thickness 1.5mm carries a current of 150A. A magnetic
field of 2T is applied perpendicular to the flat face of the strip. The emf developed across
the width of the strip is measured to be 17.9V. Calculate the free electron density in the
silver. [4]
27 –3
Ans: 6.98×10 m
c. A circuit consists of a capacitor of 2F and a resistor of 1000. An alternating emf of 12V
and frequency 50Hz is applied. Find the voltage across the capacitor and the phase angle
between the applied emf and the current. [4]
–3
Ans: 6.37×10 A, 10.2V, 57.9
10. Answer any two numerical questions. [24=8]
a. An x-ray tube, operated at a dc potential difference of 10kv, produces heat at the target at
the rate of 720 watt. Assuming 0.5% of the incident electrons is converted into x-radiation,
calculate the number of electrons striking per second at the target and velocity of the
incident electrons. (given, e/m = 1.8×1011 Ckg–1) [4]
7
Ans: 0.072 A, 6 × 10 m/sec
b. Calculate the binding energy per nucleon of calcium nucleus (20Ca40). [4]
Given:
mass of 20Ca40 = 39.962589 u
mass of neutron, mn = 1.008665 u
mass of proton, mp = 1.007825 u
1u = 931 Me V
Ans: 8.54 MeV/ nuclear
c. Find the half life of U238, if 1 gm of it emits 1.24× 104 -particles per-second Avogadro's
number = 6.025 × 1023. [4]
9
Ans: 4.5×10 years
11. A source of sound of frequency 550Hz emits waves of wavelength 60 cm in air at 20°C. What
would be the wavelength of sound from the source in air at 0°C? [4]
Ans: 0.58 m
12. In a Young's double slit experiment, the separation of four bright fringes is 2.5 mm. The
wavelength of light used is 6.2×10–7 m. If the distance from the slits to the screen is 80 cm,
calculate the separation of two slits. [3]
 Appendix 739

Appendix A: The International System of Units (SI)

The SI Base Unit
Quality Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Some SI Derived Units

Quantity Name of Unit Symbol Equivalent
Area square meter m2
Volume cubic meter m3
Frequency hertz Hz s–1
Mass density (density) kilogram per cubic kg/m3
meter
Speed, velocity meter per second m/s
Angular velocity radian per second rad/s
Acceleration meter per second m/s2
squared
Angular acceleration radian per second rad/s2
squared
Force newton N kg.m/s2
Pressure pascal Pa N/m2
Work, energy, quantity of heat joule J N.m
Power watt W J/s
Quantity of electricity coulomb C A.s
Potential difference, electromotive force volt V N.m/C
Electric field volt per meter V/m N/C
Electric resistance ohm  V/A
Capacitance farad F A.s/V
Magnetic flux weber Wb V.s
Inductance henry H V.s/A
Magnetic field tesla T Wb/m2, N/A.m
Entropy joule per Kelvin J/K
Specific heat capacity joule per kilogram J/(kg.K)
Kelvin
Thermal conductivity watt per meter Kelvin W/(m.K)
Radiant intensity watt per steradian W/sr
740 Principles of Physics - II
The SI Supplementary Units
Quality Name Symbol
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr

Appendix B: Fundamental Physical Constants

Quality Symbol Computational Value
Speed of light in a vacuum c 3.00 × 108m/s
Elementary charge e 1.60 × 10–19 C
Electric permittivity 0 8.85 × 10–12 F/m
Magnetic permeability 0 4 × 10–7 H/m
Electron mass me 9.11 × 10–31 kg
Electron mass me 5.49 × 10-4 u
Proton mass mp 1.67 × 10–27 kg
Proton mass mp 1.0073 u
Neutron mass mn 1.67 × 10–27 kg
Neutron mass mn 1.0087 u
Electron charge-to-mass ratio e/me 1.76 × 1011 C/kg
Proton-to-electron mass ratio mp/me 1840
Planck constant h 6.63 × 10–34 J.s
Molar gas constant R 8.31 J/mol.K
Avogadro constant NA 6.02× 1023 mol–1
Boltzmann constant k 1.38 × 10–23 J/K
Molar volume of ideal gas at STP Vm 2.24 × 10–2 m3/mol
Faraday constant F 9.65 × 104 C/mol
Stefan-Boltzmann constant  5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4
Rydberg constant R 1.10 × 107 m–1
Gravitation constant G 6.67 × 10–11 m3/s2.kg
Bohr radius (radius of first orbit in H– atom) r1 5.29 × 10–11 m
 Appendix 741

Appendix C: Astronomical Data

Property Suna Earth Moon
Mass (kg) 1.99 × 1030 5.98 × 1024 7.36 × 1022
Mean radius (m) 6.96 × 108 6.37 × 106 1.74 × 106
Mean density (kg/m3) 1410 5520 3340
Surface gravity (m/s2) 274 9.81 1.67
Escape velocity (km/s) 618 11.2 2.38
Period of rotationc (d) 26–37b 0.997 27.3
Mean orbital radius (km) 2.6 × 1017d 1.50 × 108e 3.82 × 105f
Orbital periods 2.4 × 108 yd 1.00 ye 27.3 df
a The Sun radiates energy at the rate of 3.90 × 1026W; just outside the Earth's atmosphere solar energy is
received, assuming normal incidence, at the rate of 1380 W/m2
b The Sun– a ball of gas – does not rotate as a rigid body. Its rotational period varies between 26 d at the
equator and 37 d at the poles.
c Measured with respect to the distance stars.
d About the galactic centre.
e About the Sun.
f About the Earth.

Some Properties of the Planets

Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Pluto
Mean distance
from Sun (106 57.9 108 150 228 778 1,430 2,870 4,500 5,900
km)
Period of
0.241 0.615 1.00 1.88 11.9 29.5 84.0 165 248
revolution (y)
Period of
58.7 243° 0.997 1.03 0.409 0.426 0.451b 0.658 6.39
rotation (d)
Orbital speed
47.9 35.0 29.8 24.1 13.1 9.46 6.81 5.43 4.74
(km/s)
Inclination of
<28°  3° 23.4° 25.0° 3.08° 26.7° 97.9° 29.6° 57.5°
axis to orbit
Inclination of
orbit to Earth's 7.00° 3.39° – 1.85° 1.30° 2.49° 0.77° 1.77° 17.2°
orbit
Equatorial
4,880 12,100 12,800 6,790 143,000 120,000 51,800 49,500 2,300
diameter (km)
Mass of Earth
0.0558 0.815 1.000 0.107 318 95.1 14.5 17.2 0.002
=1
Average
density 5.60 5.20 5.52 3.95 1.31 0.704 1.21 1.67 2.03
(g/cm3)
Escape speed
4.3 10.3 11.2 5.0 59.5 35.6 21.2 23.6 1.3
(km/s)
742 Principles of Physics - II

Appendix D: Elementary Particles and Force Carriers

1. The Fundamental Particles

Leptons
Anti- Charge Spin Rest Energy
Particle Symbol Mean Life (s)
particle (e) (h/2) (MeV)
Electron e– e+ –1 1/2 0.511 
Electron neutrino e e 0 1/2 <0.000015 
Muon – + –1 1/2 105.7 2.2 × 10–6
Muon neutrino   0 1/2 <0.19 
Tau – + –1 1/2 1777 2.9 × 10–13
Tau neutrino   0 1/2 <18 

Quarks
Rest Energy
Particle Symbol Anti-particle Charge (e) Spin (h/2)
(MeV)
Up u u + 2/3 1/2 3
Down d d – 1/3 1/2 6
Charm c c + 2/3 1/2 1300
Strange s s – 1/3 1/2 120
Top t t + 2/3 1/2 174,000
Bottom b b – 1/3 1/2 4300

2. Field Particles (Mediator Particles)

Rest Energy
Particle Symbol Interaction Charge (e) Spin (h/2)
(GeV)
Gravitionb Gravity 0 2 0
Weak boson W+, W¯ Weak 1 1 80.4
Weak boson Z° Weak 0 1 91.2
Photon  Electromagnetic 0 1 0
Gluon g Strong (color) 0 1 0
 Appendix 743
2. Some Composite Particles
Baryons
Quark Anti- Charge Spin (h/2 Rest Energy
Particle Symbol
Content particle (e) ) (MeV)
Proton p uud p +1 1/2 938
Neutron n udd n 0 1/2 940
Lambda ° uds ° 0 1/2 1116
Omega ¯ sss – –1 1/2 1672
Delta ++ uuu ++ +2 1/2 1232
Charmed Lambda c+ udc +c +1 1/2 2285

Mesons
Quark Anti- Charge Spin (h/2 Rest Energy
Particle Symbol
Content particle (e) ) (MeV)
Pion + ud̄ – +1 0 140
Pion 0 uū + dd̄ 0 0 0 135
Kaon K+ us̄ K¯ +1 0 494

Kaon K0 ds̄ K0 0 0 498
Rho + ud̄ – +1 1 770
D-meson D+ cd̄ D¯ +1 0 1869
Psi  cc̄  0 1 3069
B-meson B+ ub̄ B– +1 0 5279
Upsilon Y bb̄ Y 0 1 9460

a The rest energies listed for the quarks are not those associated with free quarks; since no free quarks have yet
been observed, measuring their rest energies in the free state has not yet bee possible. The tabulated values
are effective rest energies corresponding to quarks bond in composite particles.
b Particles expected to exist but not yet observed.
744 Principles of Physics - II

Appendix E: Periodic Table of the Elements

 Appendix 745

Appendix F: Conversion Factors

Plane Angle
Degree (°) Minute (') Second (") Radian (rad) rev
1 degree = 1 60 3600 1.745 × 10–2 2.778 × 10–3
1 minute = 1.667 × 10–2 1 60 2.909 × 10–4 4.630 × 10–5
1 second = 2.778 × 10–4 1.66 × 10–2 1 4.848 × 10–6 7.716 × 10–7
1 radian = 57.30 3438 2.063 × 105 1 0.1592
1 revolution = 360 2.16 × 104 1.296 × 106 6.283 1

Sold Angle
1 sphere = 4 steradians = 12.57 steradians

Length
cm m km in. ft mi
1 centimeter = 1 10–2 10–5 0.3937 3.281 × 10–2 6.214 × 10–6
1 meter = 100 1 10–3 39.37 3.281 6.214 × 10–4
1 kilometer = 105 1000 1 3.937 × 104 3281 0.6214
1 inch = 2.540 2.540 × 10–2 2.540 × 10–5 1 8.333 × 10–2 1.578 × 10–5
1 foot = 30.48 0.3048 3.048 × 10–4 12 1 1.894 × 10–4
1 mile = 1.609 × 105 1609 1609 6.33 × 104 5280 1
1 angstrom = 10–10m 1 light-year = 9.460 × 1012 km 1 yard = 3 ft
1 nautical mile = 18452 m 1 parsec = 3.084 × 1013 km 1 rod = 16.5 ft
= 1.151 miles = 6076 ft 1 fathom = 6 ft 1 mil = 10–3 in.
1 fermi = 10–15 m 1 Bohr radius = 5.292 × 10–11 m 1 nm = 10–9m

Area
m2 cm2 ft2 in.2
1 Square meter = 1 104 10.76 1550
1 square centimeter = 10–4 1 1.076 × 10–3 0.1550
1 square foot = 9.290 × 10–2 929.0 1 144
1 square inch = 6.452 × 10–4 6.542 6.944 × 10–3 1
1 square mile = 2.788 × 107 ft 2
= 640 acres
1 acre = 43.560 ft2
1 barn = 10–28 m2
1 hectare = 104m2 = 2.471 acre
746 Principles of Physics - II
Volume
meter3 cm3 L ft3 in3
1 cubic meter = 1 106 1000 35.31 6.102 × 104
1 cubic centimeter= 10–6 1 1.000× 10–3 3.531 × 10–5 6.102 × 10–2
1 liter = 1.000 × 10–3 1000 1 3.531 × 10–2 61.02
1 cubic foot = 2.832 × 10–2 2.832 × 104 28.32 1 1728
1 cubic inch = 1.639 × 10–5 16.39 1.639 × 10–2 5.787 × 10–4 1
1 U.S. fluid gallon = 4 U.S. fluid quarts = 8 U.S. pints = 128 U.S. fluid ounces = 231 in.3
1 British imperial gallon = 227.4 in.3 = 1.201 U.S. fluid gallons

Mass
g kg slug u oz lb ton
1 gram = 1 0.001 6.852 × 10–5 6.022 × 1023 3.527 × 10–2 2.205 × 10–3 1.102 × 10–6
1 kg = 1000 1 6.852 × 10–2 6.022 × 1026 35.27 2.205 1.102 × 10–3
1 slug = 1.459 × 104 14.59 1 8.786 × 1027 514.8 32.17 1.609 × 10–2
1u= 1.661 × 10–24 1.661× 10–27 1.138 × 10–28 1 5.857 × 10–26 3.662 × 10–27 1.830 × 10–30
1 ounce = 28.35 2.835 × 10–2 1.943 × 10–3 1.718 × 1025 1 6.250 × 10–2 3.125 × 10–5
1 pound = 453.6 0.4536 3.108 × 10–2 2.732 × 1026 16 1 0.0005
1 ton = 9.072 × 10 5 907.2 62.16 5.463 × 10 29 3.2 × 10 4 2000 1
1 metric ton = 1000 kg

Time
y d h min second
1 year = 1 365. 25 8.766 × 103 5.259 × 105 3.156 × 107
1 day = 2.738 × 10–3 1 24 1440 8.640 × 104
1 hour = 1.141 × 10–4 4.167 × 10–2 1 60 3600
1 minute = 1.901 × 10–6 6.944 × 10–4 1.667 × 10–2 1 60
1 second = 3.169 × 10–8 1.157 × 10–5 2.778 × 10–4 1.667 × 10–2 1

Force
dyne newton lb pdl gf kgf
1 dyne = 1 10–5 2.248 × 10–6 7.233 × 10–5 1.020 × 10–3 1.020 × 10–6
1 newton = 105 1 0.2248 7.233 102.0 0.1020
1 pound = 4.448 × 105 4.488 1 32.17 453.6 0.4536
1 poundal = 1.383 × 104 0.1383 3.108 × 10–2 1 14.10 1.410 × 10–2
1 gram force = 980.7 9.807 × 10–3 2.205 × 10–3 7.093 × 10–2 1 0.001
1 kilogram force = 9.807 × 105 9.807 2.205 70.93 1000 1
 Energy, Work, Heat
Btu erg ft. lb hp. h joule cal kWh eV MeV kg u
1 British thermal unit = 1 1.055 × 10 10 777.9 3.929 × 10 –4 1055 252.0 2.930 × 10 –4 6.585 × 10 21 6.585 × 10 15 1.174 × 10 –14 7.070 × 1012
1 erg 9.481 × 10–11 1 7.376 × 10–8 3.725 × 10–14 10–7 2.389×10–8 2.778 × 10–14 6.242 × 1011 6.242× 105 1.113 × 10–24 670.2
1 foot-pound = 1.285 × 10 –3 1.356 ×10 7 1 5.051 × 10 –7 1.356 0.3238 3.766 × 10 –7 8.464 × 10 18 8.464 × 10 12 1.509 × 10 –17 9.037 × 109
1 horsepower-hour = 2545 2.685 × 1013 1.980 × 106 1 2.685 × 106 6.413 × 105 0.7457 1.676 × 1025 1.676 × 1019 2.988 × 10–11 1.799 × 1016
1 joule = 9.481 × 10–4 107 0.7376 3.725 × 10–7 1 0.2389 2.778 × 10–7 6.242 × 1018 6.242 × 1012 1.113 × 10–17 6.702 × 109
1 calorie = 3.969 × 10 –3 4.186 × 10 7 3.088 1.560 × 10 6 4.186 1 1.163 × 10 –6 2.613 × 10 19 2.613 × 10 13 4.660 × 10 –17 2.806 × 1010
1 kilowatt-hour = 3413 3.6 × 1013 2.655 × 106 1.314 3.6 × 106 8.600 × 105 1 2.247 × 1025 2.247 × 1019 4.007 × 10–11 2.413 × 1016
1 electron volt = 3.827 × 10 –
1.519 × 10–22 1.602 × 10–12 1.182 × 10–19 5.967 × 10–26 1.602 × 10–19 20
4.450 × 10–26 1 10–6 1.783 × 10–36 1.074 × 10–9

1 kilogram = 2.146 ×
8.521 × 1013 8.987 × 1023 6.629 × 1016 3.348 × 1010 8.987 × 1016 2.497 × 10–`10 5.610 × 1035 5.610 × 1029 1 6.022 × 1026
1016
1 unified atomic mass 3.564 × 10–
1.415 × 10–13 1.492 × 10–3 1.101 × 10–10 5.559 × 10–17 1.492 × 10–10 4.146 × 10–17 9.32 × 108 932.0 1.661 × 10–27 1
unit = 11

Quantities in the coloured areas are not properly energy units but are included for convenience. They arise from relativistic mass – energy
equivalence formula E = mc2 and represent the energy equivalent of a mass of one kilogram or one unified atomic mass unit (u)

Pressure
atm dyne/cm2 inch of water cm Hg pascal lb/in.2 lb/ft2
1 atmosphere = 1 1.013 × 106 406.8 76 `1.013 × 105 14.70 2116
1 dyne per cm2 = 9.869 × 10–7 1 4.015 × 10–4 7.501 × 10–5 0.1 1.405 × 10–5 2.089 × 10–3
1 centimeter of mercurya at 0°C 1.316 × 10–2 1.333 × 104 5.353 1 1333 0.1934 27.85
1 pascal = 9.869 × 10–6 10 4.015 × 10–3 7.501 × 10–4 1 1.450 × 10–4 2.089 × 10–2
1 pound per in.2 = 6.805 × 10–2 6.895 × 104 27.68 5.171 6.895 × 103 1 144
1 pound per ft2= 4.725 × 10–4 478.8 0.1922 3.591 × 10–2 47.88 6.944 × 10–3 1
a Where the acceleration of gravity has the standard value 9.80665 m/s2.
1 bar = 106 dyne/cm2 = 0.1 MPa 1 millibar = 103 dyne/cm2 = 102 Pa
1 torr = 1 millimeter of mercury
748 Principles of Physics - II

Power
Btu/h ft.lb/s hp cal/s kW watt
1 British thermal unit 1 0.2161 3.929 × 10–4 6.998 × 10–2 2.930 × 10–4 0.2930
per hour =
1 foot-pound per 4.628 1 1.818 × 10–3 0.3239 1.356 × 10–3 1.356
second =
1 horsepower 2545 550 1 178.1 0.7457 745.7
1 calorie per second = 14.29 3.088 5.615 × 10–3 1 4.186 × 10–3 4.186
1 kilowatt = 3413 737.6 1.341 238.9 1 1000
1 watt 3.413 0.7376 1.341 × 10–3 0.2389 0.001 1

Magnetic Flux
maxwell weber
1 maxwell = 1 10–8
1 weber = 108 1

Magnetic Field
gauss tesla milligauss
1 gauss = 1 10–4 1000
1 tesla= 104 1 107
1 milligauss = 0.001 10–7 1
1 tesla = 1 weber/m2